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In which Midlands town can you find a large shopping centre called Westfield Merry Hill? | Favourite shopping centre - Review of Merry Hill, Dudley, England - TripAdvisor
Review of Merry Hill
Brierley Hill, Dudley DY5 1QX, England (Formerly Westfield Merry Hill)
+44 1384 481141
Reviewed August 25, 2015 via mobile
This is my favourite place to go for shopping everything you need is under one roof, you can spend all day here. Some lovely places to eat and always have things on for the kids. The eat central is amazing and have something for everyone.
Visited August 2015
Ask sophieisabella98 about Merry Hill
This review is the subjective opinion of a TripAdvisor member and not of TripAdvisor LLC.
378 reviews from our community
Visitor rating
Reviewed August 22, 2015 via mobile
Love merryhill got everything you need under one roof plus I love the Chinese in the eat central so much to choose from
Visited August 2015
Ask lytlmissjkm about Merry Hill
This review is the subjective opinion of a TripAdvisor member and not of TripAdvisor LLC.
vixxy8888
Reviewed August 21, 2015 via mobile
This shopping Center is amazing it just like a little lake side, there is lots and lots of store and places that you want to shop not places that r to expensive, lots of parking good food court this is a real gem for shoppa o holics like myself and the Parkin is free excellent
Visited June 2015
Ask vixxy8888 about Merry Hill
This review is the subjective opinion of a TripAdvisor member and not of TripAdvisor LLC.
adam b
Reviewed August 21, 2015 via mobile
Merry hill or merry hell and it's known to the locals is a large shopping centre with almost any shop you could want or need from a asda to a weatherspoons and more can spend hours down there if you wanted or were forced too lol
Visited August 2015
Ask adam b about Merry Hill
This review is the subjective opinion of a TripAdvisor member and not of TripAdvisor LLC.
AmandaJay88
Reviewed August 21, 2015 via mobile
I travel 1 hour 20mins to get to this shopping mall it's my favourite one better than bullring it's clean and during week it's lot quieter plenty of shops all the ones I love and Yankee candle store which is well worth the travel. The eat centre is amazing if you love your food your be well away here.
Visited August 2015
| Dudley |
Which modern day country was known as Northern Rhodesia until 1964? | Merry Hill or Hell - Merry Hill, Dudley Traveller Reviews - TripAdvisor
“Merry Hill or Hell”
Reviewed 10 November 2012
At weekends and Bank Holidays the Merry Hill Centre is very busy, in the evenings except for near Christmas, not so much.
It attracts the crowds not because it's a particularly good shopping centre, but because the three major towns in the Borough (Dudley, Stourbridge and Halesowen) are poor alternatives. Dudley, once the prime retail town in the area is now infamous for being the worst town of it's size in the country for empty shops.
Put simply, if you live in the area, and you want to visit a national chain like M&S, BHS, Debenhams, even Primark, you have two choices, either go to the Merry Hill Centre, or abandon local shopping and travel to another borough. None of the other towns in the borough offer these shops. The Merry Hill Centre has free parking whilst Dudley council insists on raising parking fees in town car parks each year, even though they drive more people away.
So yes the Merry Hill Centre is very busy, but is it any good? Well, there is the aforementioned free parking; but as the centre is built in the middle of a residential/light industrial area, road access is poor, with overcrowded roads at peak time, mainly single carriageway. Quarry Bank High Street, one of the main routes in can be a nightmare. Inside the complex, car parking is poorly laid out, and internal roads become jammed up at busy times. Though parking is free, there are parking tickets dished out for parking across white lines (these are private tickets, ie invoices issued by private companies for alleged breach of contract, they are NOT fines, and can only be enforced through civil small claims courts, which they rarely are).
There is no rail access, with nearest stations at Lye and Cradley Heath being over a mile away. Bus access is poor, with the bus "station" (just a collection of bus stops), being an afterthought.
You will find most of the big chains there, alongst smaller shops also from chains. Individual one off shops tend not to stay at Merry Hill Centre. Though the Centre was originally supposed to be all "high class" shopping, more and more bargain and pound shops have moved in.
Food wise, it's all chain stuff; Eat Central was opened with a big fanfare, but a number of units have closed, and it's mainly fast food stuff, on paper plates with plastic cutlery.
Remember, Merry Hill Centre is s SHOPPING centre, it's not a town centre. You can wander round the shops as long as you like, though avoid busy times as it gets stuffy and overcrowded, and the owners have stuck little stalls in the middle of the aisles, resticting space. But when you go outside, it's car parks only, no fresh air, no greenspace, no beautiful old buildings. If chain-store shopping is all you want you'll enjoy the Merry Hill Centre, but if you want a varied day out, or like small individual retailers best to go elsewhere. The adjacent Waterfront development, once full of bustling bars, is now virtually empty.
Best times to go? Well in the daytime it's full of OAPs, or mothers with pushchairs, but otherwise not too crowded (avoid school holiday times), at weekends it's full of teenagers, and chavs. (Hence the lack of benches in the malls, loitering without spending is not encouraged). Evenings between 7-9pm are pretty quiet, though AVOID DECEMBER AT ALL COSTS unless you really love crowds.
Visited September 2012
“Excellant place to shop & eat”
Reviewed 6 November 2012
We go to Merry Hill quite often, it's an excellent indoor shopping area perfect for a rainy day. Being a mum who in the past has used the baby facilities I find the centre excellent for it's access to toilets, baby changing rooms & there's also a mother & baby room available if you want to feed in private (not that I bothered to used it)
There's plenty of parking but get there early as it soon fills up especially around holiday times. Good security & cleanliness the whole place is usually spotless!.
The new food court is excellent with a whole rang of eateries if you like fish & chips then tasty plaice is worth a try the chips are delicious & the haddock (my fave) is just lovely. No silly wooden forks you get a set of plastic cutlery which I've been saving for my home picnic set as they're not silly flimsy things like you usually find but good sturdy items suitable for re-use.
All in all be prepared to spend a few hours especially if you're a shopaholic as there's plenty to see (more larger stores outdoors as well as a 10 screen cinema on site) but leave thick jumpers or coats in the car as its always warm indoors.
Visited November 2012
“The Merry Hill Shopping Experience”
Reviewed 10 October 2012
We like shopping at Merry Hill for a number of reasons the first one being that the majority of the shops are under one roof - it is warm so no need to wear a coat or have to carry one around, even in winter. The Centre is modern, clean and has security. There is a wide choice of places where you can get a meal or a snack or just a very good coffee. Although there are a large number of car parks (parking is free), it does get very busy, especially at weekends, and finding a space can take time. There are two floors of shops catering for most of your shopping needs. The larger stores (electrical etc.) are situated outside - they are a walk away or you can drive to them. All in all shopping at Merry Hill is a pleasant experience.
Visited August 2012
| i don't know |
Which chemical element, listed as number 77 in the periodic table takes its name from the Latin for the rainbow? | Iridium, Chemical Element - reaction, water, uses, elements, examples, metal, number, name
i-RI-dee-um
Discovery and naming
The platinum metals posed a difficult problem for early chemists. These metals often occurred mixed together in the earth. When a scientist thought that he was analyzing a sample of platinum, the sample often contained iridium, rhodium, osmium, and other metals as well. The work of French chemist Pierre-François Chabaneau is an example. In the late 1780s, the Spanish government gave its entire supply of platinum to Chabaneau to study. But Chabaneau's experiments puzzled him. Sometimes the platinum he worked with could be hammered into flat plates easily. At other times, it was brittle and shattered when hammered. Chabaneau did not realize that the "platinum" he was studying included various amounts of other noble metals.
In the early 1800s, a number of chemists worked to separate the platinum metals. One of those chemists was an Englishman named Smithson Tennant (1761-1815). Like so many others, Tennant became interested in chemistry at an early age. He is said to have made gunpowder to use in fireworks when he was only nine years old!
In 1803, Tennant attempted to dissolve platinum in aqua regia. Aqua regia is a mixture of two strong acids—nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. He found that most of the platinum metal dissolved, leaving a small amount of black powder. Other chemists had not bothered to study the powder. But Tennant did. He discovered that it had properties very different from those of platinum. He realized he had discovered a new element. He named it iridium, from the Greek goddess Iris, whose symbol is a rainbow. Tennant chose this name because the compounds of iridium have so many different colors. For example, iridium potassium chloride (K 2 IrCl 6 ) is dark red, iridium tri-bromide (IrBr 3 ) is olive-green, and iridium trichloride (IrCl 3 ) is dark green to blue-black.
Physical properties
Iridium metal is silvery-white with a density of 22.65 grams per cubic centimeter. A cubic centimeter of iridium weighs 22.65 times as much as a cubic centimeter of water. It is the most dense element known. Iridium has a melting point of 2,443°C (4,429°F) and a boiling point of about 4,500°C (8,130°F). Cold iridium metal cannot be worked easily. It tends to break rather than bend. It becomes more ductile (flexible) when hot. Ductile means capable of being drawn into thin wires. Therefore, it is usually shaped at high temperatures.
Small parts of indium can be found in meteorites. The Barrington Crater, in northern Arizona, was created about 25,000 years ago by a meteorite the size of a large house. It hit the ground at 9 miles per second, and created a hole .7 miles (1.2 kilometers) across and 590 feet (180 meters) deep.
Chemical properties
Iridium is unreactive at room temperatures. When exposed to air, it reacts with oxygen to form a thin Layer of iridium dioxide (IrO 2 ).
At high temperatures, the metal becomes more reactive. Then it reacts with oxygen and halogens to form iridium dioxide and iridium trihalides. For example:
Occurrence in nature
Iridium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. It is thought to exist in two parts per billion. Interestingly, it is more abundant in other parts of the universe. Iron meteorites, for example, generally contain about 3 parts per million of iridium. Stony meteorites contain less iridium, about 0.64 parts per million.
Iridium usually occurs in combination with one or more other noble metals. Two common examples are osmiridium and iridosmine, combinations of iridium and osmium. The most important sources of iridium metal are Canada, South Africa, Russia, and the state of Alaska.
Tracking the fate of the dinosaurs
W hy did the dinosaurs die out? This question has long been one of the most interesting and puzzling issues in science. What happened to make these huge reptiles disappear in such a short period of geological time?
One answer might be found in the Asteroid Disaster Theory. According to this theory, a huge asteroid struck the Earth's surface about 65 million years ago. The exploding asteroid threw enormous amounts of dust into the air. The dust blocked out sunlight for more than a year. Plants on the Earth's surface died. Dinosaurs who lived on those plants died out. So did the meat-eating dinosaurs who lived off the plant eaters.
But how is it possible to know if an asteroid really did hit the Earth's surface 65 million years ago? Scientists have now found an answer. In some parts of the Earth, they have found a layer of the Earth's crust that contains an unusually high level of iridium metal. Iridium rarely occurs on Earth. But it occurs much more commonly in meteors and asteroids. Scientists believe the iridium-rich layer was formed when an asteroid struck the Earth's surface. They believe the event occurred 65 million years ago. This "iridium clue" is a key, therefore, to understanding how dinosaurs disappeared from the Earth.
Iridium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. But it is more abundant in other parts of the universe. Iridium is found in meteorites.
Isotopes
Two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium exist, iridium-191 and iridium-193. Isotopes are two or more forms of an element. Isotopes differ from each other according to their mass number. The number written to the right of the element's name is the mass number. The mass number represents the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The number of protons determines the element, but the
Did an asteroid—which contains iridium—kill off dinosaurs 65 million years ago? The asteroid Gaspra, photographed from the Galileo space probe, is shown here.
number of neutrons in the atom of any one element can vary. Each variation is an isotope.
About ten radioactive isotopes of iridium exist. A radioactive isotope is one that gives off radiation and changes into a new form. The only important radioactive isotope of iridium is iridium-192. This isotope has a half-life of 74 days. A half-life is the time it takes for one half of a sample to break down. Iridium-192 is used to make X-ray photographs of metal castings and to treat cancer.
Extraction
Iridium and the other platinum metals tend to occur together. A series of chemical reactions is used to separate one metal from the other. The other metals are then removed by other techniques. Very little iridium is produced each year, probably no more than a few metric tons.
Uses
The primary use of iridium is in the manufacture of alloys. An alloy is made by melting and mixing two or more metals. An alloy's properties differ from those of the elements that make it up. Iridium is often combined with platinum, for example, to provide a stronger material than the platinum itself. These alloys are very expensive and are used for only special purposes. For instance, the sparkplugs used in helicopters are made of a platinum-iridium alloy. Such alloys are also used for electrical contacts, special types of electrical wires, and electrodes.
The standard kilogram
B utter comes in one-pound or one-kilogram packages. But who decides how much "one pound" or "one kilogram" of butter is?
Every nation has a governmental office for weights and measures. The office maintains an "official" pound or kilogram. It is usually a piece of metal known to weigh exactly one pound or one kilogram. But how does each nation know exactly what size its official weight should be?
The official world standard for the kilogram is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris. The standard is a piece of platinum-iridium metal stored in an airtight jar. The standard is made of platinum and iridium to protect it from reacting with oxygen and other chemicals in the air. In this way, the standard's weight will always remain exactly the same.
One kind of iridium catalyst is able to capture sunlight and turn it into chemical energy.
Iridium metal is increasingly being used as catalysts. Catalysts are substances that speed up a reaction without changing themselves. Iridium catalysts have been used in amazing new products. For example, one kind of iridium catalyst is able to capture sunlight and turn it into chemical energy. That process is similar to the one used by plants in photosynthesis. Finding a synthetic (artificial) way to make photosynthesis happen is one of the great goals of modern chemistry.
The heating of lead ores is called roasting, or smelting. The process results in pure lead.
Niobium alloys are used in superconducting magnets. A superconductor has no resistance to an electric current Here, a small magnet levitates over a cooled slab of superconducting ceramic.
Neodymium is used in making lasers. This laser beam is reflected off mirrors and through filters.
Magnified view of a lanthanum aluminate crystal
The glass in satellites often contains germanium. This satellite was launched in June 1990.
Three Mile Island nuclear reactor in Middletown, Pennsylvania. This was the site of a partial meltdown in 1979.
The neon lights of Las Vegas, Nevada, in the early 1990s.
Stars use hydrogen as a fuel with which to produce energy. Antares—the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius—is shown here.
Gallium melts when held in the hand.
A farmer sprays nitrogen fertilizer on his rice field in California.
At high temperatures, magnesium burns with a blinding white light
Space technology often uses alloys that are too expensive for everyday use. An example is the propulsion systems used for keeping satellites in place. Some of these systems use alloys made of indium and another platinum metal, rhenium. These alloys remain strong at high temperatures and are not attacked by fuels used in the systems.
Compounds
The compounds of indium have almost no practical applications. A few are used in coloring ceramics because of their striking colors.
Health effects
| Iridium satellite constellation |
Which chemical element, listed as number 28 in the periodic table takes its name from a Swedish word meaning copper-coloured ore? | Table of Elements in Greek and Latin (Rome) Language.
Sidebar
Periodic Table of Elements
The Greek language and Greek myth have contributed greatly to the sciences, including chemistry. This is most apparent in the Periodic Table of Elements. A table of the elements with mythological influences, or at least have the Greek language to thank for their names, is below. For kicks, I have included the Latin (Roman) terms also. (Please note: this is not the complete table of elements, only those with Greek or Latin influences.)
Actinium
From the Greek wordaktinos (ray)
Aluminum
From the Latin wordalumen, or"bitter".
Antimony
From the Greek words anti (opposed) and monos (solitude)
Argon
From the Greek wordargon (inactive)
Arsenic
From the Greek wordarsenikos and the Latin wordarsenicum, meaning "yellow orpiment".
Astatine
From the Greek wordastatos (unstable)
Barium
From the Greek wordbarys (heavy)
Bromine
From the Greek wordbrômos (stench)
Cadmium
Symbol: Cd
Atomic Number: 48
From the Greek wordkadmeia (ancient name for calamine) and from the Latin word cadmia.Cadmus, in Greek myth, was the founder of Thebes.
Calcium
From the latin wordcalcis (lime)
Carbon
Ceres (asteroid), and the Roman version of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture.
Cesium
From the Latin wordcaesius (sky blue)
Chlorine
From the Greek wordkhlôros (green)
Chromium
From the Greek wordchrôma (color)
Copper
From the Latin wordcyprium, after the island of Cyprus and birthplace of Aphrodite.
Dysprosium
From the Greek worddysprositos (hard to get at).
Fluorine
From the Latin wordfluo (flow)
Gold
From the Latin wordaurum (gold). In Roman mythology, Aurora was the goddess of dawn--golden indeed.
Helium
From the Greek wordhêlios (sun); Helios in Greek mythology was the god of the Sun.
Hydrogen
Symbol: H
Atomic Number: 1
From the Greek words hudôr (water) and gennan(generate). Heracles fought the Hydra of Lerna (a sea town) for his second labor.
Iodine
From the Greek wordiôdes (violet).
Iridium
Symbol: Ir
Atomic Number: 77
From the Latin wordiridis (rainbow). The Greeks had a messenger goddess, Iris, whose colorful cape flowed behind her.
Iron
From the Latin wordferrum (iron)
Krypton
Symbol: Kr
Atomic Number: 36
From the Greek wordkryptos (hidden). In modern language, words such as "encrypt" can be discerned from the Greek.
Lanthanum
From the Greek wordlanthaneis (to lie hidden).
Lead
Symbol: Pb
Atomic Number: 82
Name Origin: From the Greek word protos (first). Some Greeks believd that the first god ever was Protogonus, or "first born".
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordplumbum (lead)
Lithium
From the Greek wordlithos (stone)
Manganese
From the Latin wordmangnes (magnet)
Molybdenum
From the Greek word molubdos (lead)
Neodymium
Symbol: Nd
Atomic Number: 60
From the Greek words neos (new) anddidymos (twin). Twins appear regularly in Greek myth, from the Dioscuri (Castor & Polydeuces) to the divine twins (Artemis & Apollo).
Neon
Form the Greek word neos (new)
Neptunium
After the planet Neptune, the Roman sea god, identified as Poseidon in Greek myth.
Niobium
Symbol: Nb
Atomic Number: 41
After Niobe, daughter of mythical king (Tantalus). She had bragged about her set of seven girls and seven boys, scoffing at Leto for only having two children. Apollo and Artemis promptly killed her offspring. Niobe, in despair, was turned to stone by the gods.
Osmium
From the Greek word osmë (odor)
Oxygen
From the Greek words oxus (acid) andgennan (generate)
Palladium
From the Greek goddess (Pallas) and after an asteroid
Phosphorous
Symbol: P
Atomic Number: 15
From the Greek words phôs (light) andphoros (bearer), Phosphoros was a god of light in Greek myth.
Plutonium
After the planet Pluto and the Latin god of the Underworld (Hades in Greek).
Potassium
Symbol Origin: From the Latin word kalium
Praseodymium
From the Greek words prasios (green) anddidymos (twin)
Promethium
From the Titan Prometheus who stole fire of the sky and gave it to man.
Protactinium
From the Greek word protos (first) [see name origin for lead].
Radium
From the Latin word radius (ray)
Rhodium
From the Greek word rhodon (rose)
Rubidium
From the Latin word rubidus (red)
Ruthenium
From the Latin word Ruthenia (Russia)
Selenium
From the Greek word Selênê, known as the goddess of the moon.
Sodium
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordnatrium (sodium)
Silicon
From the Latin word silex (flint)
Sulfur
From the Latin word sulfur (brimstone)
Tantalum
Symbol: Ta
Atomic Number: 73
After king Tantalus, a son of Zeus who earned the disfavor of the gods for attempting to serve his son Pelops as a meal. He was condemned to the Underworld with eternal thirst and hunger though a river and fruit tree were just beyond his grasp.
Technetium
From the Greek word technêtos (artificial)
Tellurium
From the Greek word tellus (Earth)
Thallium
From the Greek word thallos (young shoot)
Tin
Symbol Origin: From the Latin wordstannum (tin)
Titanium
From the Greek word titanos (Titans). The Titans were the "original" gods before the Olympians.
Uranium
Symbol: U
Atomic Number: 92
After the planet Uranus, the original sky god who was the son and spouse of Gaia, or Mother Earth.
Xenon
| i don't know |
Played by Brian Hall, what was the name of the chef in TV's 'Faulty Towers'? | Characters and cast of Fawlty Towers
Manuel
The other regulars
These are the other regular characters who appeared in most of the episodes, a full cast list for each individual episode can be found at the end of each episode's own page.
Major Gowen played by Ballard Berkeley
The absent-minded retired Major could often be found doddering around the hotel (usually the bar) mumbling about more strikes or cricket. The character of the Major was based on Captain Lancaster, John's Latin teacher at prep school. Ballard Berkeley died in 1988 at the age of 84. I guess you could say he had a good innings. A great character who was just as big a cricket fan in real life as The Major was.
Ballard Berkeley now has his own tribute page on this site .
Terry the Chef played by Brian Hall
The character of Terry was introduced into the second series. Brian was diagnosed with cancer and died in 1997 at the age of 59. His numerous other television credits usually featured him playing the chirpy cockney man that he played so well.
Miss Gatsby and Miss Tibbs
Miss (Abitha) Tibbs played by Gilly Flower and Miss (Ursula) Gatsby played by Renee Roberts. The pair of them were permanent residents of Fawlty Towers and often the subject of Basil's sarcasm. As far as I'm aware their first names are only mentioned once and that was in The Builders in which they refer to each other by their first names. No one else ever used their first names.
Dozens of other guest stars helped to make the show a classic, they have all been compiled into an A to Z directory of the Fawlty Towers guest stars .
Reception
| Terry |
Which is England's most southerly mainland city? | Fawlty Towers - The Full Wiki
The Full Wiki
Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles .
Did you know ...
More interesting facts on Fawlty Towers
Include this on your site/blog:
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Fáilte Towers .
Fawlty Towers
Series title card. The "Fawlty Towers" sign changed in every episode except one.
Format
Original run
19 September 1975 – 25 October 1979
Fawlty Towers is a British sitcom produced by BBC Television and first broadcast on BBC2 in 1975. Twelve episodes were produced (two series with six episodes each).
The setting is the fictional hotel Fawlty Towers in the seaside town of Torquay on the " English Riviera " (where the Gleneagles hotel that inspired John Cleese was situated). The show was written by Cleese and his then wife Connie Booth , both of whom played main characters. The first series in 1975 was produced and directed by John Howard Davies ; the second in 1979 was produced by Douglas Argent and directed by Bob Spiers .
In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted by industry professionals, Fawlty Towers placed first. [1] It was also voted fifth in the BBC's " Britain's Best Sitcom " poll in 2004. [2]
Contents
13 External links
Origins
In May 1970 the Monty Python team booked a stay in the Gleneagles Hotel (a reference was made to the Gleneagles in "The Builders" episode) in Torquay whilst filming on location. John Cleese became fascinated with the behaviour of the owner Donald Sinclair whom Cleese later described as 'the most marvellously rude man I've ever met'. This behaviour included Sinclair throwing a timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive; and placing Eric Idle 's suitcase behind a wall in the garden on the suspicion that it contained a bomb (it actually contained a ticking alarm clock). He also criticised the US-born Terry Gilliam 's table manners for not being 'British' (switching hands with his fork whilst eating). Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming, furthering their research of the hotel owner.
At the time, Cleese was a writer on the 1970s British TV sitcom Doctor in the House for London Weekend Television . An early prototype of the character that would become known as Basil Fawlty was developed in an episode ("No Ill Feeling") of the third Doctor series (titled Doctor at Large ). In this edition, the main character checks into a small town hotel, his very presence seemingly winding up the aggressive and incompetent manager (played by Timothy Bateson ) with a domineering wife. The show was broadcast on 30 May 1971. [3] Cleese parodied the contrast between organisational dogma and sensitive customer service in many personnel training videotapes issued with a serious purpose by his company, Video Arts .
Bill Cotton , the BBC's Head of Light Entertainment in the mid-1970s, said after the first series was produced that the show was a prime example of the BBC's relaxed attitude to trying new entertainment formats and encouraging new ideas. He said that when he read the first scripts he could see nothing funny in them but trusting that Cleese knew what he was doing (having come into this fresh from helping rip up the TV comedy form book with his fellow Pythons), he gave the go-ahead. He said that the commercial channels, with their emphasis on audience ratings, would never have let the show get to the production stage on the basis of the scripts.
Production
Although the series is set in Torquay in Devon , none of it was shot in south west England. For the exterior filming, instead of a hotel, the Wooburn Grange Country Club in Buckinghamshire was used. It later served as a nightclub named "Basil's" for a short time after the series ended, before being destroyed by a fire in March 1991. The remnants of the building were demolished and the site was bought by developers. [4] Other location filming was done mostly around Harrow , Middlesex . In the episode "The Germans", the opening shot is of Northwick Park Hospital . In the episode "Gourmet Night", the exterior of Andre's restaurant was filmed on Preston Road in the Harrow area. The launderette next door to the restaurant still exists today and Andre's is now a Chinese restaurant called "Wings".
Cleese and Booth were married to each other at the time of the first series. By the second, they had been divorced for almost a year, after ten years of union (1968–78). [5]
Both Cleese and Booth were so keen on every script being perfect, some episodes took four months and ten drafts to write until they were satisfied. [6]
Plot directions and examples
The series focuses on the exploits and misadventures of short-fused hotelier Basil Fawlty , his wife Sybil and their employees, porter and waiter Manuel , maid Polly , and (in the second series) chef Terry . The episodes typically revolve around Basil's efforts to succeed in 'raising the tone' of his hotel and his increasing frustration at the numerous complications and mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's overly aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and in particular his formidable wife, whom he addresses (in a faux-romantic way) with insults such as "that golfing puff adder ", "my little piranha fish" and "my little nest of vipers ". Despite this, he frequently feels intimidated, she being able to stop him in his tracks at any time, usually with a short, sharp cry of "Basil!" At the end of some episodes, Basil succeeds in annoying (or at least bemusing) the guests and frequently gets his comeuppance.
The plots are occasionally intricate and always farcical , involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes and meetings both missed and accidental. The innuendo of the bedroom farce is sometimes present (often to the disgust of the socially conservative Basil) but it is his eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots. The events that take place in each episode happen in such a way that they negatively affect Basil's personality and test what little patience he has to breaking point, sometimes causing his mental state to deteriorate to the point where he has all but suffered a total breakdown by the end of the episode (some cut to the credits as he is on the brink of doing so).
The guests at the hotel are typically comic foils to Basil's anger and outbursts. Each episode's one-shot guest characters provide a different characteristic that he cannot stand (including promiscuity, being working class, or being foreign). Requests both reasonable and impossible test his temper. Even the disabled seem to annoy him, with the episode "Communication Problems" revolving around the havoc caused by the frequent misunderstandings between the staff and the hard-of-hearing Mrs Richards (not to mention the contributions from dotty resident Major Gowen , one of the show's other regular characters). By the end, Basil faints just at the mention of her name. This episode is typical of the show's careful weaving of humorous situations through comedy cross-talk. The show also uses mild black humour at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body and in some of the comments made by Basil both about Sybil ("Did you ever see that film, How to Murder Your Wife ? ... Awfully good. I saw it six times.") and the guests ("May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea? Or preferably in it.").
Basil behaves particularly violently towards Manuel (an emotional but innocent Spaniard whose almost total lack of English vocabulary causes him to make some of the most elementary mistakes) including beating the hapless waiter with a frying pan and smacking him on the forehead with a spoon, despite Manuel's piteous pleading. The violence directed at Manuel has been one of the few reasons for negative criticisms levelled at Fawlty Towers over the years.
Basil often displays blatant snobbishness in order to climb the social ladder, frequently expressing disdain for the " riff-raff " and " yobbos " that he believes regularly populate the hotel. His desperation is apparent, as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to gain favour with the wealthy, yet finds himself forced to serve and help people he sees as beneath him. As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage (and sanity) stretching further and further towards breaking point.
Characters
Basil Fawlty
Basil Fawlty , played by John Cleese , is a snobbish and miserly misanthrope who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees the successful running of the hotel as a means of achieving this ("turn it into an establishment of class..."), yet his job forces him to be pleasant to people he despises or aspires to be above socially.
He is terrified of his wife Sybil Fawlty 's sharp tongue (in the episode " The Germans ", he wishes that it was this that was ingrowing and not her toenail). He yearns to stand up to her, but his plans frequently conflict with her desires. She is often verbally abusive towards him (memorably describing him as "an ageing, brilliantined stick insect") but although he towers over the diminutive Sybil, he often finds himself on the receiving end of her temper, expressed verbally or physically. Basil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with whatever scheme he has planned, while trying his best to prevent Sybil from finding out. However, there are occasions where Basil is shown to lament about the time when there was passion in their relationship, now seemingly lost forever. Also, it appears as though he still does care for her in some way. The penultimate episode — " The Anniversary " — revolves around his efforts to put together a nice surprise anniversary get-together present, involving their closest friends. Things go wrong immediately as, because of Basil's pretending the date doesn't remind him of anything so as to enhance the surprise (gamely accepting a slap in the process), Sybil believes he really has forgotten, and leaves the hotel in a huff. In an interview for the documentary on the DVD box set, Cleese claims that this episode deliberately takes a slightly different tone from the others, focusing on fleshing out their otherwise inexplicable status as a couple (as well as saying that, if a third series had been made, there would have been more episodes like this).
In keeping with the general lack of explanation about the marriage, not much is revealed of the characters' back-stories. It is known that Basil served in the British Army and saw action in the Korean War , possibly as part of his National Service . He exaggerates this period of his life, suggesting he spent time in active front line service and proclaiming to strangers: "I killed four men." To this Sybil jokes that "He was in the Catering Corps . He used to poison them." Basil is often seen wearing a military tie (as well as that of the Royal Agricultural College ), and his moustache seems to betray an army background. He also claims to have sustained an injury to his leg during the action, caused by shrapnel , although apparently it tends to flare up at surprisingly convenient times for him. The only person toward whom Basil, for the most part, consistently exhibits patience and decent manners is the old and senile Major Gowen , a veteran officer for either of the World Wars (which one is never specified) who permanently resides at the hotel. When interacting with Manuel, Basil displays a rudimentary ability with Spanish which is not entirely explained in any of the episodes (although Basil does at one point say that he "learned classical Spanish, not the strange dialect he [Manuel] seems to have picked up"); this ability is also predictably ridiculed, as in the first episode where a guest, whom Basil has immediately mentally labelled a working-class oik, communicates fluently with Manuel in Spanish after Basil's failed attempt to do so.
Cleese himself described Basil as thinking that "he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way," and as being "an absolutely awful human being", but says that in comedy, if an awful person makes people laugh, people unaccountably feel affectionate toward him. [7] Indeed, he is not entirely unsympathetic. The "Hotel Inspectors" and "Waldorf Salad" episodes both feature guests who are shown to be deeply annoying with constant, and unreasonable demands, namely Messers Hutchinson and Hamilton. In "Gourmet Night", it's the chef that gets drunk and is unable to cook dinner, leaving Basil to scramble in an attempt to salvage the evening. Much of the time, he is an unfortunate victim of circumstance.
Sybil Fawlty
Sybil Fawlty , played by Prunella Scales , is Basil's wife. Energetic and petite (although she wears precariously high heels), she prefers a working wardrobe of tight skirt suits in vivid shiny fabrics and sports a tower of permed and back-combed hair necessitating the use of overnight curlers . She is often seen to be a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil either gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when she is handling difficult customers. Despite this, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel; during busy check-in sessions or meal-times, while everyone else is busy working, she is frequently talking on the phone to one of her friends (usually Audrey, who makes her sole on-camera appearance in "The Anniversary") with her phrase "Oohhh, I knoooooooow", or chatting to customers. She has a distinctive conversational tone and braying laugh, which her husband compares to "someone machine-gunning a seal". Being his wife, she is the only one who refers to him by his first name, and when (frequently) she barks this at him, he is generally stopped in his tracks, often flinching.
In addition to those mentioned above, Basil also refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face, including "that golfing puff-adder", "the dragon", "toxic midget", "the sabre-toothed tart", "my little kommandant", "my little nest of vipers", and "you rancorous, coiffured old sow". Despite these less than complimentary nicknames, Basil is terrified of her, and it is only once in the entire series that he loses patience to the point which he snaps at her.
Sybil and Basil Fawlty are said to have married on 17 April 1958 and started their hotel in 1960. Prunella Scales has said that the reason Sybil married Basil was because his origins were of a higher social class than hers; in Gourmet Night she recounts an anecdote about "Uncle Ted and his crate of brown ale." This, along with some of Sybil's behaviour implies that she is from a working class background.
Polly Sherman
Polly Sherman, played by Connie Booth , is primarily employed as a waitress , although she sometimes seems to be coerced into doing many other jobs in the hotel, perhaps for the extra money. She often stands as the voice of sanity during chaotic moments in the hotel, but is frequently embroiled in ridiculous masquerades as she loyally attempts to aid Basil in trying to cover a mistake he has made, or to keep something from Sybil. Her biggest test of loyalty came in the episode "The Anniversary", when Basil asked her to impersonate a purportedly ill Sybil — albeit in semi-darkness — in front of all the Fawltys' closest friends.
Polly is apparently employed part-time (during meal times), and is an art student whom Basil refers to as spending three years at university. (Polly is not referred to as a student in the second series.) Despite her part-time employment, as the most competent of the hotel staff, she is frequently saddled with many other duties. In one episode, she is seen to draw a sketch (presumably an impressionistic caricature ) of Basil, which everyone but Basil immediately recognises. Polly is also a student of languages, displaying ability with both Spanish and German; in "The Germans" episode Basil alludes to Polly's polyglot inclination by saying that she does her work "while learning two oriental languages". Like Manuel, she has a room of her own at the hotel.
Manuel
Manuel , a waiter played by Andrew Sachs , is a well-meaning but disorganised and constantly confused Spaniard from Barcelona with a poor grasp of the English language and customs. He is verbally and physically abused by his boss. When told by either Basil, Sybil, or Polly what to do, he often answers, "¿Qué?" ("What?"). Manuel's character was used to demonstrate Basil's instinctive lack of sensitivity and tolerance. Every episode would involve Basil becoming enraged at least a couple of times by not only Manuel's confusion at his boss's bizarre and complicated demands, but also with basic requests. Manuel is afraid of Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given a steady source of income in what seems to him an endlessly perplexing society. His relentlessly enthusiastic demeanour and lavish pride in what little English he has grasped suggest that at least some of his persistent difficulties stem from his employers' persistently poor communication skills.
During the making of the series, Sachs twice suffered a serious injury while playing Manuel. Cleese describes using a real metal pan to knock him unconscious in "The Wedding Party" episode, although he would have preferred to use a rubber one. The original producer/director, John Howard Davies, explains in the director's commentary that he made Basil use a metal one and that he was responsible for most of the violence on the show, which he felt was essential and intrinsic to the type of comical farce that they were trying to create. Later, when his clothes were treated in order to make them give off smoke after he had been let out of the burning kitchen in " The Germans ", the corrosive chemicals used went through them and gave Sachs severe burns. [8]
Manuel's exaggerated Spanish accent is an integral part of the humour of the show. Sachs's native language is German, Sachs having emigrated to Britain as a child. [9]
The character's nationality was switched to Italian (and the name to Paolo) for the Spanish dub of the show, while in Catalonia he is a Mexican (still called Manuel). [10]
Other regular characters and themes
Terry , played by Brian Hall , is the laid-back Cockney chef at Fawlty Towers. Terry's cooking methods are likewise somewhat casual, which sometimes frustrates and worries the neurotic Basil. He appears in only the second series of episodes. During the first series, there was no regular chef character seen in the show. The only first series chef was "new" chef Kurt, seen in "Gourmet Night", who quickly proved himself incapable of holding the job because of a fondness for large volumes of wine, and a baffling passion for Manuel. Terry used to work in Dorchester (not at The Dorchester , as briefly believed by a guest). In " The Anniversary " he and Manuel come to blows as he takes offence at someone else cooking in his kitchen, and proceeds to sabotage Manuel's attempt to make paella for Sybil, leading to fisticuffs between them at the end of the episode.
Major Gowen , played by Ballard Berkeley , is a slightly senile, amiable old soldier who holds permanent residence in the hotel. He is one of the very few guests whom Basil seems to like. This is possibly because of his former status in the military, making him a symbol of the establishment status that Basil craves. He is often introduced as their "oldest resident". He enjoys talking about the world outside, especially the cricket scores and bemoaning workers' strikes, and is always on the lookout for the newspaper. In the episode The Germans he shows that he – like Basil, as it transpires – has trouble forgiving the Germans because of the World Wars; the best he can say about them is that German women supposedly make good card players. In the same episode, he also demonstrates his outdated attitudes towards race where he makes clear the ethnic difference between " wogs " and " niggers " — but in a manner apparently innocent of malice or derogatory bigotry. Despite his good intentions, the Major can cause Basil's devious plans to go catastrophically awry, notably in the episode Communication Problems , when Basil tries his best to keep the money he won betting on a horse race a secret from Sybil.
Miss Tibbs & Miss Gatsby , played by Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts respectively, are the other two permanent residents. Seemingly inseparable, these sweet-natured but cheerfully dotty spinsters appear to have taken a fancy to Basil, feeling as though they need to take care of him. In response to their fond solicitude, Basil vacillates between a sycophantic and superficial charm through to hostility and blunt rudeness during his various conversations with them.
Audrey, a mostly unseen character , had one on-screen appearance in "The Anniversary". Audrey is Sybil's lifelong best friend, and mostly appears in the form of gossiping, trivial telephone calls to Sybil. Audrey is a refuge for Sybil from the hotel and from Basil's ludicrous situations. When times get tough (Audrey has a dysfunctional relationship with her husband George), Sybil will offer solutions and guidance, often resulting in the catchphrase "Ooh, I know..." when she tries to commiserate with Audrey's problems. In Audrey's one on-screen appearance she is played by actress Christine Shaw. She is mentioned in "The Hotel Inspectors", "The Wedding Party", "Gourmet Night", "The Psychiatrist" and "The Kipper and the Corpse".
The Paperboy, though rarely seen, is significant as he is revealed to be the prankster who rearranges the letters on the "Fawlty Towers" sign to read various (sometimes crude) phrases. This may have been because of Basil's sharp attitude towards him when he was late with a delivery. The shot of the sign (with the hotel exterior in the background) appears at the beginning of every episode but one, " The Germans ", when a shot of a hospital is used, as this is the only episode which doesn't begin at the hotel. During the first series, the sign slowly deteriorated throughout the season until almost no letters were left in episode four. Episode five brings the first semi-anagram: "Warty Towels". In the second series, the first episode sign spells 'Fawlty Tower' letter "L" being noticeably askew, and changes in each subsequent episode, from the correct spelling to various semi-anagrams (only "Flowery Twats " from the 11th episode, "The Anniversary", is a proper anagram using all original letters.) The changes progress as follows:
Episode 7: "Fawlty Tower" (the letter "L" is askew)
Episode 8: "Watery Fowls"
Main article: List of Fawlty Towers episodes
The first edition of Fawlty Towers was originally broadcast on 19 September 1975. The 12th and final show was first shown on 25 October 1979. The first series was directed by John Howard Davies, the second by Bob Spiers. Both seasons had their premieres on BBC2 .
Production of the last two episodes was disrupted by a strike of BBC technical staff, which resulted in the recasting of the role of Reg (the wisecracking friend of Basil and Sybil) in "The Anniversary", and delayed the episode's transmission date by one week. The episode "Basil the Rat" was also delayed, not being screened until the end of a repeat showing six months later.
Not the Nine O'Clock News was originally scheduled to debut after an episode of Fawlty Towers and Cleese was to have introduced Not the Nine O'Clock News in a sketch referring to the technicians' strike, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no show ready that week, so a "tatty revue" would be broadcast instead. However, the 1979 general election intervened, and Not the Nine O'Clock News was postponed as being too political. Later that year, Cleese's sketch was broadcast, but its original significance was lost.
When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as "USA" for "Waldorf Salad", "Death" for "The Kipper and the Corpse", and "Rat" for "Basil the Rat", which have been printed in some programme guides. In addition, some of the early BBC audio releases of episodes on vinyl and cassette included other variations, such as "Mrs. Richards" and "The Rat" for "Communication Problems" and "Basil the Rat" respectively.
It has long been rumoured that a thirteenth episode of the series was written and filmed, but never progressed further than a rough cut [11] . Lars Holger Holm, author of the book Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion, has made detailed claims about the episode's content, but he provides no evidence of its existence and it is most likely a hoax or fan fiction .
On the subject of whether more episodes would be produced, Cleese revealed (in an interview for the complete DVD box set, which was republished in the book, Fawlty Towers Fully Booked) that he once had the genesis of a feature-length special – possibly sometime during the mid-1990s. The plot (which was never fleshed out beyond his initial idea) would have revolved around the chaos that a now-retired Basil typically caused as he and Sybil flew to Barcelona to visit their former employee Manuel and his family. Of the idea, Cleese said:
We had an idea for a plot which I loved. Basil was finally invited to Spain to meet Manuel's family. He gets to Heathrow and then spends about 14 frustrating hours waiting for the flight. Finally, on the plane, a terrorist pulls a gun and tries to hijack the thing. Basil is so angry he overcomes the terrorist and when the pilot says, "We have to fly back to Heathrow", Basil says, "No, fly us to Spain or I'll shoot you". He arrives in Spain, immediately arrested and spends the entire holiday in a Spanish jail. He is released just in time to go back on the plane with Sybil. It was very funny, but I couldn't do it at the time. Making Fawlty Towers work at 90 minutes was a very difficult proposition. You can build up the comedy for 30 minutes, but at that length there has to be a trough and another peak. It doesn't interest me. I don't want to do it.
Cleese may also have relented because of the lack of Connie Booth's involvement. She had practically retreated from public life after the show finished (and had been initially unwilling to collaborate on a second series, which explains the four-year gap between productions).
The decision by Cleese and Booth to quit before a third series has often been lauded, as it ensured an avoidance of the possibility that the show's immediately-high status could be weakened with lower quality work later down the line. (Cleese in particular was most likely motivated in making the choice by the end of his involvement with the Monty Python's Flying Circus TV series, which he departed after claiming to have run out of ideas for sketches.) Subsequently, it has inspired the makers of other shows to do likewise. Most notably, Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant refused to make a third series of either The Office or Extras , citing Fawlty Towers' short lifespan as the reason. Rik Mayall , Ben Elton and Lise Mayer , the writers behind The Young Ones , which also only ran for two series (each with six episodes likewise), used this explanation too. Elton also took the decision to end his next sitcom, Filthy Rich & Catflap , after only one series, despite its popularity.
Reception
Critical reaction
The series was not held in as high esteem on its original broadcast as it is today. The Daily Mirror review of the show in 1975 had the headline "Long John Short On Jokes". [12] Eventually though, as the series began to gain popularity, critical acclaim soon followed. Clive James writing in The Observer said the second episode had him "retching with laughter". [13] By the time the series had ended, it was an overwhelming critical success. This did not stop the critic from Television Today from condemning such praise in an article on 14 September 1976, who wrote:
"devoid of everything that makes good modern comedy. The programme is reminiscent of the post-war university drama society production.....The idea behind Fawlty Towers had the makings of one good sketch for John Cleese, who has in the past been shown to such good effect in original sketch material. The series, however, has over-acting and exaggeration on his part which is embarrassing to watch, writing that has no vestige of wit or skill about it and set pieces that are protracted and neither funny nor slapstick; the whole is pervaded by ill-humour. There is no warmth, no vulnerability of characters, no pathos, no visual cleverness, no funny lines. It is an amalgam of everything that does not reach out to an audience and is the epitome of self indulgence by those concerned. One funny walk and a shouting, bullying tone do not make a comedy series; it is twenty-five years too late for that.....Mr Cleese has to learn (if he has not already done so) not to be deluded by applauding critics just as he must observe those who do not applaud. Fawlty Towers is a try and there have to be many in comedy. But when the try has been made it is time to move on, to change and adapt, bearing the lessons in mind: the most important being a growing awareness of what one is good at doing and what is out of reach of one's ability and personal attributes" [14]
Another critic of the show was Richard Ingrams , then television reviewer for The Spectator . Cleese got his revenge by naming one of the guests in the second series 'Mr Ingrams', who is caught in his room with a blow up doll. [12]
In an interview for the "TV Characters" edition of Channel 4 's 'talking heads' strand 100 Greatest (in which Basil placed second, between Homer Simpson and Edmund Blackadder ), TV critic A. A. Gill theorised that the initially muted response may have been caused by Cleese seemingly ditching his label as a comic revolutionary – earned through his years with Python – to do something more traditional. He also admitted that he had been one of that chorus when he was young (despite his mother, Yvonne Gilan, being in one of the episodes; she played the saucy French woman in "The Wedding Party"). According to Gill, "that shows you what I know about this business."
Awards
Three BAFTAs were awarded to people for their involvement with the series. Each of the two series were awarded the BAFTA in the category for "Best Situation Comedy", the first won by John Howard Davies in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980. John Cleese won the BAFTA for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" in 1976. [15]
More recently, in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, Fawlty Towers was placed first. It was also voted fifth in the BBC's " Britain's Best Sitcom " poll in 2004 [2] and second only to Frasier in The Ultimate Sitcom poll of comedy writers in January 2006. Basil Fawlty came top of the Britain's Funniest Comedy Character poll, held by Five on 14 May 2006.
Remakes and reunions
Three attempted remakes of Fawlty Towers were started for the American market, with two making it into production. The first, Chateau Snavely starring Harvey Korman and Betty White , was produced by ABC for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced. The second, also by ABC, was Amanda's starring Bea Arthur , notable for switching the sexes of its 'Basil' and 'Sybil' equivalents. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped. [16] A third remake called Payne (produced by and starring John Larroquette ) was also produced, but was cancelled shortly after. A German pilot based on the sitcom was made in 2001, named Zum letzten Kliff, but further episodes were not made.
The popular sitcoms 3rd Rock From The Sun and Cheers (both of which Cleese appeared in) have cited Fawlty Towers as an inspiration, especially regarding its depiction of a dysfunctional "family" in the workplace. Also Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan have cited Fawlty Towers as a major influence on their sitcom Father Ted . Guest House on Pakistan's PTV also resembled the series.
Several of the characters have made other appearances, as spin-offs or in small cameo roles. In 1981, in character as Manuel, Andrew Sachs recorded his own version of the Joe Dolce cod-Italian song " Shaddap You Face " (with the B-side "Waiter, There's a Spanish Flea in My Soup"). However, the record was not released after Joe Dolce took out an injunction; he was about to issue his version in Britain. [17] Gilly Flower and Renee Roberts, who played Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby in the series, reprised the roles in a 1983 episode of Only Fools and Horses . [18] In 2006, Cleese played Basil Fawlty for the first time in 27 years, for an unofficial England 2006 World Cup song, "Don't Mention the War", named after the phrase Basil famously used in " The Germans ". [19] In 2007, Cleese and Sachs reprised their roles for a six-episode corporate video for Norwegian oil company Statoil . In the video, Fawlty is running a restaurant called "Basil's Brasserie", while Manuel owns a Michelin Star restaurant in London. [20]
In November 2007, Prunella Scales returned to the role of Sybil Fawlty in a series of sketches for the BBC's annual Children in Need charity telethon. The character was seen taking over the management of the eponymous hotel from the BBC drama series Hotel Babylon , interacting with characters from that programme as well as other 1970s sitcom characters. The character of Sybil was used by permission of John Cleese. [21]
Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened
In 2009, Tiger Aspect Productions produced a two-part documentary for digital comedy channel G.O.L.D. , called Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened. The documentary features interviews with all four main cast members, including Connie Booth, who refused to talk about the series for 30 years. [22] [23] John Cleese confirmed at the 30 year reunion in May 2009 that they will never make another episode of the comedy because they are too old and tired, and expectations would be too high. [24] In a television interview (shown in Australia on Seven Network and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ) on 7 May 2009, Cleese also commented that he and Connie Booth took six weeks to write each episode. [25] [26]
Overseas
In just 1977 and 1978 alone, it was sold to 45 stations in 17 countries and was the BBC's best selling overseas programme for that year. Although it was initially a flop in Spain, because of the portrayal of the Spanish waiter Manuel, it was successfully resold, with Manuel's nationality changed to Italian. [6] To show how badly it translated, Clive James picked up a clip containing Manuel's "¿Qué?" phrase to show on Clive James on Television in 1982.
The series is still shown in the United States on at least one PBS member station. Maryland Public Television , which covers the state of the same name and the surrounding area, airs all episodes in order on Tuesday afternoons (4:00 pm ET ) and Saturday nights (11:00 pm ET), along with other BBC sitcoms. [27]
Home video releases
Fawlty Towers was originally released by BBC Video in 1984, but was edited with the credits from all 3 episodes put at the end of the tape. It was re-released in 1995 unedited and remastered. It was re-released in 1998 with a special interview with John Cleese . Fawlty Towers – The complete series was released on DVD on 16 October 2001, available in regions 1, 2 and 4. A "Collectors Edition" is available in region 2.
Series one of the show was released on UMD Video for PSP .
In July 2009, BBC America announced that it was planning on a DVD re-release of the Fawlty Towers series for 20 October 2009. The reissues are set to contain commentary by John Cleese on every episode as well as remastered video and audio.
All episodes are also available as streamed video-on-demand via Netflix, either on PC computers, on Xbox 360 (with an Xbox Live Gold account), on the Playstation 3 and on other set-top boxes. Both seasons are also available for download on iTunes.
Australian Releases
Fawlty Towers: The Complete First Series" VHS
Fawlty Towers: The Complete Second Series" VHS
Fawlty Towers: The Complete Third Series" VHS
Fawlty Towers: The Complete Fourth Series" VHS
The Complete Fawlty Towers VHS Box Set
The Complete Fawlty Towers – 19 November 2001
Fawlty Towers Volume 1: Basil The Rat (3 episodes, 94 minutes) – 31 July 2007
Fawlty Towers Volume 2: The Psychiatrist (3 Episodes, 94 minutes) – 6 September 2007
Fawlty Towers Volume 3: The Kipper And The Corpse (3 Episodes, 93 minutes) – 2 October 2007
Fawlty Towers Volume 4: The Germans (3 Episodes, 93 minutes) – 7 November 2007
Fawlty Towers: The Complete Collection – Remastered (3 DVD set, all 12 episodes, 374 minutes) – 3 November 2009
Fawlty Towers – Series 1: Episodes 1–3 (Comedy Bites) (3 Episodes, 94 minutes) – 4 March 2010
References
Series 1
A Touch of Class
[Classical music is playing in the background. Basil is putting up a picture. Sybil walks in.]
Sybil : Don't forget the menu.
Basil : I beg your pardon?
Sybil: Don't forget the menu.
Basil: I thought you said you want— Right! I'll do the menu!
[puts down the picture, walks over to a typewriter and sits down.]
Sybil: You could have had them both done by now if you hadn't spent the whole morning skulking in there listening to that racket.
Basil: Racket? That's Brahms! Brahms' Third Racket!
Basil: Hello, Fawlty Towers. Ah, yes, Mr. O'Reilly. Well, it's quite simple. When I asked you to build me a wall, I was rather thinking that instead of just dumping the bricks down in a pile, you might find time to cement them together one on top of the other in the usual fashion. [to Melbury] Could you fill it in, please? [to O'Reilly] Oh, splendid! Yes, but when, Mr. O'Reilly? [to Melbury] There. There. [to O'Reilly] Yes, but when? Ah, I see: the flu. [to Melbury] Both names, please. [to O'Reilly] Yes, I should have guessed, Mr. O'Reilly; that and the potato famine, I suppose.
Melbury: I'm sorry?
Basil: Could you put both your names please? [to O'Reilly] Well, can you give me a date?
Melbury: I only use one.
Basil: You don't have a first name?
Melbury: No. I am Lord Melbury, so I simply sign "Melbury."
Basil: [to O'Reilly] Go away. [hangs up] So sorry to have kept you waiting, your lordship. I do apologise.
The Builders
Sybil: O'Reilly, I have seen more intelligent creatures than you lying on their backs at the bottoms of ponds. I have seen better organized creatures than you running round farmyards with their heads cut off. Now take your belongings and get out. I never want to see you or any of your men in my hotel again.
Basil: Ah, hello, Mr. O'Reilly. How are you? Oh sorry, nearly forgot: Basil Fawlty, remember? The poor sod you do jobs for. So how are things your end? Ah, splendid. Now how would you like to hear how things are my end? Oh, well, up to your usual standard I think the odd hole in the wall, the odd door missing; but nothing you can't be sued for.
The Wedding Party
Basil: Did you ever see that film, "How To Murder Your Wife"?
Major Gowen : "How To Murder Your Wife"?
Basil: Yes, awfully good. I saw it six times.
Basil: Always reminds me of somebody machine-gunning a seal.
Major Gowen: The heat?
Basil: No, no. My wife's laugh.
Basil: [about Sybil's laughter] Please don't alarm yourself, it's only my wife laughing. I'm afraid her local finishing school was bombed.
Mrs. Peignoir: [shocked] Oh dear!
Basil: No, no, not really. Just a thought. Well now, what can I get you?
Mrs. Peignoir: Do you have any Ricard ?
Basil: [confused] I'm sorry?
Mrs. Peignoir: Any Ricard?
Basil: [unsure what Ricard is, he pretends to check the bar] uh, we're just out of it, I think...
The Hotel Inspectors
Sybil: Don't shout at me. I've had a difficult morning.
Basil: Oh, dear, what happened? Did you get entangled in the eiderdown again? Not enough cream in your eclair? Hmm? Or did you have to talk to all your friends for so long that you didn't have time to perm your ears?
Basil: I would find it a bit easier to cope with some of the cretins we get in here, my little nest of vipers, if I got just a smidgen of co-operation from you.
Sybil: Co-operation? That's a laugh. The day you co-operate, you'll be in a wooden box.
Gourmet Night
Basil: Drunk. Soused. Potted. Inebriated. Got it?
Sybil: I can't believe this!
Basil: I don't, either. Maybe it's a dream. [pounds his head on the desk several times, sits up, looks around.] Nope, it's not a dream. We're stuck with it.
Basil: [yelling at his car] Come on! Come on! Start! Start, you vicious bastard! Come on! Oh, my God! I'm warning you! If you don't start, I'll count to three! 1, 2, 3! Right! That's it! [leaving the car, he starts yelling at it] I've had enough of this! You've tried it on once too often! Right! Well, don't say I haven't warned you! I've laid it on the line for you time and time again! Right! Well, this is it! I'm going to give you a damn good thrashing! [he leaves the frame, returns holding a branch and starts thrashing the car over the bonnet]
The Germans
Basil: Listen, don't mention the war! I mentioned it once, but I think I got away with it all right. [returns to the Germans] So! It's all forgotten now, and let's hear no more about it. So, that's two egg mayonnaise, a prawn Goebbels, a Hermann Goering, and four Colditz salads.
Basil: Is there something wrong?
Elder Herr: Will you stop talking about the war?!
Basil: Me! You started it!
Elder Herr: We did not start it!
Basil: Yes you did — you invaded Poland.
Series 2
Communication Problems
Mrs. Richards: What is going on here? I ask him for my room, and he tells me the manager's a "Mr Watt," aged forty.
Manuel : No, no. Fawlty.
Basil: I can fix it [mutters] you scabby old bat.
The Psychiatrist
Basil: He gets paid for sticking his nose—
Sybil: Oh, Basil—
Basil: No, I'm going to have my say! Into people's private... um... details. Well, just speaking for myself, I don't want a total stranger nosing about in my private parts— details!
Sybil: You're only single once.
Basil: Twice can be arranged!
Waldorf Salad
Mr. Hamilton: What I'm suggesting that this place is the crummiest, shoddiest, worst-run hotel in the whole of Western Europe.
Major Gowen [angrily]: No! No, I won't have that. There's a place in Eastbourne.
Basil: This is typical. Absolutely typical... of the kind of... ARSE I have to put up with from you people! You ponce in here, expecting to be handwaited on hand and foot while I'm trying to run a hotel here! Have you any idea of how much there is to do? Do you ever think of that? Of course not! You're all too busy sticking your noses into every corner, poking around for things to complain about, aren't you? Well, let me tell you something - this is exactly how Nazi Germany started! A lot of layabouts with nothing better to do than to cause trouble! Well, I've had fifteen years of pandering to the likes of you, and I've had enough! I've had it! Come on, pack your bags and get out!
The Kipper and the Corpse
Dr Price: You mean to tell me you didn't realise this man was dead?
Basil: Well, people don't talk that much in the morning. Look, I'm just delivering a tray, right. If the guest isn't singing "Oh What a Beautiful Morning," I don't immediately think "Oh, there's another snuffed it in the night. Another name in the Fawlty Towers Book of Remembrance." I mean, this is a hotel, not the Burma railway!
Basil: Don't tell anyone, but he's dead.
Major Gowen: Oh. Shot, was he?
Basil: No, No. Died in his sleep.
Major Gowen: In his sleep. Well, you're off your guard, you see.
The Anniversary
Basil: Yes?
Manuel: That is surprise!
Virginia: There is something very peculiar about all this. I won't stand here while an old friend like Sybil—
Basil: Look, it's perfectly Sybil. Simple's not well. She lost her throat and her voice hurt. The doctor came and said it was a bit serious. Not a lot; a bit. He went away, she started to puff up, he's coming back later this afternoon, and it's best for her to be on her own. Now what is so peculiar about that?
Roger: Her driving round in the town.
Basil the Rat
Terry: Look: all kitchens are filthy, Mr. Fawlty. In fact, the better the kitchen, the filthier it is. Have you ever read George Orwell 's experiences at Maxim's in Paris?
Basil: No. Do you have a copy? I'll read it out in court!
Manuel: I say to man in shop "Is rat." He say "No, no, no. Is a special kind of hamster. Is filigree Siberian hamster." Only one in shop. He make special price: only five pound.
Basil: Have you ever heard of the bubonic plague, Manuel? It was very popular here at one time. A lot of pedigree hamsters came over on ships from Siberia.
External links
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In which English county are the towns of Kidderminster and Evesham? | Towns and Villages in Worcestershire
The gateway to Worcestershire, Broadway Tower is a unique Capability Brown Folly Tower open to visitors wanting to experience great English heritage in an inspiring location.
Malvern Hills, Worcestershire
The Malvern Hills boast some of the most spectacular views in the Midlands and is a great place for walking, running, cycling or just enjoying the countryside.
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In which English county are the towns of Bridgewater and Glastonbury? | UK Towns to Counties Index
UK Towns to Counties Index
Most people think of locations in terms of counties, rather than towns. This index lets you look up a town and find its county. Because of a lack of definitive lists linking towns, counties and Administrative Areas, the accuracy of this index can’t be guaranteed.
County Names and Administrative Areas
The name of the appropriate county is often included in an address. However, this isn’t compulsory, as long as you specify the correct town and post code.
The re-organisation of local government introduced new Administrative Areas to England, Scotland and Wales. For example, the English counties of Avon, Cleveland, Greater Manchester, Merseyside, North and South Humberside, Tyne and Wear, and West Midlands were abolished, Herefordshire and Worcestershire were again separated and the small county of Rutland was re-established. Similarly, Scotland’s Strathclyde area was replaced, whilst South Wales was massively re-organised. Meanwhile, many larger towns have been made into Unitary Authorities that operate independently of the surrounding county.
Unfortunately, many Administrative Areas aren’t recognised by Royal Mail. In addition, county names, as used in postal addresses, don’t always correspond with Administrative Areas. For example, Middlesex is used in postal addresses although it isn’t an Area.
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Herbert Pocket and Bentley Drummle are characters that appear in which book by Charles Dickens? | SparkNotes: Great Expectations: Character List
Great Expectations
Plot Overview
Analysis of Major Characters
Pip - The protagonist and narrator of Great Expectations, Pip begins the story as a young orphan boy being raised by his sister and brother-in-law in the marsh country of Kent, in the southeast of England. Pip is passionate, romantic, and somewhat unrealistic at heart, and he tends to expect more for himself than is reasonable. Pip also has a powerful conscience, and he deeply wants to improve himself, both morally and socially.
Read an in-depth analysis of Pip.
Estella - Miss Havisham’s beautiful young ward, Estella is Pip’s unattainable dream throughout the novel. He loves her passionately, but, though she sometimes seems to consider him a friend, she is usually cold, cruel, and uninterested in him. As they grow up together, she repeatedly warns him that she has no heart.
Read an in-depth analysis of Estella.
Miss Havisham - Miss Havisham is the wealthy, eccentric old woman who lives in a manor called Satis House near Pip’s village. She is manic and often seems insane, flitting around her house in a faded wedding dress, keeping a decaying feast on her table, and surrounding herself with clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine. As a young woman, Miss Havisham was jilted by her fiancé minutes before her wedding, and now she has a vendetta against all men. She deliberately raises Estella to be the tool of her revenge, training her beautiful ward to break men’s hearts.
Read an in-depth analysis of Miss Havisham.
Abel Magwitch (“The Convict”) - A fearsome criminal, Magwitch escapes from prison at the beginning of Great Expectations and terrorizes Pip in the cemetery. Pip’s kindness, however, makes a deep impression on him, and he subsequently devotes himself to making a fortune and using it to elevate Pip into a higher social class. Behind the scenes, he becomes Pip’s secret benefactor, funding Pip’s education and opulent lifestyle in London through the lawyer Jaggers.
Joe Gargery - Pip’s brother-in-law, the village blacksmith, Joe stays with his overbearing, abusive wife—known as Mrs. Joe—solely out of love for Pip. Joe’s quiet goodness makes him one of the few completely sympathetic characters in Great Expectations. Although he is uneducated and unrefined, he consistently acts for the benefit of those he loves and suffers in silence when Pip treats him coldly.
Jaggers - The powerful, foreboding lawyer hired by Magwitch to supervise Pip’s elevation to the upper class. As one of the most important criminal lawyers in London, Jaggers is privy to some dirty business; he consorts with vicious criminals, and even they are terrified of him. But there is more to Jaggers than his impenetrable exterior. He often seems to care for Pip, and before the novel begins he helps Miss Havisham to adopt the orphaned Estella. Jaggers smells strongly of soap: he washes his hands obsessively as a psychological mech-anism to keep the criminal taint from corrupting him.
Herbert Pocket - Pip first meets Herbert Pocket in the garden of Satis House, when, as a pale young gentleman, Herbert challenges him to a fight. Years later, they meet again in London, and Herbert becomes Pip’s best friend and key companion after Pip’s elevation to the status of gentleman. Herbert nicknames Pip “Handel.” He is the son of Matthew Pocket, Miss Havisham’s cousin, and hopes to become a merchant so that he can afford to marry Clara Barley.
Wemmick - Jaggers’s clerk and Pip’s friend, Wemmick is one of the strangest characters in Great Expectations. At work, he is hard, cynical, sarcastic, and obsessed with “portable property”; at home in Walworth, he is jovial, wry, and a tender caretaker of his “Aged Parent.”
Biddy - A simple, kindhearted country girl, Biddy first befriends Pip when they attend school together. After Mrs. Joe is attacked and becomes an invalid, Biddy moves into Pip’s home to care for her. Throughout most of the novel, Biddy represents the opposite of Estella; she is plain, kind, moral, and of Pip’s own social class.
Dolge Orlick - The day laborer in Joe’s forge, Orlick is a slouching, oafish embodiment of evil. He is malicious and shrewd, hurting people simply because he enjoys it. He is responsible for the attack on Mrs. Joe, and he later almost succeeds in his attempt to murder Pip.
Mrs. Joe - Pip’s sister and Joe’s wife, known only as “Mrs. Joe” throughout the novel. Mrs. Joe is a stern and overbearing figure to both Pip and Joe. She keeps a spotless household and frequently menaces her husband and her brother with her cane, which she calls “Tickler.” She also forces them to drink a foul-tasting concoction called tar-water. Mrs. Joe is petty and ambitious; her fondest wish is to be something more than what she is, the wife of the village blacksmith.
Uncle Pumblechook - Pip’s pompous, arrogant uncle. (He is actually Joe’s uncle and, therefore, Pip’s “uncle-in-law,” but Pip and his sister both call him “Uncle Pumblechook.”) A merchant obsessed with money, Pumblechook is responsible for arranging Pip’s first meeting with Miss Havisham. Throughout the rest of the novel, he will shamelessly take credit for Pip’s rise in social status, even though he has nothing to do with it, since Magwitch, not Miss Havisham, is Pip’s secret benefactor.
Compeyson - A criminal and the former partner of Magwitch, Compeyson is an educated, gentlemanly outlaw who contrasts sharply with the coarse and uneducated Magwitch. Compeyson is responsible for Magwitch’s capture at the end of the novel. He is also the man who jilted Miss Havisham on her wedding day.
Bentley Drummle - An oafish, unpleasant young man who attends tutoring sessions with Pip at the Pockets’ house, Drummle is a minor member of the nobility, and the sense of superiority this gives him makes him feel justified in acting cruelly and harshly toward everyone around him. Drummle eventually marries Estella, to Pip’s chagrin; she is miserable in their marriage and reunites with Pip after Drummle dies some eleven years later.
Molly - Jaggers’s housekeeper. In Chapter 48, Pip realizes that she is Estella’s mother.
Mr. Wopsle - The church clerk in Pip’s country town; Mr. Wopsle’s aunt is the local schoolteacher. Sometime after Pip becomes a gentleman, Mr. Wopsle moves to London and becomes an actor.
Startop - A friend of Pip’s and Herbert’s. Startop is a delicate young man who, with Pip and Drummle, takes tutelage with Matthew Pocket. Later, Startop helps Pip and Herbert with Magwitch’s escape.
Miss Skiffins - Wemmick’s beloved, and eventual wife.
| Great Expectations |
Although it can come in colourless varieties what is the usual colour of the drink Absinthe? | SparkNotes: Great Expectations: Plot Overview
Great Expectations
Context
Character List
Pip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Kent, sits in a cemetery one evening looking at his parents’ tombstones. Suddenly, an escaped convict springs up from behind a tombstone, grabs Pip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg irons. Pip obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway. The convict protects Pip by claiming to have stolen the items himself.
One day Pip is taken by his Uncle Pumblechook to play at Satis House, the home of the wealthy dowager Miss Havisham, who is extremely eccentric: she wears an old wedding dress everywhere she goes and keeps all the clocks in her house stopped at the same time. During his visit, he meets a beautiful young girl named Estella, who treats him coldly and contemptuously. Nevertheless, he falls in love with her and dreams of becoming a wealthy gentleman so that he might be worthy of her. He even hopes that Miss Havisham intends to make him a gentleman and marry him to Estella, but his hopes are dashed when, after months of regular visits to Satis House, Miss Havisham decides to help him become a common laborer in his family’s business.
With Miss Havisham’s guidance, Pip is apprenticed to his brother-in-law, Joe, who is the village blacksmith. Pip works in the forge unhappily, struggling to better his education with the help of the plain, kind Biddy and encountering Joe’s malicious day laborer, Orlick. One night, after an altercation with Orlick, Pip’s sister, known as Mrs. Joe, is viciously attacked and becomes a mute invalid. From her signals, Pip suspects that Orlick was responsible for the attack.
One day a lawyer named Jaggers appears with strange news: a secret benefactor has given Pip a large fortune, and Pip must come to London immediately to begin his education as a gentleman. Pip happily assumes that his previous hopes have come true—that Miss Havisham is his secret benefactor and that the old woman intends for him to marry Estella.
In London, Pip befriends a young gentleman named Herbert Pocket and Jaggers’s law clerk, Wemmick. He expresses disdain for his former friends and loved ones, especially Joe, but he continues to pine after Estella. He furthers his education by studying with the tutor Matthew Pocket, Herbert’s father. Herbert himself helps Pip learn how to act like a gentleman. When Pip turns twenty-one and begins to receive an income from his fortune, he will secretly help Herbert buy his way into the business he has chosen for himself. But for now, Herbert and Pip lead a fairly undisciplined life in London, enjoying themselves and running up debts. Orlick reappears in Pip’s life, employed as Miss Havisham’s porter, but is promptly fired by Jaggers after Pip reveals Orlick’s unsavory past. Mrs. Joe dies, and Pip goes home for the funeral, feeling tremendous grief and remorse. Several years go by, until one night a familiar figure barges into Pip’s room—the convict, Magwitch, who stuns Pip by announcing that he, not Miss Havisham, is the source of Pip’s fortune. He tells Pip that he was so moved by Pip’s boyhood kindness that he dedicated his life to making Pip a gentleman, and he made a fortune in Australia for that very purpose.
Pip is appalled, but he feels morally bound to help Magwitch escape London, as the convict is pursued both by the police and by Compeyson, his former partner in crime. A complicated mystery begins to fall into place when Pip discovers that Compeyson was the man who abandoned Miss Havisham at the altar and that Estella is Magwitch’s daughter. Miss Havisham has raised her to break men’s hearts, as revenge for the pain her own broken heart caused her. Pip was merely a boy for the young Estella to practice on; Miss Havisham delighted in Estella’s ability to toy with his affections.
As the weeks pass, Pip sees the good in Magwitch and begins to care for him deeply. Before Magwitch’s escape attempt, Estella marries an upper-class lout named Bentley Drummle. Pip makes a visit to Satis House, where Miss Havisham begs his forgiveness for the way she has treated him in the past, and he forgives her. Later that day, when she bends over the fireplace, her clothing catches fire and she goes up in flames. She survives but becomes an invalid. In her final days, she will continue to repent for her misdeeds and to plead for Pip’s forgiveness.
The time comes for Pip and his friends to spirit Magwitch away from London. Just before the escape attempt, Pip is called to a shadowy meeting in the marshes, where he encounters the vengeful, evil Orlick. Orlick is on the verge of killing Pip when Herbert arrives with a group of friends and saves Pip’s life. Pip and Herbert hurry back to effect Magwitch’s escape. They try to sneak Magwitch down the river on a rowboat, but they are discovered by the police, who Compeyson tipped off. Magwitch and Compeyson fight in the river, and Compeyson is drowned. Magwitch is sentenced to death, and Pip loses his fortune. Magwitch feels that his sentence is God’s forgiveness and dies at peace. Pip falls ill; Joe comes to London to care for him, and they are reconciled. Joe gives him the news from home: Orlick, after robbing Pumblechook, is now in jail; Miss Havisham has died and left most of her fortune to the Pockets; Biddy has taught Joe how to read and write. After Joe leaves, Pip decides to rush home after him and marry Biddy, but when he arrives there he discovers that she and Joe have already married.
Pip decides to go abroad with Herbert to work in the mercantile trade. Returning many years later, he encounters Estella in the ruined garden at Satis House. Drummle, her husband, treated her badly, but he is now dead. Pip finds that Estella’s coldness and cruelty have been replaced by a sad kindness, and the two leave the garden hand in hand, Pip believing that they will never part again. (Note: Dickens’s original ending to Great Expectations differed from the one described in this summary. The final Summary and Analysis section of this SparkNote provides a description of the first ending and explains why Dickens rewrote it.)
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Which brand of soap was advertised on TV as giving you 'that schoolgirl complexion'? | Radio Sponsor Adversaries
Radio Sponsor Adversaries
Tries To Share Its Misery
With Radio Listeners
�Guard against �Throat Scratch!��
Lincoln, Me. (DG)�
In other articles I have written, you noticed some products had adversaries who tried to make life miserable for anyone who was considered a human being. If the radio commercials were to be believed, if someone didn�t use the product, he/she was guaranteed to suffer the consequences the adversary happily dished out. It was the worst of all worlds if someone had the awful combination of �B.O.� and �Coffee Nerves.� To avoid this double-whammy, that person should bathe with Lifebuoy Health Soap and drink Postum instead of coffee.
You might have noticed I selected �B.O.� and �Coffee Nerves.� Not only were these 2 adversaries famous on the radio, I have already written about them in other articles. Since I have already done this, you won�t be reading about them any further. This article will focus on other famous adversaries heard over the airwaves.
We begin with the color pink. As a rule, pink is a nice, cheery color. Since it is nice and cheery, pink is a welcomed color for everything, right? Sorry! There was an exception where pink wasn�t a particularly pleasant sight to see. This exception was also an adversary to take very seriously--- the infamous �Pink Tooth Brush.�
To set the record straight, Pink Tooth Brush doesn�t mean the color of the tooth brush handle. It referred to the pink tinge on the bristles after a person brushed his/her teeth. If pink was present after brushing, there was big trouble inside that person�s yap. What that person had was tender, bleeding gums. Unless something was done to solve this problem, that person had to hunt for false teeth in the Sears-Roebuck Catalog (just kidding).
Luckily, Pink Tooth Brush was easily solved. All it took was Ipana Tooth Paste and gentle massaging of the gums. When the brushing and massage was completed, the teeth were a brilliant white, and the gums had a refreshing tingle. These were all good signs, as the teeth and gums were making a strong comeback to health. Not only did brushing every day with Ipana conquer Pink Tooth Brush, it also protected the teeth and gums from other unpleasant and disgusting oral ailments like Gingivitis, Pyorrhea, and Vincent�s Disease. An Ipana Smile was both a beautiful smile and more importantly, a healthy smile.
Colds and flu were 2 very annoying adversaries--- and ones the radio sponsors didn�t necessarily conquer. Since the only cure was to let them run their course, the best the products could do lessen its discomforts. Despite this �no win� situation, a large number of radio sponsors were more than willing to do battle. On the radio, the listeners heard Vicks VapoRub, Hill�s Cold Tablets, Kriptin, Tabcin, Anahist, Bayer Aspirin, and Dreft participate in the fight against colds and flu.
You should already know Dreft is a washday detergent, but you might be wondering why I mentioned it with the other cold relieving products. No, Dreft didn�t exactly relieve the discomforts of colds and flu, but it did protect healthy family members by doing what it does best--- wash dishes �Healthfully Clean.�
During cold and flu season, Dreft aired some sobering and shocking commercials concerning washing dishes and health. These commercials featured a grim reality on why soap products should not be used for washing dishes.
After washing with soap, the dishes looked clean, but were they really clean? In this case, appearances were very deceiving. While the dishes looked clean to the human eye, there were breeding cold and flu germs on the glasses, dishes, and silverware just waiting for someone to catch them. Although soap is associated with cleanliness, there was a health risk for every member of the family who ate or drank from (supposedly) clean dishes. The source of the problem was the soapy layer on the surface of the dishwater. When the dishes were submerged into the dishwater, they were actually free of germs for that moment. Unfortunately, when it was time to rinse the dishes, they had to go through that soapy layer again--- with the cold or flu germs going along for the ride. Even vigorous rinsing of the dishes didn�t get rid of the germs.
A possible solution to this problem was to leave the dishes submerged in the dishwater for life. They wouldn�t have a single germ on them, but since they were permanently submerged, they couldn�t be used in the future! In about 30 years, the dishwater might be a little disgusting--- but the dishes were still free of cold and flu germs. Not very practical, is it?
The practical solution was to wash the dishes with Dreft. Since it wasn�t soap, Dreft didn�t have that nasty soapy layer on top of the dishwater. When the dishes were washed, they could be taken out of the dishwater without any germs clinging on. In other words, what was clean and germ free under the dishwater was also clean and germ free out of the dishwater. Washing dishes with Dreft helped to protect the family�s health. If any family member was to catch a cold or flu, he/she had to do this elsewhere. Sadly, it wasn�t very hard to do this!
The term �tattle tale� wasn�t exactly a very nice name to associate with people who intentionally got a friend, acquaintance, family member, and even adversary in trouble. It also wasn�t a very nice name for the laundry, either.
Husbands immediately knew their wives were washing the laundry with inferior soap. How did they know? Their (supposedly) white shirts were an awful shade of �Tattle Tale Gray.� When this happened, husbands weren�t bashful in letting their wives know about the error of their ways--- in a less than happy manner. Although Tattle Tale Gray wasn�t the major reason for divorces back then, it sure did make life miserable.
This dingy looking color was awful, but it could easily be dealt with. Actually, there were 2 possible solutions for the wife. First (and it�s an excellent thought), let hubby wash his own shirts. Guaranteed, it prevented him from complaining further on this subject, but it didn�t exactly solve the overall problem of Tattle Tale Gray. The practical solution was to wash the laundry with Fels-Naptha. It didn�t matter if it was the original Fels-Naptha Soap Bar or Fels-Naptha Soap Chips--- as long as it said Fels-Naptha on the wrapper or box. When Fels-Naptha was used, the white clothes were actually white. That meant white shirts and happy husbands. With Tattle Tale Gray an unpleasant, but distant memory, husbands and wives were getting along very well, thanks to Fels-Naptha.
If �Cigarette Hangover� had an advantage over the hangover from drinking too much, the person didn�t suffer the ill effects the following morning. However, Cigarette Hangover was anything but pleasant. The cause of this unpleasant adversary was the smoking of a harsh cigarette. Instead of giving its smokers pleasure, the harsh cigarette was really making his/her life miserable. To begin, the taste was hot and bitter. When the smoker finished the cigarette, his/her throat was sore and scratchy, and his/her nose was painfully sensitive. With the exception of not smoking at all, the obvious solution of curing Cigarette Hangover was switching to Philip Morris.
Since harshness wasn�t in Philip Morris� vocabulary, its smokers noticed a huge difference from the old brand they used to smoke.
The makers of Pall Mall Famous Cigarettes introduced �Throat Scratch� in its radio commercials. It was similar to Cigarette Hangover in its effects and for making life unpleasant. Not only was Throat Scratch awful for cigarette smokers who suffered with it, the very name sounded awful to every radio listener who heard about it. Like Cigarette Hangover, Throat Scratch was self-inflicted by smoking an inferior quality cigarette. According to the Pall Mall radio commercials, it made a difference not only in the quality of tobacco used, but also the cigarette�s longer length. This unbeatable combination gave its smokers pleasure, while gradually eliminating that awful Throat Scratch.
Just like colds and flu I mentioned earlier, dirt was an adversary all the cleaning products heard on the radio took on and conquered. For most people, dirt is dirt --- there aren�t different variations of it. Guess what? The Gold Seal Company, the makers of Glass Wax, begs to differ.
According to the Glass Wax radio commercials, there were 30 different kinds of dirt. Each type of dirt either laid on or stuck on all surfaces around the house. Since there were 30 kinds of dirt, Glass Wax eliminated all of them in 30 seconds. As Arthur Godfrey stated on his morning show, �Wipe it on! Wipe it off!� As quick as saying that, the dirt was gone and the surface was clean.
Although the product said Glass Wax on the can, it was a versatile cleaner. In addition to windows, Glass Wax cleaned away those 30 nasty forms of dirt from mirrors, silverware, metal, porcelain, metal lamps, and venetian blinds. You name it--- Glass Wax cleaned it!
We conclude with an adversary women could easily do without--- Dry, Lifeless, Middle Aged Skin. Despite its name, this adversary did its dirty work with women of all ages. Dry, Lifeless, Middle Aged Skin was the result of washing the face with soap. Although the soap was mild to the complexion, it also had an uncanny ability to dry up the face. Instead of a soft, smooth, and glowing complexion, it was dry, tight feeling, and rather blah. The solution was to switch to Palmolive Soap. Yes, Palmolive was a brand of soap, but it was also the only soap made with olive oil. This bland olive oil combined with a gentle soap and washed away the dryness on the face. The result was Palmolive�s famous �Schoolgirl Complexion Look.� In other words, a soft, smooth, and younger looking complexion. Women of all ages could have the same result by using Palmolive instead of the soap they were using.
Although the product and the adversary were bitter enemies, they both had a common goal in selling the product on the air. The adversaries were usually defeated, but they were winners as far as classic radio advertising was concerned. For Pink Tooth Brush, Tattle Tale Gray, and the rest, they would happily settle for that.
| Palmolive |
First performed at the La Scala opera house in Milan in 1817, which peice of music by Rossini translates as La Gazza Ladra? | Radio Sponsor Adversaries
Radio Sponsor Adversaries
Tries To Share Its Misery
With Radio Listeners
�Guard against �Throat Scratch!��
Lincoln, Me. (DG)�
In other articles I have written, you noticed some products had adversaries who tried to make life miserable for anyone who was considered a human being. If the radio commercials were to be believed, if someone didn�t use the product, he/she was guaranteed to suffer the consequences the adversary happily dished out. It was the worst of all worlds if someone had the awful combination of �B.O.� and �Coffee Nerves.� To avoid this double-whammy, that person should bathe with Lifebuoy Health Soap and drink Postum instead of coffee.
You might have noticed I selected �B.O.� and �Coffee Nerves.� Not only were these 2 adversaries famous on the radio, I have already written about them in other articles. Since I have already done this, you won�t be reading about them any further. This article will focus on other famous adversaries heard over the airwaves.
We begin with the color pink. As a rule, pink is a nice, cheery color. Since it is nice and cheery, pink is a welcomed color for everything, right? Sorry! There was an exception where pink wasn�t a particularly pleasant sight to see. This exception was also an adversary to take very seriously--- the infamous �Pink Tooth Brush.�
To set the record straight, Pink Tooth Brush doesn�t mean the color of the tooth brush handle. It referred to the pink tinge on the bristles after a person brushed his/her teeth. If pink was present after brushing, there was big trouble inside that person�s yap. What that person had was tender, bleeding gums. Unless something was done to solve this problem, that person had to hunt for false teeth in the Sears-Roebuck Catalog (just kidding).
Luckily, Pink Tooth Brush was easily solved. All it took was Ipana Tooth Paste and gentle massaging of the gums. When the brushing and massage was completed, the teeth were a brilliant white, and the gums had a refreshing tingle. These were all good signs, as the teeth and gums were making a strong comeback to health. Not only did brushing every day with Ipana conquer Pink Tooth Brush, it also protected the teeth and gums from other unpleasant and disgusting oral ailments like Gingivitis, Pyorrhea, and Vincent�s Disease. An Ipana Smile was both a beautiful smile and more importantly, a healthy smile.
Colds and flu were 2 very annoying adversaries--- and ones the radio sponsors didn�t necessarily conquer. Since the only cure was to let them run their course, the best the products could do lessen its discomforts. Despite this �no win� situation, a large number of radio sponsors were more than willing to do battle. On the radio, the listeners heard Vicks VapoRub, Hill�s Cold Tablets, Kriptin, Tabcin, Anahist, Bayer Aspirin, and Dreft participate in the fight against colds and flu.
You should already know Dreft is a washday detergent, but you might be wondering why I mentioned it with the other cold relieving products. No, Dreft didn�t exactly relieve the discomforts of colds and flu, but it did protect healthy family members by doing what it does best--- wash dishes �Healthfully Clean.�
During cold and flu season, Dreft aired some sobering and shocking commercials concerning washing dishes and health. These commercials featured a grim reality on why soap products should not be used for washing dishes.
After washing with soap, the dishes looked clean, but were they really clean? In this case, appearances were very deceiving. While the dishes looked clean to the human eye, there were breeding cold and flu germs on the glasses, dishes, and silverware just waiting for someone to catch them. Although soap is associated with cleanliness, there was a health risk for every member of the family who ate or drank from (supposedly) clean dishes. The source of the problem was the soapy layer on the surface of the dishwater. When the dishes were submerged into the dishwater, they were actually free of germs for that moment. Unfortunately, when it was time to rinse the dishes, they had to go through that soapy layer again--- with the cold or flu germs going along for the ride. Even vigorous rinsing of the dishes didn�t get rid of the germs.
A possible solution to this problem was to leave the dishes submerged in the dishwater for life. They wouldn�t have a single germ on them, but since they were permanently submerged, they couldn�t be used in the future! In about 30 years, the dishwater might be a little disgusting--- but the dishes were still free of cold and flu germs. Not very practical, is it?
The practical solution was to wash the dishes with Dreft. Since it wasn�t soap, Dreft didn�t have that nasty soapy layer on top of the dishwater. When the dishes were washed, they could be taken out of the dishwater without any germs clinging on. In other words, what was clean and germ free under the dishwater was also clean and germ free out of the dishwater. Washing dishes with Dreft helped to protect the family�s health. If any family member was to catch a cold or flu, he/she had to do this elsewhere. Sadly, it wasn�t very hard to do this!
The term �tattle tale� wasn�t exactly a very nice name to associate with people who intentionally got a friend, acquaintance, family member, and even adversary in trouble. It also wasn�t a very nice name for the laundry, either.
Husbands immediately knew their wives were washing the laundry with inferior soap. How did they know? Their (supposedly) white shirts were an awful shade of �Tattle Tale Gray.� When this happened, husbands weren�t bashful in letting their wives know about the error of their ways--- in a less than happy manner. Although Tattle Tale Gray wasn�t the major reason for divorces back then, it sure did make life miserable.
This dingy looking color was awful, but it could easily be dealt with. Actually, there were 2 possible solutions for the wife. First (and it�s an excellent thought), let hubby wash his own shirts. Guaranteed, it prevented him from complaining further on this subject, but it didn�t exactly solve the overall problem of Tattle Tale Gray. The practical solution was to wash the laundry with Fels-Naptha. It didn�t matter if it was the original Fels-Naptha Soap Bar or Fels-Naptha Soap Chips--- as long as it said Fels-Naptha on the wrapper or box. When Fels-Naptha was used, the white clothes were actually white. That meant white shirts and happy husbands. With Tattle Tale Gray an unpleasant, but distant memory, husbands and wives were getting along very well, thanks to Fels-Naptha.
If �Cigarette Hangover� had an advantage over the hangover from drinking too much, the person didn�t suffer the ill effects the following morning. However, Cigarette Hangover was anything but pleasant. The cause of this unpleasant adversary was the smoking of a harsh cigarette. Instead of giving its smokers pleasure, the harsh cigarette was really making his/her life miserable. To begin, the taste was hot and bitter. When the smoker finished the cigarette, his/her throat was sore and scratchy, and his/her nose was painfully sensitive. With the exception of not smoking at all, the obvious solution of curing Cigarette Hangover was switching to Philip Morris.
Since harshness wasn�t in Philip Morris� vocabulary, its smokers noticed a huge difference from the old brand they used to smoke.
The makers of Pall Mall Famous Cigarettes introduced �Throat Scratch� in its radio commercials. It was similar to Cigarette Hangover in its effects and for making life unpleasant. Not only was Throat Scratch awful for cigarette smokers who suffered with it, the very name sounded awful to every radio listener who heard about it. Like Cigarette Hangover, Throat Scratch was self-inflicted by smoking an inferior quality cigarette. According to the Pall Mall radio commercials, it made a difference not only in the quality of tobacco used, but also the cigarette�s longer length. This unbeatable combination gave its smokers pleasure, while gradually eliminating that awful Throat Scratch.
Just like colds and flu I mentioned earlier, dirt was an adversary all the cleaning products heard on the radio took on and conquered. For most people, dirt is dirt --- there aren�t different variations of it. Guess what? The Gold Seal Company, the makers of Glass Wax, begs to differ.
According to the Glass Wax radio commercials, there were 30 different kinds of dirt. Each type of dirt either laid on or stuck on all surfaces around the house. Since there were 30 kinds of dirt, Glass Wax eliminated all of them in 30 seconds. As Arthur Godfrey stated on his morning show, �Wipe it on! Wipe it off!� As quick as saying that, the dirt was gone and the surface was clean.
Although the product said Glass Wax on the can, it was a versatile cleaner. In addition to windows, Glass Wax cleaned away those 30 nasty forms of dirt from mirrors, silverware, metal, porcelain, metal lamps, and venetian blinds. You name it--- Glass Wax cleaned it!
We conclude with an adversary women could easily do without--- Dry, Lifeless, Middle Aged Skin. Despite its name, this adversary did its dirty work with women of all ages. Dry, Lifeless, Middle Aged Skin was the result of washing the face with soap. Although the soap was mild to the complexion, it also had an uncanny ability to dry up the face. Instead of a soft, smooth, and glowing complexion, it was dry, tight feeling, and rather blah. The solution was to switch to Palmolive Soap. Yes, Palmolive was a brand of soap, but it was also the only soap made with olive oil. This bland olive oil combined with a gentle soap and washed away the dryness on the face. The result was Palmolive�s famous �Schoolgirl Complexion Look.� In other words, a soft, smooth, and younger looking complexion. Women of all ages could have the same result by using Palmolive instead of the soap they were using.
Although the product and the adversary were bitter enemies, they both had a common goal in selling the product on the air. The adversaries were usually defeated, but they were winners as far as classic radio advertising was concerned. For Pink Tooth Brush, Tattle Tale Gray, and the rest, they would happily settle for that.
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Give any year in the life of St Francis of Assisi. | St. Francis of Assisi
SAINT FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FOUNDER OF THE FRIARS MINOR, CONFESSOR�1181-1226
Feast: October 4
We know more of St. Francis than of any other medieval saint. Not only have we his own words, his Rule, Testament, letters, poems, and liturgical writings, but also the intimate accounts of several of his disciples, written down within twenty years after his death. These first biographies, by Brothers Thomas of Celano, Leo, Angelo, and Rufino, were soon revised and added to by other friars who wanted to call attention to one phase or another of Francis' work and teachings. From this great store of authentic material a clear picture of the man emerges. St. Francis is one saint whom both Catholics and non-Catholics have united in honoring. Certainly no other has so appealed to Protestants and even to non-Christians. And the appeal is timeless: Francis captured the imagination of his contemporaries as well as that of modern men by his unique simplicity and a pure grace of spirit. A classic collection of popular legends, the <Little Flowers of St. Francis>, first printed in 1476, contains charming and beautiful stories of Francis' love of the poor, of animals, of all nature. In action he was original, in speech picturesque and poetic, yet he was a man utterly inspired by faith in and devotion to the risen Christ.
Francis was born in the stony hill-town of Assisi in Umbria, in the year 1181 or 1182. His father, Peter Bernadone, was a wealthy merchant. His mother, Pica, by some accounts was gently born and of Provencal blood. Much of Bernadone's trade was with France, and his son was born while he was absent in that country. Perhaps for this reason the child was called Francesco, "the French man," though his baptismal name was John. As a youth he was ardent in his amusements and seemed carried away by the mere joy of living, taking no interest at all in his father's business or in formal learning. Bernadone, proud to have his son finely dressed and associating with young noblemen, gave him plenty of money, which Francis spent carelessly. Though Francis was high-spirited, he was too fastidious to lead a dissolute life. It was the age of chivalry, and he was thrilled by the songs of the troubadours and the deeds of knights. At the age of twenty or thereabouts, during a petty war between the towns of Assisi and Perugia, he was taken prisoner. During a year of captivity he remained cheerful and kept up the spirits of his companions. Soon after his release he suffered a long illness. This he bore with patience.
After his recovery Francis joined the troop of a knight of Assisi who was riding south to fight under Walter de Brienne for the Pope against the Germans. Having equipped himself with sumptuous apparel and fine armor, he fared forth. On the way he met a knight shabbily clad, and was so touched with compassion that he exchanged clothes with him. That night he dreamed he saw his father's house transformed into a castle, its walls hung with armor, all marked with the sign of the cross; and he heard a voice saying that the armor belonged to Francis and his soldiers. Confident now that he would win glory as a knight, he set out again, but on the first day fell ill. While lying helpless, a voice seemed to tell him to turn back, and "to serve the Master rather than the man." Francis obeyed. At home he began to take long rambles in the country and to spend many hours by himself; he felt contempt for a life wasted on trivial and transitory things. It was a time of spiritual crisis during which he was quietly searching for something worthy of his complete devotion. A deep compassion was growing within him. Riding one day in the plains below Assisi, he met a leper whose loathsome sores filled Francis with horror. Overcoming his revulsion, he leapt from his horse and pressed into the leper's hand all the money he had with him, then kissed the hand. This was a turning point in his life. He started visiting hospitals, especially the refuge for lepers, which most persons avoided. On a pilgrimage to Rome, he emptied his purse at St. Peter's tomb, then went out to the swarm of beggars at the door, gave his clothes to the one that looked poorest, dressed himself in the fellow's rags, and stood there all day with hand outstretched. The rich young man would experience for himself the bitterness and humiliation of poverty.
One day, after his return from Rome, as he prayed in the humble little church of St. Damian outside the walls of Assisi, he felt the eyes of the Christ on the crucifix gazing at him and heard a voice saying three times, "Francis, go and repair My house, which you see is falling down." The building, he observed, was old and ready to fall. Assured that he had now found the right path, Francis went home and in the singleness and simplicity of his heart took a horseload of cloth out of his father's warehouse and sold it, together with the horse that carried it, in the market at the neighboring town of Foligno. He then brought the money to the poor priest of St. Damian's church, and asked if he might stay there. Although the priest accepted Francis' companionship, he refused the money, which Francis left lying on a window sill. Bernadone, furious at his son's waywardness, came to St. Damian's to bring him home, but Francis hid himself and could not be found.
He spent some days in prayer, and then went bravely to see his father. He was now so thin and ill-clad that boys in the streets pelted him and called him mad. The exasperated Bernadone beat Francis, fettered his feet, and locked him up. A little later his mother set him free and Francis returned to St. Damian's. His father pursued him there and angrily declared that he must either return home or renounce his share in his inheritance-and pay the purchase price of the horse and the goods he had taken as well. Francis made no objection to being disinherited, but protested that the other money now belonged to God and the poor. Bernadone had him summoned for trial before Guido, the bishop of Assisi, who heard the story and told the young man to restore the money and trust in God. "He does not wish," the bishop said, "to have His church profit by goods which may have been unjustly acquired." Francis not only gave back the money but went even further. "My clothing is also his," he said, and stripped off his garments. "Hither to I have called Peter Bernadone father.... From now on I say only, 'Our Father, who art in Heaven.�" Bernadone left the court in sorrow and rage, while the bishop covered the young man with his own cloak until a gardener's smock was brought. Francis marked a cross on the shoulder of the garment with chalk, and put it on.
Henceforth he was completely cut off from his family, and began a strange new life. He roamed the highways, singing God's praise. In a wood some robbers stopped him and asked who he was. When he answered soberly, "I am the herald of the Great King," they jeered and threw him into a ditch. He picked himself up and continued on his way singing. At a monastery, Francis was given alms and a job of work, as a poor traveler. Trudging on to the town of Gubbio, he was recognized by a friend, who took him to his house and gave him a proper tunic, belt, and shoes. These he wore for nearly two years as he walked about the countryside. When he returned to St. Damian's the priest welcomed him, and Francis now began in earnest to repair the church, begging for building stones in the streets of Assisi and carrying off those that were given him. He labored with the masons in the actual reconstruction, and, by the spring of 1208, the church was once more in good condition. Next he repaired an old chapel dedicated to St. Peter. By this time many people, impressed by his sincerity and enthusiasm, were willing to contribute to the work. Francis was now attracted to a tiny chapel known as St. Mary of the Portiuncula, belonging to a Benedictine monastery on Monte Subasio. It stood in the wooded plain, some two miles below Assisi, forsaken and in ruins. Francis rebuilt it as he had done the others, and seems to have thought of spending his life there as a hermit, in peace and seclusion. Here on the feast of St. Matthias, in 1209, the way of life he was to follow was revealed to him. The Gospel of the Mass for this day was Matthew X, 7-19: "And going, preach, saying The Kingdom of Heaven is at hand.... Freely have you received, freely give. Take neither gold nor silver nor brass in your purses . . . nor two coats nor shoes nor a staff.... Behold I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves...." These words suddenly became Christ's direct charge to him. His doubts over, he cast off shoes, staff, and leathern girdle, but kept his rough woolen coat, which he tied about him with a rope. This was the habit he gave his friars the following year. In this garb he went to Assisi the next morning and, with a moving warmth and sincerity, began to speak to the people he met on the shortness of life, the need of repentence, and the love of God. His salutation to those he passed on the road was, "Our Lord give you peace."
An early disciple was Bernard Quintavalle, a rich and prudent merchant of the city, who invited Francis to stay at his house. At night they had long talks, and there was no mistaking Francis' passionate dedication. Bernard soon informed Francis that he would sell all his goods and give the proceeds to the poor and join him. Shortly afterward, a canon of the cathedral, Peter de Cattaneo, asked to come with them. The three then went down to the Portiuncula, where, on April 16, Francis "gave his habit" to these two companions and they built themselves simple huts. Brother Giles, a man of great gentleness and purity of spirit, was the next to come, and others soon followed.
For a year Francis and his now numerous companions preached among the peasants and helped them in the fields. A brief rule which has not been preserved was drawn up. Apparently it consisted of little more than the passages from the Gospel which Francis had read to his first followers, with brief injunctions to manual labor, simplicity, and poverty. In the summer of 1210 he and some of the others carried it to Rome to obtain the Pope's approbation. Innocent III, the great ruler of Catholic Europe, listened but hesitated. Most of the cardinals he consulted thought that the existing orders should be reformed before their number was increased and that the proposed rule for the new organization, taken though it was from Christ's own command, was impractical. Cardinal John Colonna, who pleaded for Francis, was deputed to examine him as to his orthodoxy, while Innocent considered the matter. Later the Pope dreamed he saw Francis propping up the Lateran Church with his shoulder. He was to see Dominic in a similar position five years later. Summoning Francis and his companions, he orally approved their mission of preaching penitence, only requiring that they always get the consent of the local bishop; also they must choose a leader with whom the ecclesiastical authorities might communicate. Francis was thereupon elected head, and Cardinal Colonna gave them the monk's tonsure.
Francis and his little band returned to Umbria rejoicing. A temporary shelter was found near the foot of Monte Subasio, and from there they went out in all directions preaching repentance, and the blessedness of doing God's will. The cathedral of Assisi was the only church large enough to hold the crowds that flocked to hear them, especially after it was known that their rule had papal approval. Soon the abbot of the Benedictine monastery gave them in perpetuity their beloved Portiuncula chapel and the ground on which it stood. Francis would accept only the use of the property. The spirit of holy poverty must govern their order, if they were to be disciples of Him who had not where to lay His head. In token of this arrangement, the friars sent to the Benedictines every year as rent a basket of fish caught in a neighboring river. In return, the monks gave the friars a barrel of oil. This annual exchange of gifts still goes on between the Benedictines of St. Peter's in Assisi and the Franciscans of the Portiuncula. On the ground around the chapel the friars quickly built themselves some huts of wood and clay, enclosing them by a hedge. This was the first Franciscan monastery.
Because the body was meant to carry burdens, to eat scantily and coarsely, and to be beaten when sluggish or refractory, Francis called it Brother Ass. When, early in his new life, he was violently tempted, he threw himself naked into a ditch full of snow. Again when tempted like Benedict he plunged into a briar patch and rolled about until he was torn and bleeding. Yet before he died he asked pardon of his body for having treated it so cruelly; by that time he considered excessive austerities wrong, especially if they decreased the power to labor. He had no use for eccentricity for its own sake. Once when he was told that a friar so loved silence that he would confess only by signs, his comment was, "That is not the spirit of God but of the Devil, a temptation, not a virtue."
Francis was reverently in love with all natural phenomena�sun, moon, air, water, fire, flowers; his quick warm sympathies responded to all that lived. His tenderness for and his power over animals were noted again and again. From his companions we have the story of his rebuke to the noisy swallows who were disturbing his preaching at Alviano: "Little sister swallows, it is now my turn to speak; you have been talking enough all this time." We hear also of the birds that perched attentively around when he told them to sing their Creator's praises, of the rabbit that would not leave him at Lake Trasymene, and of the tamed wolf of Gubbio�all incidents that have inspired innumerable artists and story tellers.
The early years were a time of training in poverty, mutual help, and brotherly love. The friars worked at their various trades and in the fields of neighboring farmers to earn their bread. When work was lacking, they begged, though they were forbidden to take money. They were especially at the service of lepers, and those who were helpless and suffering. Among the recruits soon to present themselves were the "Three Companions," Angelo, Leo, and Rufino, who were in time to write of their beloved leader; and the ''renowned jester of the Lord," Brother Juniper, of whom Francis said, "I would I had a forest of such junipers." It was he who, while a crowd was waiting to receive him at Rome, was found playing seesaw with some children outside the city.
In the spring of 1212, an eighteen-year-old girl of Assisi named Clara[1] heard Francis preach in the cathedral and left her father's castle to take the vow of poverty and become a disciple. The monks of Monte Subasio again aided Francis by giving him a place where Clara and her earliest followers could be lodged; to them he gave the same rules as the brothers had. In the autumn of that year Francis resolved to go as a crusader of peace to the Mohammedans of the East. With a companion he embarked for Syria, only to suffer shipwreck off the Dalmatian coast. Having no money for the return passage, they got back to Ancona as stowaways. The follow ing year Francis preached up and down central Italy. In 1214 he made another attempt to reach the Mohammedans, this time by the land route through Spain. So eager was he to arrive that his companion could scarcely keep up with him on the road. But once more Francis was disappointed, for in Spain he was taken ill and had to return to Italy.
There, on his recovery, he resumed direction of the order and his tours of preaching. To the order he gave the name of Friars Minor, Little Brothers, to express his wish that they should never be in positions above their fellows. Many cities were now anxious to have the brothers in their midst to act as peace-makers in periods of civil strife, and small communities of them sprang up rapidly throughout Umbria, Tuscany, and Lombardy. In 1215 Francis went to Rome for the great Council of the Lateran, which was also attended by the future St. Dominic, who had begun his missionary work in Languedoc while Francis was still a youth.
At Pentecost in 1217 a general chapter of all Friars Minor was held at Assisi. They had now become so numerous and so widely dispersed that some more systematic organization was necessary. Italy was divided into provinces, each in charge of a responsible minister provincial. "Should anyone be lost through the minister's fault and bad example, that minister will have to give an account before our Lord Jesus Christ." Missions were sent to Spain, Germany, and Hungary, and Francis himself made plans to go to France, of which he had heard so much in childhood from his father. He was dissuaded by Cardinal Ugolino, who after the death of Cardinal John Colonna began to serve as advisor to the new convent. He sent instead Brother Pacifico and Brother Agnello; the latter was afterwards to establish the order in England.
Although still the head, Francis was prevailed on at times to submit to the prudent Ugolino. The cardinal actually presided at the general chapter of 1219, called, like its predecessor, a "mat chapter" because of the huts of wattles and straw hastily put up to shelter the five thousand friars present. The more learned and worldly-wise of the brothers were critical of the free and venturesome spirit of their founder, who, they claimed, was improvident and naive. They wanted more material security and a more elaborate rule, similar to that of the older orders. Francis defended his position with spirit: "My brothers, the Lord called me into the way of simplicity and humility, and this way He has pointed out to me for myself and for those who will believe and follow me.... The Lord told me he would have me poor and foolish in this world, . . . God will confound you by your own wisdom and learning, and, for all your fault-finding, bring you repentance whether you will or no."
From this chapter Francis sent some of his friars on missions to the infidels in Tunisia, Morocco, and Spain, while he himself undertook one to the Saracens of Egypt and Syria, embarking with eleven friars from Ancona in June, 1219. At the city of Damietta on the Nila Delta, which the crusaders were besieging, Francis was deeply shocked at the profligacy, the cynicism, and the lack of discipline of the soldiers of the cross. When in August the leaders prepared to attack, he predicted failure and tried to dissuade them from the attempt. The Christians were driven back with the slaughter of six thousand men, yet they continued the siege, and at last took the city. Meanwhile, a number of the soldiers had pledged themselves to live by Francis' rule. He also paid several visits to the Saracen leader, Melek-el-Kamil, Sultan of Egypt. There is a story to the effect that he first went among the enemy with only Brother Illuminato, calling out, "Sultan! Sultan!" When he was brought before the Sultan and asked his errand, Francis replied boldly, "I am sent by the Most High God, to show you and your people the way of salvation by announcing to you the truths of the Gospel." Discussion followed, and other audiences. The Sultan, somewhat moved, invited Francis to stay with him. "If you and your people," said Francis, "will accept the word of God, I will with joy stay with you. If you yet waver between Christ and Mohammed, order a fire kindled and I will go into it with your priests that you may see which is the true faith." The Sultan replied that he did not think any of his <imams> would dare to enter the fire, and he would not accept Francis' condition for fear of upsetting the people. He offered him many presents, which Francis refused. Fearing finally that some of his Moslems might desert to the Christians, he sent Francis, under guard, back to the camp.
Sickened by the senseless slaughter and brutality that marked the taking of the city, Francis went on to visit the Holy Places of Palestine. When he returned to Italy he found that in his absence his vicars, Matthew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, had held a general chapter and introduced certain innovations, tending to bring the Franciscans a little more into line with other orders and to confine them in a more rigid framework. At several of the women's convents, regular constitutions, drawn up on the Benedictine model, had been imposed by Cardinal Ugolino. In Bologna Francis found his brothers housed in a fine new monastery. He refused to enter it, and went for lodging to Dominic's Friars Preachers. Sending for his provincial minister, he upbraided him, and ordered the friars to leave the building. He felt that his fundamental idea was being betrayed. It was a serious crisis, but it ended in Francis' acceptance of some measure of change. Ugolino convinced him that he himself, not the order, was the owner of the new building; also that systematic supervision and regulation were necessary for such a far-flung organization. Francis' profound humility made him ready to blame himself for anything that went wrong. He would not give up his faith in the way of life that Christ had shown him, but he became less confident. He finally went to Pope Honorius III and asked that the cardinal be made official protector and counselor of the order. At the chapter meeting of 1220 he resigned his position as minister general; in May, 1221, he offered his draft for a revised rule, a long and confused document, containing a new requirement, a year's novitiate before a candidate could be admitted; there were long extracts from the New Testament, and passionate appeals to the brothers to preserve the old life of poverty and love. The jurists of the order, those who knew the problems of administration, and the provincial ministers all wanted something more precise, a rule which could be understood and followed anywhere in the world by men who had never seen Francis, and which would also keep Franciscans from diverging too widely from the established usages of the historic Church.
Once at least during the two years that followed, Francis broke away to the solitude of a mountain near Rieti, and worked over the rule alone. The final result he delivered to Brother Elias of Cortona, then minister general, but the copy was somehow lost, and Francis patiently dictated the substance of it to Brother Leo. In the form in which it was at last presented to the chapter general in 1223 and solemnly approved by Pope Honorius it has remained ever since. The words of Christ which made up almost all of the original rule of 1210 are omitted. It is explicit on a number of points which in 1210 had been left indefinite-methods of admission, times of fasting, government by ministers and triennial general chapters, requirements for preaching, obedience to superiors; at the head of all is a cardinal governor appointed by the pope. The early simplicity is gone, though now and again the fervor of Franciscan idealism breaks through the sober text. The brothers are still to receive no money, to labor as far as they are able, to own no house "nor anything." They are not to be ashamed to beg, since "the Lord made himself poor for us in this world." They are not to trouble to educate illiterate brothers but to strive instead for pure hearts, humility, and patience. The contrast, however, between the old rule and the new shocked and pained some of the members. Yet it seemed true that such a great institution could not be run without a system of uniform control or let its members wander as they pleased over the earth, with no churches of their own where they could preach regularly, and no house where they could live together. To Brother Elias, the able and masterful friar who with Cardinal Ugolino became the directing force, there was still too much of the unworkable Franciscan dream in the new rule and in later years he refused to be bound by it. In 1230 the cardinal, then Pope Gregory IX, issued an official interpretation of it.
Somewhat earlier Francis and the cardinal had drawn up a rule for the fraternity of lay men and women who wished to associate themselves with the Friars Minor and followed as best they could the rules of humility, labor, charity, and voluntary poverty, without withdrawing from the world: the Franciscan tertiaries or Third Order of today.[2] These congregations of lay penitents became a power in the religious life of the late Middle Ages.
The Christmas season of 1223 Francis spent near the village of Greccio in the valley of Rieti, weary in mind and body. There he remarked to his friend, the knight, Giovanni di Vellita, "I would make a memorial of that Child who was born in Bethlehem, and in some sort behold with bodily eyes the hardships of His infant state, lying on hay in a manger, with the ox and the ass standing by." So a rude stable was set up at the hermitage, with a live ox and ass, and a child lying on straw, and the people crowded to the midnight Mass, at which Francis as deacon read the Gospel story and then preached. His use of the <creche> gave impetus to its later popularity. Having become extremely frail, he remained at Greccio for some months longer.
In June, 1224, Francis attended his last chapter meeting, at which the new rule was formally delivered to the provincial ministers. In August, with a few of the brothers closest to him, he made his way through the Apennine forest to the peak of Alvernia, a place of retreat put at his disposal years earlier by the lord of Chiusi. A hut of branches was built for him, a little way from his companions. Brother Leo daily brought him food. His fears for the future of the order now increased and reached a climax. And here it was, on or about Holy Cross Day, September 14, that at sunrise, after a night of prayer, he had a vision of a winged seraph, nailed to a cross, flying towards him; he also felt keen stabs of pain in hands, feet, and sides. The vision vanished, and he discovered on his body the stigmata of the crucified Christ. During his lifetime, few persons saw the stigmata, called by Dante, "the ultimate seal." Thenceforth he kept his hands covered with the sleeves of his habit, and wore shoes and stockings. To those who were there with him, he disclosed what had happened, and within a few days composed the poem, "Praise of the Most High God."
After celebrating the feast of St. Michael on September 29, the now enfeebled friar rode down the mountain on a borrowed horse, and healed several persons who were brought to him in the plain below. Weak as he was, he insisted on preaching, riding from village to village on an ass. Young and ambitious members of the order, already set on rivaling the Dominicans as brilliant and popular preachers in the towns, were eager to outshine them in the schools as well. Francis realized that learning had its uses, but to fulfill their special mission, he knew that his brothers needed much time for prayer, meditation, and helpful labor. He feared the prescribed scholastic training, thinking it tended to feed conceit and extinguish charity and piety. Above all, Lady Learning was dangerous as a rival to Lady Poverty. Yet under pressure he yielded so far as to consent to the appointment of Antony of Padua as reader and teacher.
Francis' health was growing worse, the stigmata were a source of pain, and his eyes were failing. In the summer of 1225 Cardinal Ugolino and the vicar-general, Elias, made him consent to put himself in the hands of the Pope's physician at Rieti. On his way there he stopped to pay a final visit to Abbess Clara and the nuns of St. Damian He stayed for over a month, and seemed depressed by his apparent failure to accomplish his mission in life. For two weeks he lost his sight, but finally triumphed over suffering and gloom, and in a sudden ecstasy one day composed the beautiful, triumphant "Canticle of the Sun," and set it to music. The brothers might sing it as they went about their preaching. He went on to Rieti to undergo the agonizing treatment prescribed- cauterization of the forehead by white-hot iron, and plasters to keep the wound open. Strangely enough, he obtained some relief. During the winter he preached a little, and dictated a long letter to his brothers, which he hoped would be read at the opening of future general chapters. They were to love one another, to love and follow Lady Poverty, to love and reverence the Eucharist, and to love and honor the clergy. He also composed a still longer letter to all Christians, repeating his message of love and harmony.
Yearning to be at home, when spring came he was carried north to Assisi and lodged in the bishop's palace, but these fine surroundings depressed Francis, and he begged to be taken to the Portiuncula. As they bore him down the hill, he asked to have the stretcher set down, and turning back for a moment towards the city he blessed it and bade it farewell. At the Portiuncula he was able to dictate his Will, a final, firm defense of all he had been and done. No one coming after him must introduce glosses to explain away any part of the rule or of this Will, for he had written it "in a clear and simple manner" and it should be understood in the same way and practiced "until the end." Four years later Ugolino, then Pope Gregory IX, at the same time that he gave an official interpretation of the rule, announced that the brothers were not bound to observe the Will.
As the end drew near, Francis asked his brothers to send to Rome for the Lady Giacoma di Settesoli, who had often befriended him. Even before the messenger started, the lady arrived at his bedside. Francis also sent a last message to Clara and her nuns. While the brothers stood about him singing the "Canticle of the Sun," with the new stanza he had lately given them, in praise of Sister Death, he repeated the one hundred and forty-first Psalm, "I cried to the Lord with my voice; with my voice I made supplication to the Lord." At his request he was stripped of his clothing and laid for a while on the ground that dying he might rest in the arms of Lady Poverty. Back upon his pallet once more, he called for bread and broke it and to each one present gave a piece in token of their love. The Gospel for Holy Thursday, the story of the Lord's Passion as told by St. John, was read aloud. And as darkness fell on Saturday, October 3, 1226, Francis died.
He had asked to be buried in the criminals' cemetery in the Colle d'Inferno, but early the next morning a crowd of his fellow citizens came down and bore his body to the church of St. George in Assisi. Here it remained for two years, during which time a process of canonization was being carried through. In 1228 the first stone was laid for the beautiful basilica built in Francis' honor, under the direction of Brother Elias. In 1230 his body was secretly removed to it and, in fear that the Perugians might send a raiding party to steal it, buried so deep that not until 1818, after a fifty-two days' search, was it discovered beneath the high altar of the lower church.
The order which Francis founded divided early into three branches, the Brothers Minor of the Observance, who follow the rule of 1223, preach, perform works of charity, and go as missionaries abroad, the Brothers Minor Conventual, who live by the later, less stringent rule, which permits the corporate holding of property, and the Brothers Minor Capuchin, for whom Francis' rule is not ascetic enough, and who live strictly cloistered, under a regimen of silence.
Canticle of the Sun
O most high, almighty, good Lord God, to Thee belong praise, glory, honor, and all blessing! By Thee alone, Most High, were all things made and no man is worthy to speak Thy name. Praised be my Lord with all his creatures, especially Messer Brother Sun, who brings us the day and brings us the light; fair is he and shining with a very great splendor; Most High, he signifies to us Thee! Praised be my Lord for Sister Moon, and for the stars, the which He has set in heaven clear and precious and lovely. Praised be my Lord for Brother Wind, and for air and cloud, calms and all weather, by the which Thou upholdest life in Thy creatures. Praised be my Lord for Sister Water, who is very serviceable unto us, and humble, and precious, and clean. Praised be my Lord for Brother Fire, through whom Thou givest us light in the night; and he is beautiful and joyous, and very mighty, and strong. Praised be my Lord for our Sister, Mother Earth, who doth sustain us and keep us, and bring forth divers fruits, and flowers of many colors, and grass. Praised be my Lord for those who pardon one another for His love's sake, and who endure weakness and tribulation; blessed are they who peaceably endure, for by Thee, Most Highest, shall they be crowned. Praised be my Lord for our sister the death of the body, from whom no man living can escape. Woe unto them who die in mortal sin. Blessed are they who are found walking by Thy most holy will, for the second death shall do them no harm. Praise ye and bless my Lord, and give thanks unto Him and serve Him with great humility.
Will
<See in what manner God gave it to me, to me, Brother Francis>, to begin to do penitence; when I lived in sin, it was very painful to me to see lepers, but God himself led me into their midst, and I remained there a little while. When I left them, that which had seemed to me bitter had become sweet and easy.
A little while after I quitted the world, and God gave me such a faith in his churches that I would kneel down with simplicity and I would say: "We adore thee, Lord Jesus Christ, here and in all thy churches which are in the world, and we bless thee that by thy holy cross thou hast ransomed the world."
Besides, the Lord gave me and still gives me so great a faith in priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman Church, because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they persecuted me I would have recourse to them. And even though I had all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular priests, I would not preach in their parishes without their consent. I desire to respect them like all the others, to love them and honor them as my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see the Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below I see nothing corporally of the most high Son of God if not his most holy Body and Blood, which they receive and they alone distribute to others. I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most holy mysteries and to keep them precious. Whenever I find the sacred name of Jesus or his words in indecent places, I desire to take them away, and I pray that others take them away and put them in some decent place. We ought to honor and revere all the theologians and those who preach the most holy word of God, as dispensing to us spirit and life.
When the Lord gave me some brothers no one showed me what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed to me that I ought to live according to the model of the holy Gospel. I caused a short and simple formula to be written, and the lord pope confirmed it for me.
Those who presented themselves to observe this kind of life distributed all that they might have to the poor. They contented themselves with a tunic, patched within and without, with the cord and breeches, and we desired to have nothing more.
The clerks said the office like other clerks, and the laymen <Pater Noster>.
We loved to live in poor and abandoned churches, and we were ignorant and submissive to all. I worked with my hands and would continue to do so, and I will that all other friars work at some honorable trade. Let those who have none learn one, not for the purpose of receiving the price of their toil, but for their good example and to flee idleness. And when they do not give us the price of the work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging our bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the salutation which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"
Let the Brothers take great care not to receive churches, habitations, and all that men build for them, except as all is in accordance with the holy poverty which we have vowed in the Rule, and let them not receive hospitality in them except as strangers and pilgrims.
I absolutely interdict all the brothers, in whatever place they may be found, from asking any bull from the court of Rome, whether directly or indirectly, under pretext of church or convent or under pretext of preachings, or even for their personal protection. If they are not received anywhere, let them go elsewhere, thus doing penance with the benediction of God....
And let the Brothers not say: "This is a new Rule"; for this is a reminder, a warning, an exhortation; it is my Will, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my blessed Brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic way the Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.
Let the minsters-general, all the other ministers, and the guardians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take nothing from these words. Let them always keep this writing near them, beside the Rule; and in all the chapters which shall be held, when the Rule is read, let these words be read also.
I interdict absolutely, by obedience, all the Brothers, clerics and laymen, to introduce glosses in the Rule or in this Will, under pretext of explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and to write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner, without commentary, understand them in the same way, and put them in practice until the end....
And I, little brother Francis, your servitor, confirm to you so far as I am able this most holy benediction. Amen.
(Sabatier, Life of St. Francis of Assisi.)
Endnotes:
1 For <St. Clara>, see p. 259.
2 The name of Second Order was given to the nuns who under Clara's leadership based their lives on the Principles of St. Francis.
Saint Francis of Assissi, Founder of the Friars Minor, Confessor. Celebration of Feast Day is October 4. Taken from "Lives of Saints", Published by John J. Crawley & Co., Inc.
Provided Courtesy of:
| 1181 1226 |
Which brand of bread was advertised with the slogan 'Bread with nowt taken out'? | St. Francis of Assisi
SAINT FRANCIS OF ASSISI, FOUNDER OF THE FRIARS MINOR, CONFESSOR�1181-1226
Feast: October 4
We know more of St. Francis than of any other medieval saint. Not only have we his own words, his Rule, Testament, letters, poems, and liturgical writings, but also the intimate accounts of several of his disciples, written down within twenty years after his death. These first biographies, by Brothers Thomas of Celano, Leo, Angelo, and Rufino, were soon revised and added to by other friars who wanted to call attention to one phase or another of Francis' work and teachings. From this great store of authentic material a clear picture of the man emerges. St. Francis is one saint whom both Catholics and non-Catholics have united in honoring. Certainly no other has so appealed to Protestants and even to non-Christians. And the appeal is timeless: Francis captured the imagination of his contemporaries as well as that of modern men by his unique simplicity and a pure grace of spirit. A classic collection of popular legends, the <Little Flowers of St. Francis>, first printed in 1476, contains charming and beautiful stories of Francis' love of the poor, of animals, of all nature. In action he was original, in speech picturesque and poetic, yet he was a man utterly inspired by faith in and devotion to the risen Christ.
Francis was born in the stony hill-town of Assisi in Umbria, in the year 1181 or 1182. His father, Peter Bernadone, was a wealthy merchant. His mother, Pica, by some accounts was gently born and of Provencal blood. Much of Bernadone's trade was with France, and his son was born while he was absent in that country. Perhaps for this reason the child was called Francesco, "the French man," though his baptismal name was John. As a youth he was ardent in his amusements and seemed carried away by the mere joy of living, taking no interest at all in his father's business or in formal learning. Bernadone, proud to have his son finely dressed and associating with young noblemen, gave him plenty of money, which Francis spent carelessly. Though Francis was high-spirited, he was too fastidious to lead a dissolute life. It was the age of chivalry, and he was thrilled by the songs of the troubadours and the deeds of knights. At the age of twenty or thereabouts, during a petty war between the towns of Assisi and Perugia, he was taken prisoner. During a year of captivity he remained cheerful and kept up the spirits of his companions. Soon after his release he suffered a long illness. This he bore with patience.
After his recovery Francis joined the troop of a knight of Assisi who was riding south to fight under Walter de Brienne for the Pope against the Germans. Having equipped himself with sumptuous apparel and fine armor, he fared forth. On the way he met a knight shabbily clad, and was so touched with compassion that he exchanged clothes with him. That night he dreamed he saw his father's house transformed into a castle, its walls hung with armor, all marked with the sign of the cross; and he heard a voice saying that the armor belonged to Francis and his soldiers. Confident now that he would win glory as a knight, he set out again, but on the first day fell ill. While lying helpless, a voice seemed to tell him to turn back, and "to serve the Master rather than the man." Francis obeyed. At home he began to take long rambles in the country and to spend many hours by himself; he felt contempt for a life wasted on trivial and transitory things. It was a time of spiritual crisis during which he was quietly searching for something worthy of his complete devotion. A deep compassion was growing within him. Riding one day in the plains below Assisi, he met a leper whose loathsome sores filled Francis with horror. Overcoming his revulsion, he leapt from his horse and pressed into the leper's hand all the money he had with him, then kissed the hand. This was a turning point in his life. He started visiting hospitals, especially the refuge for lepers, which most persons avoided. On a pilgrimage to Rome, he emptied his purse at St. Peter's tomb, then went out to the swarm of beggars at the door, gave his clothes to the one that looked poorest, dressed himself in the fellow's rags, and stood there all day with hand outstretched. The rich young man would experience for himself the bitterness and humiliation of poverty.
One day, after his return from Rome, as he prayed in the humble little church of St. Damian outside the walls of Assisi, he felt the eyes of the Christ on the crucifix gazing at him and heard a voice saying three times, "Francis, go and repair My house, which you see is falling down." The building, he observed, was old and ready to fall. Assured that he had now found the right path, Francis went home and in the singleness and simplicity of his heart took a horseload of cloth out of his father's warehouse and sold it, together with the horse that carried it, in the market at the neighboring town of Foligno. He then brought the money to the poor priest of St. Damian's church, and asked if he might stay there. Although the priest accepted Francis' companionship, he refused the money, which Francis left lying on a window sill. Bernadone, furious at his son's waywardness, came to St. Damian's to bring him home, but Francis hid himself and could not be found.
He spent some days in prayer, and then went bravely to see his father. He was now so thin and ill-clad that boys in the streets pelted him and called him mad. The exasperated Bernadone beat Francis, fettered his feet, and locked him up. A little later his mother set him free and Francis returned to St. Damian's. His father pursued him there and angrily declared that he must either return home or renounce his share in his inheritance-and pay the purchase price of the horse and the goods he had taken as well. Francis made no objection to being disinherited, but protested that the other money now belonged to God and the poor. Bernadone had him summoned for trial before Guido, the bishop of Assisi, who heard the story and told the young man to restore the money and trust in God. "He does not wish," the bishop said, "to have His church profit by goods which may have been unjustly acquired." Francis not only gave back the money but went even further. "My clothing is also his," he said, and stripped off his garments. "Hither to I have called Peter Bernadone father.... From now on I say only, 'Our Father, who art in Heaven.�" Bernadone left the court in sorrow and rage, while the bishop covered the young man with his own cloak until a gardener's smock was brought. Francis marked a cross on the shoulder of the garment with chalk, and put it on.
Henceforth he was completely cut off from his family, and began a strange new life. He roamed the highways, singing God's praise. In a wood some robbers stopped him and asked who he was. When he answered soberly, "I am the herald of the Great King," they jeered and threw him into a ditch. He picked himself up and continued on his way singing. At a monastery, Francis was given alms and a job of work, as a poor traveler. Trudging on to the town of Gubbio, he was recognized by a friend, who took him to his house and gave him a proper tunic, belt, and shoes. These he wore for nearly two years as he walked about the countryside. When he returned to St. Damian's the priest welcomed him, and Francis now began in earnest to repair the church, begging for building stones in the streets of Assisi and carrying off those that were given him. He labored with the masons in the actual reconstruction, and, by the spring of 1208, the church was once more in good condition. Next he repaired an old chapel dedicated to St. Peter. By this time many people, impressed by his sincerity and enthusiasm, were willing to contribute to the work. Francis was now attracted to a tiny chapel known as St. Mary of the Portiuncula, belonging to a Benedictine monastery on Monte Subasio. It stood in the wooded plain, some two miles below Assisi, forsaken and in ruins. Francis rebuilt it as he had done the others, and seems to have thought of spending his life there as a hermit, in peace and seclusion. Here on the feast of St. Matthias, in 1209, the way of life he was to follow was revealed to him. The Gospel of the Mass for this day was Matthew X, 7-19: "And going, preach, saying The Kingdom of Heaven is at hand.... Freely have you received, freely give. Take neither gold nor silver nor brass in your purses . . . nor two coats nor shoes nor a staff.... Behold I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves...." These words suddenly became Christ's direct charge to him. His doubts over, he cast off shoes, staff, and leathern girdle, but kept his rough woolen coat, which he tied about him with a rope. This was the habit he gave his friars the following year. In this garb he went to Assisi the next morning and, with a moving warmth and sincerity, began to speak to the people he met on the shortness of life, the need of repentence, and the love of God. His salutation to those he passed on the road was, "Our Lord give you peace."
An early disciple was Bernard Quintavalle, a rich and prudent merchant of the city, who invited Francis to stay at his house. At night they had long talks, and there was no mistaking Francis' passionate dedication. Bernard soon informed Francis that he would sell all his goods and give the proceeds to the poor and join him. Shortly afterward, a canon of the cathedral, Peter de Cattaneo, asked to come with them. The three then went down to the Portiuncula, where, on April 16, Francis "gave his habit" to these two companions and they built themselves simple huts. Brother Giles, a man of great gentleness and purity of spirit, was the next to come, and others soon followed.
For a year Francis and his now numerous companions preached among the peasants and helped them in the fields. A brief rule which has not been preserved was drawn up. Apparently it consisted of little more than the passages from the Gospel which Francis had read to his first followers, with brief injunctions to manual labor, simplicity, and poverty. In the summer of 1210 he and some of the others carried it to Rome to obtain the Pope's approbation. Innocent III, the great ruler of Catholic Europe, listened but hesitated. Most of the cardinals he consulted thought that the existing orders should be reformed before their number was increased and that the proposed rule for the new organization, taken though it was from Christ's own command, was impractical. Cardinal John Colonna, who pleaded for Francis, was deputed to examine him as to his orthodoxy, while Innocent considered the matter. Later the Pope dreamed he saw Francis propping up the Lateran Church with his shoulder. He was to see Dominic in a similar position five years later. Summoning Francis and his companions, he orally approved their mission of preaching penitence, only requiring that they always get the consent of the local bishop; also they must choose a leader with whom the ecclesiastical authorities might communicate. Francis was thereupon elected head, and Cardinal Colonna gave them the monk's tonsure.
Francis and his little band returned to Umbria rejoicing. A temporary shelter was found near the foot of Monte Subasio, and from there they went out in all directions preaching repentance, and the blessedness of doing God's will. The cathedral of Assisi was the only church large enough to hold the crowds that flocked to hear them, especially after it was known that their rule had papal approval. Soon the abbot of the Benedictine monastery gave them in perpetuity their beloved Portiuncula chapel and the ground on which it stood. Francis would accept only the use of the property. The spirit of holy poverty must govern their order, if they were to be disciples of Him who had not where to lay His head. In token of this arrangement, the friars sent to the Benedictines every year as rent a basket of fish caught in a neighboring river. In return, the monks gave the friars a barrel of oil. This annual exchange of gifts still goes on between the Benedictines of St. Peter's in Assisi and the Franciscans of the Portiuncula. On the ground around the chapel the friars quickly built themselves some huts of wood and clay, enclosing them by a hedge. This was the first Franciscan monastery.
Because the body was meant to carry burdens, to eat scantily and coarsely, and to be beaten when sluggish or refractory, Francis called it Brother Ass. When, early in his new life, he was violently tempted, he threw himself naked into a ditch full of snow. Again when tempted like Benedict he plunged into a briar patch and rolled about until he was torn and bleeding. Yet before he died he asked pardon of his body for having treated it so cruelly; by that time he considered excessive austerities wrong, especially if they decreased the power to labor. He had no use for eccentricity for its own sake. Once when he was told that a friar so loved silence that he would confess only by signs, his comment was, "That is not the spirit of God but of the Devil, a temptation, not a virtue."
Francis was reverently in love with all natural phenomena�sun, moon, air, water, fire, flowers; his quick warm sympathies responded to all that lived. His tenderness for and his power over animals were noted again and again. From his companions we have the story of his rebuke to the noisy swallows who were disturbing his preaching at Alviano: "Little sister swallows, it is now my turn to speak; you have been talking enough all this time." We hear also of the birds that perched attentively around when he told them to sing their Creator's praises, of the rabbit that would not leave him at Lake Trasymene, and of the tamed wolf of Gubbio�all incidents that have inspired innumerable artists and story tellers.
The early years were a time of training in poverty, mutual help, and brotherly love. The friars worked at their various trades and in the fields of neighboring farmers to earn their bread. When work was lacking, they begged, though they were forbidden to take money. They were especially at the service of lepers, and those who were helpless and suffering. Among the recruits soon to present themselves were the "Three Companions," Angelo, Leo, and Rufino, who were in time to write of their beloved leader; and the ''renowned jester of the Lord," Brother Juniper, of whom Francis said, "I would I had a forest of such junipers." It was he who, while a crowd was waiting to receive him at Rome, was found playing seesaw with some children outside the city.
In the spring of 1212, an eighteen-year-old girl of Assisi named Clara[1] heard Francis preach in the cathedral and left her father's castle to take the vow of poverty and become a disciple. The monks of Monte Subasio again aided Francis by giving him a place where Clara and her earliest followers could be lodged; to them he gave the same rules as the brothers had. In the autumn of that year Francis resolved to go as a crusader of peace to the Mohammedans of the East. With a companion he embarked for Syria, only to suffer shipwreck off the Dalmatian coast. Having no money for the return passage, they got back to Ancona as stowaways. The follow ing year Francis preached up and down central Italy. In 1214 he made another attempt to reach the Mohammedans, this time by the land route through Spain. So eager was he to arrive that his companion could scarcely keep up with him on the road. But once more Francis was disappointed, for in Spain he was taken ill and had to return to Italy.
There, on his recovery, he resumed direction of the order and his tours of preaching. To the order he gave the name of Friars Minor, Little Brothers, to express his wish that they should never be in positions above their fellows. Many cities were now anxious to have the brothers in their midst to act as peace-makers in periods of civil strife, and small communities of them sprang up rapidly throughout Umbria, Tuscany, and Lombardy. In 1215 Francis went to Rome for the great Council of the Lateran, which was also attended by the future St. Dominic, who had begun his missionary work in Languedoc while Francis was still a youth.
At Pentecost in 1217 a general chapter of all Friars Minor was held at Assisi. They had now become so numerous and so widely dispersed that some more systematic organization was necessary. Italy was divided into provinces, each in charge of a responsible minister provincial. "Should anyone be lost through the minister's fault and bad example, that minister will have to give an account before our Lord Jesus Christ." Missions were sent to Spain, Germany, and Hungary, and Francis himself made plans to go to France, of which he had heard so much in childhood from his father. He was dissuaded by Cardinal Ugolino, who after the death of Cardinal John Colonna began to serve as advisor to the new convent. He sent instead Brother Pacifico and Brother Agnello; the latter was afterwards to establish the order in England.
Although still the head, Francis was prevailed on at times to submit to the prudent Ugolino. The cardinal actually presided at the general chapter of 1219, called, like its predecessor, a "mat chapter" because of the huts of wattles and straw hastily put up to shelter the five thousand friars present. The more learned and worldly-wise of the brothers were critical of the free and venturesome spirit of their founder, who, they claimed, was improvident and naive. They wanted more material security and a more elaborate rule, similar to that of the older orders. Francis defended his position with spirit: "My brothers, the Lord called me into the way of simplicity and humility, and this way He has pointed out to me for myself and for those who will believe and follow me.... The Lord told me he would have me poor and foolish in this world, . . . God will confound you by your own wisdom and learning, and, for all your fault-finding, bring you repentance whether you will or no."
From this chapter Francis sent some of his friars on missions to the infidels in Tunisia, Morocco, and Spain, while he himself undertook one to the Saracens of Egypt and Syria, embarking with eleven friars from Ancona in June, 1219. At the city of Damietta on the Nila Delta, which the crusaders were besieging, Francis was deeply shocked at the profligacy, the cynicism, and the lack of discipline of the soldiers of the cross. When in August the leaders prepared to attack, he predicted failure and tried to dissuade them from the attempt. The Christians were driven back with the slaughter of six thousand men, yet they continued the siege, and at last took the city. Meanwhile, a number of the soldiers had pledged themselves to live by Francis' rule. He also paid several visits to the Saracen leader, Melek-el-Kamil, Sultan of Egypt. There is a story to the effect that he first went among the enemy with only Brother Illuminato, calling out, "Sultan! Sultan!" When he was brought before the Sultan and asked his errand, Francis replied boldly, "I am sent by the Most High God, to show you and your people the way of salvation by announcing to you the truths of the Gospel." Discussion followed, and other audiences. The Sultan, somewhat moved, invited Francis to stay with him. "If you and your people," said Francis, "will accept the word of God, I will with joy stay with you. If you yet waver between Christ and Mohammed, order a fire kindled and I will go into it with your priests that you may see which is the true faith." The Sultan replied that he did not think any of his <imams> would dare to enter the fire, and he would not accept Francis' condition for fear of upsetting the people. He offered him many presents, which Francis refused. Fearing finally that some of his Moslems might desert to the Christians, he sent Francis, under guard, back to the camp.
Sickened by the senseless slaughter and brutality that marked the taking of the city, Francis went on to visit the Holy Places of Palestine. When he returned to Italy he found that in his absence his vicars, Matthew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, had held a general chapter and introduced certain innovations, tending to bring the Franciscans a little more into line with other orders and to confine them in a more rigid framework. At several of the women's convents, regular constitutions, drawn up on the Benedictine model, had been imposed by Cardinal Ugolino. In Bologna Francis found his brothers housed in a fine new monastery. He refused to enter it, and went for lodging to Dominic's Friars Preachers. Sending for his provincial minister, he upbraided him, and ordered the friars to leave the building. He felt that his fundamental idea was being betrayed. It was a serious crisis, but it ended in Francis' acceptance of some measure of change. Ugolino convinced him that he himself, not the order, was the owner of the new building; also that systematic supervision and regulation were necessary for such a far-flung organization. Francis' profound humility made him ready to blame himself for anything that went wrong. He would not give up his faith in the way of life that Christ had shown him, but he became less confident. He finally went to Pope Honorius III and asked that the cardinal be made official protector and counselor of the order. At the chapter meeting of 1220 he resigned his position as minister general; in May, 1221, he offered his draft for a revised rule, a long and confused document, containing a new requirement, a year's novitiate before a candidate could be admitted; there were long extracts from the New Testament, and passionate appeals to the brothers to preserve the old life of poverty and love. The jurists of the order, those who knew the problems of administration, and the provincial ministers all wanted something more precise, a rule which could be understood and followed anywhere in the world by men who had never seen Francis, and which would also keep Franciscans from diverging too widely from the established usages of the historic Church.
Once at least during the two years that followed, Francis broke away to the solitude of a mountain near Rieti, and worked over the rule alone. The final result he delivered to Brother Elias of Cortona, then minister general, but the copy was somehow lost, and Francis patiently dictated the substance of it to Brother Leo. In the form in which it was at last presented to the chapter general in 1223 and solemnly approved by Pope Honorius it has remained ever since. The words of Christ which made up almost all of the original rule of 1210 are omitted. It is explicit on a number of points which in 1210 had been left indefinite-methods of admission, times of fasting, government by ministers and triennial general chapters, requirements for preaching, obedience to superiors; at the head of all is a cardinal governor appointed by the pope. The early simplicity is gone, though now and again the fervor of Franciscan idealism breaks through the sober text. The brothers are still to receive no money, to labor as far as they are able, to own no house "nor anything." They are not to be ashamed to beg, since "the Lord made himself poor for us in this world." They are not to trouble to educate illiterate brothers but to strive instead for pure hearts, humility, and patience. The contrast, however, between the old rule and the new shocked and pained some of the members. Yet it seemed true that such a great institution could not be run without a system of uniform control or let its members wander as they pleased over the earth, with no churches of their own where they could preach regularly, and no house where they could live together. To Brother Elias, the able and masterful friar who with Cardinal Ugolino became the directing force, there was still too much of the unworkable Franciscan dream in the new rule and in later years he refused to be bound by it. In 1230 the cardinal, then Pope Gregory IX, issued an official interpretation of it.
Somewhat earlier Francis and the cardinal had drawn up a rule for the fraternity of lay men and women who wished to associate themselves with the Friars Minor and followed as best they could the rules of humility, labor, charity, and voluntary poverty, without withdrawing from the world: the Franciscan tertiaries or Third Order of today.[2] These congregations of lay penitents became a power in the religious life of the late Middle Ages.
The Christmas season of 1223 Francis spent near the village of Greccio in the valley of Rieti, weary in mind and body. There he remarked to his friend, the knight, Giovanni di Vellita, "I would make a memorial of that Child who was born in Bethlehem, and in some sort behold with bodily eyes the hardships of His infant state, lying on hay in a manger, with the ox and the ass standing by." So a rude stable was set up at the hermitage, with a live ox and ass, and a child lying on straw, and the people crowded to the midnight Mass, at which Francis as deacon read the Gospel story and then preached. His use of the <creche> gave impetus to its later popularity. Having become extremely frail, he remained at Greccio for some months longer.
In June, 1224, Francis attended his last chapter meeting, at which the new rule was formally delivered to the provincial ministers. In August, with a few of the brothers closest to him, he made his way through the Apennine forest to the peak of Alvernia, a place of retreat put at his disposal years earlier by the lord of Chiusi. A hut of branches was built for him, a little way from his companions. Brother Leo daily brought him food. His fears for the future of the order now increased and reached a climax. And here it was, on or about Holy Cross Day, September 14, that at sunrise, after a night of prayer, he had a vision of a winged seraph, nailed to a cross, flying towards him; he also felt keen stabs of pain in hands, feet, and sides. The vision vanished, and he discovered on his body the stigmata of the crucified Christ. During his lifetime, few persons saw the stigmata, called by Dante, "the ultimate seal." Thenceforth he kept his hands covered with the sleeves of his habit, and wore shoes and stockings. To those who were there with him, he disclosed what had happened, and within a few days composed the poem, "Praise of the Most High God."
After celebrating the feast of St. Michael on September 29, the now enfeebled friar rode down the mountain on a borrowed horse, and healed several persons who were brought to him in the plain below. Weak as he was, he insisted on preaching, riding from village to village on an ass. Young and ambitious members of the order, already set on rivaling the Dominicans as brilliant and popular preachers in the towns, were eager to outshine them in the schools as well. Francis realized that learning had its uses, but to fulfill their special mission, he knew that his brothers needed much time for prayer, meditation, and helpful labor. He feared the prescribed scholastic training, thinking it tended to feed conceit and extinguish charity and piety. Above all, Lady Learning was dangerous as a rival to Lady Poverty. Yet under pressure he yielded so far as to consent to the appointment of Antony of Padua as reader and teacher.
Francis' health was growing worse, the stigmata were a source of pain, and his eyes were failing. In the summer of 1225 Cardinal Ugolino and the vicar-general, Elias, made him consent to put himself in the hands of the Pope's physician at Rieti. On his way there he stopped to pay a final visit to Abbess Clara and the nuns of St. Damian He stayed for over a month, and seemed depressed by his apparent failure to accomplish his mission in life. For two weeks he lost his sight, but finally triumphed over suffering and gloom, and in a sudden ecstasy one day composed the beautiful, triumphant "Canticle of the Sun," and set it to music. The brothers might sing it as they went about their preaching. He went on to Rieti to undergo the agonizing treatment prescribed- cauterization of the forehead by white-hot iron, and plasters to keep the wound open. Strangely enough, he obtained some relief. During the winter he preached a little, and dictated a long letter to his brothers, which he hoped would be read at the opening of future general chapters. They were to love one another, to love and follow Lady Poverty, to love and reverence the Eucharist, and to love and honor the clergy. He also composed a still longer letter to all Christians, repeating his message of love and harmony.
Yearning to be at home, when spring came he was carried north to Assisi and lodged in the bishop's palace, but these fine surroundings depressed Francis, and he begged to be taken to the Portiuncula. As they bore him down the hill, he asked to have the stretcher set down, and turning back for a moment towards the city he blessed it and bade it farewell. At the Portiuncula he was able to dictate his Will, a final, firm defense of all he had been and done. No one coming after him must introduce glosses to explain away any part of the rule or of this Will, for he had written it "in a clear and simple manner" and it should be understood in the same way and practiced "until the end." Four years later Ugolino, then Pope Gregory IX, at the same time that he gave an official interpretation of the rule, announced that the brothers were not bound to observe the Will.
As the end drew near, Francis asked his brothers to send to Rome for the Lady Giacoma di Settesoli, who had often befriended him. Even before the messenger started, the lady arrived at his bedside. Francis also sent a last message to Clara and her nuns. While the brothers stood about him singing the "Canticle of the Sun," with the new stanza he had lately given them, in praise of Sister Death, he repeated the one hundred and forty-first Psalm, "I cried to the Lord with my voice; with my voice I made supplication to the Lord." At his request he was stripped of his clothing and laid for a while on the ground that dying he might rest in the arms of Lady Poverty. Back upon his pallet once more, he called for bread and broke it and to each one present gave a piece in token of their love. The Gospel for Holy Thursday, the story of the Lord's Passion as told by St. John, was read aloud. And as darkness fell on Saturday, October 3, 1226, Francis died.
He had asked to be buried in the criminals' cemetery in the Colle d'Inferno, but early the next morning a crowd of his fellow citizens came down and bore his body to the church of St. George in Assisi. Here it remained for two years, during which time a process of canonization was being carried through. In 1228 the first stone was laid for the beautiful basilica built in Francis' honor, under the direction of Brother Elias. In 1230 his body was secretly removed to it and, in fear that the Perugians might send a raiding party to steal it, buried so deep that not until 1818, after a fifty-two days' search, was it discovered beneath the high altar of the lower church.
The order which Francis founded divided early into three branches, the Brothers Minor of the Observance, who follow the rule of 1223, preach, perform works of charity, and go as missionaries abroad, the Brothers Minor Conventual, who live by the later, less stringent rule, which permits the corporate holding of property, and the Brothers Minor Capuchin, for whom Francis' rule is not ascetic enough, and who live strictly cloistered, under a regimen of silence.
Canticle of the Sun
O most high, almighty, good Lord God, to Thee belong praise, glory, honor, and all blessing! By Thee alone, Most High, were all things made and no man is worthy to speak Thy name. Praised be my Lord with all his creatures, especially Messer Brother Sun, who brings us the day and brings us the light; fair is he and shining with a very great splendor; Most High, he signifies to us Thee! Praised be my Lord for Sister Moon, and for the stars, the which He has set in heaven clear and precious and lovely. Praised be my Lord for Brother Wind, and for air and cloud, calms and all weather, by the which Thou upholdest life in Thy creatures. Praised be my Lord for Sister Water, who is very serviceable unto us, and humble, and precious, and clean. Praised be my Lord for Brother Fire, through whom Thou givest us light in the night; and he is beautiful and joyous, and very mighty, and strong. Praised be my Lord for our Sister, Mother Earth, who doth sustain us and keep us, and bring forth divers fruits, and flowers of many colors, and grass. Praised be my Lord for those who pardon one another for His love's sake, and who endure weakness and tribulation; blessed are they who peaceably endure, for by Thee, Most Highest, shall they be crowned. Praised be my Lord for our sister the death of the body, from whom no man living can escape. Woe unto them who die in mortal sin. Blessed are they who are found walking by Thy most holy will, for the second death shall do them no harm. Praise ye and bless my Lord, and give thanks unto Him and serve Him with great humility.
Will
<See in what manner God gave it to me, to me, Brother Francis>, to begin to do penitence; when I lived in sin, it was very painful to me to see lepers, but God himself led me into their midst, and I remained there a little while. When I left them, that which had seemed to me bitter had become sweet and easy.
A little while after I quitted the world, and God gave me such a faith in his churches that I would kneel down with simplicity and I would say: "We adore thee, Lord Jesus Christ, here and in all thy churches which are in the world, and we bless thee that by thy holy cross thou hast ransomed the world."
Besides, the Lord gave me and still gives me so great a faith in priests who live according to the form of the holy Roman Church, because of their sacerdotal character, that even if they persecuted me I would have recourse to them. And even though I had all the wisdom of Solomon, if I should find poor secular priests, I would not preach in their parishes without their consent. I desire to respect them like all the others, to love them and honor them as my lords. I will not consider their sins, for in them I see the Son of God, and they are my lords. I do this because here below I see nothing corporally of the most high Son of God if not his most holy Body and Blood, which they receive and they alone distribute to others. I desire above all things to honor and venerate all these most holy mysteries and to keep them precious. Whenever I find the sacred name of Jesus or his words in indecent places, I desire to take them away, and I pray that others take them away and put them in some decent place. We ought to honor and revere all the theologians and those who preach the most holy word of God, as dispensing to us spirit and life.
When the Lord gave me some brothers no one showed me what I ought to do, but the Most High himself revealed to me that I ought to live according to the model of the holy Gospel. I caused a short and simple formula to be written, and the lord pope confirmed it for me.
Those who presented themselves to observe this kind of life distributed all that they might have to the poor. They contented themselves with a tunic, patched within and without, with the cord and breeches, and we desired to have nothing more.
The clerks said the office like other clerks, and the laymen <Pater Noster>.
We loved to live in poor and abandoned churches, and we were ignorant and submissive to all. I worked with my hands and would continue to do so, and I will that all other friars work at some honorable trade. Let those who have none learn one, not for the purpose of receiving the price of their toil, but for their good example and to flee idleness. And when they do not give us the price of the work, let us resort to the table of the Lord, begging our bread from door to door. The Lord revealed to me the salutation which we ought to give: "God give you peace!"
Let the Brothers take great care not to receive churches, habitations, and all that men build for them, except as all is in accordance with the holy poverty which we have vowed in the Rule, and let them not receive hospitality in them except as strangers and pilgrims.
I absolutely interdict all the brothers, in whatever place they may be found, from asking any bull from the court of Rome, whether directly or indirectly, under pretext of church or convent or under pretext of preachings, or even for their personal protection. If they are not received anywhere, let them go elsewhere, thus doing penance with the benediction of God....
And let the Brothers not say: "This is a new Rule"; for this is a reminder, a warning, an exhortation; it is my Will, that I, little Brother Francis, make for you, my blessed Brothers, in order that we may observe in a more Catholic way the Rule which we promised the Lord to keep.
Let the minsters-general, all the other ministers, and the guardians be held by obedience to add nothing to and take nothing from these words. Let them always keep this writing near them, beside the Rule; and in all the chapters which shall be held, when the Rule is read, let these words be read also.
I interdict absolutely, by obedience, all the Brothers, clerics and laymen, to introduce glosses in the Rule or in this Will, under pretext of explaining it. But since the Lord has given me to speak and to write the Rule and these words in a clear and simple manner, without commentary, understand them in the same way, and put them in practice until the end....
And I, little brother Francis, your servitor, confirm to you so far as I am able this most holy benediction. Amen.
(Sabatier, Life of St. Francis of Assisi.)
Endnotes:
1 For <St. Clara>, see p. 259.
2 The name of Second Order was given to the nuns who under Clara's leadership based their lives on the Principles of St. Francis.
Saint Francis of Assissi, Founder of the Friars Minor, Confessor. Celebration of Feast Day is October 4. Taken from "Lives of Saints", Published by John J. Crawley & Co., Inc.
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James Steerforth and Wilkins Macawber are characters from which book by Charles Dickens? | Upcoming Events | SOLD OUT: Charles Dickens: David Copperfield (Delve Seminar) | Literary Arts
SOLD OUT: Charles Dickens: David Copperfield (Delve Seminar)
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When:January 5, 2015 @ 6:30 pm - 8:30 pm
Where:
925 SW Washington Street
Portland, OR 97205
“Like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hearts a favorite child. And his name is David Copperfield.” –Charles Dickens
Dickens published David Copperfield during 1849-1850, during the height of his creative powers, a place that many critics say he held until his death in 1870. During our six weeks together we will, along with David on his tragicomic journey to adulthood, encounter some of Dickens’s most unforgettable characters—cruel stepfather Edward Murdstone; curmudgeonly Aunt Betsey Trotwood; handsome and dangerous James Steerforth; unctuous Uriah Heep (”the creepiest figure in English literature”*) and the character many consider Dickens’s finest comic achievement—eternal optimist Wilkins Macawber (famously if idiosyncratically portrayed by W. C. Fields in the 1935 movie). David Copperfield was “Freud’s favorite novel, which says as much about the book as it does about Freud.”* Besides giving David experiences drawn from Dickens’s own life (events that he kept from his own family until after his death), Dickens relates a tale filled with births, deaths, marriages, tragedies, triumphs, kites, oysters, a brutal storm at sea, and—donkeys!
*quotes from The Friendly Dickens, by Norrie Epstein
Guide: Christopher Lord is a life-long Dickens lover, and the author of The Dickens Junction mystery series. Look for his next novel, The Our Mutual Friend Murders, in fall 2015 or spring 2016. Lord has guided previous Delves on Dickens and detective fiction, and is the past recipient of a Literary Arts fellowship.
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| David Copperfield |
Who, in 1934, was responsible for the creation of the children's book 'Mary Poppins'? | Who's Who in David Copperfield | Charles Dickens Info
Who’s Who in David Copperfield
Who’s Who in David Copperfield
Dora Spenlow and David Copperfield.
This list of characters from David Copperfield is presented in alphabetical order.
Babley, Richard – This character is more commonly known as Mr. Dick. He is under the care of Betsey Trotwood.
“How does the world go? I’ll tell you what,” he added, in a lower tone, “I shouldn’t wish it to be mentioned, but it’s a -” here he beckoned to me, and put his lips close to my ear – “it’s a mad world. Mad as Bedlam, boy!” said Mr. Dick, taking snuff from a round box on the table, and laughing heartily. – Mr. Dick
Barkis – A horse-cart driver who falls in love with Clara Peggotty and eventually marries her.
“Barkis is willin’.” – Barkis
Copperfield, Clara – The mother of David Copperfield.
Copperfield, David – David Copperfield is the main character in this semi-autobiographical novel by Charles Dickens. The novel follows David from childhood to adulthood. Along the way David marries first Dora Spenlow and then Agnes Wickfield.
Some happy talent, and some fortunate opportunity, may form the two sides of the ladder on which some men mount, but the rounds of that ladder must be made of stuff to stand wear and tear; and there is no substitute for thorough-going, ardent, and sincere earnestness – David Copperfield
Dick, Mr. – see Richard Babley
Em’ly, Little – The orphaned niece of Daniel Peggotty. She was engaged to Ham Peggotty, but ended up running eloping with James Steerforth. Steerforth abandons her. Later she emigrates to Australia with her uncle, Daniel Peggotty.
Grummidge, Mrs. – The widow of Daniel Peggotty’s partner. She emigrates to Australia with the Peggottys.
Heep, Uriah – Uriah Heep is a scheming, young man who works for Mr. Wickfield. Uriah plots against Mr. Wickfield and tries to marry his daughter, Agnes. Heep prides himself on being humble.
“There are people enough to tread upon me in my lowly state, without my doing outrage to their feelings by possessing learning. Learning ain’t for me. A person like myself had better not aspire. If he is to get on in life, he must get on ‘umbly, Master Copperfield!” – Uriah Heep
Little Em’ly – see Em’ly, Little
Micawber, Wilkins – Micawber is a friend of David Copperfield. He is very amusing and generally short on funds. Micawber the the one that uncovers Uriah Heep’s plot against Mr. Wickfield. Micawber emigrates to Australia along with his wife and children.
Annual income twenty pounds, annual expenditure nineteen nineteen and six, result happiness. Annual income twenty pounds, annual expenditure twenty pounds ought and six, result misery. – Wilkins Micawber
“The twins no longer derive their sustenance from Nature’s founts – in short,” said Mr. Micawber, in one of his bursts of confidence, “they are weaned.” – Wilkins Micawber
Peggotty, Clara – The ever-loyal nurse and later friend of David Copperfield.
“Peggotty!” repeated Miss Betsey, with some indignation. “Do you mean to say, child, that any human being has gone into a Christian church, and got herself named Peggotty?” – BetseyTrotwood
Peggotty, Daniel – The brother of Clara Peggotty. Daniel is a fisherman in Yarmouth. He is a bachelor who takes in his niece Little Em’ly, his nephew Ham as well as Mrs. Grummidge, his partner’s widow. He is a kind-hearted man who spends months looking for Little Em’ly after she leaves with Steerforth.
“I’m a going to seek her, fur and wide. If any hurt should come to me, remember that the last words I left for her was, ‘My unchanged love is with my darling child, and I forgive her!'” – Daniel Peggotty
Peggotty, Ham – Ham is the nephew of Daniel Peggotty. Ham was engaged to Little Em’ly before she ran away with James Steerforth. Ironically, Ham dies trying to save Steerforth’s life.
Spenlow, Dora – Dora Spenlow is the first love and the first wife of David Copperfield. The character of Dora was based on the first love of Charles Dickens, Maria Beadnell . Dora is a beautiful, but immature young woman. Sadly, Dora becomes ill and dies at a young age.
If I may so express it, I was steeped in Dora. I was not merely over head and ears in love with her, but I was saturated through and through. Enough love might have been wrung out of me, metaphorically speaking, to drown anybody in; and yet there would have remained enough within me, and all over me, to pervade my entire existence. – David Copperfield
Steerforth, James – David Copperfield meets James at school. Initially David considers James a good friend. However he sees things differently after James runs away with Em’ly and then deserts her.
Trotwood, Betsey – Betsey Trotwood is the formidable great-aunt of David Copperfield. She is a no-nonsense woman with a heart of gold. She takes care of Mr. Dick and refers to David Copperfield as “Trot.”
“Never,” said my aunt, “be mean in anything; never be false; never be cruel. Avoid those three vices, Trot, and I can always be hopeful of you.” – Betsey Trotwood
Wickfield, Agnes – Agnes is a devoted daughter of Mr. Wickfield and the second wife of David Copperfield.
“I hope that real love and truth are stronger in the end than any evil or misfortune in the world.” – Agnes Wickfield
Wickfield, Mr. – A lawyer and father of Agnes Wickfield.
David Copperfield Information
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Which golfer won the British Open Championship in 1975, 1977, 1980, 1982 and 1983? | British Open | golf | Britannica.com
British Open
Alternative Titles: the Open, the Open Championship
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PGA Championship
British Open, officially the Open Championship or the Open, one of the world’s four major golf tournaments—with the Masters Tournament , the U.S. Open , and the Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) Championship—and the oldest continually run championship in the sport. Best known outside the United States as the Open Championship or, simply, the Open, it has been held annually (with a few exceptions) on various courses in Scotland , England , and—on one occasion— Northern Ireland since 1860. (For more on the tournament’s name, see Researcher’s Note: British Open? Open Championship? .)
Jack Nicklaus competing in the British Open (Open Championship) at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club …
Steve Powell—Allsport/Getty Images
History
The first Open Championship was played on October 17, 1860, at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland. A field of eight professionals played three rounds of Prestwick’s 12-hole course in one day. Willie Park, Sr., won the inaugural tournament and was presented with the Challenge Belt, a silver-buckled leather belt that each champion was to keep until the following Open. The tournament was opened to amateurs in 1861. In 1863 a purse of £10—which was to be shared among the professionals who finished in second, third, and fourth place—was introduced, and a first-place cash prize of £6 was added in 1864. In 1870 Tom Morris, Jr. , won the Open for the third consecutive time and was thus allowed to keep the Challenge Belt permanently. As there was no award to present to the winner, the Open was not held again until 1872, when it was determined that the winning golfer would receive the Golf Champion Trophy, now commonly known as the Claret Jug. In 1892 the Open became a 72-hole event (four rounds of 18 holes), and in 1898 a cut (reduction of the field) was introduced after the first two rounds of play.
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World Cup
The Open has always been dominated by professionals, with only six victories by amateurs, all before 1930. The last of those was Bobby Jones ’s third Open, which was part of his celebrated Grand Slam (four major tournament victories in one calendar year). The popularization of golf in the mid-20th century produced a string of noteworthy Open champions, including England’s Sir Henry Cotton (winner in 1934, 1937, and 1948), South Africa’s Bobby Locke (1949–50, 1952, 1957), Australia’s Peter W. Thomson (1954–56, 1958, 1965), and the United States’ Arnold Palmer (1961–62) and Tom Watson (1975, 1977, 1980, 1982–83). Watson’s final win in 1983 ended an era of U.S. domination, during which American golfers won 12 times in 14 years. For the next 11 years there was only one American winner, with the Claret Jug going to Spain’s Seve Ballesteros , Australia’s Greg Norman , and England’s Nick Faldo, among others.
Arnold Palmer.
Courtesy, Arnold Palmer Enterprises; photograph, Eiko Oizumi
In 1995 the Open became part of the PGA Tour’s official schedule. American John Daly won that year after a play-off with Italy’s Costantino Rocca, beginning another period of American supremacy at the Open in which 10 of the next 13 winners hailed from the United States, including Tiger Woods , who won three championships (2000, 2005–06). Subsequent years saw a number of victories by golfers for whom the Open was their first major tournament triumph, including Paul Lawrie in 1999, David Duval in 2001, Ben Curtis in 2003, and Padraig Harrington in 2007.
American golfer Tiger Woods kissing the Claret Jug after winning the British Open (Open …
Leo Mason/Corbis
Another notable Open champion is Jack Nicklaus , who won in 1966, 1970, and 1978 and placed in the top five 16 times, including seven second-place finishes. Harry Vardon won the Open six times—more than any other player—and four golfers, including Thomson and Watson, won five championships. South African Gary Player , who won the title in 1968 and 1974, holds the record for the most appearances in the Open, with 46.
Harry Vardon.
Scientists Ponder Menopause in Killer Whales
The Open Championship has always been played on links courses (mostly treeless golf courses that are built along a coast and retain the natural uneven terrain of their locations). From 1860 to 1870 the Open was played exclusively at Prestwick Golf Club . Since 1872 it has been played at a number of courses in rotation. Initially the three courses were Prestwick, St. Andrews , and Musselburgh, all located in Scotland. The nine courses in the current rotation are the Old Course at St. Andrews; Carnoustie Golf Links in Carnoustie, Scotland; Muirfield in Gullane, Scotland; the Ailsa Course at the Westin Turnberry Resort, outside Girvan, Scotland; Royal Troon Golf Club in Troon, Scotland; Royal St. George’s Golf Club in Sandwich, England; Royal Birkdale Golf Club in Southport , England; Royal Lytham & St. Annes Golf Club in Lytham St. Annes, England; and Royal Liverpool Golf Club in Hoylake, England.
A Hole in One
The Open is a unique event and is of great importance to professionals and amateur golfers alike, as well as to fans of golf. Unlike the play of other majors—which are typically contested in sunny locales in the United States—the outcome of the Open is often influenced by the weather. On a links course, morning and afternoon tee times can produce vastly different playing conditions, depending on the breeze that comes in off the sea. The weather is just one of the many unique features of the Open that combine with its long history and prestigious reputation to make it an event unparalleled in golf.
This author, who experienced a warm reception from his home crowd when he finished second to Tiger Woods at St. Andrews in 2005, looks forward to competing in the Open every year. To him, the Open is pure romance and theatre, and it truly is a special event that every golfer dreams of winning.
| Thomas Watson |
Which piece of classical music by Richard Strauss is famous for being the soundtrack to the 1969 film '2001 A Space Odyssey'? | Tom Watson Career Highlights | Golf.com
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Tom Watson Career Highlights
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Golf.com takes a look back at the career of eight-time major champion -- and World Golf Hall of Famer -- Tom Watson.
After growing up in Kansas City, Watson -- pictured here in 1969 -- went on to play collegiate golf at Stanford, where he was named a second team All-American in 1969, 1970 and 1971.
Watson graduated from Stanford in 1971 with a degree in psychology. He turned pro later that year, wrapping an amateur career that included four straight Missouri Amateur titles.
Watson with his first wife, Linda, after winning his first British Open at Carnoustie in 1975, where he beat Australian Jack Newton in an 18-hole playoff, 71-72.
Watson beat Jack Nicklaus by two shots to win the 1977 Masters, his first of two green jackets.
Later that summer, Watson once again took on Nicklaus in the 1977 British Open at Turnberry. The "Duel in the Sun" found Watson and Nicklaus 10 shots clear of the third place finisher. In the end, Watson birdied 17 and 18 to clip Jack by one, and claim his second Open title.
Watson was named player of the year six times, including four straight seasons between 1977 and 1980. He also won the honor in '82 and '84.
At Muirfield in 1980, Watson won his third Open Championship, beating Lee Trevino by four.
In 1981, Watson won his second Masters, beating Nicklaus (again), and Johnny Miller by two.
Watson is one of sixteen golfers to win multiple Masters titles.
Watson took on Nicklaus again in the 1982 U.S. Open at Pebble Beach. Watson birdied the last two holes to hold off the Golden Bear by two strokes. It was Watson's first and only U.S. Open.
Watson's chip-in for birdie from deep rough at Pebble's par-3 17th remains one of golf's iconic shots.
Watson won his fourth British Open at Royal Troon later that summer, edging Peter Oosterhuis and Nick Price by one stroke.
The next year, he claimed his fifth British -- and eighth and final major -- at Royal Birkdale. With five Open titles, Watson is tied for the second most all time, trailing only Harry Vardon's six.
Watson with Jack Nicklaus at the 1981 Ryder Cup. Watson also played for the U.S. in 1977, 1983 and 1989, and served as U.S. captain in 1993. His teams went 4-1.
Watson's last PGA Tour win came at age 48, when he won the 1998 Colonial. In his career, Watson tallied 39 wins between 1974 and 1998.
In 2003, Watson returned to Turnberry, this time to win the first of his three Senior British Opens. In all, Watson has won six majors on the Champions Tour, and 14 tournaments in all.
In 2009, at age 59, and less than a year after hip replacement surgery, Watson became the oldest player to lead a major during the British Open at Turnberry. Leading through 71 holes, he bogeyed the 18th to fall into a tie with Stewart Cink. Watson eventually lost in a four-hole playoff.
Watson, pictured here at St. Andrews in 2010, was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1988. His total of eight major championships (won in a span of nine years) ranks him sixth on golf's all-time list.
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Helena is the captal of which US state? | Visit the Montana Capitol
Visit the Montana Capitol
Tours
The Montana Historical Society offers 1-hour guided tours of the Capitol for student and tourist groups.
These tours focus primarily on the art, architecture, and history of the building. They also touch lightly on the legislative process and other aspects of state government.
The Governor's Office welcomes visitors to tour the Hall of Governors and, when not in use, the elegant Governor's Reception Room. These are located in the east wing of the second floor. (Back to top)
Presentations
The Montana Legislative Branch offers age-appropriate, 30- to 60-minute presentations on representative democracy and the legislative process.
The Montana Secretary of State's Office offers age-appropriate, 15- to 45-minute presentations on voting, elections, and the role of the Secretary of State as keeper of the State Seal and official state records and as registrar of businesses operating in Montana.
All agencies would appreciate at least 2 weeks notice to plan for tours and presentations. (Back to top)
When to Visit
Capitol: Open Monday-Friday 7:00 a.m.-6:00 p.m. and Saturdays, Sundays, and most holidays from 9:00 a.m.-3:00 p.m. The Capitol is closed on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year's Day. Presentations are not available on weekends.
Montana Legislature: Convenes in regular session in early January of odd-numbered years. Sessions usually adjourn near the end of April in odd-numbered years. Between sessions, interim legislative committees meet periodically at the Capitol during regular business hours.
Capitol Events Calendar: To ensure that you get the most out of your visit, we recommend that you check the calendar and choose a date when few or no other visits are already planned. (Back to top)
Schedule Your Visit
To arrange a tour, presentation, or both, contact:
Montana Historical Society
406-444-4789, [email protected]
We recommend that teachers prepare student groups for their visit by discussing state history and/or government in class. You also may wish to provide questions from your students in advance. (Back to top)
Safety & Decorum
Remember, the Capitol is a work place in which important business is conducted. During legislative sessions, it can be very crowded. To ensure that visits are safe, productive, and enjoyable for all involved, we strongly recommend the following:
Provide at least 1 adult chaperone for every 10 students.
Arrange to leave coats, backpacks, lunches, and other belongings on the bus. There is no space to store belongings in the Capitol, nor is there any capacity to deal with lost belongings.
Silence or turn off cell phones while in the building.
Speak and move quietly while in the building.
Dress comfortably but appropriately for a place of business.
No weapons, alcohol, or smoking are permitted in the Capitol or any other state buildings. (Back to top)
Delays & Cancellations
If you have changes in plans or are delayed en route for any reason, please notify us as soon as possible at the telephone number provided above. This will allow us to try to reschedule tours and presentations. Please keep in mind that rescheduling may not be possible. (Back to top)
Parking
Parking is extremely limited in the Capitol Complex , especially during legislative sessions. Buses may drop off students at the south entrance to the Capitol, but drivers should park in designated bus parking space on Sanders Street between Eighth and Ninth Streets.
Visitors may park personal vehicles in any nonrestricted lot on the Capitol Complex. All Helena Parking Commission rules are in effect. (Back to top)
| A. montana |
Lansing is the capital of which US state? | Montana Government State Capital Helena Governor Judy Martz Montana State Motto
( Get closer )
STATEHOOD: The United States acquired most of what is now Montana as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The northwestern section of the state was gained in a treaty with Britain in 1846. At various times, parts of Montana were parts of the territories of Louisiana, Missouri, Nebraska, Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho.
In 1862, prospectors found gold in Grasshopper Creek in the area now known as southwestern Montana. At the time, Montana was part of Idaho territory. Other gold strikes followed, and wild mining camps grew around the gold fields. These camps included Bannack, Diamond City, and Virginia City. During the boom years, gold dust was the most prominent form of money. Also, during this period, there was almost no effective law enforcement in the mining camps. Sidney Edgerton, a former U.S. Representative from Ohio, was appointed United States judge for the Territory of Idaho in 1863. He saw a need for better government of the wild mining camps.
In 1864, he was persuaded to return to Washington, D.C. to lobby Congress to create a Montana Territory separate from Idaho. Edgerton had friends on Capitol Hill from his days as an Ohio Congressman and he agreed to the task. Of course he took about $2,000 in Montana gold nuggets with him to Washington to impress his friends with the mineral wealth in the new territory. On May 26, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln signed an act creating the Montana Territory. Sidney Edgerton was appointed as the first Territorial Governor.
1883 Bird's Eye Drawing of Helena
( Get Closer )
In order to become a state, Montana had to prepare and its citizens had to approve a written constitution that would have to be accepted by the U.S. Congress. The constitution would contain the basic laws of the state, the responsibilities of its elected officials, and the rights of citizens of Montana. Three constitutions were prepared, from 1866-1889, by Montana officials before statehood was achieved.
Finally, in 1889, the U.S. Congress passed the Enabling Act that allowed Washington, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota to become states. On November 8, 1889, President Benjamin Harrison issued a proclamation announcing admission of Montana into Union as the 41st state
STATE CONSTITUTION: A constitution sets out the rules by which we play the game of government. Like the rules for any other game, it limits the moves available to players. It describes how the various players interact with each other, and who has more power in various situations.
In 1866, Acting Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, called Montana's first constitutional convention. Beginning in the cold of December, in a dark dirt-roofed cabin in Bannack City, legislators spent 60 days putting together Montana's first constitution. The story goes that this document was lost on the way to the printer in St. Louis....
It wasn't until 1884 that another attempt was made. This time, the convention was held in Helena. From January 14 through February 9, lawmakers hammered out a new constitution . Voters approved it on November 4, 1884. Unfortunately, the U.S. Congress, immersed in political conflict and worried about the balance of power in the legislature, virtually ignored Montana's new petitions for statehood.
The political atmosphere in Washington changed, however, and in 1889, Montana refurbished the 1884 constitution and put it to a vote. Montanans approved it by an overwhelming majority on October 1, 1889. This time, Congress passed an enabling act allowing Montana to become a state.
Recognizing that the 1889 constitution had not aged well, Montanans called for a Constitutional Convention in 1972. The 1972 constitution , in effect today, is one of the nation�s most progressive documents. It advocates single-member legislative districts, open-meeting requirements, and the care and protection of the environment.
PREAMBLE:We the people of Montana grateful to God for the quiet beauty of our state, the grandeur of our mountains, the vastness of our rolling plains, and desiring to improve the quality of life, equality of opportunity and to secure the blessings of liberty for this and future generations do ordain and establish this constitution.
[ MONTANA CONSTITUTION ]
STATE MOTTO:Like other state mottoes, Montana's Spanish Oro y Plata was conceived as the Montanans were deciding on an official seal for the new Montana Territory. In 1865, shortly after Montana had gained territorial status, a committee, chaired by Mr. Francis R. Thompson, got together to determine an appropriate design for the new seal. The committee agreed that the seal should incorporate certain essential elements of Montana's economy and its future.
As the committee discussed the new seal the question of a territorial motto was introduced. Based on the mineral wealth that Montana had produced since 1862, members favored "Gold and Silver" as a meaningful motto for Montana Territory. Someone thought the motto would have a nice ring in Spanish and, again, there was agreement. Seal design and motto were presented to the Legislature on February 4, 1865. At this time there was a suggestion that "El Dorado," meaning "the place of gold," might be more appropriate than simply "Gold and Silver." But both houses approved the seal with the motto Oro y Plata and Territorial Governor Sidney Edgerton signed the bill into law on February 9, 1865.
The seal has been modified, to some degree, over the years, but the motto has remained: Oro y Plata.
STATE GOVERNMENT:As in the case of the federal government, Montana's state government is organized into three branches - legislative, executive, and judicial. The state government is a product of three documents: the United States Constitution, the Montana State Constitution, and laws of the state. The state of Montana voted, in 1992, to impose term limits on their elected representatives. Proponents of the idea argued that term limits would take government out of the hands of �career politicians� and encourage more citizens to run for office. Montana term limits state that certain officials may not seek re-election if they have held an office for eight years in any 16-year period. An official can still be re-elected by write-in vote, even after serving 8 years in a 16-year period.
The Governor is the top official in the Executive Branch of Montana State government. The 1992 Constitutional initiative enforces term limits for the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the Secretary of State, the State Auditor, the Attorney General, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction.
The Montana Legislature is composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The 1992 Constitutional initiative enforces term limits for state representatives and state senators.
The highest court of appeals in Montana is the state Supreme Court, which consists of one chief justice and six associate justices--each elected to eight-year terms. The trial courts for major civil and criminal cases are the state's 20 district courts. These jurisdictions are presided over from one to four judges, each elected to a six-year term. Municipal courts, police courts, and justice-of-the-peace courts handle less serious cases.
Montana State Capitol Building MONTANA CAPITOL BUILDING:
Location:Helena
Date Erected:1899-1902
Iowa architects, Charles E. Bell and John H. Kent relocated to Helena to meet the legislature�s demand that the capitol architect be a state resident.
Completed in 1902, the building cost about $485,000 furnished.
Faced with Montana sandstone, the Capitol was constructed in the Greek neoclassic style.
The dome, covered with copper, rises 165 feet and is topped with a bronze statue of Lady Liberty.
In 1912, two wings, faced with Montana granite, were added at a cost of $500,000.
[ PURCHASE Montana's State Capitol: The People's Pride ]
STATE REPRESENTATION: The Montana Legislature is composed of two parts, called houses, like the United States Congress. The two parts are the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Legislature is referred to as a bicameral body because it is made up of two houses. The Latin roots of the word bicameral, "bi" and "cameral," mean two chambers or rooms. The Legislature is responsible for making the laws in Montana and for raising and distributing the money necessary to run the state government. As established by the 1972 Montana Constitution, sessions take place every odd-numbered year and last for a maximum of 90 legislative days.
[ LEGISLATIVE DISTRICTS ]
LEGISLATIVE PROCESS:The legislative branch of government is responsible for making and maintaining laws within their jurisdiction. United States representatives and senators, federal legislators, are responsible for laws at the national level and state legislators are responsible for laws at the state level. A law begins as an idea that is introduced in the Montana Legislature as a bill by one or more legislators. The bill then goes through the legislative process to become a law. During this process the bill may be changed. Not all bills become law.
[ LEGISLATIVE PROCESS ] [ HOW A BILL BECOMES LAW IN MONTANA ]
CURRENT LEGISLATION:When the legislature is meeting, it is said to be "in session." Legislative sessions occur every odd-numbered year, beginning at noon on the first Monday in January, with the exception that if the first Monday is January 1, the Legislature then begins on the first Wednesday of January. The length of a regular session is 90 legislative days. Sessions may be extended if required to complete the work of the Legislature. In addition, under unusual circumstances, the Legislature may be called into Special Session by the Governor to deal with a specific problem. The following link will allow you to look at bills that are currently going through the legislative process.
[ MONTANA CODE ANNOTATED 2003 ]
COUNTIES: The United States Constitution does not define local government. Instead, this function is left up to the states.
Counties are a local unit of government within a state. All but two of the states are divided into counties. Alaska is divided into boroughs and census districts and Louisiana is divided into parishes where governing responsibilities are similar to counties.
Traditionally, counties performed tasks mandated by the state, such as property assessment, property and vital statistic record keeping, maintenance of rural roads, administration of local election and judicial functions, and support of the poor. Today, counties may be responsible for these functions, more or less, but the responsibilities of county governments vary from state to state.
COUNTY TRIVIA:
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In Greek mythology what was the name of the winged creatures famous for stealing all the food from the blind man Phineas? | Information and Images/Pictures of Greek Mythological Beasts and Creatures.
Sidebar
Beasts of Greek Mythology
The many intriguing creatures and monsters of mythology play an intrical role in its fascinating appeal. Not included all of the mystical beasts have been added here, but most of the major ones.
Argus
The hundred-eyed character who was given by Hera the task of guarding Io, one of Zeus's many mistresses. Hermes lulled him to sleep and killed him. Hera, distraught, took his eyes and placed them on her favorite bird, the peacock.
Calydonian Boar
The huge boar sent by Artemis to ravage the land of Calydon due to the king's refusal to include her in his annual offerings. The king, Oeneus, requested neighboring cities to help kill the boar, and many heroes - including Peleus and Meleager - participated. The maiden Atalanta wounded the beast, and Meleager finally killed it. Although it had been Atalanta who halted the monster, because she was a woman it was Meleager who was awarded the prize.
Centaurs
The race of half-men, half-horses creatures. They were the product of Ixion's weird lust for Hera. Zeus created a psuedo-Hera, Nemele ["cloud"], who gave birth to Ixion's son Centaurus. This very sick son mated with the horses of Mount Pelion to produce the Centaurs. Centaurs were wild, lusty, and brutal; however, their king was the wise and gentle Chiron who advised, among others, Achilles and Jason. Centaurs may have first have been a misinterpretation of the warriors which came from the East who rode on horseback, at the time foreign to the Hellenes. Chiron was the symbol of man eventually taming the horse, which became a great asset.
Cerberus
The hound of Hades that guarded the entrance to the underworld. He is described with anywhere from two to fifty heads and was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. Heracles stole Cerberus as one of his labors, and both Aeneas and Odysseus managed to bypass the gigantic dog. Orpheus, the grand musician, soothed the savage beast in order to retrieve his wife Eurydice.
Charybdis
Opposite the monster Scylla, Charybdis was a whirlpool at the northern end of the Straits of Messina which devoured ships.
Chimaera
A fire-breathing beast with a lion's head and body, a serpent for a tail, and a goat's head in the midsection. The chimaera may have represented fiery volcanic mountains where goats and lions dwelt and snakes innundated the foothills. It ravaged Mount Chimaera and was eventually killed by the hero Bellerophon, who shot lead in its mouth. The lead melted in its fiery breath and burnt its insides.
Cyclops
According to Hesiod, the one-eyed sons of Gaia and iron-workers of Hephaestus who also made Zeus's thunderbolts. There are generally three, Brontes [Thunderer], Steropes [Lightener] and Arges [Bright]. The work of Cyclopes is commonly regarded as the explanation for volcanos, and Hephaestus's Roman counterpart, Vulcan [origin of the term "volcano"], certainly backs this notion up. The most famous Cyclop is Polyphemus, who was actually a son of Poseidon but often referred to as "Cyclops". Odysseus encounters him and eventually blinds the one eye.
Echidna
A half woman, half-serpent monster who ate men raw. The daughter of Phorcys and Ceto, she coupled with another half-snake, Typhon, and gave birth to Hydra, Cerberus, and Chimaera.
Erinyes/Eumenides
["kindly ones"]/Furies [Latin name]
The avenging spirits of the dead who relentlessly pursued wrong-doers. Born of the blood of the castrated Uranus, they were, of course, hideous: black teeth, wrinkled faces, and pus-filled eyes.
Giants
They were the sons of Uranus from his castrated blood that appeared almost human except for the fact their legs ended as snakes' tails. They fought the gods at Gaia's insistence and were bound to win as long as they battled only deities. Zeus summoned Heracles, who was mortal [at the time], and the Giants were defeated.
Gorgons/Medusa
Daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, there were three, Medusa being the only mortal. All were once beautiful, but Athena caught Medusa and Poesidon in her temple doing—well, use your imagination!—and Athena transformed the sisters into hideous monsters whose gaze turned men into stone. Medusa was eventually killed by Perseus, and her head placed on Athena's shield. The underlying message is perhaps feminist in nature: the virgin goddess catching an unholy "sacrilege" having sex. The gorgon's gaze may be a metaphor for man becoming petrified and helpless in the presence of a beautiful [or once-beautiful] woman.
The Graiae
Three sisters of the Gorgans who shared one eye between them. Best known as sentinels of the Gorgons, they are represented as old women and the name "graiae" actually means "the gray ones".
Harpies
Winged female demons often associated with Sirens. Most art has Harpies as winged women rather than bird-bodied. Like the sirens, there was originally two, but then another was added, bringing their number to three. Hesiod names them as Aello and Octpete, with Celaeno the later addition. Their names mean storm, swift-flier, and black cloud. They are best known as the tormenters of King Phineus, who was rescued by the Argonauts. They were also the mothers to Achilles's talking horses, Xanthus and Balius. Harpies could be the personification of the unfriendly sea and its accompanying bad weather.
Hydra
Hydra was a snake-like monster born of Echidna and Typhon, with nine grotesque heads. Heracles was sent to kill it for his Second Labor. The problem was, when he cut off one head, two grew back. Heracles's nephew Iolaus managed to counteract this by using firebrands to kill the stumps. However, the nineth head was immortal, but Heracles managed to disable this by burying it deep in the earth. He dipped his arrows in Hydra's blood, which was venomously poisoned.
Ladon
The most famous Greek dragon which guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides, daughters of Atlas. Often described as "sleepy-eyed", he should not be thought of as evil, merely as a beast doing his duty. He is associated with the constellation Draco.
Minotaur
The product of Queen Pasiphae's strange lust for the Cretan Bull. The Minotaur was half-man, half bull and is often depicted with a man's body and bull's head, though there are representations of it with a bull's trunk and man's head and torso. King Minos was so appalled at the offspring that he had the master craftsman Daedalus build an enormous labyrinth for it to hide in. The creature fed upon seven youths and seven maidens sent annually from Athens. The hero Theseus, aided by Minos's daughter Ariadne, slew the monster with its own horn. The Minotaur is perhaps an allegory created by the Athenians for Knossos [Crete] who always harvested a strange fascination for bulls.
Nemean Lion
The child of Selene, the goddess of the moon. After she gave birth to it she dropped it to the earth in horror. It fell in the city of Nemea. When Selene became enraged by the local people for refusing her godhead, she set the monster loose on the village. Heracles flayed the beast for his First Labor and wore the pelt as a cloak.
Pegasus
The beautiful celebrated winged horse of mythology, he was ironically the offspring of Medusa when Perseus decapitated her. Wild and free, he was tamed by the hero Bellerophon with the aid of the famed golden bridle. Winged animals are not of Greek origins, and, like the Sphinx, the myth of Pegasus is probably foreign—most likely it migrated from the East.
Phoenix
The beautiful bird of ancient Assyrian, Greek, and Egyptian legend, and one of my favorites because of its inferences to resurrection and rebirth. Click here for more details and picture.
Python
The serpent belonging to mother earth at her temple in Delphi. The god Apollo slew the beast and claimed the sanctuary for himself.
Scylla
Scylla was a rival of the witch Circe for the love of Glaucus. Circe transformed the maiden into an enormous monster with six dog-heads around her waist. She was transported to the cliffs of the Straits of Messina and devoured sailors who attempted to avoid Charybdis
Sirens
Mesmerizing voices; they are possibly associated with mermaids and the lure of the sea. They would entice sailors with their captivating songs, then eat them raw. Homer writes of two; later the number was three, and eventually myth claimed nine. They committed suicide when a sweeter voice, that of Orpheus, failed to lure any of the Argonauts to their lair.
Sphinx
Generally associated with Egypt, the half-bird, half-woman creature made its appearance in Greek mythology as the scourge of Thebes. It dwelt at the mountain entrance and asked travellers a riddle, and if the they failed, she would eat them. Oedipus was asked the riddle, "What has four legs in the morn, two in the afternoon, and three at sunset?" The answer was man: he is a baby who crawls, an upright adult, and an elder with a cane. Demoralized, the sphinx hurled herself to her death.
Typhon
[Serpents represented the earth, and quite possibly all these half-snake creatures are metaphors for man's battle to dominate the earth.] But back to Typhon: he was the half-man, half snake son of Gaia and Tartarus. He was summoned by Gaia [mother earth] to avenge the defeat of the Titans by the Olympians. Hesiod describes him with a hundred heads, and the gods, upon seeing the monster, fled; only Zeus stood his ground. Typhon cut the sinews from Zeus's hands and feet and threw him into a cave. Hermes and Pan revived the king of gods and mended his wounds. The Fates had weakened Typhon with mortal food, and Zeus managed to dispose of Typhon by crushing him under Mount Etna.
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| Harpy |
Richard Wayne Penniman is the real name of which famous singer who was born on December 5th 1932? | Familiars origins/Greek Mythology | Blood Brothers Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
This page contains all familiars inspired by Greek mythology.
Contents
[ show ]
History
Greek Mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece and is part of religion in modern Greece and around the world, known as Hellenismos.
Gods, Goddesses & Deities
Gods and Deities are superior and immortal beings that ruled the world. Each God had his (or her) own cult, attributes and powers.
Apollo
Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: Ἀπόλλων, Apollōn (GEN Ἀπόλλωνος); Doric: Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: Ἀπείλων, Apeilōn; Aeolic: Ἄπλουν, Aploun; Latin: Apollō) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.
As the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.
Ares
Ares (Ancient Greek: Ἄρης [árɛːs]) is the Greek god of war. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. In Greek literature, he often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war, in contrast to the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship.
The Greeks were ambivalent toward Ares : although he embodied the physical valor necessary for success in war, he was a dangerous force, "overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering." His sons Fear (Phobos) and Terror (Deimos) and his lover, or sister, Discord (Enyo) accompanied him on his war chariot. In the Iliad, his father Zeus tells him that he is the god most hateful to him. An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality. His value as a war god is placed in doubt: during the Trojan War, Ares was on the losing side, while Athena, often depicted in Greek art as holding Nike (Victory) in her hand, favored the triumphant Greeks.
Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, though his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to. When Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation. He is well known as the lover of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who was married to Hephaestus, god of craftsmanship. The most famous story related to Ares and Aphrodite shows them exposed to ridicule through the wronged husband's clever device.
The counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars, who as a father of the Roman people was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as a guardian deity. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares . Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures becomes virtually indistinguishable.
Calais & Zetes
The Boreads are characters in Greek mythology. They consist of Calaïs and Zetes (also Zethes).
They were the sons of Boreas and Oreithyia, daughter of King Erechtheus of Athens. Due to being sons of the north wind they were supernaturally gifted in different ways (depending on changes in the story from being passed down through generations and cultures) either being as fast as the wind or able to fly, having wings either on their feet or backs, depending on the myth.
They were Argonauts and played a particularly vital role in the rescue of Phineus from the harpies. They succeeded in driving the monsters away but did not kill them, at a request from the goddess of the rainbow, Iris, who promised that Phineas would not be bothered by the harpies again. As thanks, Phineas told the Argonauts how to pass the Symplegades. It is said that the Boreads were turned back by Iris at the Strophades. The islands' name, meaning "Islands of Turning", refers to this event.
Their death was said to be caused by Heracles on Tenos in revenge for when they convinced the Argonauts to leave him behind as he searched for Hylas.
Other sources imply that the sons of Boreas died chasing the harpies, as it was fated that they would perish if they failed to catch those they pursued. In some versions, the harpies drop into the sea from exhaustion, and so their pursuers fall as well.
Circe
In Greek mythology, Circe was a goddess of magic (or sometimes a nymph, witch, enchantress or sorceress). By most accounts, Circe was the daughter of Helios, the god of the sun, and Perse, an Oceanid. Her brothers were Aeetes, the keeper of the Golden Fleece, and Perses. Her sister was Pasiphaë, the wife of King Minos and mother of the Minotaur. Other accounts make her the daughter of Hecate, the goddess of witchcraft herself. Circe was renowned for her vast knowledge of potions and herbs. Through the use of magical potions and a wand or a staff, she transformed her enemies, or those who offended her, into animals. Some say she was exiled to the solitary island of Aeaea by her subjects and her father for ending the life of her husband, the prince of Colchis. Later traditions tell of her leaving or even destroying the island and moving to Italy, where she was identified with Cape Circeo.
Diana
In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of the hunt, the moon and childbirth, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and having the power to talk to and control animals. She was equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, though she had an independent origin in Italy. Diana was worshiped in ancient Roman religion and is revered in Roman Neopaganism and Stregheria. Dianic Wicca, a largely feminist form of the practice, is named for her. Diana was known to be the virgin goddess of childbirth and women. She was one of the three maiden goddesses, Diana, Minerva and Vesta, who swore never to marry.
Oak groves were especially sacred to her. According to mythology (in common with the Greek religion and their deity Artemis), Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of Delos, daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.
Eris
Eris is the Greek goddess of chaos, strife and discord. Her name is the equivalent of Latin Discordia, which means "discord". She was often represented specifically as the daimon of the strife of war, who haunted the battlefield and delighted in human bloodshed.
Because of Eris' disagreeable nature she was the only goddess not to be invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. When she turned up anyway, she was refused admittance and, in a rage, threw a golden apple amongst the goddesses inscribed "To the fairest." Three goddesses laid claim it, and in their rivalry brought about the events which led to the Trojan War.
Eris was closely identified with the war-goddess Enyo. Indeed Homer uses the names interchangeably. Her Roman name was Discordia.
Eros
Eros (/ˈɪərɒs/ or US /ˈɛrɒs/; Greek: Ἔρως, "Desire"), in Greek mythology, was the Greek god of love. His Roman counterpart was Cupid ("desire"). Some myths make him a primordial god, while in other myths, he is the son of Aphrodite.
Eros appears in ancient Greek sources under several different guises. In the earliest sources (the cosmogonies, the earliest philosophers, and texts referring to the mystery religions), he is one of the primordial gods involved in the coming into being of the cosmos. But in later sources, Eros is represented as the son of Aphrodite, whose mischievous interventions in the affairs of gods and mortals cause bonds of love to form, often illicitly. Ultimately, in the later satirical poets, he is represented as a blindfolded child, the precursor to the chubby Renaissance Cupid – whereas in early Greek poetry and art, Eros was depicted as an adult male who embodies sexual power, and a profound artist.
A cult of Eros existed in pre-classical Greece, but it was much less important than that of Aphrodite. However, in late antiquity, Eros was worshiped by a fertility cult in Thespiae. In Athens, he shared a very popular cult with Aphrodite, and the fourth day of every month was sacred to him.
Faunus
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Faunus was the horned god of the forest, plains and fields; when he made cattle fertile he was called Inuus. He came to be equated in literature with the Greek god Pan.
Faunus was one of the oldest Roman deities, known as the di indigetes. According to the epic poet Virgil, he was a legendary king of the Latins who came with his people from Arcadia. His shade was consulted as a god of prophecy under the name of Fatuus, with oracles[1] in the sacred grove of Tibur, around the well Albunea, and on the Aventine Hill in ancient Rome itself.
Marcus Terentius Varro asserted that the oracular responses were given in Saturnian verse. Faunus revealed the future in dreams and voices that were communicated to those who came to sleep in his precincts, lying on the fleeces of sacrificed lambs. W. Warde Fowler suggested that Faunus is identical with Favonius,[4] one of the Roman wind gods (compare the Anemoi).
Hekatonkheires and Hecatoncheir
The Hecatonchires , or Hekatonkheires (from Ancient Greek: Ἑκατόγχειρες Hundred-Handed Ones), were figures in an archaic stage of Greek mythology, three giants of incredible strength and ferocity that surpassed that of all Titans whom they helped overthrow. Their name derives from the Greek ἑκατόν (hekaton hundred) and χείρ (kheir hand), each of them having a hundred hands and fifty heads (Bibliotheca). Hesiod's Theogony (624, 639, 714, 734–35) reports that the three Hekatonkheires became the guards of the gates of Tartarus.
Hypnos
In Greek mythology, Hypnos (Ancient Greek: Ὕπνος, "sleep") was the personification of sleep; the Roman equivalent was known as Somnus. His twin was Thánatos (Θάνατος, "death"); their mother was the primordial goddess Nyx (Νύξ, "night"). His palace was a dark cave where the sun never shone. At the entrance were a number of poppies and other hypnogogic plants. His dwelling had no door or gate so that he might not be awakened by the creaking of hinges.
Juno
Juno is an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counselor of the state. She is a daughter of Saturn and sister (but also the wife) of the chief god Jupiter and the mother of Mars and Vulcan . Juno also looked after the women of Rome. Her Greek equivalent was Hera. Her Etruscan counterpart was Uni. As the patron goddess of Rome and the Roman Empire, Juno was called Regina ("Queen") and, together with Jupiter and Minerva, was worshiped as a triad on the Capitol (Juno Capitolina) in Rome.
Juno's own warlike aspect among the Romans is apparent in her attire. She often appeared sitting pictured with a peacock armed and wearing a goatskin cloak. The traditional depiction of this warlike aspect was assimilated from the Greek goddess Hera, whose goatskin was called the 'aegis'.
Jupiter
Jupiter , also Jove, is the god of sky and thunder and king of the gods in Ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as sacrifice.
Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt and his primary sacred animal is the eagle, which held precedence over other birds in the taking of auspices and became one of the most common symbols of the Roman army (see Aquila). The two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins. As the sky-god, he was a divine witness to oaths, the sacred trust on which justice and good government depend. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located. He was the chief deity of the early Capitoline Triad with Mars and Quirinus. In the later Capitoline Triad, he was the central guardian of the state with Juno and Minerva . His sacred tree was the oak.
The Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Iuppiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune and Pluto. Each presided over one of the three realms of the universe: sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually but not always identified with Jupiter . Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart.
Ker
A goddess of death. Daughter of Erebus and Nyx. Sister of Hypnos , Moros and Thanatos. Her function was to drag the dead and dying to the entrance to the underworld. She is depicted as wearing a long cloak stained with blood. In some accounts, called Ker .
“
And Nyx bare hateful Moros, black Ker , Thanatos, she bare Hypnos , and the tribe of Oneiroi. And again the goddess murky Nyx, though she lay with none, bare Momos, painful Oizys, and the Hesperides ...she bare the Moirai (Fates) and the ruthless avenging Keres (Death-Fates)... Also deadly Nyx bare Nemesis to afflict mortal men, and after her, Apate , Philotes, hateful Geras, and hard-hearted Eris .
”
— Hesiod, Theogony 211, translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White
The Keres were agents of The Moirae (Fates), birth-spirits who measured out the length of a man's life when he first entered the world, and Moros (Doom) the spirit who drove a man towards his inevitable destruction. They were cravers of blood and feasted upon it after ripping a soul free from the mortally wounded bodies and sending it on their way to Hades. Thousands of Keres haunted the battlefield, fighting amongst themselves like vultures over the dying. The Keres had no absolute power over the life of men, but in their hunger for blood would seek accomplish death beyond the bounds of fate. Zeus and the other gods, however, could stop them in their course or speed them on. The Olympian gods are often described standing by their favorites in battle, beating the clawing death spirits from them. Some of the Kers were personifications of epidemic diseases, which haunted areas riven by plague.
Lachesis
In Greek mythology, Lachesis (/ˈlækɪsɪs/; Greek: Λάχεσις, Lakhesis, "disposer of lots", from λαγχάνω, lanchano, "to obtain by lot, by fate, or by the will of the gods") was the second of the Three Fates, or Moirai: Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos. Normally seen clothed in white, Lachesis is the measurer of the thread spun on Clotho's spindle, and in some texts, determines Destiny, or thread of life. Her Roman equivalent was Decima. Lachesis was the apportioner, deciding how much time for life was to be allowed for each person or being. She measured the thread of life with her rod. She is also said to choose a person's destiny after a thread was measured. In mythology, it is said that she appears with her sisters within three days of a baby's birth to decide its fate.
Leto
In Greek mythology, Leto (/ˈliːtoʊ/; Greek: Λητώ Lētṓ; Λατώ, Lātṓ in Dorian Greek, etymology and meaning disputed) is a daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe, the sister of Asteria. and mother of Apollo and Artemis.
The island of Kos is claimed as her birthplace. In the Olympian scheme, Zeus is the father of her twins, Apollo and Artemis, the Letoides, which Leto conceived after her hidden beauty accidentally caught the eyes of Zeus. Classical Greek myths record little about Leto other than her pregnancy and her search for a place where she could give birth to Apollo and Artemis, since Hera in her jealousy had caused all lands to shun her. Finally, she finds an island that is not attached to the ocean floor so it is not considered land and she can give birth. This is her one active mythic role: once Apollo and Artemis are grown, Leto withdraws, to remain a dim and benevolent matronly figure upon Olympus, her part already played. In Roman mythology, Leto's equivalent is Latona , a Latinization of her name, influenced by Etruscan Letun.
Oenone
In Greek mythology, Oenone (/ɨˈnoʊniː/; Greek: Oinōnē - Οἰνώνη "wine woman") was the first wife of Paris of Troy, whom he abandoned for the queen Helen of Sparta .
Oenone was a mountain nymph (an oread) on Mount Ida in Phrygia, a mountain associated with the Mother Goddess Cybele, alternatively Rhea. Her father was Cebren, a river-god. Her very name links her to the gift of wine.
Paris , son of the king Priam and the queen Hecuba, fell in love with Oenone when he was a shepherd on the slopes of Mount Ida, having been exposed in infancy (owing to a prophecy that he would be the means of the destruction of the city of Troy) but rescued by the herdsman Agelaus. The couple married, and Oenone gave birth to a son, Corythus.
When Paris later abandoned her to return to Troy and sail across the Aegean to kidnap Helen, the queen of Sparta , Oenone predicted the Trojan War. Out of revenge for Paris ' betrayal, she sent Corythus to guide the Greeks to Troy. Another version has it that she used her son to drive a rift between Paris and Helen, but Paris, not recognizing his own son, killed him.
The only extensive surviving narration of Oenone and Paris is Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica, book X.259-489, which tells the return of wounded Paris to Oenone . Mortally wounded by Philoctetes' arrow, he begged Oenone to heal him with her herbal arts, but she refused and cast him out with scorn, to return to Helen's bed, and Paris died on the lower slopes of Ida. Then, overcome with remorse, Oenone, the one whole-hearted mourner of Paris, threw herself onto his burning funeral pyre, which the shepherds had raised.
Pallas
In Greek mythology, Pallas (/ˈpæl əs/ ) (Greek: Παλλάς) was the daughter of Triton. Acting as a foster parent to Zeus’s daughter Athena, Triton raised her alongside his own daughter. During a friendly fight between the two goddesses, Athena was protected from harm by Zeus but Pallas was mortally wounded. Out of sadness and regret, she created the palladium, a statue in the likeness of Pallas. This story inspired a yearly festival in Libya dedicated to Athena. Girls from the Machlyans and Auseans tribes would fight each other, and those who died were labeled false virgins.
Pan
In Greek religion and mythology, Pan (/ˈpæn/; Ancient Greek: Πάν, Pan) is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature of mountain wilds and rustic music, and companion of the nymphs. His name originates within the Ancient Greek language, from the word paein (πάειν), meaning "to pasture." He has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a faun or satyr. With his homeland in rustic Arcadia, he is also recognized as the god of fields, groves, and wooded glens; because of this, Pan is connected to fertility and the season of spring. The ancient Greeks also considered Pan to be the god of theatrical criticism.
In Roman religion and myth, Pan's counterpart was Faunus , a nature god who was the father of Bona Dea, sometimes identified as Fauna; he was also closely associated with Sylvanus, due to their similar relationships with woodlands. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in the Romantic movement of western Europe and also in the 20th-century Neopagan movement.
An area in the Golan Heights known as the Panion or Panium is associated with Pan. The city of Caesarea Philippi, the site of the Battle of Panium and the Banias natural spring, grotto or cave, and related shrines dedicated to Pan, may be found there.
The constellation Capricornus is traditionally depicted as a sea-goat, a goat with a fish's tail (see "Goatlike" Aigaion called Briareos, one of the Hecatonchires ). A myth reported as "Egyptian" in Hyginus' Poetic Astronomy that would seem to be invented to justify a connection of Pan with Capricorn says that when Aegipan — that is Pan in his goat-god aspect — was attacked by the monster Typhon, he dove into the Nile; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish.
Persephone
In Greek mythology, Persephone also called Kore is the daughter of Zeus and the harvest goddess Demeter, and is the queen of the underworld. Homer describes her as the formidable, venerable majestic queen of the underworld, who carries into effect the curses of men upon the souls of the dead. Persephone was abducted by Hades, the god-king of the underworld. The myth of her abduction represents her function as the personification of vegetation, which shoots forth in spring and withdraws into the earth after harvest; hence, she is also associated with spring as well as the fertility of vegetation.
Rohde
Rhode /ˈroʊdiː/ (Ῥόδη) also known as Rhodos] (Ancient Greek: Ῥόδος), in ancient Greek religion, was the sea nymph or goddess of the island of Rhodes.
Though she does not appear among the lists of nereids in Iliad XVIII or Bibliotheke 1.2.7, such an ancient island nymph in other contexts might gain any of various Olympian parentages: she was thought of as a daughter of Poseidon[2] with any of several primordial sea-goddesses— with whom she might be identified herself— notably Halia or Amphitrite.[3] Pindar even urges his hearers to "Praise the sea maid, daughter of Aphrodite, bride of Helios, this isle of Rhodes. All three names— Halia, Aphrodite, Amphitrite, and furthermore also Kapheira— must have been applied to one and the same great goddess", Karl Kerenyi observes.
In Rhodes, to which she gave her name, she was the consort of Helios, as Pindar says, and a co-protector of the island, which was the sole center of her cult. Her name was applied to the rose, which appeared on Rhodian coinage.
The first inhabitants of Rhodes were identified by Hellenes as the Telchines. Helios made the island rise from the sea and with Rhode, fathered seven sons there, the Heliadae: Ochimus, Cercaphus, Macareus, Actis, Tenages, Triopas, and Candalus) and one daughter, Electryone. Electryone died a virgin and the sons became legendary astronomers and rulers of the island, accounting for the cities among which it was divided. Rhode was worshipped on Rhodes in her own name, as well as Halia, the embodiment of the "salt sea" or as the "white goddess", Leucothea.
Thanatos
In Greek mythology, Thanatos /ˈθænətɒs/ (Greek: Θάνατος [Ancient Greek: tʰánatos "Death", from θνῄσκω thnēskō "to die, be dying") was the daemon personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referred to, but rarely appearing in person.
His name is transliterated in Latin as Thanatus, but his equivalent in Roman mythology is Mors or Letus/Letum, and he is sometimes identified erroneously with Orcus (Orcus himself had a Greek equivalent in the form of Horkos, God of the Oath).
The Greek poet Hesiod established in his Theogony that Thanatos is a son of Nyx (Night) and Erebos (Darkness) and twin of Hypnos (Sleep).
“
And there the children of dark Night have their dwellings, Sleep and Death, awful gods. The glowing Sun never looks upon them with his beams, neither as he goes up into heaven, nor as he comes down from heaven. And the former of them roams peacefully over the earth and the sea's broad back and is kindly to men; but the other has a heart of iron, and his spirit within him is pitiless as bronze: whomsoever of men he has once seized he holds fast: and he is hateful even to the deathless gods.
”
— Hesiod
Thanatos was regarded as merciless and indiscriminate, hated by—and hateful towards—mortals and the deathless gods. But in myths which feature him, Thanatos could occasionally be outwitted, a feat that the sly King Sisyphus of Korinth twice accomplished. When it came time for Sisyphus to die, Zeus ordered Thanatos to chain Sisyphus up in Tartarus. Sisyphus cheated death by tricking Thanatos into his own shackles, thereby prohibiting the demise of any mortal while Thanatos was so enchained.
Eventually Ares , the bloodthirsty god of war, grew frustrated with the battles he incited since neither side suffered any casualties. He released Thanatos and handed his captor over to the god. Sisyphus would evade Death a second time by convincing Persephone to allow him to return to his wife stating that she never gave him a proper funeral. This time, Sisyphus was forcefully dragged back to the Underworld by Hermes when Sisyphus refused to accept his death. Sisyphus was sentenced to an eternity of frustration in Tartarus where he rolled a boulder up a hill and it would roll back down when he got close to the top.
Triton
Triton (/ˈtraɪtən/; Greek: Τρίτων Tritōn) is a mythological Greek god, the messenger of the sea. He is the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, god and goddess of the sea respectively, and is herald for his father. He is usually represented as a merman, having the upper body of a human and the tail of a fish, "sea-hued", according to Ovid[1] "his shoulders barnacled with sea-shells".
Like his father, Poseidon, he carried a trident. However, Triton's special attribute was a twisted conch shell, on which he blew like a trumpet to calm or raise the waves. Its sound was such a cacophony, that when loudly blown, it put the giants to flight, who imagined it to be the roar of a dark wild beast.[2]
According to Hesiod's Theogony,[3] Triton dwelt with his parents in a golden palace in the depths of the sea; Homer places his seat in the waters off Aegae.[disambiguation needed][4] The story of the Argonauts places his home on the coast of Libya. When the Argo was driven ashore in the Gulf of Syrtes Minor, the crew carried the vessel to the "Tritonian Lake", Lake Tritonis, whence Triton, the local deity euhemeristically rationalized by Diodorus Siculus as "then ruler over Libya",[5] welcomed them with a guest-gift of a clod of earth and guided them through the lake's marshy outlet back to the Mediterranean.[6] When the Argonauts were lost in the desert, he guided them to find the passage from the river back to the sea.
Triton was the father of Pallas and foster parent to the goddess Athena.[7] Pallas was killed by Athena accidentally during a sparring fight between the two goddesses.[8] Triton is also sometimes cited as the father of Scylla by Lamia. Triton can sometimes be multiplied into a host of Tritones, daimones of the sea.
In the Virgil's Aeneid, book 6, it is told that Triton killed Misenus, son of Aeolus, by drowning him after he challenged the gods to play as well as he did.[9]
Tyche
Tyche was the presiding tutelary deity that governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. She is the daughter of Aphrodite and Zeus or Hermes.
Increasingly during the Hellenistic period, cities venerated their own specific iconic version of Tyche, wearing a mural crown (a crown like the walls of the city).
Venusia and Venus
Venus (/ˈvi.nəs/, Classical Latin: /ˈwɛ.nʊs/) is the Roman goddess whose functions encompassed love, beauty, sex, fertility and prosperity. In Roman mythology, she was the mother of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy. Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor. Venus was central to many religious festivals, and was venerated in Roman religion under numerous cult titles.
The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art and Latin literature. In the later classical tradition of the West, Venus becomes one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality.
Venusia was also supposedly one of many cities said to be founded by the Greek hero Diomedes after the Trojan War. He dedicated Venusia to the goddess Aphrodite, also known as Venus, to appease her after the Trojans were defeated.
Vesta
Vesta (Latin pronunciation: [ˈwɛsta]) is the virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family in Roman religion. Vesta's presence is symbolized by the sacred fire that burned at her hearth and temples. Her closest Greek equivalent is Hestia.
The importance of Vesta to Roman religion is indicated by the prominence of the priesthood devoted to her, the Vestal Virgins, Rome's only college of full-time priests.
Vulcan
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Vulcan (Latin: Vulcanus) is the god of fire, including the fire of volcanoes. Vulcan is often depicted with a blacksmith's hammer. The Vulcanalia was the annual festival held August 23 in his honour. His Greek counterpart is Hephaestus, the god of fire and smithery. In Etruscan religion, he is identified with Sethlans.
Acantha
Acantha (Greek: Ἀκάνθα, English translation: "thorny") is often claimed to be a minor character in Greek mythology whose metamorphosis was the origin of the Acanthus plant. The tale goes that Acantha was a nymph loved by the god Apollo. Acantha however rebuffed Apollo's advances and scratched his face when he tried to rape her. As a result Apollo transformed her into the Acanthus, a plant with spiny leaves.
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greek hero of the Trojan War and the central character and greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad. Achilles was said to be a demigod; his mother was the nymph Thetis, and his father, Peleus, was the king of the Myrmidons. Achilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Because of his death from a small wound in the heel, the term Achilles' heel has come to mean a person's point of weakness.
Aeneas
In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (/ɪˈniːəs/; Greek: Αἰνείας, Aineías, possibly derived from Greek αἰνή meaning "praise") was a Trojan hero, the son of the prince Anchises and the goddess Aphrodite (Venus). His father was the second cousin of King Priam of Troy, making Aeneas Priam's second cousin, once removed. He is a character in Greek mythology and is mentioned in Homer's Iliad, and receives full treatment in Roman mythology as the legendary founder of what would become Ancient Rome, most extensively in Virgil's Aeneid. He became the first true hero of Rome.
Amazons
The Amazons (Greek: Ἀμαζόνες, Amazónes, singular Ἀμαζών, Amazōn), also known as Oiorpata in Iranian and Scythian, were believed to have been a nation of all-female warriors in Greek mythology and Classical antiquity. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia (modern territory of Ukraine). Other historiographers place them in Anatolia, or sometimes Libya. Notable queens of the Amazons are Penthesilea, who participated in the Trojan War, and her sister Hippolyta , whose magical girdle, given to her by her father Ares, was the object of one of the labours of Hercules . Amazon warriors were often depicted in battle with Greek warriors in amazonomachies in classical art.
Amphion
Amphion was the son of Jupiter and Antiope, queen of Thebes. With his twin brother Zethus he was exposed at birth on Mount Cithaeron, where they grew up among the shepherds, not knowing their parentage. Mercury gave Amphion a lyre, and taught him to play upon it, and his brother occupied himself in hunting and tending the flocks. Meanwhile Antiope, their mother, who had been treated with great cruelty by Lycus, the usurping king of Thebes, and by Dirce, his wife, found means to inform her children of their rights, and to summon them to her assistance. With a band of their fellow-herdsmen they attacked and slew Lycus, and tying Dirce by the hair of her head to a bull, let him drag her till she was dead (the punishment of Dirce is the subject of a celebrated group of statuary now in the Museum at Naples). Amphion, having become king of Thebes fortified the city with a wall. It is said that when he played on his lyre the stones moved of their own accord and took their places in the wall.
Antiope
Antiope was an Amazon, the daughter of Ares and the sister of Hippolyte , queen of the Amazons. She was abducted by Theseus, king of Athens, during Hercules ' capture of Themiscyra, the Amazonian capital. Theseus and Antiope were married in Athens, but Antiope was accidentally killed by the Amazons in a failed rescue attempt.
In Greek mythology, Antiope (/ænˈtaɪ.əpiː/; Greek: Ἀντιόπη) was an Amazon, daughter of Ares and sister to Melanippe and Hippolyte and possibly Orithyia, queens of the Amazons. She was the wife of Theseus, and the only Amazon known to have married. There are various accounts of the manner in which Theseus became possessed of her, and of her subsequent fortunes.
In one version, during Hercules ' ninth labor, which was to obtain the Girdle of Hippolyte , when he captured the Amazons' capital of Themiscyra, his companion Theseus, king of Athens, abducted Antiope and brought her to his home (or she was captured by Hercules and then given by him to Theseus). According to Pausanias, Antiope fell in love with Theseus and betrayed the Amazons of her own free will. They were eventually married and she gave birth to a son, Hippolytus, who was named after Antiope's sister. Soon after, the Amazons attacked Athens in an attempt to rescue Antiope and to take back Hippolyte's girdle; however, in a battle near the hill of Ares they were defeated. During this conflict, known as the Attic War, Antiope was accidentally shot dead by an Amazon named Molpadia, who, in her turn, was then killed by Theseus. Tombs of both Antiope and Molpadia were shown in Athens.
Atalanta
Atalanta was a great Arkadian huntress and a favourite of the goddess Artemis. She was exposed by her father in the wilderness at birth, but was suckled by a she-bear and afterwards found and raised by hunters.
She swore to the goddess to defend her virginity and, when two Kentauroi (Centaurs) burst into her grove, destroyed them with her arrows. Later she participated in the voyage of the Argonauts, and defeated the hero Peleus in wrestling at the funeral games of King Pelias. When Meleagros gathered heroes to destroy the Kalydonian Boar, Atalanta joined the hunt and was the first to draw blood. Meleagros awarded her the prize of the skin, and when his uncles tried to take it from her force, he slew them.
Atalanta was later reunited with her father Skhoineus (or Iasios), who insisted that she be wed. She agreed, but on condition that the suitors must defeat her in a race, and that the losers should be put to death. Hippomenes or Melanion, however, sought the help of the goddess Aphrodite who presented him with three golden apples to cast before the girl in the race. When Atalanta stooped to retrieve these, she was slowed enough to allow the hero to emerge victorious. Their marriage was a short-lived one, for Hippomenes neglected to pay Aphrodite her dues, and was cursed to lay with Atalanta in the sacred precinct of Zeus, Rhea or Artemis where the pair were transformed into lions.
Atalanta's name was derived from the Greek word atalantos, meaning "equal in weight." She was one of several famous huntresses in Greek mythology, others included Britomartis, Kallisto, Kyrene and Prokris.
Autolycus
In Greek mythology, Autolycus (/ɔːˈtɒlɪkəs/; Greek: Αὐτόλυκος Autolykos, "The Wolf Itself", or, very wolf ) was husband to Mestra, daughter of Erysichthon (who could change her shape at will), or to Neaera , or to Amphithea. He became the father of Anticlea and Polymede, of whom the latter was the mother of Jason , the famous Argonaut who led a group of men to find the coveted Golden Fleece . A different Autolycus, the son of Deimachus, was a part of the Argonauts who went on the journey to find the fleece.
Through Anticleia, Autolycus was also the grandfather of the famous warrior Odysseus , and he was responsible for the naming of the child as well. This happened when the nurse of the child Eurycleia "laid the child upon his knees and spoke, and addressed him: Autolycus, find now thyself a name to give to thy child's own child; be sure he has long been prayed for" .
Autolycus obtained most of the same skills that his supposed father Hermes possesses, such as the art of theft, trickery , and skill with the lyre and gracious song . It was said that he "loved to make white of black, and black of white, from a hornless animal to a horned one, or from horned one to a hornless" . He was given the gift that his thievery could not be caught by anyone .
He put his skills to the test when he stole the helmet of the great warrior and his grandson, Odysseus, "he had broken into the stout-built house of Amyntor, son of Ormenus; and he gave it to Amphidamas of Cythera to take to Scandeia, and Amphidamas gave it to Molus as a guest-gift, but he gave it to his own son Meriones to wear; and now, being set thereon, it covered the head of Odysseus". Autolycus , master of thievery, was also well known for stealing, Sisyphus' herd right from underneath him. Sisyphus, who was commonly known for being a crafty king that killed guests, seduced his niece and stole his brothers' throne and was banished to the throes of Tartarus by the gods.
Heracles , the great Greek hero, was taught the art of wrestling by Autolycus. However, Autolycus was a source of some controversy in Heracles' life, because Autolycus stole some cattle from Euboea and Eurytus, who accused Heracles of the deed and, upon his going mad about these accusations, Heracles killed them plus another one of Autolycus' sons, Iphitus. This led to Heracles serving three years of punishment for the deed to repent for this.
Azan
In Greek mythology, Azan (Greek: Ἀζᾶν) was the son of Arcas and the Dryad Erato, brother of Apheidas, Elatus and Hyperippe. Azania in Arcadia was named after him. He married Hippolyte , daughter of Dexamenus, and had a son Cleitor. When Azan died, the first funeral games in history were held in his honor.It was at these games that Aetolus accidentally killed Apis.
Cadmus
In Greek mythology, Cadmus /ˈkædməs/; Greek: Κάδμος Kadmos), was the founder and first king of Thebes. Initially a Phoenician prince, son of king Agenor and queen Telephassa of Tyre and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix and Europa . He was originally sent by his royal parents to seek out and escort his sister Europa back to Tyre after she was abducted from the shores of Phoenicia by Zeus. Cadmus founded the Greek city of Thebes, the acropolis of which was originally named Cadmeia in his honour.
Cassandra
Cassandra (Greek: Κασσάνδρα, pronounced [kas̚sándra͜a], also Κασάνδρα), also known as Alexandra or Kassandra, was the daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy.
A common version of her story is that Apollo gave her the power of prophecy in order to seduce her, but when she refused, he spit into her mouth cursing her to never be believed. In an alternative version, she fell asleep in a temple, and snakes licked (or whispered in) her ears so that she was able to hear the future. Snakes as a source of knowledge is a recurring theme in Greek mythology, although sometimes the snake brings understanding of the language of animals rather than an ability to know the future. Cassandra is a figure of both epic tradition and of tragedy.
Castor and Pollux
Castor and Pollux or Polydeuces were twin brothers, together known as the Dioskouri. Born by Leda and brothers to Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra. They were famed horsemen and hunters, and had participated in the hunting of the Calydonian Boar. They were also part of Jason's crew upon the ship Argo. When Castor died, they became the two brightest stars in the constellation Gemini .
Greek and Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux or Polydeuces were twin brothers, together known as the Dioskouri. Their mother was Leda, but Castor was the mortal son of Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, and Pollux the divine son of Zeus, who seduced Leda in the guise of a swan. Though accounts of their birth are varied, they are sometimes said to have been born from an egg, along with their twin sisters and half-sisters Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra.
In Latin the twins are also known as the Gemini or Castores. When Castor was killed, Pollux asked Zeus to let him share his own immortality with his twin to keep them together, and they were transformed into the constellation Gemini. The pair were regarded as the patrons of sailors, to whom they appeared as St. Elmo's fire, and were also associated with horsemanship.
Charon
In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon (/ˈkɛərɒn/ or /ˈkɛərən/; Greek Χάρων) is the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on the mouth of a dead person. Some authors say that those who could not pay the fee, or those whose bodies were left unburied, had to wander the shores for one hundred years. In the catabasis mytheme, heroes – such as Heracles, Orpheus, Aeneas , Dante, Dionysus and Psyche – journey to the underworld and return, still alive, conveyed by the boat of Charon.
Chione
Daedalion’s daughter Chione was said to be so beautiful that she was the object of a thousand men’s desire. As it transpired Chione’s admirers were not limited to mortal men. Whilst returning from visits to earth both Apollo and Hermes caught sight of Chione and were filled with a burning lust. Apollo decided to wait until night fell, however Hermes was not so patient. Through the use of magic he caused Chione to fall into a deep sleep and proceeded to rape her. Later that evening Apollo also visited her in the guise of an old woman. As a result of these two divine visitations Chione gave birth to twins. By Hermes she gave birth to Autolycus who grew into a notorious thief and charlatan. By Apollo she bore Philammon, a man famed both for his voice and skill with a lyre.
The attentions of not one but two gods led Chione to boast that her beauty exceeded even that of Artemis. To avenge this personal slight, not to mention blasphemy, Artemis struck Chione down by shooting an arrow straight through her tongue. Her father, Daedalion, was overcome with grief despite his brother's best efforts to console him. At his daughter's funeral Daedalion tried to throw himself onto the pyre three times but was restrained. After a fourth unsuccessful attempt he ran, at an impossible speed, through the fields and the forests, climbed to the summit of Mount Parnassus and jumped. Apollo though took pity on the grieving father, transforming him into a hawk before he could hit the ground. It is said that the hawk's great strength, as well as its propensity for hunting other birds, is a result of Daedalion’s former courage and the rage caused by the death of his daughter.
Deimos
In Greek mythology, Deimos (Ancient Greek: Δεῖμος, pronounced [dêːmos], meaning "dread") was the personification of terror.
Deimos was the son of Ares and Aphrodite. He is the twin brother of Phobos and nephew of the goddess Enyo who accompanied her brother Ares into battle, as well as his father's attendants, Trembling, Fear, Dread and Panic. Deimos is more of a personification and an abstraction of the sheer terror that is brought by war and he never appeared as an actual character in any story in Greek Mythology. His Roman equivalent was Formido or Metus.
Asaph Hall, who discovered the moons of Mars, named one Deimos, and the other Phobos - although the moons are very different and not twins like their namesakes.
On the modern monument to the battle of Thermopylae, Leonidas' shield has a representation of Deimos.
Europa
In Greek mythology Europa (/jʊˈroʊpə, jə-/; Greek: Εὐρώπη Eurṓpē; Doric Greek: Εὐρώπα Eurṓpā) was a Phoenician woman of high lineage, for whom the continent Europe was named. The story of her abduction by Zeus in the form of a white bull was a Cretan story. The mythographers tell that Zeus was enamored of Europa and decided to seduce or ravish her, the two being near-equivalent in Greek myth. He transformed himself into a tame white bull and mixed in with her father's herds. While Europa and her helpers were gathering flowers, she saw the bull, caressed his flanks, and eventually got onto his back. Zeus took that opportunity and ran to the sea and swam, with her on his back, to the island of Crete. He then revealed his true identity, and Europa became the first queen of Crete. Zeus gave her a necklace made by Hephaestus and three additional gifts: Talos , Laelaps and a javelin that never missed. Zeus later re-created the shape of the white bull in the stars, which is now known as the constellation Taurus. Some readers interpret as manifestations of this same bull the Cretan beast that was encountered by Heracles, the Marathonian Bull slain by Theseus (and that fathered the Minotaur). Roman mythology adopted the tale of the Raptus, also known as "The Abduction of Europa" and "The Seduction of Europa", substituting the god Jupiter for Zeus.
Hector
In Greek mythology, Hector (Ἕκτωρ Hektōr, pronounced [héktɔːr]) was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War. As the first-born son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, who was a descendant of Dardanus and Tros, the founder of Troy, he was a prince of the royal house and the heir apparent to his father's throne. He was married to Andromache, with whom he had an infant son, Scamandrius (whom the people of Troy called Astyanax). He acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, "killing 31,000 Greek fighters," offers Hyginus. During the European Middle Ages, Hector figures as one of the Nine Worthies noted by Jacques de Longuyon, known not only for his courage but also for his noble and courtly nature. Indeed Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. James Redfield writes of Hector as a "martyr to loyalties, a witness to the things of this world, a hero ready to die for the precious imperfections of ordinary life."
Helen of Troy
In Greek mythology, Helen of Troy (Greek Ἑλένη Helénē, pronounced [helénɛː]), also known as Helen of Sparta, was the daughter of Zeus and Leda, and was a sister of Castor , Pollux , and Clytemnestra. In Greek myths, she was considered the most beautiful woman in the world. By marriage she was Queen of Laconia, a province within Homeric Greece, the wife of King Menelaus. Her abduction by Paris, Prince of Troy, brought about the Trojan War. Elements of her putative biography come from classical authors such as Aristophanes, Cicero, Euripides and Homer (both The Iliad and The Odyssey).
In her youth she was abducted by, or eloped with, Theseus, and in some accounts bore him a child. A competition between her suitors for her hand in marriage sees Menelaus emerge victorious. An oath sworn beforehand by all the suitors (known as the Oath of Tyndareus) requires them to provide military assistance in the case of her abduction; this oath culminates in the Trojan War. When she marries Menelaus she is still very young; whether her subsequent involvement with Paris is an abduction or a seduction is ambiguous.
The legends recounting Helen's fate in Troy are contradictory. Homer depicts her as a wistful, even a sorrowful, figure, coming to regret her choice and wishing to be reunited with Menelaus. Other accounts have a treacherous Helen who simulates Bacchic rites and rejoices in the carnage. Ultimately, Paris was killed in action, and in Homer's account Helen was reunited with Menelaus, though other versions of the legend recount her ascending to Olympus instead. A cult associated with her developed in Hellenistic Laconia, both at Sparta and elsewhere; at Therapne she shared a shrine with Menelaus. She was also worshiped in Attica, and on Rhodes.
Heracles
Hercules is the Roman name for the Greek divine hero Heracles, who was the son of Zeus (Roman equivalent Jupiter) and the mortal Alcmene. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Greek hero's iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name Hercules. In later Western art and literature and in popular culture, Hercules is more commonly used than Hercules as the name of the hero. Hercules was a multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him.
Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches of the Greco-Roman world. One cycle of these adventures became canonical as the " Twelve Labours " but the list has variations. One traditional order of the labours is found in the Bibliotheca as follows:
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Hippolyta
In Greek mythology, Hippolyta (/hɪˈpɒlɪˌtə/; Greek: Ἱππολύτη Hippolyte) was the Amazonian queen who possessed a magical girdle she was given by her father Ares , the god of war. The girdle was a waist belt that signified her authority as queen of the Amazons. She figures prominently in the myths of both Heracles and Theseus. As such, the stories about her are varied enough that they may actually be about several different characters.
In the myth of Heracles , Hippolyta's girdle (ζωστὴρ Ἱππολύτης) was the object of his ninth labor . He was sent to retrieve it for Admeta, the daughter of King Eurystheus. Most versions of the story say that Hippolyta was so impressed with Heracles that she gave him the girdle without argument, perhaps while visiting him on his ship.
Then (according to Pseudo-Apollodorus), the goddess Hera, making herself appear as one of the Amazons , spread a rumor among them that Heracles and his crew were actually abducting their queen. So the Amazons attacked the ship. In the fray that followed, Heracles slew Hippolyta , stripped her of the belt, fought off the attackers, and sailed away.
Hyacinth
In Greek mythology, Hyacinth was given various parentage, providing local links, as the son of Clio and Pierus, King of Macedon, or of king Oebalus of Sparta, or of king Amyclas of Sparta, progenitor of the people of Amyclae, dwellers about Sparta. His cult at Amyclae, where his tomb was located, at the feet of Apollo's statue, dates from the Mycenaean era.
In the literary myth, Hyacinth was a beautiful youth and lover of the god Apollo, though he was also admired by West Wind, Zephyr. Apollo and Hyacinth took turns throwing the discus. Hyacinth ran to catch it to impress Apollo, was struck by the discus as it fell to the ground, and died.[3] A twist in the tale makes the wind god Zephyrus responsible for the death of Hyacinth. His beauty caused a feud between Zephyrus and Apollo. Jealous that Hyacinth preferred the radiant archery god Apollo, Zephyrus blew Apollo's discus off course, so as to injure and kill Hyacinth. When he died, Apollo did not allow Hades to claim the youth; rather, he made a flower, the hyacinth, from his spilled blood. According to Ovid's account, the tears of Apollo stained the newly formed flower's petals with the sign of his grief. The flower of the mythological Hyacinth has been identified with a number of plants other than the true hyacinth, such as the iris. According to a local Spartan version of the myth, Hyacinth and his sister Polyboea were taken to Elysium by Aphrodite, Athena and Artemis.
Thamyris is said by Pseudo-Apollodorus of Athens to have been a lover of Hyacinth and thus to have been the first man to have loved another male.
Hyacinth was the tutelary deity of one of the principal Spartan festivals, the Hyacinthia, held every summer. The festival lasted three days, one day of mourning for the death of the divine hero Hyacinth, and the last two celebrating his rebirth as Apollo Hayakinthios, though the division of honours is a subject for scholarly controversy.
Icarus
In Greek mythology, Icarus (the Latin spelling, conventionally adopted in English; Ancient Greek: Ἴκαρος, Íkaros, Etruscan: Vikare) is the son of the master craftsman Daedalus. Often depicted in art, Icarus and his father attempt to escape from Crete by means of wings that his father constructed from feathers and wax. Icarus' father warns him first of complacency and then of hubris, asking that he fly neither too low nor too high, because the sea's dampness would clog or the sun's heat would melt his wings. Icarus ignored instructions not to fly too close to the sun, and the melting wax caused him to fall into the sea where he drowned. This tragic theme of failed ambition contains similarities to that of Phaëthon.
Jason
Jason was an ancient Greek mythological hero who was famous for his role as the leader of the Argonauts and their quest for the Golden Fleece. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Medea. Because he belongs to mythology, he may have existed before the Greek Dark Ages (1100–800 BC.) The people who wrote about Jason lived around 300 BC.
Jason appeared in various literary works in the classical world of Greece and Rome, including the epic poem Argonautica and the tragedy Medea .
Jason has connections outside the classical world, being the mythical founder of the city of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia.
Medea
In Greek mythology, Medea was the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, niece of Circe , granddaughter of the sun god Helios, and later wife to the hero Jason, with whom she had two children, Mermeros and Pheres. In Euripides's play Medea, Jason leaves Medea when Creon, king of Corinth, offers him his daughter, Glauce. The play tells of Medea avenging her husband's betrayal by slaying their children.
Melanippe
Daughter of the Centaur Chiron. Also known as Hippe or Euippe. She bore a daughter to Aeolus, Melanippe or Arne. She escaped to Mount Pelion so that her father would not find out that she was pregnant, but, being searched for, she prayed to Artemis asking for assistance, and the goddess transformed her into a mare. Other accounts state that the transformation was a punishment for her having scorned Artemis, or for having divulged the secrets of gods. She was later placed among the stars.
Menelaus
In Greek mythology, Menelaus (/ˌmɛnɪˈleɪəs/; Greek: Μενέλαος, Menelaos) was a king of Mycenaean (pre-Dorian) Sparta, the husband of Helen of Troy , and a central figure in the Trojan War. He was the son of Atreus and Aerope, brother of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and, according to the Iliad, leader of the Spartan contingent of the Greek army during the War. Prominent in both the Iliad and Odyssey, Menelaus was also popular in Greek vase painting and Greek tragedy; the latter more as a hero of the Trojan War than as a member of the doomed House of Atreus.
In a return for awarding her a golden apple inscribed "to the fairest," Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman in all the world. After concluding a diplomatic mission to Sparta during the latter part of which Menelaus was absent to attend the funeral of his maternal grandfather Catreus in Crete, Paris ran off to Troy with Helen in tow despite his brother Hector forbidding her to depart with them. Invoking the oath of Tyndareus, Menelaus and Agamemnon raised a fleet of one thousand ships according to legend and went to Troy to secure Helen's return; the Trojans were recalcitrant, providing a casus belli for the Trojan War.
Angry at Helen , Menelaus looked for and found her. In a fit of rage, he decided to kill her for leaving him for Paris, but when he raised his sword, she started to weep at her former husband's feet, begging for her life. In a split second, Menelaus' wrath went away instantly. He took pity on her, and decided to take her back as wife.
Midas
Midas, in Greek and Roman legend, a king of Phrygia, known for his foolishness and greed.
According to the myth, Midas found the wandering Silenus, the satyr and companion of the god Dionysus. For his kind treatment of Silenus Midas was rewarded by Dionysus with a wish. The king wished that all he touched might turn to gold, but when his food became gold and he nearly starved to death as a result, he realized his error. Dionysus then granted him release by having him bathe in the Pactolus River (near Sardis in modern Turkey), an action to which the presence of alluvial gold in that stream is attributed.
Minos
In Greek mythology, Minos (/ˈmaɪnɒs/ or /ˈmaɪnəs/; Ancient Greek: Μίνως, Minōs) was a king of Crete, son of Zeus and Europa . Every nine years, he made King Aegeus pick seven young boys and seven young girls to be sent to Daedalus' creation, the labyrinth, to be eaten by the Minotaur . After his death, Minos became a judge of the dead in the underworld. The Minoan civilization of Crete has been named after him by the archaeologist Arthur Evans. By his wife, Pasiphaë (or some say Crete), he fathered Ariadne, Androgeus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Catreus, Acacallis and Xenodice. By a nymph, Pareia, he had four sons, Eurymedon, Nephalion, Chryses and Philolaus, who were killed by Heracles in revenge for the murder of the latter's two companions; and by Dexithea, one of the Telchines, he had a son called Euxanthius. By Androgeneia of Phaestus he had Asterion, who commanded the Cretan contingent in the war between Dionysus and the Indians. Also given as his children are Euryale, possibly the mother of Orion with Poseidon, and Pholegander, eponym of the island Pholegandros. Minos, along with his brothers, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, was raised by king Asterion (or Asterius) of Crete. When Asterion died, his throne was claimed by Minos who banished Sarpedon and, according to some sources, Rhadamanthys too.
Orpheus
Orpheus (/ˈɔrfiəs, ˈɔrfjuːs/; Greek: Ὀρφεύς) was a legendary Thracian musician, poet, and prophet in ancient Greek religion and myth. The major stories about him are centered on his ability to charm all living things and even stones with his music, his attempt to retrieve his wife, Eurydice, from the underworld, and his death at the hands of those who could not hear his divine music. As an archetype of the inspired singer, Orpheus is one of the most significant figures in the reception of classical mythology in Western culture, portrayed or alluded to in countless forms of art and popular culture including poetry, film, opera, music, and painting.
For the Greeks, Orpheus was a founder and prophet of the so-called "Orphic" mysteries. He was credited with the composition of the Orphic Hymns, a collection of which survives. Shrines containing purported relics of Orpheus were regarded as oracles. Some ancient Greek sources note Orpheus' Thracian origins.
Pandora
In Greek mythology, Pandora (Greek: Πανδώρα, derived from πᾶν, pān, i.e. "all" and δῶρον, dōron, i.e. "gift", thus "the all-endowed", "the all-gifted" or "the all-giving") was the first human woman created by the gods, specifically by Hephaestus and Athena on the instructions of Zeus. As Hesiod related it, each god helped create her by giving her unique gifts. Zeus ordered Hephaestus to mold her out of earth as part of the punishment of humanity for Prometheus' theft of the secret of fire, and all the gods joined in offering her "seductive gifts". Her other name—inscribed against her figure on a white-ground kylix in the British Museum—is Anesidora, "she who sends up gifts" (up implying "from below" within the earth).
According to the myth, Pandora opened a jar (pithos), in modern accounts sometimes mistranslated as "Pandora's box", releasing all the evils of humanity—although the particular evils, aside from plagues and diseases, are not specified in detail by Hesiod—leaving only Hope inside once she had closed it again. She opened the jar out of simple curiosity and not as a malicious act.
The Pandora myth is a kind of theodicy, addressing the question of why there is evil in the world.
Pasiphae
In Greek mythology, Pasiphaë (/pəˈsɪfɨ.iː/; Greek: Πασιφάη Pasipháē, "wide-shining") was the daughter of Helios, the Sun, by the eldest of the Oceanids, Perse.
Like her doublet Europa , her origins were in the East, in her case at Colchis, she was the sister of Circe , and she was given in marriage to King Minos of Crete. With Minos , she was the mother of Acacallis, Ariadne, Androgeus, Glaucus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Xenodice, and Catreus. She was also the mother of "starlike" Asterion, called by the Greeks the Minotaur , after a curse from Poseidon caused her to experience lust for and mate with a white bull sent by Poseidon.
Pelops
In Greek mythology, Pelops (/ˈpiːlɒps, ˈpɛlɒps/; Greek: Πέλοψ), was king of Pisa in the Peloponnesus. His father, Tantalus, was the founder of the House of Atreus through Pelops's son of that name.
He was venerated at Olympia, where his cult developed into the founding myth of the Olympic Games, the most important expression of unity, not only for the Peloponnesus, "island of Pelops", but for all Hellenes. At the sanctuary at Olympia, chthonic night-time libations were offered each time to "dark-faced" Pelops in his sacrificial pit (bothros) before they were offered in the following daylight to the sky-god Zeus.
Pelops' father was Tantalus, king at Mount Sipylus in Anatolia. Wanting to make an offering to the Olympians, Tantalus cut Pelops into pieces and made his flesh into a stew, then served it to the gods. Demeter, deep in grief after the abduction of her daughter Persephone by Hades, absentmindedly accepted the offering and ate the left shoulder. The other gods sensed the plot, however, and held off from eating of the boy's body. Pelops was ritually reassembled and brought back to life, his shoulder replaced with one of ivory made for him by Hephaestus. Pindar mentioned this tradition in his First Olympian Ode, only to reject it as a malicious invention: his patron claimed descent from Tantalus.
After Pelops' resurrection, Poseidon took him to Olympus, and made him the youth apprentice, teaching him also to drive the divine chariot. Later, Zeus found out about the gods' stolen food and their now revealed secrets, and threw Pelops out of Olympus, angry at his father, Tantalus.
Phineus
Phineus, the son of Agenor, was a king of Thrace and a prophet. Because he prophesied too truly, revealing too much of the gods' truth to humans, Zeus blinded him and set the Harpies to plague him. Whenever Phineus sat down to eat, the Harpies would swoop down and steal the food; what little food they left would be foul-smelling and unpalatable. When Jason and the Argonauts arrived in Phineus' land, they rid his household of the curse by having the winged Boreads pursue the Harpies; the goddess Iris prevented the Boreads from killing the Harpies by promising that Phineus would not be troubled again. In return for the Argonauts' help, Phineus foretold the results of their quest, and revealed to them how they should get past the hazard of the Symplegades.
Source: http://www.pantheon.org/articles/p/phineus.html
Monsters & Creatures
Monsters include good or evil creatures that were born this way or humans who became monsters because of the intervention of Gods, or because of other situations.
Agathos Daimon
A winged serpent that in Gnostic and ancient Greek legends that was said to bring about good fortune. Temples were built for the Agathos Daimon and wine was offered to ensure a good harvest. Sculptures were made of it as a reminder of its presence. Some would even talk to the serpent. The worship of Agathos Daimon was a private practice. The word ‘Daimon’ is Greek for spirit and spirits were considered to powerful but weaker than the gods. Later this word filtered into the English language to become Demon. The word ‘Agathos’ denotes that the spirit was benevolent. However over time this winged serpent became known to be sinister.
Argus Panoptes
In Greek mythology, Argus Panoptes (Ἄργος Πανόπτης) or Argos, guardian of the heifer-nymph Io and son of Arestor, was a primordial giant whose epithet, "Panoptes," or "all-seeing," led to his being described with multiple, often one hundred, eyes. Argos was a faithful, alert, and benevolent being, employed by Hera primarily as a guardian and, at one point, as slayer of the villain Echidna . According to Ovid, to commemorate her faithful watchman, Hera had the hundred eyes of Argus preserved forever, in a peacock's tail.
Basilisk
In European bestiaries and legends, a Basilisk (Greek βασιλίσκος basilískos, "little king") is a legendary reptile reputed to be king of serpents and said to have the power to cause death with a single glance. Basilisks have been reimagined and employed in modern fantasy fiction for books and role-playing games, with wide variations on the powers and weaknesses attributed to them. Most of these depictions describe a reptile of some sort, with the power to kill its victims with a direct stare and petrify through an indirect one.
Centaur
The centaur (from Greek: Κένταυρος, Kéntauros) are part human, part horse creatures in Greek mythology. Females were known as centaurides. They were said to have been born of Ixion, king of the Lapiths, and Nephele, the cloud made by Zeus in the image of Hera. They are known as wild and savage creatures, lustful and uncultured, lovers of drink, and given to violence when intoxicated.
Charybdis
The sea monster Charybdis was believed to live under a small rock on one side of a narrow channel. Opposite her was Scylla , another sea-monster, that lived inside a much larger rock. [Odyssey, Book XII] The sides of the strait were within an arrow shot of each other, and sailors attempting to avoid one of them would come in reach of the other. Between Scylla and Charybdis thus means to having to choose between two dangers, either of which brings harm. Three times a day, Charybdis swallowed a huge amount of water, before belching it back out again, creating large whirlpools capable of dragging a ship underwater.[citation needed] In some variations of the story, Charybdis was simply a large whirlpool instead of a sea monster.
A later myth makes Charybdis the daughter of Poseidon and Gaia and living as a loyal servant to Poseidon. She aided him in his feud with Zeus, and as such, helped him engulf lands and islands in water. Zeus, angry for the land she stole from him, cursed her into a hideous bladder of a monster, with flippers for arms and legs, and an uncontrollable thirst for the sea. As such, she drank the water from the sea three times a day to quench it, which created whirlpools. She lingered on a rock with Scylla facing her directly on another rock, making a strait.
The theoretical size of Charybdis remains unknown, yet in order to consume Greek ships the whirlpool can be estimated to about 23 meters (75 ft) across.
Chimera
The Chimera was, according to Greek mythology, a monstrous fire-breathing hybrid creature of Lycia in Asia Minor, composed of the parts of more than one animal. Usually depicted as a lion, with the head of a goat arising from his back and also dragon, and a tail that might end with a snake's head, the Chimera was one of the offspring of Typhon and Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lernaean Hydra .
Cyclops
A cyclops (from Greek: Κύκλωψ, Kuklōps), in Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, was a member of a primordial race of giants, each with a single eye in the middle of his forehead. The name is widely thought to mean "circle-eyed". Various ancient Greek and Roman authors wrote about cyclopes . Hesiod described them as three brothers who were primordial giants. All the other sources of literature about the cyclopes describe the cyclops Polyphemus, who lived upon an island populated by the creatures.
Delphyne
In Greek mythology, Delphyne (Greek: Δελφύνη) is the name of the female dragon who was appointed by her mother, Gaea, to guard the oracle of Delphi. She is sometimes called Python and may, in the stories, be replaced with or accompanied by a male dragon (either Python or Typhon ). She is sometimes equated with Echidna , a monster with the head and torso of woman, but the lower part of a snake, who was the consort of Typhon. In one tale, Delphyne (here half maiden, half snake, like Echidna) guards the sinews of Zeus, which had been stolen by her mate Typhon. She was slain by Apollo. Apollo's title Delphinius is, in some stories, interpreted as having come from his slaying of Delphyne (or from showing the Cretan colonists the way to Delphi whilst riding on a dolphin).
Dryad
A dryad (/ˈdraɪ.æd/; Greek: Δρυάδες, sing.: Δρυάς) is a tree nymph, or female tree spirit, in Greek mythology. In Greek drys signifies "oak." Thus, dryads are specifically the nymphs of oak trees, though the term has come to be used for all tree nymphs in general. "Such deities are very much overshadowed by the divine figures defined through poetry and cult," Walter Burkert remarked of Greek nature deities. They were normally considered to be very shy creatures, except around the goddess Artemis, who was known to be a friend to most nymphs.
Echidna
Daughter of primordial goddess Gaia, Echidna (from Ancient Greek:Ἔχιδνα, "she viper") was half woman and half serpent, known as the "Mother of All Monsters" (wife of Typhon ) because a great many of the monsters in Greek myth were mothered by her, including several dragons, Scylla , the Hydra , Chimera , and various other creatures. She reportedly had a penchant for kidnapping those who strayed too near her cave. Though Echidna was blessed with eternal youth, she was eventually slain by the ancient and benevolent giant Argos .
Erinyes
Erinyes, (Greek form: Ἐρῑνύες) in Greek and Roman mythology, literally "the avengers," were female chthonic deities of vengeance. They correspond to the Furies or Dirae in Roman mythology. According to Hesiod's Theogony, when the Titan Cronus castrated his father Uranus and threw his genitalia into the sea, the Erinyes as well as the Meliae emerged from the drops of blood when it fell on the earth. Their number is usually left indeterminate, but Virgil recognized three: Alecto ("unnameable"), Megaera ("grudging"), and Tisiphone ("vengeful destruction"), all of whom appear in the Aeneid. The Erinyes are crones and, depending upon authors, described as having snakes for hair, dog's heads, coal black bodies, bat's wings, and blood-shot eyes. In their hands they carry brass-studded scourges, and their victims die in torment.
Galatea
In Greek mythology, the Nereids (/ˈnɪəriɪdz/ NEER-ee-idz; Ancient Greek: Νηρηΐδες, sg. Νηρηΐς) are sea nymphs (female spirits of sea waters), the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris, sisters to Nerites. They were distinct from the Sirens. They often accompany Poseidon, the god of the sea, and can be friendly and helpful to sailors fighting perilous storms. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Acis was the spirit of the Acis River in Sicily, beloved of the nereid, or sea-nymph, Galatea, daughter of Nereus and Doris. She returned his love, but a jealous rival, the Sicilian Cyclops Polyphemus, killed him with a boulder. Galatea then turned his blood into the Sicilian River Acis.
Griffin
The Griffin , griffon, or gryphon (from Greek: γρύφων, grýphōn, or γρύπων, grýpōn, early form γρύψ, grýps; Latin: gryphus) is a legendary creature with the body, tail, and back legs of a lion, the head and wings of an eagle, and an eagle's talons as its front feet. As the lion was traditionally considered the king of the beasts and the eagle was the king of the birds, the griffin was thought to be an especially powerful and majestic creature. Griffins are known for guarding treasure and priceless possessions.
Harpy
A Harpy (Greek: ἅρπυια) was one of the winged spirits best known for constantly stealing all food from Phineus. The literal meaning of the word seems to be "that which snatches" as it comes from the Greek word harpazein (ἁρπάζειν), which means "to snatch". A harpy was the mother of the horses of Achilles sired by the West Wind Zephyros.
Hippocamp and Chariot Hippocamp
The Hippocamp - or hippocampus, also hippokampoi, and often called a sea-horse in English - is a mythological creature shared by Phoenician and Greek mythology, though the name by which it is recognized is purely Greek. It was also adopted into Etruscan mythology. It has typically been depicted as a horse in its forepart with a coiling, scaly, fish-like hindquarter.
Lernaean Hydra
The Lernaean Hydra (Ancient Greek: Λερναία Ὕδρα) was an ancient serpent-like chthonic water beast, with reptilian traits (as its name evinces), that possessed many heads — the poets mention more heads than the vase-painters could paint, and for each head cut off it grew two more — and poisonous breath and blood so virulent even its tracks were deadly. It was killed by Heracles (second labour).
Lamia
In ancient Greek mythology, Lamia (Greek: Λάμια) was a beautiful queen of Libya who became a child-eating daemon. Her name derives from the Greek word for gullet (λαιμός; laimos), referring to her habit of devouring children. She is a mistress of the god Zeus, causing Zeus' jealous wife, Hera, to kill all of Lamia's children (except for Scylla , who is herself cursed) and transform her into a monster that hunts and devours the children of others.
Lynx
The lynx , a type of wildcat, has a prominent role in Greek, Norse, and North American mythology. It is considered an elusive and mysterious creature, known in some American Indian traditions as a 'keeper of secrets'. It is also believed to have supernatural eyesight, capable of seeing even through solid objects. As a result, it often symbolizes the unraveling of hidden truths, and the psychic power of clairvoyance.
Marsyas
In Greek mythology, the satyr Marsyas (/ˈmɑrsiəs/; Greek: Μαρσύας) is a central figure in two stories involving death: in one, he picked up the double flute (aulos) that had been abandoned by Athena and played it; in the other, he challenged Apollo to a contest of music and lost his hide and life. In antiquity, literary sources often emphasize the hubris of Marsyas and the justice of his punishment.
Medusa & The Gorgons
The Gorgons (Ancient Greek: Γοργών "dreadful"), Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa (Ancient Greek: Μέδουσα (Médousa), "guardian," "protectress"), daughters of the sea gods Phorcys and Ceto and sisters of Echidna and Scylla , were monsters, described as having the faces of hideous women with living venomous snakes in place of hair. Gazing directly upon them would turn onlookers to stone. Two of the sisters were immortal; only Medusa was mortal. She was beheaded by the hero Perseus, who thereafter used her head as a weapon. Medusa was the mother of Pegasus .
Minotaur
The Minotaur (from Ancient Greek: Μῑνώταυρος "bull of Minos") was a creature with the head of a bull on the body of a man. He dwelt at the center of the Cretan Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus, on the command of King Minos of Crete. In Crete the Minotaur was known by its proper name, Asterios (Ancient Greek: Ἀστέριος "starry," "ruler of the stars"). The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus.
Mormo
In Greek mythology, Mormo (Greek: Μορμώ, Μορμών, Mormō) was a spirit who bit bad children, and was said to have been a companion of the goddess Hecate. The name was also used to signify a female vampire-like creature in stories told to Greek children by their nurses to keep them from misbehaving. This reference is primarily found in some of the plays of Aristophanes.He is also referenced in The Alexiad, which goes to show that Mormo was still taught to children during Byzantine times. The Mormo would steal children in revenge of Queen Laestrygonian who was deprived by her children.
Nessos
Nessos (or Nessus) was one of Thessalian Kentauroi (Centaurs) who was fled his homeland after the Lapith war. He made his way to the Aitolian river Euenos and there established himself as ferryman. When Heracles later passed by with his bride, Deianeira, Nessos took her upon his back and ferried her across the river. However, he became enflamed with desire for the beautiful woman and attempted to force her. She cried out and Herakles slew him with his poisoned arrows. Nessos, as he was dying, persuaded Deianeira to take some of his poisoned blood to use as a love charm should Herakles ever proved unfaithful. The dupe resulted in the hero's death.
Ocypete
Ocypete (English translation: "swift wing") was one of the three Harpies in Greek mythology. She was also known as Ocypode ("swift foot") or Ocythoe ("swift runner"). The Harpies were the daughters of the sea god Thaumas and the sea nymph Electra. According to one story, the Harpies were chased by the Boreads. Though the swiftest of the trio, Ocypete became exhausted, landed on an island in the middle of the ocean and begged for mercy from the gods. In Greek and Roman mythology, the Harpies were creatures employed by the higher gods to carry out the punishment of crime.
Satyr
A satyr (Greek σάτυρος, satyros) is one of a troop of male companions of Pan and Dionysus with goat-like features. Children of nature, pure, they are tame, fearless and brutal when they have to defend themselves against threats. Above all though, the Satyr with flute has a small companion for him, shows the deep connection with nature, the soft whistle of the wind, the sound of gurgling water of the crystal spring, the birds singing, or perhaps the singing a melody of a human soul that feeds higher feelings.
Scylla
In Greek mythology, Scylla (/ˈsɪlə/ sil-ə; Greek: Σκύλλα, pronounced [skýl̚la], Skylla) was a monster that lived on one side of a narrow channel of water, opposite its counterpart Charybdis . The two sides of the strait were within an arrow's range of each other—so close that sailors attempting to avoid Charybdis would pass too close to Scylla and vice versa. The strait has been associated with the Strait of Messina between Italy and Sicily. The idiom "Between Scylla and Charybdis" has come to mean being between two dangers, choosing either of which brings harm.
Sphinx
A Sphinx (Greek: Σφίγξ) is a mythical creature with, as a minimum, the body of a lion and a woman's head. She is mythicised as treacherous and merciless. The Sphinx is said to have guarded the entrance to the Greek city of Thebes, and to have asked a riddle of travellers to allow them passage. Oedipus solved her riddle, and, bested at last, the Sphinx then threw herself from her high rock and died. (An Egyptian version of the Sphinx also exists, and was viewed as benevolent in contrast to the malevolent Greek version, and was thought of as a guardian often flanking the entrances to temples.
Typhon
Typhon (Greek: Τυφῶν), also Typhoeus, was the most deadly monster of Greek mythology. The last son of Gaia, fathered by Tartarus, he was known as the "Father of All Monsters"; his wife Echidna was likewise the "Mother of All Monsters." His human upper half reached as high as the stars, and his hands reached east and west. His bottom half consisted of gigantic viper coils that could reach the top of his head when stretched out and constantly made a hissing noise. He tried to kill Zeus, but is finally defeated by the King of Gods, who traps him underneath Mount Etna.
Others
Aegis
The aegis or aigis (Ancient Greek: Αἰγίς; English pronunciation: /ˈiːdʒɪs/), as stated in the Iliad, is carried by Athena and Zeus, but its nature is uncertain. It had been interpreted as an animal skin or a shield, sometimes bearing the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex or Aix, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, Astronomica 2. 13). The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the Iliad. "It produced a sound as from a myriad roaring dragons (Iliad, 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle ... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen."
Amethyst
Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz often used in jewelry. The name comes from the Ancient Greek ἀ a- ("not") and μέθυστος méthystos ("intoxicated"), a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness. The ancient Greeks wore amethyst and made drinking vessels decorated with it in the belief that it would prevent intoxication. It is one of several forms of quartz. Amethyst is a semiprecious stone and is the traditional birthstone for February.
The Greek word "amethystos" may be translated as "not drunken", from Greek a-, "not" + methustos, "intoxicated". Amethyst was considered to be a strong antidote against drunkenness, which is why wine goblets were often carved from it. In his poem "L'Amethyste, ou les Amours de Bacchus et d'Amethyste" (Amethyst or the loves of Bacchus and Amethyste), the French poet Remy Belleau (1528–1577) invented a myth in which Bacchus, the god of intoxication, of wine, and grapes was pursuing a maiden named Amethyste, who refused his affections. Amethyste prayed to the gods to remain chaste, a prayer which the chaste goddess Diana answered, transforming her into a white stone. Humbled by Amethyste's desire to remain chaste, Bacchus poured wine over the stone as an offering, dyeing the crystals purple.
Cocytus
Cocytus or Kokytos, meaning "the river of wailing" (from the Greek Κωκυτός, "lamentation"), is a river in the underworld in Greek mythology. Cocytus flows into the river Acheron, across which is the underworld, the mythological abode of the dead. There are five rivers encircling Hades. The River Styx is perhaps the most famous; the other rivers are Phlegethon, Lethe, and Acheron.
Siege Horse
The Trojan Horse is the subject of a tale from the Trojan War about the subterfuge that the Greeks used to enter the city of Troy and win the war. In the canonical version, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse, and hid a select force of men inside. The Greeks pretended to sail away, and the Trojans pulled the horse into their city as a victory trophy. That night the Greek force crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under cover of night. The Greeks entered and destroyed the city of Troy, decisively ending the war.
Zeus' Eagle
This eagle is the punishment of Prometheus as a consequence of the theft of Zeus' fire. Zeus, king of the Olympian gods, sentenced the Titan to eternal torment for his transgression. The immortal Prometheus was bound to a rock, where each day an eagle, the emblem of Zeus, was sent to feed on his liver, which would then grow back to be eaten again the next day. In some stories, Prometheus is freed at last by the hero Heracles. The eagle is also used to bring people to the skies.
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Which is the second most highly populated town on the Isle of Man, Douglas being the first? | 10 Best Isle of Man Vacation Rentals, Cottages (with Photos) | TripAdvisor - Self Catering in Isle of Man, UK
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About this property
Newly built holiday lodges, stylish, comfortable and cannot fail to please! Set in beautiful surroundings of an established house on the outskirts of the village of Foxdale. Pub, petrol and store only 800m Central position is ideal for walking, fishing, biking and touring. Island centre for Apeman,... View all property information
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"Great place to stay"
Reviewed November 25, 2016
Great place to stay on we the isle of man. Lodges are spacious, well equipped, clean and finished to a high standard. As a family, we loved every minute there.
"Perfect!!!"
Reviewed January 1, 2016
Dave and I come to Isle of Man approximately 8 times a year to visit our parents, this is the first time we have opted to stay here and definitely won't be the last. The self...
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About this property
Brand new holiday lodges, stylish, comfortable and cannot fail to please! Set in beautiful surroundings of an established house on the outskirts of the village of Foxdale. Pub, petrol and store only 800m. Central position is ideal for walking, fishing, biking and touring. Island Centre for... View all property information
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"Wonderfull Holiday enhanced by the lovely Lodge."
Reviewed November 11, 2016
The Lodge has everything you could need for a perfect holiday. The owner is a perfect gentleman who went out of his way to see that everything ran smoothly. Lovely welcoming gift...
"Asta la vista baby. ..I'll be back"
Reviewed November 9, 2016
Has that "cabin in the moutain " feel but with all mod cons...everything you need for modern living . Foxdale is quiet..quaint and nicely situated between Douglas and peel. Mike...
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About this property
This spacious self catering apartment, set in the beautiful location of Abbeylands, 3 miles out of Douglas. This two bed roomed apartment is fitted with a Queen sized double bed and 2 singles in the other room which can be made into a double bed if preferred. <BR><BR>It has a large lounge area with... View all property information
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"Excellent home close to town but in the country"
Reviewed November 3, 2016
We stayed here for a short break and had a great time.The house is spotlessly clean and is well equipped. It's located just outside Douglas so is convenient for the Island's main...
"Peaceful helpful friendly place"
Reviewed September 5, 2016
a lovely clean place great value for money,kids loved the pigs & horses, people were really friendly and helpful, also some essentials provided for when you arrive,
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About this property
Glen Chass Farmhouse is a beautiful 3 bedroom house that sleeps up to 6 people in a magnificent setting. It is rated 4 Star by the Tourism Board. You can see some of the best coastal and sea views in Britain from your windows and have one of the best walks in the world, The Road of the Gull (Raad... View all property information
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"Stunning views and relaxing stay"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
A lovely cottage with incredible sea views that is very well equipped! We had a fantastic stay and would definitely return. The owners are really friendly and helpful. The only...
"Stunning views in a relaxing cottage"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
A beautiful house in amazing surroundings with incredible sea views. One of the best holiday cottages I have stayed in. We had a really lovely time and the owners are very...
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About this property
Driftwood Cottage, dating back to the 18th century, is a traditional Manx cottage nestling in a quiet pedestrianised lane in the heart of Peel’s conservation area. Many of the original features of the cottage remain and blend in well with the modern facilities which have been introduced. On the... View all property information
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"Best Cottage in Peel."
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
What a fabulous cottage. Everything carefully prepared. Everything thought of. Superb welcome from Keith waiting to give us directions with a place to park. Parking easy and a...
"excellent"
Reviewed October 8, 2016
lovely cottage, lovely welcome pack. it was a home from home. great communication with owner from start of booking to end of holiday.
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About this property
Modern bungalow | 2 bedrooms | sleeps 4 <BR><BR>Key Info • Beach/Walking/Cycling/Relaxation<BR><BR>• Nearest beach 10 mins<BR>• Suitable for all ages – easy access<BR>• Car not necessary<BR>• No pets allowed<BR>• Private garden and indoor and outdoor games areas<BR><BR>This property is situated ten... View all property information
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"Comfortable and clean bungalow"
Reviewed October 19, 2016
Lovely property in an ideal position. Had everything you need and very kind of Eric and Krystina to leave us welcome goodies on arrival.
"Lovely bungalow"
Reviewed July 26, 2016
The bungalow was very comfortable and spotlessly clean. A 10 minute walk into Port Erin made it nicely situated. It is well equipped but we were too busy seeing the island to use...
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About this property
One of the 3 barns that makes up the 5 star Knock Rushen Barns, Driftwood Barn offers the islands highest capacity sleeping facility in its luxury category. Sleeping 10 persons in ample and luxury accommodation, and allowing you to sample the unique Manx hospitality, and the friendly charm of the... View all property information
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"It a wonder walk 5 mins to the pub."
Reviewed August 25, 2016
Exalant we spent Xmas and new year there 2014. 15. Clean and modern. Quite posh. If you are looking for a modern barn conversion very close to all amenities then this is the...
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About this property
Recently renovated traditional Manx cottage, close to the centre of Castletown, overlooking the sea and Scarlett point offering a high standard of accommodation. Situated with easy access to Castletown, Port St Mary and Port Erin, the Southern 100 course and Douglas. 2 sitting rooms and fully... View all property information
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"Perfect!"
Reviewed October 14, 2016
The Tearmann is located a block from the historic downtown area in Castletown. It is tucked into a row of stone row cottages on a side street that faces the sea. With three...
"Absolutely awesome :)"
Reviewed August 27, 2016
Excellent holiday cottage. The hospitality is second to none. Myself and my two sisters had an excellent time. Sad to leave...will definitely be back ;) :) :)
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About this property
The Byre is a luxury one bedroomed stone cottage sleeping two people in one large bedroom . Located in the beautiful Santon Valley it is secluded and sits in two acres of parkland garden facing south west. The Byre has a large kitchen and large living room, vaulted ceilings and is modern build... View all property information
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"Fantastic Accomodation"
Reviewed July 18, 2016
We loved the accommodation especially the high vaulted ceilings of this recently modernised barn conversion. The flow of the rooms was great which are all at ground floor level...
"Faultless Accomodation with the perfect hosts"
Reviewed June 13, 2016
I booked the Byre for myself and my father, who is not so nimble any more. Having everything at one level, with easy access and a large walk-in shower was ideal for us. Despite...
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About this property
Salmon River Apartments are the perfect place from which to explore the beautiful Isle of Man. Situated in the heart of Laxey Village, surrounded by picturesque countryside and historic charm, this converted stables and hayloft offers the height of luxury with a character twist. The Name Laxey... View all property information
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"Half Term Holiday"
Reviewed November 14, 2016
Claire was a very welcome sight after a late arrival due to a much delayed ferry, kindly waiting for us to arrive. There was a lovely welcome pack to welcome us to the Hayloft...
"Perfect"
Reviewed October 5, 2016
Six of us spent five nights here at the beginning of October and we are so glad we picked Salmon River in the Hayloft. Laxey is the nicest place we found on the island and the...
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About this property
The Old Stable is a manx stone cottage situated in the heart of Onchan village just a couple of minutes from shops, pubs and plenty of places to eat. Douglas promenade and the TT grandstand are both within walking distance. There is a regular bus service to the centre of Douglas and other parts... View all property information
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"BRILLIANT HOUSE AND SUPER HOSTS"
Reviewed 1 week ago
Thank you Karen and Gavin as always for a fabulous stay at your cottage over christmas. Hospitality is amazing with welcome pack of homemade goodies and prosecco and even the...
"Best Cottage in Onchan"
Reviewed December 3, 2016
You REALLY have to see this cottage to believe it. When you do, you can see it is suitable for couples for a cozy getaway, or families. You open the front door and a welcome...
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About this property
Awarded a 4 star with Gold Accolade rating by the Isle of Man Tourist Board. Modern 2 bedroom Apartment situated in the village of Colby. Excellent location with panoramic views across the countryside to the sea. Only a minutes walk from the village pub. The Southern 100 course is a 15 minute... View all property information
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"Spacious, well maintained, quality property, with off road parking."
Reviewed September 17, 2016
Property is close to local shop/general store and public house providing a range of good quality, reasonably priced dishes and local beers. On a regular bus and train routes to...
"Fantastic"
Reviewed August 30, 2016
Fantastic accommodation, easy to find, owner a great help and very pleasant. We stayed for 6 nights, the accommodation is excellent everything you need is there, location is...
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About this property
Fully refurbished 19th century Manx cottage set in the beautiful scenery of the East Baldwin Valley on the Isle of Man. Bedroom with double bed, lounge/diner with double leather sofabed, TV/DVD, DVD library, wood-burning stove, wi-fi, fully-equipped kitchen with dishwasher, washing machine and... View all property information
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"Home from home (if i had a hotub)"
Reviewed 1 week ago
Great place to stay. The property has all the equipment needed for a comfortable and relaxed stay with the added bonus of a hotub with beautiful views. Owners are very kind and...
"Lovely peaceful cottage"
Reviewed August 22, 2016
Really enjoyed our holiday. Owners, Neil and Graciela, we're very welcoming and helpful. Cottage was very clean, comfortable and well equipped. The hot tub was superb and well...
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About this property
A beautifully presented two bedroom semi detached house fully furnished to a high standard of comfort for short-term or long-term holiday lets for up to 4/5 guests. Please see my prices at the bottom of this section for TT & MGP prices. Peel, also known as Sun-set City is just about, if not,... View all property information
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Peel, Isle of Man IM5 1UX
"Fabulous Place to stay, Everything I could need was there on arrival. Very Clean and Comfortable"
Reviewed November 28, 2016
Sebbies Place has Two Bedrooms, Fully Furnished with Towels and Bedding provided. Cleaning materials also provided. House is brilliantly located. Walking distance to Peel Town...
"Homely"
Reviewed October 5, 2016
Excellent accommodation and owner very helpful and informative on arrival. Brilliant location for accessing local transport to Douglas, Ramsey and beyond.
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About this property
This luxury self catering apartment is all about location. With its prime position on Douglas Promenade it boasts exceptional views of Douglas Bay and harbour. A short along the waterfront to the town centre and the varied restaurants on the quayside. Public transport within 20 metres of the... View all property information
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"It was everything we expected, no unpleasant surprises, we felt at home immediatley."
Reviewed November 8, 2016
The apartment was just what we expected, clean and well cared for, it had everything we needed, well located for town, other local amenities and transport links. We were met by...
"Ideally positioned luxury accommodation"
Reviewed October 8, 2016
The apartment is so much more than clean and comfortable (my principle criteria). Wonderful sea views ,and along the promenade. Everything you could need for a self catering...
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About this property
A beautiful detached cottage in the heart of the countryside in the Isle of Man. 10 minutes from airport and sea terminal. Perfect for family holidays, romantic breaks or a well deserved break. With its own back garden overlooking fields and hills. The cottage is freshly decorated with TV's in the... View all property information
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"Spacious modern cottage where everything was spot on"
Reviewed July 21, 2016
When we entered the cottage we were amazed - it really is as spacious, light, modern and with great views as the photos suggest. We sat down, made tea and dug into the welcome...
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About this property
A delightful two bedroom Manx cottage in Laxey, a short distance from the famous Laxey Wheel, with spectacular views over Laxey Bay. No. 2 Sunnyside Terrace has been very recently, lovingly renovated to a high standard, providing modern facilities whilst maintaining a traditional, cosy feel. A... View all property information
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"Lovely & cosy"
Reviewed November 29, 2016
Fantastic place to stay, great location, clean, lovely traditional cottage. The hosts have thought of everything to make your stay comfortable and practical. Lovely welcome on...
"A great holiday."
Reviewed September 14, 2016
A wonderful place to visit. The cottage was perfect, there was nothing you could add to it to make your stay any better. There are so many lovely places to visit on the island...
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About this property
Beautifully situated in a peaceful location right on the coast (actually on the Isle of Man Coastal Footpath), this 3-bedroom house has wonderful sea views and is just yards away from the huge sandy beach of Ramsey Bay, the Island's recently designated Marine Nature Reserve. An ideal spot for... View all property information
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"Lovely house, spectacular location, well equipped & comfy"
Reviewed November 13, 2016
This is a lovely house and a great location - at the end of Ramsay. The summer house is a lovely touch. We took my Mum who enjoyed the short walk to the sea and the flat walk into...
"Mr"
Reviewed October 3, 2016
Just spent a week in Kilmuir . I would like to say,this is definitely not your usual holiday rental. It's more like your home It is a lovely warm, welcoming house with every...
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About this property
A special holiday for two in our gold award cottages in the heart of the beautiful Manx countryside will make your holiday dreams come true! The cottages are set in two acres of beautiful gardens with a complimentary glass of wine waiting for your delight among the leaves in our unique tree... View all property information
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"Lovely Holiday"
Reviewed August 1, 2016
We had a lovely holiday at this cottage. The owners had thought of everything we might need and were very friendly and welcoming. The garden is beautiful with summerhouse and...
"Fantastic cottage in idyllic setting"
Reviewed May 26, 2016
We received a friendly, warm greeting from Shirley and John and then stepped into the cottage, and I could only say 'Wow"! With soft music playing in the background, we then...
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About this property
Glen Mooar Cottage, Holiday Cottage is a self catering converted barn, set within 6 acres of the Sulby Glen with the Sulby River running along its eastern boundary. The Cottage is located 1 mile from public transport, a local Post Office and small shop, a well recommended cafe/Tea room and two... View all property information
Location Information
"Top class accomodation"
Reviewed October 26, 2016
We spent a long weekend at Glen Moarr Cottage and although arrived late at night, Sue our host greeted us on arrival. There were lots of lovely little touches like provisions in...
"Absolutely gorgeous"
Reviewed September 20, 2016
Sue & Gary have beatifully renovated their barn into a first class holiday cottage. In fact one of nicest self catering cottages we have stayed in. Well worth the money. The...
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About this property
Separate Self Contained Annex in Garden of Detached House. Right in the Centre of Onchan Village and within walking distance of Douglas Promenade and seafront. 3/4 minutes drive to Grandstand. Double bedroom with open plan lounge/kitchen area. Bright and airy with patio doors and velux windows... View all property information
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"Perfect 'Wee' House with excellent hosts"
Reviewed September 17, 2016
We stayed here for a long weekend as we were attending a wedding and wanted some degree of flexibility as our family lived around 11 miles away. Jim and Wendy, like the 'Wee...
"Perfectly compact with everything you need to enjoy your stay"
Reviewed September 14, 2016
We were delighted to stay in this Annex that is walking distance to supermarket, pub, bus stops and Douglas, and the bonus for anyone attending the TT is the close proximity to...
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About this property
A special holiday for two in our gold award cottages in the heart of the beautiful Manx countryside will make your holiday dreams come true! The cottages are set in two acres of beautiful gardens with a complimentary glass of wine waiting for your delight among the leaves in our unique tree... View all property information
Location Information
"Wish I had known about this place years ago."
Reviewed October 7, 2016
What can I say - heaven on earth. Everything you could wish for. Peace, tranquillity, wonderful views and walks, friendly people - just everything. This was our first visit and...
"Heaven on Earth."
Reviewed April 3, 2016
It was a pleasure and a privilege to stay at Close Taggart. The cottage was a delight, so tranquil and serene. The owners provided everything we needed, and more, to make this a...
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About this property
Fisherman's Cottage is a newly renovated, Four Star property in the picturesque village of Laxey in the Isle of Man, just a few minutes' walk from the harbour, pubs and restaurants. It comfortably sleeps 6 people in three bedrooms with beds which can be either twin or double and have luxurious... View all property information
Location Information
"Lovely cottage in excellent location"
Reviewed October 12, 2016
Very clean cottage very close to the old port of Laxey. Very good restaurant ,the Mona Lisa, and the Shore inn only a few minutes walk. The cottage has recently been renovated to...
"Excellent"
Reviewed August 7, 2016
The Fisherman's cottage is a very special place to stay. Wonderfully romantic if it is just the two of you, also very child friendly if you take the kids like we did!! The...
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About this property
A seaside chic new apartment situated on the beautiful Laxey Beach overlooking the harbour, sea and Laxey Bay. This luxury accommodation offers one bedroom with either a superking bed or 2 x single beds, an open plan lounge & kitchen enjoying a panoramic view of the sea (with luxury double... View all property information
Location Information
"Excellent location & views"
Reviewed November 12, 2016
Modern & tastefully refurbed top floor apartment above the owners own home, very clean & tidy. Totally self contained, own front door at the top of an outside staircase. Plenty...
"Beach on the doorstep"
Reviewed September 22, 2016
The apartment was beautifully finished to a high standard and we enjoyed the view over the beach at different times of day from the living and dining space. We were made very...
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About this property
This four star accommodation has recently been transformed. With Oak flooring, doors and furniture Aalid Feie is totally connected. This is the largest property on market and there is oodles of room, acres of space. The oak floors flow from one to another. . Situated in the historic city of... View all property information
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"holiday"
Reviewed October 4, 2016
Comfortable place/ every thing you would need (apart from a broken dishwasher! ! Nice comfy beds Above average kitchen equipment Would love to go back
"Sheer Excellence"
Reviewed May 28, 2016
Quite simply the best holiday rental I have ever had the pleasure to stay in. I have given it five stars but if I could have gone six I would! Everything was catered for in the...
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About this property
Make yourself at home in our luxury self-catering accommodation and unwind in your own private corner of the Isle of Man. Our modern first floor apartment is officially rated 4* Gold and is furnished and equipped to a very high standard, making it the perfect holiday bolthole for... View all property information
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"Impossible to stay any where else..."
Reviewed September 22, 2016
Having been now the third time here it feels like this is becoming our second home:-) Perfectly equipped apartment in quiet area but very close to public transport, shops and...
"Perfect, idyllic, peaceful haven"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
We have never stayed in such a perfect place before, there was nothing that the owners of this wonderful apartment had not thought of, they catered for our every need. The...
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About this property
Salmon River Apartments are the perfect place from which to explore the beautiful Isle of Man. Situated in the heart of Laxey Village, surrounded by picturesque countryside and historic charm, this converted stables and hayloft offers the height of luxury with a character twist. The Name Laxey... View all property information
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"Wonderful accommodation"
Reviewed September 14, 2016
What a find. Our stay at 'The Stables' was just fantastic & it was ideal for my disabled husband who was able to move around the spacious apartment with ease. The wet room...
"Top Class Apartment"
Reviewed June 22, 2016
A really lovely apartment, and an outstanding welcome from fantastic hosts, who hit just the right note with thoughtful extras (we loved the cakes) and helpful advice for our...
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About this property
Perfectly situated within a short walk to local shops, bars, restaurants, buses, Douglas promenade and 15 minute walk to TT Grandstand. One double bedroom and one twin bedroom, walk in wardrobe, Jacuzzi bath with shower, galley kitchen with washer/dryer, rear outside covered seating area with... View all property information
Location Information
"Nice little cottage"
Reviewed October 7, 2016
A comfortable little cottage. Not in the middle of things, but close enough not to be any problem at all but far enough not to feel busy. Quiet residential street. The owner...
"Perfect for enjoy Man"
Reviewed June 5, 2016
We had been enjoying the TT races into this cottage, perfect in all sense for 4 people. No parking problem, fast dinner with the BBQ. We used to rest daily after a whole day...
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About this property
Charming mid terrace Edwardian house, situated in the traditional village of Kirk Michael on the Isle of Man. The house has 3 bedrooms and a cot room. The ground floor has 2 reception rooms and kitchen leading out to a traditional back yard and on to a lovely sheltered back garden. The house... View all property information
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"Mr"
Reviewed September 24, 2016
What a fantastic property central location between Peel and Ramsey. Including a fantastic welcome pack and all the information about the property and the local community...
"Very nice property"
Reviewed August 14, 2016
Well decorated property, better than the pictures shown, in a handy location, a bit far from supermarket, the landlord manager is very nice.
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About this property
Ravenscliffe Lodge is an elegant Victorian home dating back to 1849, perfect for a self-catering stay on the Isle of Man and occupying a prominent position at the harbour entrance overlooking Douglas Bay. The location is a convenient 10 minute walk from the town centre bars and cafes, bus and... View all property information
Location Information
"Absolutely extraordinary"
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
I travel to Douglas regularly for business and my stays are several weeks duration so i look for accommodations which are home away from home. I had not been to the lodge...
"A stunning house with beautiful views of Douglas Harbour and Bay"
Reviewed September 11, 2016
We had seen this property on the hillside overlooking Douglas on our many visits to the Isle of Man and often wondered who lived there, well for one glorious week it was us. The...
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About this property
The Isle of Man's newest 5 Star self-catering holiday accommodation. Formerly the workshop of the famous watchmaker George Daniels and only a short distance away from Ramsey, The Escape is the newest luxury self-catering accommodation on the Isle of Man, and is set within the grounds of a... View all property information
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"Ski Chalet in Ramsey! Beautiful"
Reviewed December 6, 2016
Absolutely amazing stay! great rooms, excellent facilities, beautiful surroundings. Our hosts looked after our every need, super local produce tailored to our desires. We'll...
"Mrs"
Reviewed September 28, 2016
The Escape is a very special place in a tranquil setting. I cannot recommend staying here enough. It is decorated beautifully and feels very luxurious. The owners make your stay...
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About this property
Lavender Cottage is a 4* Visit Britain graded stone barn conversion property. Sited well off road in the extensive grounds/gardens of a quiet working farm, enjoy peace and quiet with lovely rural views over our own land and woods. Sleeps 4; the main bedroom can be offered either as a superking... View all property information
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"Fabulous"
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
We had a wonderful stay. Lavender Cottage was very comfortable and felt very clean with good amenities. We felt very welcome on the farm. It is a working farm but this in...
"A comfortable and very spacious holiday cottage"
Reviewed September 19, 2016
Lavender Cottage was very spacious and comfortable, and in a quiet location. Because of ferry timings we arrived very late, but the owner was on hand to show us round and explain...
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About this property
Spacious purpose built first floor apartment. Close to the amenities of Douglas Town. Sea views. Own private entrance , residents parking. Double glazing , Central heating. Large Lounge / Dining Room , Fitted open plan kitchen , Double Bedroom , Modern Bathroom. The apartment has got 3 built in... View all property information
Location Information
"A smart clean flat."
Reviewed September 5, 2016
In need of a place to stay for a few nights to extend a holiday we were pleased to find this smart flat close to amenities. Jean-Paul was available to guide to the flat and show...
"Dependable nice place"
Reviewed August 7, 2016
A suitable base for exploring Isle of Man. Jean is a diligent landlord and eager to please tenants. The few peculiarities of the place, such as figuring out how to use the...
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About this property
Beautifully furnished self-catering luxury apartment for two - four persons. Situated in a quiet suburb of Douglas, it has a prime position at the end of a Cul de Sac with views over Tromode Village to the Countryside and benefits from a lovely mature landscaped garden patio and gas barbecue... View all property information
Location Information
"Peaceful and well-maintained retreat"
Reviewed April 1, 2016
We were delighted with the apartment. It was spacious and well-equipped with an air of quality about it. Located on the outskirts of Douglas, it was a great base for exploring the...
"A home from home on the outskirts of Douglas"
Reviewed February 26, 2016
Pristine, well equipped, modern interior. Warm and inviting even in February! Well connected for travelling the island by road. Less then 30 minute walk to the seafront. No...
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About this property
Well presented bungalow situated in a beautiful Village - Local shops & pubs nearby with beaches & Glens near also - A great bolt hole for family, cycling, walking & sight seeing holidays - A real Home from Home. The perfect place to stay for motorcycle racing fans for TT & Grand Prix week. Treat... View all property information
Location Information
"Fabulous summer holiday in the Isle of Man."
Reviewed September 6, 2016
The property is well situated for access to all areas of the island. It was immaculate when we arrived & Susan the owner couldn't have been more helpful.
"Very Good."
Reviewed April 9, 2016
We have just retuned from a wonderful stay here. Every thing was perfect. It was a home from home. We can recommend a stay here very much nothing is too much trouble to help by...
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About this property
Harvest Cottage is a beautiful 4* Visit Britain graded stone barn conversion property with private garden space overlooking our own fields and woods. Sleeping 4 (1 double and 1 twin) the cottage is ideal for couples or families. Very well equipped and supplied, we aim to provide a 'home from home'... View all property information
Location Information
"Quiet, light and relaxing"
Reviewed October 1, 2016
Very quiet location. Light, airy, clean and warm. Useful information about the local area including maps. Friendly owner. Thanks
"Peaceful, comfortable and well-equipped."
Reviewed July 25, 2016
The farm cottage was extremely comfortable and well equipped. We found staying on the farm very relaxing and enjoyed seeing the cows every morning.
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About this property
This quality cottage with WiFi is situated on our small holding surrounded by farmland. Located only 2 miles from the beautiful quaint fishing port of Ramsey with its restaurants, shops, park, boating lake, bowling alley etc. The accommodation consists of an open plan dining/kitchen area... View all property information
Location Information
"Little Gem "
Reviewed October 24, 2016
My Dad stayed here for 10 days Joyce & John were extremely welcoming the cottage was beautiful immaculately clean with everything required for a comfortable stay. and the welcome...
"a lovely spot for getting around the island"
Reviewed June 9, 2016
We were made to feel very welcome with all the lovely goodies everyone who has reviewed has mentioned. Cosy comfortable and an ideal spot for touring the delightful Isle of Man...
| Ramsay |
What is the second most highly populated town on the island of Anglesey, Holyhead being the first? | 10 Best Isle of Man Vacation Rentals, Cottages (with Photos) | TripAdvisor - Self Catering in Isle of Man, UK
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About this property
Newly built holiday lodges, stylish, comfortable and cannot fail to please! Set in beautiful surroundings of an established house on the outskirts of the village of Foxdale. Pub, petrol and store only 800m Central position is ideal for walking, fishing, biking and touring. Island centre for Apeman,... View all property information
Location Information
"Great place to stay"
Reviewed November 25, 2016
Great place to stay on we the isle of man. Lodges are spacious, well equipped, clean and finished to a high standard. As a family, we loved every minute there.
"Perfect!!!"
Reviewed January 1, 2016
Dave and I come to Isle of Man approximately 8 times a year to visit our parents, this is the first time we have opted to stay here and definitely won't be the last. The self...
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About this property
Brand new holiday lodges, stylish, comfortable and cannot fail to please! Set in beautiful surroundings of an established house on the outskirts of the village of Foxdale. Pub, petrol and store only 800m. Central position is ideal for walking, fishing, biking and touring. Island Centre for... View all property information
Location Information
"Wonderfull Holiday enhanced by the lovely Lodge."
Reviewed November 11, 2016
The Lodge has everything you could need for a perfect holiday. The owner is a perfect gentleman who went out of his way to see that everything ran smoothly. Lovely welcoming gift...
"Asta la vista baby. ..I'll be back"
Reviewed November 9, 2016
Has that "cabin in the moutain " feel but with all mod cons...everything you need for modern living . Foxdale is quiet..quaint and nicely situated between Douglas and peel. Mike...
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About this property
This spacious self catering apartment, set in the beautiful location of Abbeylands, 3 miles out of Douglas. This two bed roomed apartment is fitted with a Queen sized double bed and 2 singles in the other room which can be made into a double bed if preferred. <BR><BR>It has a large lounge area with... View all property information
Location Information
"Excellent home close to town but in the country"
Reviewed November 3, 2016
We stayed here for a short break and had a great time.The house is spotlessly clean and is well equipped. It's located just outside Douglas so is convenient for the Island's main...
"Peaceful helpful friendly place"
Reviewed September 5, 2016
a lovely clean place great value for money,kids loved the pigs & horses, people were really friendly and helpful, also some essentials provided for when you arrive,
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About this property
Glen Chass Farmhouse is a beautiful 3 bedroom house that sleeps up to 6 people in a magnificent setting. It is rated 4 Star by the Tourism Board. You can see some of the best coastal and sea views in Britain from your windows and have one of the best walks in the world, The Road of the Gull (Raad... View all property information
Location Information
"Stunning views and relaxing stay"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
A lovely cottage with incredible sea views that is very well equipped! We had a fantastic stay and would definitely return. The owners are really friendly and helpful. The only...
"Stunning views in a relaxing cottage"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
A beautiful house in amazing surroundings with incredible sea views. One of the best holiday cottages I have stayed in. We had a really lovely time and the owners are very...
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About this property
Driftwood Cottage, dating back to the 18th century, is a traditional Manx cottage nestling in a quiet pedestrianised lane in the heart of Peel’s conservation area. Many of the original features of the cottage remain and blend in well with the modern facilities which have been introduced. On the... View all property information
Location Information
"Best Cottage in Peel."
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
What a fabulous cottage. Everything carefully prepared. Everything thought of. Superb welcome from Keith waiting to give us directions with a place to park. Parking easy and a...
"excellent"
Reviewed October 8, 2016
lovely cottage, lovely welcome pack. it was a home from home. great communication with owner from start of booking to end of holiday.
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About this property
Modern bungalow | 2 bedrooms | sleeps 4 <BR><BR>Key Info • Beach/Walking/Cycling/Relaxation<BR><BR>• Nearest beach 10 mins<BR>• Suitable for all ages – easy access<BR>• Car not necessary<BR>• No pets allowed<BR>• Private garden and indoor and outdoor games areas<BR><BR>This property is situated ten... View all property information
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"Comfortable and clean bungalow"
Reviewed October 19, 2016
Lovely property in an ideal position. Had everything you need and very kind of Eric and Krystina to leave us welcome goodies on arrival.
"Lovely bungalow"
Reviewed July 26, 2016
The bungalow was very comfortable and spotlessly clean. A 10 minute walk into Port Erin made it nicely situated. It is well equipped but we were too busy seeing the island to use...
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About this property
One of the 3 barns that makes up the 5 star Knock Rushen Barns, Driftwood Barn offers the islands highest capacity sleeping facility in its luxury category. Sleeping 10 persons in ample and luxury accommodation, and allowing you to sample the unique Manx hospitality, and the friendly charm of the... View all property information
Location Information
"It a wonder walk 5 mins to the pub."
Reviewed August 25, 2016
Exalant we spent Xmas and new year there 2014. 15. Clean and modern. Quite posh. If you are looking for a modern barn conversion very close to all amenities then this is the...
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About this property
Recently renovated traditional Manx cottage, close to the centre of Castletown, overlooking the sea and Scarlett point offering a high standard of accommodation. Situated with easy access to Castletown, Port St Mary and Port Erin, the Southern 100 course and Douglas. 2 sitting rooms and fully... View all property information
Location Information
"Perfect!"
Reviewed October 14, 2016
The Tearmann is located a block from the historic downtown area in Castletown. It is tucked into a row of stone row cottages on a side street that faces the sea. With three...
"Absolutely awesome :)"
Reviewed August 27, 2016
Excellent holiday cottage. The hospitality is second to none. Myself and my two sisters had an excellent time. Sad to leave...will definitely be back ;) :) :)
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About this property
The Byre is a luxury one bedroomed stone cottage sleeping two people in one large bedroom . Located in the beautiful Santon Valley it is secluded and sits in two acres of parkland garden facing south west. The Byre has a large kitchen and large living room, vaulted ceilings and is modern build... View all property information
Location Information
"Fantastic Accomodation"
Reviewed July 18, 2016
We loved the accommodation especially the high vaulted ceilings of this recently modernised barn conversion. The flow of the rooms was great which are all at ground floor level...
"Faultless Accomodation with the perfect hosts"
Reviewed June 13, 2016
I booked the Byre for myself and my father, who is not so nimble any more. Having everything at one level, with easy access and a large walk-in shower was ideal for us. Despite...
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About this property
Salmon River Apartments are the perfect place from which to explore the beautiful Isle of Man. Situated in the heart of Laxey Village, surrounded by picturesque countryside and historic charm, this converted stables and hayloft offers the height of luxury with a character twist. The Name Laxey... View all property information
Location Information
"Half Term Holiday"
Reviewed November 14, 2016
Claire was a very welcome sight after a late arrival due to a much delayed ferry, kindly waiting for us to arrive. There was a lovely welcome pack to welcome us to the Hayloft...
"Perfect"
Reviewed October 5, 2016
Six of us spent five nights here at the beginning of October and we are so glad we picked Salmon River in the Hayloft. Laxey is the nicest place we found on the island and the...
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About this property
The Old Stable is a manx stone cottage situated in the heart of Onchan village just a couple of minutes from shops, pubs and plenty of places to eat. Douglas promenade and the TT grandstand are both within walking distance. There is a regular bus service to the centre of Douglas and other parts... View all property information
Location Information
"BRILLIANT HOUSE AND SUPER HOSTS"
Reviewed 1 week ago
Thank you Karen and Gavin as always for a fabulous stay at your cottage over christmas. Hospitality is amazing with welcome pack of homemade goodies and prosecco and even the...
"Best Cottage in Onchan"
Reviewed December 3, 2016
You REALLY have to see this cottage to believe it. When you do, you can see it is suitable for couples for a cozy getaway, or families. You open the front door and a welcome...
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About this property
Awarded a 4 star with Gold Accolade rating by the Isle of Man Tourist Board. Modern 2 bedroom Apartment situated in the village of Colby. Excellent location with panoramic views across the countryside to the sea. Only a minutes walk from the village pub. The Southern 100 course is a 15 minute... View all property information
Location Information
"Spacious, well maintained, quality property, with off road parking."
Reviewed September 17, 2016
Property is close to local shop/general store and public house providing a range of good quality, reasonably priced dishes and local beers. On a regular bus and train routes to...
"Fantastic"
Reviewed August 30, 2016
Fantastic accommodation, easy to find, owner a great help and very pleasant. We stayed for 6 nights, the accommodation is excellent everything you need is there, location is...
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About this property
Fully refurbished 19th century Manx cottage set in the beautiful scenery of the East Baldwin Valley on the Isle of Man. Bedroom with double bed, lounge/diner with double leather sofabed, TV/DVD, DVD library, wood-burning stove, wi-fi, fully-equipped kitchen with dishwasher, washing machine and... View all property information
Location Information
"Home from home (if i had a hotub)"
Reviewed 1 week ago
Great place to stay. The property has all the equipment needed for a comfortable and relaxed stay with the added bonus of a hotub with beautiful views. Owners are very kind and...
"Lovely peaceful cottage"
Reviewed August 22, 2016
Really enjoyed our holiday. Owners, Neil and Graciela, we're very welcoming and helpful. Cottage was very clean, comfortable and well equipped. The hot tub was superb and well...
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About this property
A beautifully presented two bedroom semi detached house fully furnished to a high standard of comfort for short-term or long-term holiday lets for up to 4/5 guests. Please see my prices at the bottom of this section for TT & MGP prices. Peel, also known as Sun-set City is just about, if not,... View all property information
Location Information
Peel, Isle of Man IM5 1UX
"Fabulous Place to stay, Everything I could need was there on arrival. Very Clean and Comfortable"
Reviewed November 28, 2016
Sebbies Place has Two Bedrooms, Fully Furnished with Towels and Bedding provided. Cleaning materials also provided. House is brilliantly located. Walking distance to Peel Town...
"Homely"
Reviewed October 5, 2016
Excellent accommodation and owner very helpful and informative on arrival. Brilliant location for accessing local transport to Douglas, Ramsey and beyond.
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About this property
This luxury self catering apartment is all about location. With its prime position on Douglas Promenade it boasts exceptional views of Douglas Bay and harbour. A short along the waterfront to the town centre and the varied restaurants on the quayside. Public transport within 20 metres of the... View all property information
Location Information
"It was everything we expected, no unpleasant surprises, we felt at home immediatley."
Reviewed November 8, 2016
The apartment was just what we expected, clean and well cared for, it had everything we needed, well located for town, other local amenities and transport links. We were met by...
"Ideally positioned luxury accommodation"
Reviewed October 8, 2016
The apartment is so much more than clean and comfortable (my principle criteria). Wonderful sea views ,and along the promenade. Everything you could need for a self catering...
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About this property
A beautiful detached cottage in the heart of the countryside in the Isle of Man. 10 minutes from airport and sea terminal. Perfect for family holidays, romantic breaks or a well deserved break. With its own back garden overlooking fields and hills. The cottage is freshly decorated with TV's in the... View all property information
Location Information
"Spacious modern cottage where everything was spot on"
Reviewed July 21, 2016
When we entered the cottage we were amazed - it really is as spacious, light, modern and with great views as the photos suggest. We sat down, made tea and dug into the welcome...
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About this property
A delightful two bedroom Manx cottage in Laxey, a short distance from the famous Laxey Wheel, with spectacular views over Laxey Bay. No. 2 Sunnyside Terrace has been very recently, lovingly renovated to a high standard, providing modern facilities whilst maintaining a traditional, cosy feel. A... View all property information
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"Lovely & cosy"
Reviewed November 29, 2016
Fantastic place to stay, great location, clean, lovely traditional cottage. The hosts have thought of everything to make your stay comfortable and practical. Lovely welcome on...
"A great holiday."
Reviewed September 14, 2016
A wonderful place to visit. The cottage was perfect, there was nothing you could add to it to make your stay any better. There are so many lovely places to visit on the island...
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About this property
Beautifully situated in a peaceful location right on the coast (actually on the Isle of Man Coastal Footpath), this 3-bedroom house has wonderful sea views and is just yards away from the huge sandy beach of Ramsey Bay, the Island's recently designated Marine Nature Reserve. An ideal spot for... View all property information
Location Information
"Lovely house, spectacular location, well equipped & comfy"
Reviewed November 13, 2016
This is a lovely house and a great location - at the end of Ramsay. The summer house is a lovely touch. We took my Mum who enjoyed the short walk to the sea and the flat walk into...
"Mr"
Reviewed October 3, 2016
Just spent a week in Kilmuir . I would like to say,this is definitely not your usual holiday rental. It's more like your home It is a lovely warm, welcoming house with every...
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About this property
A special holiday for two in our gold award cottages in the heart of the beautiful Manx countryside will make your holiday dreams come true! The cottages are set in two acres of beautiful gardens with a complimentary glass of wine waiting for your delight among the leaves in our unique tree... View all property information
Location Information
"Lovely Holiday"
Reviewed August 1, 2016
We had a lovely holiday at this cottage. The owners had thought of everything we might need and were very friendly and welcoming. The garden is beautiful with summerhouse and...
"Fantastic cottage in idyllic setting"
Reviewed May 26, 2016
We received a friendly, warm greeting from Shirley and John and then stepped into the cottage, and I could only say 'Wow"! With soft music playing in the background, we then...
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About this property
Glen Mooar Cottage, Holiday Cottage is a self catering converted barn, set within 6 acres of the Sulby Glen with the Sulby River running along its eastern boundary. The Cottage is located 1 mile from public transport, a local Post Office and small shop, a well recommended cafe/Tea room and two... View all property information
Location Information
"Top class accomodation"
Reviewed October 26, 2016
We spent a long weekend at Glen Moarr Cottage and although arrived late at night, Sue our host greeted us on arrival. There were lots of lovely little touches like provisions in...
"Absolutely gorgeous"
Reviewed September 20, 2016
Sue & Gary have beatifully renovated their barn into a first class holiday cottage. In fact one of nicest self catering cottages we have stayed in. Well worth the money. The...
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About this property
Separate Self Contained Annex in Garden of Detached House. Right in the Centre of Onchan Village and within walking distance of Douglas Promenade and seafront. 3/4 minutes drive to Grandstand. Double bedroom with open plan lounge/kitchen area. Bright and airy with patio doors and velux windows... View all property information
Location Information
"Perfect 'Wee' House with excellent hosts"
Reviewed September 17, 2016
We stayed here for a long weekend as we were attending a wedding and wanted some degree of flexibility as our family lived around 11 miles away. Jim and Wendy, like the 'Wee...
"Perfectly compact with everything you need to enjoy your stay"
Reviewed September 14, 2016
We were delighted to stay in this Annex that is walking distance to supermarket, pub, bus stops and Douglas, and the bonus for anyone attending the TT is the close proximity to...
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About this property
A special holiday for two in our gold award cottages in the heart of the beautiful Manx countryside will make your holiday dreams come true! The cottages are set in two acres of beautiful gardens with a complimentary glass of wine waiting for your delight among the leaves in our unique tree... View all property information
Location Information
"Wish I had known about this place years ago."
Reviewed October 7, 2016
What can I say - heaven on earth. Everything you could wish for. Peace, tranquillity, wonderful views and walks, friendly people - just everything. This was our first visit and...
"Heaven on Earth."
Reviewed April 3, 2016
It was a pleasure and a privilege to stay at Close Taggart. The cottage was a delight, so tranquil and serene. The owners provided everything we needed, and more, to make this a...
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About this property
Fisherman's Cottage is a newly renovated, Four Star property in the picturesque village of Laxey in the Isle of Man, just a few minutes' walk from the harbour, pubs and restaurants. It comfortably sleeps 6 people in three bedrooms with beds which can be either twin or double and have luxurious... View all property information
Location Information
"Lovely cottage in excellent location"
Reviewed October 12, 2016
Very clean cottage very close to the old port of Laxey. Very good restaurant ,the Mona Lisa, and the Shore inn only a few minutes walk. The cottage has recently been renovated to...
"Excellent"
Reviewed August 7, 2016
The Fisherman's cottage is a very special place to stay. Wonderfully romantic if it is just the two of you, also very child friendly if you take the kids like we did!! The...
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About this property
A seaside chic new apartment situated on the beautiful Laxey Beach overlooking the harbour, sea and Laxey Bay. This luxury accommodation offers one bedroom with either a superking bed or 2 x single beds, an open plan lounge & kitchen enjoying a panoramic view of the sea (with luxury double... View all property information
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"Excellent location & views"
Reviewed November 12, 2016
Modern & tastefully refurbed top floor apartment above the owners own home, very clean & tidy. Totally self contained, own front door at the top of an outside staircase. Plenty...
"Beach on the doorstep"
Reviewed September 22, 2016
The apartment was beautifully finished to a high standard and we enjoyed the view over the beach at different times of day from the living and dining space. We were made very...
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About this property
This four star accommodation has recently been transformed. With Oak flooring, doors and furniture Aalid Feie is totally connected. This is the largest property on market and there is oodles of room, acres of space. The oak floors flow from one to another. . Situated in the historic city of... View all property information
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"holiday"
Reviewed October 4, 2016
Comfortable place/ every thing you would need (apart from a broken dishwasher! ! Nice comfy beds Above average kitchen equipment Would love to go back
"Sheer Excellence"
Reviewed May 28, 2016
Quite simply the best holiday rental I have ever had the pleasure to stay in. I have given it five stars but if I could have gone six I would! Everything was catered for in the...
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About this property
Make yourself at home in our luxury self-catering accommodation and unwind in your own private corner of the Isle of Man. Our modern first floor apartment is officially rated 4* Gold and is furnished and equipped to a very high standard, making it the perfect holiday bolthole for... View all property information
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"Impossible to stay any where else..."
Reviewed September 22, 2016
Having been now the third time here it feels like this is becoming our second home:-) Perfectly equipped apartment in quiet area but very close to public transport, shops and...
"Perfect, idyllic, peaceful haven"
Reviewed August 28, 2016
We have never stayed in such a perfect place before, there was nothing that the owners of this wonderful apartment had not thought of, they catered for our every need. The...
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About this property
Salmon River Apartments are the perfect place from which to explore the beautiful Isle of Man. Situated in the heart of Laxey Village, surrounded by picturesque countryside and historic charm, this converted stables and hayloft offers the height of luxury with a character twist. The Name Laxey... View all property information
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"Wonderful accommodation"
Reviewed September 14, 2016
What a find. Our stay at 'The Stables' was just fantastic & it was ideal for my disabled husband who was able to move around the spacious apartment with ease. The wet room...
"Top Class Apartment"
Reviewed June 22, 2016
A really lovely apartment, and an outstanding welcome from fantastic hosts, who hit just the right note with thoughtful extras (we loved the cakes) and helpful advice for our...
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About this property
Perfectly situated within a short walk to local shops, bars, restaurants, buses, Douglas promenade and 15 minute walk to TT Grandstand. One double bedroom and one twin bedroom, walk in wardrobe, Jacuzzi bath with shower, galley kitchen with washer/dryer, rear outside covered seating area with... View all property information
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"Nice little cottage"
Reviewed October 7, 2016
A comfortable little cottage. Not in the middle of things, but close enough not to be any problem at all but far enough not to feel busy. Quiet residential street. The owner...
"Perfect for enjoy Man"
Reviewed June 5, 2016
We had been enjoying the TT races into this cottage, perfect in all sense for 4 people. No parking problem, fast dinner with the BBQ. We used to rest daily after a whole day...
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About this property
Charming mid terrace Edwardian house, situated in the traditional village of Kirk Michael on the Isle of Man. The house has 3 bedrooms and a cot room. The ground floor has 2 reception rooms and kitchen leading out to a traditional back yard and on to a lovely sheltered back garden. The house... View all property information
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"Mr"
Reviewed September 24, 2016
What a fantastic property central location between Peel and Ramsey. Including a fantastic welcome pack and all the information about the property and the local community...
"Very nice property"
Reviewed August 14, 2016
Well decorated property, better than the pictures shown, in a handy location, a bit far from supermarket, the landlord manager is very nice.
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About this property
Ravenscliffe Lodge is an elegant Victorian home dating back to 1849, perfect for a self-catering stay on the Isle of Man and occupying a prominent position at the harbour entrance overlooking Douglas Bay. The location is a convenient 10 minute walk from the town centre bars and cafes, bus and... View all property information
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"Absolutely extraordinary"
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
I travel to Douglas regularly for business and my stays are several weeks duration so i look for accommodations which are home away from home. I had not been to the lodge...
"A stunning house with beautiful views of Douglas Harbour and Bay"
Reviewed September 11, 2016
We had seen this property on the hillside overlooking Douglas on our many visits to the Isle of Man and often wondered who lived there, well for one glorious week it was us. The...
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About this property
The Isle of Man's newest 5 Star self-catering holiday accommodation. Formerly the workshop of the famous watchmaker George Daniels and only a short distance away from Ramsey, The Escape is the newest luxury self-catering accommodation on the Isle of Man, and is set within the grounds of a... View all property information
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"Ski Chalet in Ramsey! Beautiful"
Reviewed December 6, 2016
Absolutely amazing stay! great rooms, excellent facilities, beautiful surroundings. Our hosts looked after our every need, super local produce tailored to our desires. We'll...
"Mrs"
Reviewed September 28, 2016
The Escape is a very special place in a tranquil setting. I cannot recommend staying here enough. It is decorated beautifully and feels very luxurious. The owners make your stay...
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About this property
Lavender Cottage is a 4* Visit Britain graded stone barn conversion property. Sited well off road in the extensive grounds/gardens of a quiet working farm, enjoy peace and quiet with lovely rural views over our own land and woods. Sleeps 4; the main bedroom can be offered either as a superking... View all property information
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"Fabulous"
Reviewed 4 weeks ago
We had a wonderful stay. Lavender Cottage was very comfortable and felt very clean with good amenities. We felt very welcome on the farm. It is a working farm but this in...
"A comfortable and very spacious holiday cottage"
Reviewed September 19, 2016
Lavender Cottage was very spacious and comfortable, and in a quiet location. Because of ferry timings we arrived very late, but the owner was on hand to show us round and explain...
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About this property
Spacious purpose built first floor apartment. Close to the amenities of Douglas Town. Sea views. Own private entrance , residents parking. Double glazing , Central heating. Large Lounge / Dining Room , Fitted open plan kitchen , Double Bedroom , Modern Bathroom. The apartment has got 3 built in... View all property information
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"A smart clean flat."
Reviewed September 5, 2016
In need of a place to stay for a few nights to extend a holiday we were pleased to find this smart flat close to amenities. Jean-Paul was available to guide to the flat and show...
"Dependable nice place"
Reviewed August 7, 2016
A suitable base for exploring Isle of Man. Jean is a diligent landlord and eager to please tenants. The few peculiarities of the place, such as figuring out how to use the...
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About this property
Beautifully furnished self-catering luxury apartment for two - four persons. Situated in a quiet suburb of Douglas, it has a prime position at the end of a Cul de Sac with views over Tromode Village to the Countryside and benefits from a lovely mature landscaped garden patio and gas barbecue... View all property information
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"Peaceful and well-maintained retreat"
Reviewed April 1, 2016
We were delighted with the apartment. It was spacious and well-equipped with an air of quality about it. Located on the outskirts of Douglas, it was a great base for exploring the...
"A home from home on the outskirts of Douglas"
Reviewed February 26, 2016
Pristine, well equipped, modern interior. Warm and inviting even in February! Well connected for travelling the island by road. Less then 30 minute walk to the seafront. No...
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About this property
Well presented bungalow situated in a beautiful Village - Local shops & pubs nearby with beaches & Glens near also - A great bolt hole for family, cycling, walking & sight seeing holidays - A real Home from Home. The perfect place to stay for motorcycle racing fans for TT & Grand Prix week. Treat... View all property information
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"Fabulous summer holiday in the Isle of Man."
Reviewed September 6, 2016
The property is well situated for access to all areas of the island. It was immaculate when we arrived & Susan the owner couldn't have been more helpful.
"Very Good."
Reviewed April 9, 2016
We have just retuned from a wonderful stay here. Every thing was perfect. It was a home from home. We can recommend a stay here very much nothing is too much trouble to help by...
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About this property
Harvest Cottage is a beautiful 4* Visit Britain graded stone barn conversion property with private garden space overlooking our own fields and woods. Sleeping 4 (1 double and 1 twin) the cottage is ideal for couples or families. Very well equipped and supplied, we aim to provide a 'home from home'... View all property information
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"Quiet, light and relaxing"
Reviewed October 1, 2016
Very quiet location. Light, airy, clean and warm. Useful information about the local area including maps. Friendly owner. Thanks
"Peaceful, comfortable and well-equipped."
Reviewed July 25, 2016
The farm cottage was extremely comfortable and well equipped. We found staying on the farm very relaxing and enjoyed seeing the cows every morning.
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About this property
This quality cottage with WiFi is situated on our small holding surrounded by farmland. Located only 2 miles from the beautiful quaint fishing port of Ramsey with its restaurants, shops, park, boating lake, bowling alley etc. The accommodation consists of an open plan dining/kitchen area... View all property information
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"Little Gem "
Reviewed October 24, 2016
My Dad stayed here for 10 days Joyce & John were extremely welcoming the cottage was beautiful immaculately clean with everything required for a comfortable stay. and the welcome...
"a lovely spot for getting around the island"
Reviewed June 9, 2016
We were made to feel very welcome with all the lovely goodies everyone who has reviewed has mentioned. Cosy comfortable and an ideal spot for touring the delightful Isle of Man...
| i don't know |
Walden Robert Cassotto was the real name of which famous singer who died in December 1973 aged 37? | Walden Robert Perciville Cassotto (1936 - 1973) - Genealogy
Walden Robert Perciville Cassotto
in Los Angeles, CA, USA
Cause of death:
Ex-husband of <private> Cassotto (Yeager) and Sandra Dee
Father of <private> Darin
Half brother of <private> Maffia; <private> Maffia; Gary Walden ; Walden Cassotto and <private> Walden
Occupation:
Actor, singer, musician, Musician, singer-songwriter, actor
Managed by:
May 14 1936 - Bronx,Bronx,New York
Death:
Dec 20 1973 - Cedars And Lebanon Hospital Hollywood,Los Angeles,America
Parents:
May 14 1936 - New York
Death:
May 14 1936 - Bronx, New York City, New York
Death:
June 25 1973 - Sacramento, California, USA
Wife:
Nov 1 1973 - Clark, Nevada, USA
Wife:
half sibling
About Bobby Darin
Grammy winning singer, songwriter and Oscar nominated actor, Bobby Darin aimed at the American dream. He married a teen movie queen, but then found out that his sister was really his mother, and died young.
He was born Walden Robert Cassotto May 14, 1936 in The Bronx to a poor, working-class family of mostly Italian descent. The person thought to be his father (who was actually his grandfather) died in jail a few months before he was born. It was the height of the Great Depression, and he once remarked that his crib was a cardboard box, then later a dresser drawer. He was initially raised by his Anglo-American mother Polly and his sister Nina, subsisting on Home Relief until Nina later married and started a family with her new husband Charlie Maffia. It was not until Darin was an adult that he learned that Nina -- 17 years his senior -- was in fact his birth mother, and that Polly, the woman he thought was his mother, was really his grandmother. He was never told the identity of his real father, other than being told that his birth father had no idea Nina was pregnant, and thus never knew that Bobby was even born. Polly mothered him well, despite her own medical history resulting in her addiction to morphine. It was Polly who took the young Bobby to what was left of the old vaudeville circuit in New York -- places like the Bronx Opera House, and the RKO Jefferson in Manhattan, where he received his first showbiz inspiration, and where he saw performers like Sophie Tucker, whom he loved.
But Darin’s strongest ambition was not to succeed in music but rather to become an actor. In pursuit of this goal, he attended drama classes at Hunter College, but he became impatient when instructors gave other students chances to practice in leading roles even though they admitted his talent exceeded theirs. So Darin struck out on his own, getting jobs in Catskill resorts that ranged from bussing tables to filling in for absent singers. As he told Seventeen, he did not stay long in any of these positions: "I would work for a month or two, then quit and make the rounds, trying to get something in the theater. But nothing happened."
Gradually Darin began to concentrate more on his singing than his acting. He was working writing and singing radio commercials when he was signed to a contract with Decca Records in 1956. Accounts vary as to how he selected his stage name; one says he picked it from a phone book, another that he got it from a malfunctioning restaurant sign advertising Mandarin Chinese food. The young crooner cut a few singles and secured an appearance on bandleader Tommy Dor-sey’s television show, but his vocal stylings did not capture the public imagination, and Decca dropped him after a year. Darin was then signed by Atlantic Records, and recorded on their subsidiary label, Atco. Again, his first few records caused no sensations, but in 1958 Darin released one of his own compositions, "Splish, Splash." A whimsical number about characters from other rock and roll songs showing up and starting a party at the singer’s house while he was in the bathtub, it proved a hit, selling 100,000 copies in only three weeks.
Though Darin quickly followed "Splish, Splash" with another rock and roll ditty, "Queen of the Hop," he did not wish to rely on the burgeoning genre for his livelihood. He was unsure that rock and roll would last, and felt that teenagers—its primary consumers—were fickle in their affections for performers. So, hoping to attract more mature fans, Darin took the money he made from his first hit and financed an album of standards, titled That’s All. Included on That’s All was a revision of composer Kurt Weill’s song from playwright Bertolt Brecht’s Threepenny Opera —"Mack the Knife." Released in 1959, "Mack the Knife" did for Darin all that he could have wished, selling over two million copies, and catapulting him to the pinnacle of the nightclub circuit. He became a featured attraction at the most prestigious Las Vegas showcases, such as the Sahara and the Sands, and by 1960 had played the famed Copacabana in New York City.
Meanwhile, Darin was also getting his film career underway. Though he signed a film contract in 1959, he waited through many offers until he found the kind of parts he wanted to play. He made his screen debut playing an American in Italy in the 1961 film Come September. Darin also composed the title song, and met his wife, actress Sandra Dee, on the set. Faring better than most singers who venture into acting, Darin won praise for many of his film performances, including his portrayal of a young American flirting with Nazism during the 1940s in 1962’s Pressure Point, and he received an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor for his work in 1963’s Captain Newman, M.D.
Darin had other hit records throughout the early 1960s, including "Beyond the Sea," "You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby," and the country-flavored "Things." And, unlike many other artists who began their careers with the advent of rock and roll, he managed to maintain his success into the late 1960s, scoring in 1967 with the folk song, "If I Were a Carpenter." Darin also had political concerns at this time, and according to Steve Hochman in the Los Angeles Times, "worked on Robert Kennedy’s presidential campaign in 1968." Hochman further noted that the singer was "devastated by Kennedy’s assassination" later that year, and after this event sold many of his possessions, moved to California, and recorded two albums of protest songs on his own label, Direction. Though Darin’s long-time manager Steve Blowner told Hochman: "I was stunned at how good he was, singing [folk songwriters Laura] Nyro and Tim Hardin and [Bob] Dylan," Darin’s career began to languish somewhat. In the early 1970s, he recorded for the Motown label.
Darin had again tasted success, doing a summer replacement variety show for NBC in 1972 which was picked up again in 1973, when the heart problems that resulted from his childhood rheumatic fever caught up with him. Entering the hospital to have previously implanted artificial heart valves repaired, he died on the operating table on December 20, 1973. On the occasion of his posthumous induction to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1990, Blowner was quoted in the Los Angeles Times as saying: "He could sing it all."
http://www.answers.com/topic/bobby-darin
Bobby Darin (May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973), born Walden Robert Perciville Cassotto, was a two-time Grammy award winning American singer, Oscar nominated actor and accomplished musician. In 1990, Bobby Darin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Darin performed widely in a range of music genres, including pop, rock, jazz, folk and country. Although unknown to his public, his health was dangerously fragile and strongly motivated him to succeed within the limited lifetime he feared he would, and ultimately did, have.
Darin married Sandra Dee; they met while making the film Come September (1961). They made a few more movies together at Universal Studios that were moderately successful. They had one son, Dodd Mitchell Darin (also known as Morgan Mitchell Darin). She and Darin divorced in 1967.
He was also an actor, singer/songwriter and music business entrepreneur. His wish for a legacy was "to be remembered as a human being and as a great performer." Among his many other contributions, he became a goodwill ambassador for the American Heart Association.
Bobby Darin was born to a poor, working-class family of mostly Italian descent in The Bronx. The person thought to be his father (who was actually his grandfather) died in jail a few months before he was born. It was the height of the Great Depression, and he once remarked that his crib was a cardboard box, then later a dresser drawer. He was initially raised by his mother Polly, who was Anglo-American, and his sister Nina, subsisting on Home Relief until Nina later married and started a family with her new husband Charlie Maffia. It was not until Darin was an adult that he learned Nina, who was 17 years his senior, was in fact his birth mother, and that Polly, the woman he thought was his mother, was really his grandmother.[3] He was never told the identity of his real father, other than being told that his birth father had no idea Nina was pregnant, and thus never knew that Bobby was even born. Polly mothered him well, despite her own medical history resulting in her addiction to morphine. It was Polly who took the young Bobby to what was left of the old vaudeville circuit in New York, places like the Bronx Opera House, and the RKO Jefferson in Manhattan, where he received his first showbiz inspiration, and where he saw performers like Sophie Tucker, whom he loved.
Darin was frail and sickly as an infant and, beginning at the age of 8, was stricken with multiple recurring bouts of rheumatic fever. The illness left him with a seriously weakened heart. Overhearing a doctor tell his mother he would be lucky to reach the age of 16, Darin lived with the constant knowledge that his life would be short, which further motivated him to use his talents. He was driven by his poverty and illness to make something of his life and, with his innate talent for music, by the time he was a teenager he could play several instruments, including piano, drums and guitar. He later added harmonica and xylophone.
An outstanding student, Darin graduated from the prestigious Bronx High School of Science and went on to attend Hunter College on a scholarship. Wanting a career in the New York theater, he dropped out of college to play small nightclubs around the city with a musical combo. In the resort area of the Catskill Mountains, he was both a busboy and an entertainer. For the most part teenage Bobby was a comedy drummer and an ambitious but unpolished vocalist.
As was common with first-generation Americans at the time, he changed his Italian surname to one that sounded less ethnic. He chose the name "Bobby" because he had been called that as a child. He allegedly chose Darin because he had seen a malfunctioning electrical sign at a Chinese restaurant reading "DARIN DUCK" rather than "MANDARIN DUCK", and he thought "Darin" looked good. Later, he said that the name was randomly picked out of the telephone book, either by himself or by his publicist. It has also been suggested that he amended the word "daring" to suit his ambitions. None of these stories has been verified.
Music career What really moved things along for Darin was his songwriting partnership, formed in 1955, with fellow Bronx Science student Don Kirshner. In 1956 his agent negotiated a contract for him with Decca Records, where Bill Haley & His Comets had risen to fame. However, this was a time when rock and roll was still in its infancy and the number of capable record producers and arrangers in the field was extremely limited.
A member of the now famous Brill Building gang of once-struggling songwriters who later found success, Darin was introduced to then up-and-coming singer Connie Francis. Bobby's manager arranged for Darin to help write several songs for Connie in order to help jump-start her singing career. Initially the two artists couldn't see eye to eye on potential material, but after several weeks Bobby and Connie developed a romantic interest in one another. Purportedly, Connie had a very strict Italian father who would separate the couple whenever possible. When Connie's father learned that Bobby had suggested the two lovers elope after one of Connie's shows, he ran Darin out of the building while waving a gun telling Bobby to never see his daughter again.
Bobby saw Connie only twice more after this happened, once when the two were scheduled to sing together for a television show and again later when Connie was spotlighted on the TV series This Is Your Life. Connie has said that not marrying Bobby was the biggest mistake of her life. She used the title words of the song "My First Real Love," (a Darin-Kirshner song she'd recorded and on which Darin had played drums), when she said, "Well, he was my first real love and I never stopped loving him all my life." Connie Francis said too that she and Darin would sometimes go to the Apollo Theater to see artists like James Brown and Ray Charles, 'we were the only white people in the audience', and when Darin did record first for Decca early in 1956 it was a piece of black music, pioneered by the Louisiana songster Leadbelly, "Rock Island Line"—though the immediate inspiration was Lonnie Donegan's skiffle version. He sang it that year on the CBS program Stage Show, his TV debut, with the lyrics written on the palms of his hands in case he forgot them, which he did. But the songs recorded at Decca did very little business.[6]
Darin left Decca to sign with Atlantic Records (ATCO), where he wrote and arranged music for himself and others. Songs he recorded , like Harry Warren's I Found a Million Dollar Baby were sung with an Elvis-like attack - but Darin was not fully equipped to be a teen idol. Around this time he worried about his appearance. He was losing his hair and told Steve Blauner that when he looked in the mirror he saw "an ugly small Italian man." Yet many attested that on stage he had 'absolute charisma'. Fitted with a hairpiece Darin faced the world anew ; but now it was his ATCO career that was failing to thrive. There was talk of releasing Darin from his contract until Ahmet Ertegun, the Turkish-American co-founder of Atlantic, stepped in, and his career took off in 1958 when he wrote and recorded "Splish Splash", with Ertegun producing. The song was an instant hit, selling more than a million copies. "Splish Splash" was written with radio DJ Murray "Murray the K" Kaufman, who bet Darin that he could not write a song that started out with the words "Splish Splash, I was takin' a bath", as suggested by Murray's mother. On a snow-bound night in early 1958, Darin went in the studio alone and recorded a demo of "Splish Splash." They eventually shared writing credits with her. This was followed by more hits recorded in the same style.
In 1959, Bobby Darin recorded "Dream Lover", a ballad that became a multi-million seller. Along came financial success and with it came the ability to demand more so-called creative control. Some at the label wanted a Fats Domino-ish album, but Darin's devoted publicist and advisor Harriet 'Hesh' Wasser wanted a 'great, swinging, standard album,' and, as she later told it, they were walking down 57th street when Darin told her "Hesh, don't worry, you'll get your album." His next record, "Mack the Knife", was the classic standard from Kurt Weill's Threepenny Opera: Darin gave the tune a vamping jazz-pop interpretation. Although Darin initially opposed releasing it as a single,[8] the song went to No. 1 on the charts for nine weeks, sold two million copies, and won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1960. Darin was also voted the Grammy Award for Best New Artist that year. "Mack The Knife" has since been honored with a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. He followed "Mack" with "Beyond the Sea", a jazzy English-language version of Charles Trenet's French hit song "La Mer".
The tracks were produced by Atlantic founders, Ahmet and Nesuhi Ertegün with staff producer Jerry Wexler and featured brilliant arrangements by Richard Wess. Propelled by the success of "Mack the Knife" and "Beyond the Sea", Darin became a hot commodity. He set all-time attendance records at the famed Copacabana nightclub in New York City, where it was not unusual for fans to line up all the way around the block to get tickets when Darin performed there. The Copacabana sold so many seats for Darin's shows that they had to fill the dance floor, normally part of the performance area, with extra seating. Darin also headlined at the major casinos in Las Vegas.
Sammy Davis Jr., an exceptionally multi-talented and dynamic performer himself, was quoted as saying that Bobby Darin was "the only person I never wanted to follow" after seeing him perform in Las Vegas. However, Davis was among those who appeared on the 1959 telecast of This Is Your Life, along with George Burns and relatives and friends, that surprised and honored Darin at NBC's Burbank, California studios.
Darin had a significant role in fostering new talent. Richard Pryor, Flip Wilson and Wayne Newton opened his nightclub performances when they were virtually unknown. Early on, at the Copacabana, he insisted that black comic George Kirby be his opening act. His request was grudgingly granted by Jules Podell, the manager of the Copacabana.
In the 1960s, Darin also owned and operated a highly successful music publishing and production company (TM Music/Trio) and signed Wayne Newton to TM, giving him a song that was originally sent to Darin to record. That record went on to become Newton's breakout hit, "Danke Schoen". He also was a mentor to Roger McGuinn, who worked for Darin at TM Music and played the 12 string guitar in Darin's nightclub band before going off to form The Byrds. Darin also produced Rosey Grier's 1964 LP, Soul City, and Made in the Shade for Jimmy Boyd.
In 1962, Darin also began to write and sing country music, with hit songs including "Things" (U.S. #3) (1962), "You're the Reason I'm Living" (U.S. #3), and "18 Yellow Roses" (U.S. #10). The latter two were on Capitol Records, which he joined in 1962, before returning to Atlantic four years later. The song "Things" was sung by Dean Martin in the 1967 TV special Movin' With Nancy, starring Nancy Sinatra, which was released to home video in 2000.
Acting career In addition to music, Darin became a motion picture actor. In 1960, he appeared twice as himself in NBC's short-lived crime drama Dan Raven, starring Skip Homeier and set on the Sunset Strip of West Hollywood. In 1960, he was the only actor ever to have been signed contractually to five major Hollywood film studios. He wrote music for several films and acted in them as well. In his first major film, Come September, a romantic comedy designed to capitalize on his popularity with the teenage and young adult audience, he met and co-starred with 18-year-old actress Sandra Dee. They fell in love and were married in 1960. The couple had one son, Dodd Mitchell Darin (born 1961) and later divorced in 1967.
Wanting his acting to be taken seriously, he took on more meaningful movie roles, and in 1962, he won the Golden Globe Award for "Most Promising Male Newcomer" for his role in Pressure Point.
In 1963, Darin was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as a shell-shocked soldier in Captain Newman, M.D.. At the Cannes Film Festival, where his records—in particular "Beyond the Sea"—brought him a wide following, he won the French Film Critics Award for best actor.
Later years Darin's musical output became more "folky" as the 1960s progressed and he became more politically aware and active. In 1966, he had another big hit record, but this time it was with folksinger Tim Hardin's "If I Were a Carpenter", adding another style to his vast repertoire. The song secured Darin's return to the Top 10 after a two-year absence. Jim (Roger) McGuinn, the future leader of the Byrds, was part of his performing band. Darin traveled with Robert Kennedy and worked on the politician's 1968 presidential campaign. He was with Kennedy the day he traveled to Los Angeles on June 4, 1968 for the California Primary, and was at the Ambassador Hotel later that night when Kennedy was assassinated. Darin was devastated by this news.
Afterwards, Darin sold his house and most of his possessions and lived in seclusion in a trailer near Big Sur for nearly a year. Coming back to Los Angeles in 1969, Darin started another record company, Direction Records, putting out folk and protest music. He wrote the very popular "Simple Song of Freedom" in 1969. He said of his first Direction Records album, "The purpose of Direction Records is to seek out statement-makers. The album is solely [composed] of compositions designed to reflect my thoughts on the turbulent aspects of modern society." During this time, he was billed under the name "Bob Darin," grew a mustache, and stopped wearing a hairpiece. Within two years, however, all of these changes were discontinued.
At the beginning of the 1970s, he continued to act and to record, including several albums with Motown Records and a couple of films. In January 1971, he underwent his first heart surgery in an attempt to correct some of the heart damage he had lived with since childhood. He spent most of the year recovering from the surgery.
In 1972, he starred in his own TV variety show on NBC, The Bobby Darin Amusement Company, which ran until his death in 1973. Darin married Andrea Yeager in June 1973. He made TV guest appearances and also remained a top draw at Las Vegas, where, owing to his poor health, he was often administered oxygen after his performances.
Death In 1973, Darin's ill health took a turn for the worse. After failing to take medication (prescribed to protect his heart) before a dental visit, he developed blood poisoning. This weakened his body and badly affected one of his heart valves. On December 11, Darin entered Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles for surgery to repair the two artificial heart valves he received in the previous 1971 operation. On December 19, the surgery began. A five-man surgical team worked for over six hours to repair his damaged heart. However, although the surgery was initially successful, Darin died minutes afterward in the recovery room without regaining consciousness on December 20, 1973, at age 37.
Legacy In 1990, singer Paul Anka made the speech for Darin's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 1999, he was voted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
The Righteous Brothers refer to Darin in their song Rock and Roll Heaven, a tribute to late musicians, which was released months after Darin's death. The duo also make a reference to hill road. In 2000, actor Kevin Spacey, a lifelong fan of Darin, acquired the film rights to his story. Spacey directed and produced the film, and played Bobby Darin; as well as co-writing the script. The film is named after one of Darin's top hits, Beyond the Sea. With the consent of the Darin estate, Steve Blauner, and archivist Jimmy Scalia, the movie's opening was at the 2004 Toronto International Film Festival. Despite strong studio promotion, critical reaction was poor, and box office results were disappointing. However, the movie spurred a renewed interest in Darin, which has resulted in the release of "never heard before" material. His pianist, Roger Kellaway, has recorded two albums of Darin's music as well. Spacey was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actor for the movie. He also occasionally did concert tours, performing many of Darin's hits as a tribute to the singer.
In a 2003 episode of the NBC television series American Dreams, Duncan Sheik portrays Darin and performs Beyond the Sea on American Bandstand. Brittany Snow's character, Meg Pryor, is assigned as Darin's liaison during the show.
On Monday, May 14, 2007, Darin was awarded a star on the Las Vegas Walk of Stars. This tribute honors Darin for his contribution to making Las Vegas the "Entertainment Capital of the World" and acknowledges his reputation as one of the greatest entertainers of the 20th century. The sponsorship fee for this star was raised entirely by fan donations.
In December 2007, Darin was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame.
Darin had a custom car built called the "Dream Car," designed by Andy DiDia; it is on display at the St. Louis Museum of Transportation.
On December 13, 2009, the Recording Academy announced that Darin would receive a Lifetime Achievement Award (post-mortem) at the 2010 Grammy Awards ceremony.
Biopic Main article: Beyond the Sea (film) Beyond the Sea is a 2004 biographical film based on the life of Darin, which takes its title from the Darin song of the same name. Kevin Spacey, who stars in the lead role and used his own singing voice for the musical numbers, co-wrote, directed, and co-produced the film which depicts Darin's rise to teen idol success in both the music and film industry during the 1950s and 60s, as well as his marriage to Sandra Dee, portrayed by Kate Bosworth.
As early as 1986, Barry Levinson intended to direct a film based on the life of Darin, and he began preproduction on the project in early 1997. When he eventually vacated the director's position, Spacey, along with Darin's son, Dodd, acquired the film rights. Beyond the Sea was released in December 2004 to mixed reviews from critics and bombed at the box office. However, Dodd Darin, Sandra Dee, and former Darin manager Steve Blauner responded with enthusiastic feedback to Spacey's work on the film. Despite the mixed reviews, some critics praised Spacey's performance, largely owing to his decision to use his own singing voice. He also received a Golden Globe nomination.
Discography Singles Release date Title Flip side Record label Chart Positions US Charts Cashbox UK R&B 1956 Rock Island Line / Timber Decca 29883 Silly Willy / Blue Eyed Mermaid Decca 29922 The Greatest Builder Of Them All / Hear Them Bells Decca 30031 1957 Dealer In Dreams / Help Me Decca 30225 Million Dollar Baby / Talk To Me Atco 6092 Don't Call My Name / Pretty Betty Atco 6103 1958 Silly Willy / Dealer In Dreams Decca 30737 Just In Case You Change Your Mind / So Mean Atco 6109 Splish Splash/[14] Judy Don't Be Moody US Atco 6117/ UK London 8666 3 2 18 1 Early in the Morning / Now We're One Brunswick 55073 (See below) Early in the Morning / [15] Now We're One Atco 6121 24 25 8 Queen of the Hop Lost Love US Atco 6127/UK London 8737 9 12 24 6 Mighty Mighty Man / You're Gone Atco 6128 1959 Plain Jane While I'm Gone Atco 6133 38 30 Dream Lover [16] Bullmoose US Atco 6140/UK London 8867 2 3 1 4 Mack the Knife [17] Was There A Call For Me US Atco 6147/UK London 8939 1 1 1 6 1960 Beyond the Sea (the French hit song "La Mer") That's The Way Love Is US Atco 6158/UK London 9034 6 7 8 15 Clementine Tall Story US Atco 6161/UK London 9086 21 13 8 Won't You Come Home Bill Bailey?/ US Atco 6167/UK London 9142 19 16 34
I'll Be There 79
Beachcomber Autumn Blues Atco 6173 100 50 Artificial Flowers/ Atco 6179 20 19 ::above Shown as "Bobby Darin at the Piano"
Somebody To Love 45 58
Christmas Auld Lang Syne/ Atco 6183 51 50
Child Of God 95 95
She's Tanfastic! Moments Of Love Atco/Ferrion Inc. -- -- ::above Special premium record 1961 Lazy River Oo-Ee Train US Atco 6188/UK London 9303 14 18 2 Nature Boy Look For My True Love US Atco 6196/UK London 9375 40 31 24 Theme From "Come September" Walk Back To Me US Atco 6200/UK London 9407 113 55 50
::Shown as "Bobby Darin & His Orchestra"
You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby Sorrow Tomorrow US Atco 6206/UK London 9429 5 7 10 Irresistible You/ US Atco 6214/UK London 9474 15 16
Multiplication 30 26 5
1962 What'd I Say (Part 1)/ What'd I Say (Part 2) Atco 6221 24 6 Things Jailer Bring Me Water US Atco 6229/UK London 9575 3 10 2 If A Man Answers/All By Myself US Capitol 4837/UK Capitol 15272 32 28 24
True, True Love 105
Baby Face You Know How US Atco 6236/UK London 9624 42 38 40 I Found a New Baby Keep-A-Walkin' Atco 6244 90 1963 You're the Reason I'm Living Now You're Gone Capitol 4897 3 5 18 Yellow Roses Not For Me US Capitol 4970/UK Capitol 15306 10 12 37 28 Treat My Baby Good Down So Long Capitol 5019 43 38 Be Mad Little Girl Since You've Been Gone Capitol 5079 64 74 1964 I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now As Long As I'm Singing Capitol 5126 93 83 Milord Golden Earrings Atco 6297 45 39 Swing Low Sweet Chariot / Similau Atco 6316 -- -- The Things In This House Wait By The Water Capitol 5257 86 89 1965 Minnie The Moocher / Hard Headed Hannah Atco 6334 -- -- Hello, Dolly! Golden Earrings Capitol 5359 79 -- Venice Blue (Que C'est Triste Venise) A World Without You Capitol 5399 133 94 When I Get Home / Lonely Road Capitol 5443 -- -- Gyp The Cat / That Funny Feeling Capitol 5481 -- -- 1966 We Didn't Ask To Be Brought Here Funny What Love Can Do Atlantic 2305 117 -- Silver Dollar / The Breaking Point Atlantic 2317 -- -- Mame Walking In The Shadow Of Love Atlantic 2329 53 63 Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf? / Merci, Cheri Atlantic 2341 -- -- If I Were a Carpenter Rainin' US Atlantic 2350/UK Atlantic 584051 8 9 9 The Girl That Stood Beside Me Reason To Believe Atlantic 2367 66 65 Lovin' You / Amy Atlantic 2376 32 43 The Lady Came From Baltimore / I Am 62 73 1967 Darling Be Home Soon/ Hello, Sunshine Atlantic 2420 93 -- Talk To The Animals / After Today Atlantic 2433 -- -- Talk To The Animals / She Knows Atlantic 2433 105 -- 1968 Long Line Rider/ Change Direction 350 79 66 1969 Me & Mr. Hohner / Song for A Dollar Direction 351 123 -- Distractions (Part 1) / Jive Direction 352 111 --
::Shown as "Bob Darin"
1970 Sugar Man (9 To 5) / Jive's Alive Direction 4000 -- -- Baby May / Sweet Reason Direction 4001 -- -- Maybe We Can Get It Together / Rx Pyro (Prescription: Fire) Direction 4002 -- -- 1971 Melody / Someday We'll Be Together Motown 1183 -- -- Simple Song Of Freedom / I'll Be Your Baby Tonight Motown 1193 -- -- 1972 Sail Away / Something In Her Love Motown 1203 -- -- 1973 Average People / Something In Her Love Motown 1217 -- -- Happy Something In Her Love Motown 1217 67 59 1979 Dream Lover/ UK Lightning 9017 -- -- 64
Mack The Knife -- -- 64
1987 Beyond The Sea Mack The Knife Atlantic 89166 -- --
Early In The Morning Darin approached Brunswick Records with "Early In the Morning." Brunswick was impressed, but as Darin was still under contract to Atlantic Records' subsidiary, Atco, the song was released by "The Ding Dongs". New York deejays liked the record and Atco soon discovered the deception. Brunswick was forced to turn over the masters to Atco which released the record under the name, "The Rinky Dinks". In the UK where it had to compete with a version by Buddy Holly, rush released by Brunswick, the single was released under Darin's own name.
Albums Key:
US Billboard = BB US Cashbox = CB UK chart = UK Bobby Darin -- Atco 33-102—1958 Issued only in mono That's All (BB #7)-- Atco 33-104 (Mono) (CB #9)/SD 33-104 (Stereo) (CB #16) -- 1959 Note: There were separate Cashbox charts for mono and stereo albums until 1965 This is Darin (BB #6) -- Atco 33-115 (CB #5)/SD 33-115 (CB #7) -- 1960 Darin At The Copa (BB #9) -- Atco 33-122 (CB #6)/SD 33-122 (CB #12) -- 1960 For Teenagers Only (CB #38) -- Atco 1001—1960 Issued only in mono It's You Or No One -- Atco 33-124/SD 33-124—1960 The 25th Day of December -- Atco 33-125/SD 33-125—1960 Two Of A Kind (Bobby Darin & Johnny Mercer) -- Atco 33-126 (CB #38)/SD 33-126—1961 The Bobby Darin Story (BB #18) -- Atco 33-131 (CB #11)/SD 33-131—1961 Originally issued with white album cover, reissued in 1962 with black album cover. These issues were pressed with Bobby Darin's autograph in the run-out groove plate on Side 2; later reissues do not include the autograph Love Swings (BB #92) -- Atco 33-134 (CB #49)/SD 33-134—1961 Twist with Bobby Darin (BB #48) -- Atco 33-138 (CB #45)/SD 33-138—1961 Original copies of the above Atco albums were originally pressed with yellow "harp" labels. In 1962, these were re-released with gold/dark blue labels (mono copies) and purple/brown labels (stereo copies), which were also used for the forecoming Atco releases Bobby Darin Sings Ray Charles (BB #96) -- Atco 33-140 (CB #41)/SD 33-140—1962 Things and Other Things (BB #45) -- Atco 33-146 (CB #43)/SD 33-146—1962 Oh! Look at Me Now (BB #100) -- Capitol T(Mono)/ST(Stereo) 1791—1962 Earthy -- Capitol T/ST-1826—1963 You're the Reason I'm Living (BB #43) -- Capitol T 1866 (CB #19)/ST 1866—1963 18 Yellow Roses" (BB #98) -- Capitol T 1942 (CB #69)/ST 1942—1963 Golden Folk Hits -- Capitol T/ST 2007—1963 Winners -- Atco 33-167/SD 33-167—1964 As Long As I'm Singing -- Capitol T/ST 2084—1964 Unreleased, but rare stereo acetates are known to exist From Hello Dolly to Goodbye Charlie (BB #107) -- Capitol T/ST -2194—1964 Venice Blue (BB #132) -- Capitol T/ST 2322—1965 The Best Of Bobby Darin -- Capitol T/ST 2571—1966 The Shadow of Your Smile -- Atlantic 8121(Mono)/SD 8121(Stereo) - 1966 In A Broadway Bag -- Atlantic 8126/SD 8126—1966 If I Were a Carpenter (BB #142, CB #97) -- Atlantic 8135/SD 8135—1966 There were more mono copies than stereo copies of this album pressed Inside Out -- Atlantic 8142/SD 8142—1967 Bobby Darin Sings Doctor Dolittle -— Atlantic 8154/SD 8154—1967 Bobby Darin Born Walden Robert Cassotto -- Direction 1936 -— 1968 Commitment -— Direction 1937—1969 Finally -- Motown 739—1972 Commercially unreleased, but rare test pressings from RCA exist Bobby Darin -- Motown 753—1972 Darin: 1936-1973 (CB #136) -- Motown 813—1974 [edit] Filmography Come September (1961) Too Late Blues (1962) State Fair (1962) Hell Is for Heroes (1962) If a Man Answers (1962) Pressure Point (1962) Captain Newman, M.D. (1963) That Funny Feeling (1965) Gunfight in Abilene (1967) Stranger in the House (1967) The Happy Ending (1969) Happy Mother's Day, Love George (1973) [edit] Literature Dodd Darin & Maxine Paetro: Dream Lovers: the Magnificent Shattered Lives of Bobby Darin and Sandra Dee. New York: Warner Books 1994. ISBN 0-446-51768-2 [edit] Quotation “ If I'm this good now, what will I be like when I'm Sinatra's age? ”
NME - January 1960
Bobby Darin (born Walden Robert Cassotto, May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973) was an American singer, actor and musician.
Darin performed widely in a range of music genres, including pop, jazz, folk and country. Although unknown to his public, his health was dangerously fragile and strongly motivated him to succeed within the limited lifetime he feared he would, and ultimately did, have.
He was also an actor, singer/songwriter and music business entrepreneur. His wish for a legacy was "to be remembered as a human being and as a great performer." Among his many other contributions, he became a goodwill ambassador for the American Heart Association.
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What ten letter word do Americans use to call what we British call a torch? | Bobby Darin's life: carieer, relationships and death | OldiesMusicBlog
Movie review: Bobby Darin, a “Dream Lover”
Posted by diana Dec - 22 - 2010 4 Comments
Bobby Darin (1936 – 1973), born Walden Robert Perciville Cassotto, was a two-time Grammy Award-winning American singer, Oscar-nominated actor and accomplished musician.
Troubled childhood
Bobby Darin was born to a poor, working-class family of mostly Italian descent in The Bronx. The person thought to be his father (who was actually his grandfather) died in jail a few months before he was born. It was the height of the Great Depression, and he once remarked that his crib was a cardboard box, then later a dresser drawer. He was initially raised by his mother Polly, who was Anglo-American, and his sister Nina. It was not until Darin was an adult that he learned Nina, who was 17 years older than him, was in fact his birth mother, and that Polly, the woman he thought was his mother, was really his grandmother.
Darin was frail and sickly as an infant and had, from the age of 8, rheumatic fever. The illness left him with a seriously weakened heart. Overhearing a doctor tell his mother he would be lucky to reach the age of 16, Darin lived with the constant knowledge that his life would be short, which further motivated him to use his talents. He was driven by his poverty and illness to make something of his life and, with his innate talent for music, by the time he was a teenager he could play several instruments, including piano, drums and guitar. He later added harmonica and xylophone.
Why Bobby Darrin?
As was common with first-generation Americans at the time, he changed his Italian surname to one that sounded less ethnic. He chose the name “Bobby” because he had been called that as a child. He allegedly chose Darin because he had seen a malfunctioning electrical sign at a Chinese restaurant reading “DARIN DUCK” rather than “MANDARIN DUCK”, and he thought “Darin” looked good.
Connie Francis
A member of the now famous Brill Building gang of once-struggling songwriters who later found success, Darin was introduced to then up-and-coming singer Connie Francis. Bobby’s manager arranged for Darin to help write several songs for Connie in order to help jump-start her singing career. Initially the two artists couldn’t see eye to eye on potential material, but after several weeks Bobby and Connie developed a romantic interest in one another. Purportedly, Connie had a very strict Italian father who would separate the couple whenever possible. When Connie’s father learned that Bobby had suggested the two lovers elope after one of Connie’s shows, he ran Darin out of the building while waving a gun telling Bobby to never see his daughter again.
Bobby saw Connie only twice more after this happened, once when the two were scheduled to sing together for a television show and again later when Connie was spotlighted on the TV series This Is Your Life. Connie has said that not marrying Bobby was the biggest mistake of her life. She said: “Well, he was my first real love and I never stopped loving him all my life.”
Sandra Dee
Sandra Dee was born Alexandra Zuck in Bayonne, New Jersey. Her parents divorced before she was five. Her mother was of Carpatho-Rusyn ancestry and raised her in the Russian Orthodox Church. Changing her name to Sandra Dee, she became a professional model by the age of four and subsequently progressed to television commercials.
There has been some confusion as to Dee’s actual birth year, with evidence pointing to both 1942 and 1944. According to her son Dodd Darin in his book Dream Lovers, she was born in 1944, but since Dee started modeling and acting at a very young age, she and her mother falsely inflated her age by two years so she could find more work. If Dee was indeed born in 1944, she was 16 when she married the 24 year-old Bobby Darin in 1960.
Sandra Dee made her first film, Until They Sail, in 1957, and the following year, she won a Golden Globe Award for New Star Of The Year – Actress.
Her marriage to Bobby Darin in 1960 kept her in the public eye for much of the decade. They met while making the 1961 film Come September together. She was under contract to Universal Studios, which tried to develop Dee into a mature actress, and the films she made as an adult – including a few with Darin – were moderately successful. They had one son, Dodd Mitchell Darin. She and Darin divorced in 1967 and Darin died in 1973.
In 1994, Dee’s son Dodd Darin published a book about his parents, Dream Lovers: The Magnificent Shattered Lives of Bobby Darin and Sandra Dee, in which he chronicled his mother’s anorexia, drug and alcohol problems and her disclosure that she had been sexually abused as a child by her stepfather, Eugene Douvan.
Death
In 1973, Darin’s ill health took a turn for the worse. After failing to take medication to protect his heart before a dental visit, he developed blood poisoning. On December 19, a five-man surgical team worked for over six hours to repair Darin’s damaged heart. Although the surgery seemed initially successful, Darin died minutes afterward in the recovery room without regaining consciousness on December 20, 1973, at age 37.
His life is presented in the biographical movie – Beyond the Sea (2004). Kevin Spacey, who stars in the lead role and used his own singing voice for the musical numbers, co-wrote, directed, and co-produced the film, which takes its title from the Darin song of the same name. Beyond the Sea depicts Darin’s rise to teen idol success in both the music and film industry during the 1950s and 60s, as well as his marriage to Sandra Dee, portrayed by Kate Bosworth.
Source: Wikipedia
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What eight letter word do americans use to call what we British call a dressing gown? | The Septic's Companion - List of British Words For Clothing
Appliances Clothing Eating and Drinking Events Everyday Speech Insults People Places Science & Nature Sex Sport The Body Travel & Transport Weights & Measures
The most popular British words or British English terms for items of clothing.
anorak: 1 n someone who�s a little bit too knowledgeable about one subject. Generally a subject like seventeenth-century flower pots or steam trains, rather than athletic sexual positions or gun-fighting. Americans (and also Brits, as our languages merge ever closer) would call such a person a �geek.� It may originate with the fans of Radio Caroline, a U.K. offshore pirate radio station, whose fans had to don anoraks in order to visit the station. Alternatively, it may come from the most popular item of clothing worn by train-spotters. 2 n waterproof jacket (universal).
boob tube: n tube top. A rather eighties item of clothing designed to make an otherwise attractive woman look like a malformed sausage.
box: 1 n item that fits down the front of a bloke�s underwear and protects the crown jewels. Americans know it as a �cup,� although I suppose in the U.S. such an item is less likely to be protecting the crown jewels and perhaps instead protects �the Bill of Rights� or some such. 2 female genitalia (universal).
braces: 1 n suspenders. Beware of the cross-definition � in the U.K., �suspenders� are something else entirely (you�ll just have to look it up like a man). 2 metal devices used to straighten one�s teeth (universal).
cardie: n abbr cardigan. A common abbreviation, at least for anyone who still wears cardigans.
clobber: n clothing; vestments. You might hear: OK, OK, I�ll be out in two minutes once I�ve got my nightclubbing clobber on. It�s possible this definition is of Scottish origin. Brits do also use �clobber� to mean hitting something.
court shoes: n pumps. Lightweight heeled women�s dress shoes with enclosed toes.
dapper: adj as befitting someone who is very much the country squire � well-spoken, well-dressed and rather upper-class. Despite once having been a compliment, the recent unpopularity of the upper classes in the U.K. has made this a mild insult.
dressing gown: n bathrobe; the outfit that you wear if you�re an attractive young lady coming out of the bath to answer the door in a coffee advertisement. Or if you�re Hugh Heffner. Ah, the great contradictions of modern life.
fluff: n lint. More than simply lint, fluff stretches to cover any unexpected bits of hair/fur/fabric, appearing anywhere from the corner of your living room to your posterior.
jim-jams: n pajamas. So called because the pajama was invented by a man named Jim, and the original experimental variants were made solely from strawberry jam.
jumper: n sweater. What Americans call a �jumper� (a set of overalls with a skirt instead of trousers), Brits would call a �pinafore.�
kagoul: n wind breaker; poncho. A light waterproof jacket, usually one that zips up into an unfeasibly small self-contained package. The word derives from the French �cagoule� (meaning much the same thing), which in turn comes from the Latin �cuculla,� meaning �hood.� In the U.S. technical theatre industry a �kagoul� is a black hood worn by magicians� stagehands to render them invisible-ish. I once thought about writing a whole book dedicated to the word �kagoul,� but then decided against it.
kecks: n pants (U.S. pants); trousers. May come from India, where �kachs� are loose-fitting trousers with a low crotch.
Kirby grip: n Bobby pin. The little pins you poke in your hair to keep it in place.
knickers: n women�s underpants. In old-fashioned English and American English, �knickers� (an abbreviation of the Dutch-derived word �knickerbockers�) are knee-length trousers most often seen nowadays on golfers.
ladder: n run. In the sense of a �ladder in your tights� being the British equivalent of a �run in your pantyhose.� In all other circumstances, this word means exactly the same in the U.K. as it does in the U.S.
Mac: n 1 (abbr. of �Macintosh�) light waterproof jacket which can usually be squashed up into an impressively small size for packing away. Possibly derived from the name of the gentleman who worked out how to infuse rubber and cloth. Americans call the same sort of thing a �slicker.� 2 buddy: Are you alright Mac? The two meanings appear together in the Bonzo Dog Doodah Band�s song �Big Shot,� which features the lines: On the way home a punk stopped me: �You got a light, mac?� / I said �No, but I�ve got a dark brown overcoat.�
nappy: n diaper.
pants: 1 n underpants. What Americans call �pants,� Brits call �trousers.� 2 interj crap. A general derogatory word: We went to see Andy playing in his band but to be honest they were pants.
plimsolls: n light canvas shoes with rubber soles. A rather antiquated shoe, and therefore an equally antiquated word. Your grandmother may refer to your trainers as plimsolls, but that doesn�t mean you should too.
plus-fours: n an awful item of clothing which consists of sort-of-dungarees which stop at the knee. Whilst popular in pre-World-War Britain, plus-fours these days are firmly in the realms of brightly-colours golfers or inbreds.
polo-neck: n, adj turtle-neck. A style of sweater in which the neck runs right up to the chin; far enough up to cover even the most adventurous of love-bites.
pump: n gym shoes. A rather antiquated term. The confusion arises because in the U.S., it means high heels or stilettos.
purse: n money-purse. A little bag that women generally keep money in. Brits call anything larger than a money-purse a �handbag.�
rucksack: n backpack. One of those bags you wear over your shoulder on two straps (or one, if you want to look misguidedly fashionable). The word is used in the U.S. armed forces specifically to mean a framed pack, but in the U.K. it means any sort of backpack.
rugger bugger: n Jock. A somewhat affluent youth who makes up for his lack of academic achievement by scoring on the playing field and in bed with young ladies.
stockings: n tights. I think. I don�t wear a lot of women�s underwear. Well, there was that one time.
suspenders: n garters. The things used by women to hold up their stockings. They are not used by men to hold up their trousers (Brits call those devices �braces�) or their socks (they call those things, umm, �garters�).
swimming costume: n abbr �swimming cozzie� bathing suit. One of those women�s swimsuits that covers your midriff - not a bikini. I suppose technically there�s nothing to stop men wearing them either, though that�s perhaps less conventional. You can�t pigeonhole me.
tartan: n, adj plaid. The stripes-and-checkers pattern that Scotsmen use for their kilts but is also used for all sorts of things from throw rugs to tacky seat covers.
tights: n pantyhose. I�m getting rather out of my depth here. Opaque, very thin women�s leggings and generally skin-coloured or black. �Tights� in the U.S. are generally coloured, thicker, more like leggings and rarely worn. All of this makes little difference to me because the only reason I�d ever think about buying either would be if I was considering a career in armed robbery.
trainers: n sneakers; running shoes.
trilby: n a men�s felt-type hat (generally brown). The hat inherited its name from the 1894 George du Maurier novel, Trilby. The novel was not about hats, and if it even mentioned a hat it was only really in passing. However, during the first stage adaptation of the novel, one of the main characters wore a hat of an as-yet-unnamed type. Someone evidently thought that this was a good a time as any to name the hat, and so it was.
trousers: n pants. In the U.K., �pants� are underpants, and so being �caught with your pants down� has even more graphic connotations.
vest: n undershirt. The item of clothing worn under your shirt. What Americans call a �vest,� Brits call a �waistcoat.�
waistcoat: n vest. An odd sort of article of clothing worn over your shirt but under your jacket, often with a bow-tie. In the U.K., �vest� means something else, as usual.
wellies: n Wellington boots. Look it up. It can�t be far.
Wellingtons: n rubber boots; galoshes. A contraction of the term �Wellington boots,� which was the inventive name given to boots made popular by the Duke of Wellington. The further abbreviation �wellies� is also in common use.
welly: n Scottish (when talking about automobiles) stick; punch: If you give it some welly you�ll hit fifty through the corners! This may or may not be related to the �wellington boot� definition.
windcheater: n windbreaker. Cheap-looking waterproof jacket.
Y-fronts: n briefs. The more form-fitting old-fashioned equivalent of boxer shorts. The name derives from the upside-down �Y� shape on the front, through the convergence of which you extract your old man in order to pee.
| Bathrobe |
Four letters of the Greek alphabet have a two letter name, Mu, Nu, Xi and which other, the 16th? | dressing gown - definition of dressing gown in English | Oxford Dictionaries
Definition of dressing gown in English:
dressing gown
A long, loose robe, typically worn after getting out of bed or bathing.
Example sentences
‘They all jumped a mile in the air as she came out of the bathroom, a dressing gown wrapped around her.’
‘In 1963 he set up his own small company making pyjamas and dressing gowns.’
‘Linen pyjamas and woollen dressing gowns were everywhere.’
‘The owner's wife stood on the bottom step of the stairs, a woollen dressing gown clutched about her.’
‘As I cruised past, I saw people dressed in silk dressing gowns and cowboy hats milling about in the rain.’
‘While the guards still wore their uniform, the nobles were in their nightdresses and dressing gowns.’
‘She was wearing a light dressing gown and a pale blue woollen hat because her hair had never grown back after chemotherapy.’
‘I am wearing a long white gown; I spot a dressing gown on the nearby chair.’
‘I'm sitting in my dressing gown and tracksuit bottoms, having spent the whole day in bed.’
‘He hops onto the train and finds a carriage full of kids who, like him, are all in their pyjamas and dressing gowns.’
‘His black happi is wrapped around his bulky frame like a dressing gown.’
‘I held the phone in my hand again and let my spare one reach to my waist to fiddle with the material belt of my dressing gown.’
‘Wouldn't it be nice if life consisted entirely of silk dressing gowns, champagne, and silver cocktail shakers?’
‘She was wearing a gold dressing gown, with a blue sash at the waist, and pink slippers with pom-poms.’
‘At the moment he was dressed in a pair of old slippers and a worn dressing gown, thrown over a set of striped flannel pyjamas.’
‘But he was attention was caught by two figures in dressing gowns, hurrying towards the church, and he looked round, his heart pleased that someone had come.’
‘There were people sitting out in their gardens in dressing gowns, drinking coffee and cheering us on.’
‘An inquest in the city heard how she was wearing a red dressing gown and pyjamas with her arms folded neatly across her chest.’
‘I sit up, my messy blonde hair falling everywhere and look around for my clothes, or a dressing gown, but I see nothing.’
‘Pete slipped quietly out of bed, put on his dressing gown, and tip-toed into the bathroom.’
Synonyms
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antibacterial
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anti-imperialist
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antifreeze
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anti-inflammatory
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antinatal
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anteoxidant
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anti-ageing
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anteterror
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anti-racism
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Which Spanish romantic painter who lived from 1746 to 1828 was responsible for works such as 'The Parasol' in 1777, 'Duchess of Alba' in 1795 and 'Witches Sabbath' in 1789 amongst others? | ART / 4 / 2DAY
whose life and death show that there's
PAIN in PAINTING
^ Born on 30 March 1853: Vincent van Gogh , Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who died on 29 July 1890.
Van Gogh�s brief nine-year career as a painter began in the Netherlands. His early works were dark but later became intensely luminous after he moved to Paris and the south of France. A great collector of Japanese prints, he created an expressive style that combined direct observation with a Japanese use of outline and flattened areas of color. Plagued by poor health, he committed suicide at the age of 37.
Van Gogh worked as an art dealer, a teacher and a lay preacher before becoming a painter. Van Gogh was not �mad� but probably suffered from a form of epilepsy easily treatable with today�s drugs.
It was only after Vincent van Gogh 's death that he gained fame when his paintings were shown at the Bernheim-Jeune gallery in Paris on 17 March 1901. The 71 paintings, which captured their subjects in bold brushstrokes and expressive colors, caused a sensation across the art world. Eleven years before, while living in Auvers-sur-Oise outside Paris, van Gogh had committed suicide without any notion that his work was destined to win acclaim beyond his wildest dreams. In his lifetime, he had sold only one painting, and was hoping that some day his paintings would sell for more than the price of the paints and canvas. It is only posthumously that his wish was fulfilled... and then some. One of his paintings the Sunflowers ( almost identical to two others ) now at the Yasuda museum sold for just under $40 million at a Christie's auction in 1987. Later another one sold for $82 million (bear in mind that past dollars are worth more than present dollars).
Born in Zundert in the Netherlands, van Gogh worked as a salesman in an art gallery, a language teacher, a bookseller, and an evangelist among Belgium miners before settling on his true vocation as an artist. What is known as the "productive decade" began in 1880, and for the first few years he confined himself almost entirely to drawings and watercolors while acquiring technical proficiency. He studied drawing at the Brussels Academy and in 1881 went to the Netherlands to work from nature. The most famous work from the Dutch period was the dark and earthy The Potato Eaters (1885), which showed the influence of Jean-Fran�ois Millet, a French painter famous for his peasant subjects.
In 1886, van Gogh went to live with his brother, Th�o, in Paris. There, van Gogh met the foremost French painters of the postimpressionist period, including Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Paul Gauguin, Camille Pissarro, and Georges Seurat. He was greatly influenced by the theories of these artists and under the advice of Pissarro he adopted the kind of colorful palette for which he is famous. His painting Portrait of Père Tanguy (1887) was the first successful work in his new postimpressionist style.
In 1888, van Gogh, mentally exhausted and feeling he was becoming a burden on Th�o, left Paris and took a house at Arles in southeastern France. The next 12 months marked his first great period, and working with great speed and intensity he produced such masterful works as his sunflower series [ 14 Sunflowers in a Vase ] and The Night Caf� (1888). He hoped to form a community of like-minded artists at Arles and was joined by Gauguin for a tense two months that culminated when van Gogh threatened Gauguin with a razor blade and then cut a piece of his own left ear off (he painted two mirror images of himself with the bandaged ear, with and without pipe). It was his first bout with mental illness, diagnosed as dementia. Van Gogh spent two weeks at the Arles Hospital and in April 1889 checked himself into the asylum at Saint-R�my-de-Provence. He stayed there for 12 months and continued to work between recurrent attacks. One of the great paintings from this period was the swirling, visionary Starry Night (1889).
In May 1890, he left the asylum and visited Th�o in Paris before going to live with Paul-Ferdinand Gachet, a homeopathic doctor and friend of Pissarro, at Auvers-sur-Oise. He worked enthusiastically for several months, but his mental and emotional state soon deteriorated. On 27 July 1890, feeling that he was a burden on Th�o and others, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest. He dies two days later, in the arms of his brother, in Auvers. He had exhibited a few canvases at the Salon des Ind�pendants in Paris and in Brussels, and after his death both salons showed small commemorative exhibits of his work. Over the next decade, a handful of other van Gogh exhibits took place, but it was not until the Bernheim-Jeune show in 1901 that he was recognized as a truly important painter. In subsequent decades, his fame grew exponentially, and today his paintings are among the most recognized works of art in the world.
Van Gogh is generally considered one of the two greatest Dutch painters (along with Rembrandt ), and one of the greatest Post-Impressionists. Profoundly influenced the development of Expressionism in modern art. Van Gogh, the oldest of six children of a Protestant pastor, grew up in the Brabant region of the southern Netherlands. His early years were happy, and he loved the countryside. Vincent's introduction to the art world came at 16 when he was apprenticed to the Hague office of his uncle's art dealership, Goupil and Co. Van Gogh's artistic output can be divided into two periods. During the first (1873-1885) he struggled with his own temperament while seeking his true means of self-expression. It was a period of repeated apprenticeships, perceived failures, and changes in direction. The second (1886-1890) was a period of complete dedication, rapid development, and artistic fulfillment. Sadly it was interrupted by a series of mental breakdowns that lasted from 1889 until his suicide. Van Gogh worked for Goupil in London from 1873 until May 1875, and then in Paris until April 1876. Daily contact with works of art piqued his artistic sensibilities, and he developed profound fondness for Rembrandt, Frans Hals, and other Dutch masters, along with preferences for two contemporary French painters, Jean-François Millet and Camille Corot. Van Gogh hated art dealing. Moreover, his outlook on life darkened when he suffered a broken heart in 1874. His desire for human affection thwarted, he became and remained increasingly solitary. He then became a language teacher and lay preacher in England. Feeling called to give himself to his fellow men, he envisioned joining the ministry. He began the study of theology but abandoned his project for short-term training as an evangelist in Brussels (1878). However, he argued with the orthodox doctrinal approach. He failed to get an appointment after three months, so he left.
Van Gogh�s paintings are some of the most widely recognised in the world. The countless poster reproductions of his Sunflowers and high prices at auction (the record standing, in 2002, at over US$82 million) have saturated public consciousness. This current fame contrasts with his short, lonely and poverty stricken life. His artistic career lasted 10 years and during only three he produced his now most critically acclaimed works. He sold one work, in the year he died, and just one critical review was published in his 37-year lifetime.
Van Gogh was born in Holland in 1853, the son of a vicar. His three uncles were art dealers and in 1869 he followed in their footsteps working in The Hague, London and Paris. Before he was dismissed as unsuitable in 1876 he was exposed to influences, such as English illustrative engraving, that were to form part of his artistic vision. The social and moral message of this medium, combined with his interest in Jean-Francois Millet�s work, shaped his idea that art should be related to and understood by all.
During a spell working in the academy in Antwerp in 1885 Van Gogh also became familiar with Impressionist painting and Japanese prints. He shared his enthusiasm of these latter works with Degas. Both admired their strong colors and innovative compositional impact.
A year later Van Gogh moved to Paris and was introduced to some of the Impressionists by his brother, Theo. The influence of his meetings with Pissarro, Signac and Seurat can be seen in his adoption of small brushstrokes and brilliant, pure colors. His subject matter at this time of restaurants and street scenes was also typically Impressionist, however, he always claimed that Delacroix was a greater influence.
Van Gogh's unique artistic vision was similar to that of Gauguin who joined him for a short spell in Arles in 1888. Both artists looked for parallels between painting, music and literature. In one of his 755 letters that document his ideas and artistic development, Van Gogh wrote, �I want to say something comforting in painting as music is comforting�. However where Gauguin insisted that true creativity came from the imagination, Van Gogh insisted that his further layers of meaning should derive from a close study of nature.
He was a religious man and saw his paintings as a way of communicating, as revealed in the expressive color of Vincent�s Chair (1888). This idea became more important than the depiction of reality and links Impressionism with Expressionism, paving the way for artists such as Matisse and Picasso.
The friendship with Gauguin came to an end when, in 1888, Van Gogh suffered a fit of insanity, attacking his friend and mutilating his own ear. This is portrayed in the painting Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear (1888). This episode, his confinement in the asylum at Saint-R�my, and subsequent suicide in 1890, are well known but should not cloud judgement on his artistic output. Van Gogh only painted when his mind was clear. He wrote in a letter from Arles, �The emotions are sometimes so strong that one works without being aware of working�and the strokes come with a sequence and coherence like words in a speech or a letter.�
On 30 March 1853 a boy was born to the family of a Dutch village vicar, Theodorus van Gogh (1822-1885) and his wife Anne Cornelia, nèe Carbentus (1819-1907). A year before, exactly the same day, another boy was born to the family, he died, and now the new-born received his name: Vincent Willem van Gogh.
After getting school education, van Gogh started his career as a picture salesman: in The Hague (1869) he entered the branch office of the Paris art dealer Goupil & Cie, founded originally by his uncle Vincent. As an agent of the company he worked in its branches in Brussels (1873), London (1873), Paris (1875). But his personal disappointment increased and he left Goupil.
Van Gogh tried himself as a teacher in Ramsgate near London (April-December 1876), then he worked as an apprentice lay preacher and wanted to devote his life to evangelization of the poor. In 1878 Vincent convinced his father of his religious vocation and in August began a three-month course in preaching in Evangelist school in Laeken, near Brussels. At school he was considered unsuitable for the lay-preaching profession. But he persistently followed his inclination and went to Borinage, the Belgian coal mining area close to the French border. There, living in extreme poverty, he visited sick people and read the Bible to the miners.
In 1879 Vincent got permission to work for 6 months as a lay preacher in Borinage. But his involvement in the plight of the poor irritated his superiors, and his contract was not extended under the pretext that his rhetorical talents were insufficient. He continued to work without any payment until July 1880. In Borinage Vincent experienced a period of deep personal crisis, which was to mold his later life. While in Borinage he drew much, made sketches of the miners� environment. Meanwhile his four-years younger brother, Theo ((1857-1891), began to work at Goupil�s in Paris and started to support Vincent financially, he also encouraged Vincent in his wish to become an artist.
Having chosen art as his new profession van Gogh went to Brussels (October 1880- April 1881), where he studied anatomical and perspective drawing at the Academy of Art. In January 1882 he moved to The Hague and settled there not far from his cousin, the artist Mauve, whom he admired and who became his teacher. With Mauve van Gogh for the first time tried oils. Accordingly, his early painting of August 1882 Beach with Figures and Sea with a Ship is strongly influenced by The Hague School to which Mauve belonged. During 1883-1885 van Gogh traveled and worked in The Hague, Nueven, where his parents' new home was, Amsterdam. His models were poor people, slums, hard working peasants; he painted landscapes and town views, all in dark, somber colors.
On 26 March 1885 his father died. Vincent was heart-broken. In this mood he painted The Potato-Eaters , the main work of his Dutch period. In January 1886 he entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Antwerp, but already in March he left it and arrived in Paris. He started studies in Cormon studio, the owner of which, the painter Fernand Cormon, was a fairly unknown artist, but a quite successful teacher. Van Gogh studied in the studio for 3 months. Here he made friends with Toulouse-Latrec and Emile Bernard. Theo introduced him to Monet , Renoir , Sisley , Pissarro , Degas , Signac, Seurat, and Gauguin who came to Paris from Pont-Aven. From now on the colors on Vincent�s palette became considerably brighter; under the influence of Impressionists his style also changed. View of Paris from Montmartre , Paris Seen from Vincent's Room in the Rue Lepic , Terrace of the Cafè "La Guinguuette" and others are based on a typical Impressionist interpretation.
Together with Gauguin and Bernard, Van Gogh spent many days in Asnières, a popular spa town on the Siene, not far from Paris. There he painted the views of Asnières and the well-known The Seine with the Pont de la Grande Jatte in summer 1887. In Paris he frequently visited the Café de Tambourin on the Boulevard de Clichy and had a love affair with its owner Agostina Segatori, a former model of Corot and Degas. She sat for van Gogh and he painted her many times, e.g. Agostina Segatori in the Café du Tambourin. In the café, together with Bernard, Gauguin and Toulouse-Lautrec, he exhibited his works; they also decorated the walls with Japanese colored woodcuts. They called themselves �Peintres du Petit Boulevard� (painters of small boulevard) in contrast to the �Peintres du Grand Boulevard� (Monet, Sisley, Pissarro, Degas, Seurat), who exhibited in Theo van Gogh�s gallery. That year Vincent painted several pictures using the techniques of Pointillism, e.g. The Vase with Daisies and Anemones . During his two years in Paris van Gogh painted more than 200 pictures.
In 1888 he left Paris and went to Arles. At first Vincent rented a room in a restaurant. The small attic was completely unsuitable for a studio and he mainly worked out of doors. He did not know anybody who could sit as his model, and so the landscapes of area around Arles with its trees, hills, bridges, huts became his main theme. �An endlessly flat landscape � seen from a bird�s eye view from the top of the hill � vineyards, harvested corn fields. All this is multiplies to infinity and spreads like the surface of the sea to the horizon, which is bordered by the hills of Grau,� wrote Vincent van Gogh about his surroundings. He painted many pictures with blooming flowers and trees, which reminded of Japanese landscapes. On receiving the news of Mauvre�s death he dedicated a picture to his memory Peach Tree in Bloom . Soon he moved to the �yellow house�. Gradually he made friends with people, who agreed to sit for him: le zouave Milliet, a soldier, Joseph Roulin, the country postman, Madame Ginoux, an owner of a station restaurant in Arles, and others.
In October, after Vincent�s repeated requests, Gauguin came to stay with him in Arles. Van Gogh was overjoyed. He gladly let Gauguin take the lead-role in art, placing himself in the role of a student. They worked out a lot of motifs together, compared the results and argued over artistic concepts. But their partnership could not last long, they were too different personalities, and besides, van Gogh was seriously ill. Guaguin decided to leave, but �ever since I wanted to leave Arles, he has been behaving so strangely that I hardly dare to breathe. �You want to leave�, he said to me and as soon as I answered in the affirmative he tore a piece, containing the following sentence, from the newspaper: �The murderer, has fled�,� Gauguin was later to recall in a letter. Van Gogh really appeared to be going mad. Gauguin waited with leave: �In spite of a few differences I can't be angry with a good chap who is ill and suffering and calling for me.� On the 23rd of December Gauguin went for a walk in the evening and heard steps behind, he turned and saw van Gogh, his face distorted, a razor blade in his hand. Gauguin spoke softly to Vincent, the latter turned and went away. When later Gauguin returned home, the whole of Arles was already there. Plagued with hallucination, Van Gogh cut off part of his left ear; after he managed to stop bleeding he wrapped the cut-off piece in a handkerchief, ran to the town brothel and gave the awful package to a prostitute. Then he returned home and slept. In this state police found him and took to town hospital. Gauguin immediately left. In order to quiet his bad conscience he later wrote in his autobiography that van Gogh had threatened him.
Theo immediately came to Arles. Epilepsy, dipsomania and schizophrenia were the presumed causes of Vincent�s illness. He stayed in hospital for two weeks. Back in his studio he painted the result of the catastrophe: his Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear. Sleeplessness and hallucinations went on. The scared citizens of Arles initiated a petition asking to take Vincent back into hospital. Looked after by a priest and a doctor, he lived in the Arles hospital both as patient and prisoner until the beginning of May 1889. In May, although he felt better, he went on his own desire into the mental hospital Saint-Paul-de-Mausole near Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. �I am ready to play the role of a madman, although I have not at all the strength for such a role�. Theo paid for two rooms for Vincent, one as a studio with a view of the garden. He was allowed to paint outdoors under the supervision of the ward attendant Poulet. In the hospital he painted mainly landscapes. On 23 January 1890 Theo�s son was born and baptized Vincent Willem after his uncle and godfather. Van Gogh dedicated the Branches of an Almond Tree in Blossom to his nephew.
In May 1890 Vincent visited Theo and his family in Paris and then settled in Auvers-sur-Oise, near Paris. The town was chosen because Dr. Gachet, himself a hobby painter and friend of the Impressionists, was living there, he agreed to take care of Vincent. In Auvers van Gogh painted more than 80 pictures. During these last weeks of his life it was only due to his work that he could forget about his illness, and he painted as if possessed. Among the works of the period are religious works after Delacroix , Pietà and Good Samaritan , the masterpiece The Church in Auvers , multiple landscapes and portraits.
On the evening of 27 July 1890 van Gogh went at dusk into the fields and shot himself in the chest with a revolver. With all his strength he managed to drag himself back to the inn; here he died two days later in the arms of his brother, who had hurried to his side. Besides Theo and Dr. Gachet some friends from Paris, amongst them Bernard and �Père� Tanguy, took part in the funeral.
Thus ended the singular life of an artist who defies comparison with any other.
�I can�t change the fact that my paintings don't sell. But the time will come when people will recognize that they are worth more than the value of the paints used in the picture.� Vincent van Gogh
Self Portrait (1887)
Self-Portrait as an Artist (1888, 65x50cm) _ Although Van Gogh painted many self-portraits, this is one of the few in which he depicted himself as an artist, with all the attendant equipment: palette, brushes, and a canvas on a wooden easel. Contrasting colors, such as the blue of the smock and the orange-red of the beard, are set right next to each other in order to strengthen their effect. The red and green strokes of the face are placed so close together that they appear as a grey shadow when seen from a distance. While most of Van Gogh�s other self-portraits are rather sketchy, this one has been finished down to the last detail. The short, dry strokes have been applied with care. Van Gogh probably worked on the painting for some time, and he was apparently quite satisfied with it: in contrast to most of his works in this genre, he has signed it prominently.
In addition to depicting himself as a professional artist, Van Gogh also strove to reflect his somber mood in this work. In a letter to his sister Willemien, he spoke of his wrinkled forehead and red beard as �rather untidy and sad.� Evidence of depression during his last months in Paris can be found in other letters as well: �When I left Paris [I was] totally broken, very sick and virtually an alcoholic,� he wrote several months later to Gauguin. (Letter to Willemien van Gogh, 22 June 1888)
Van Gogh painted a total of 35 self-portraits during the course of his career of these, 29 date from Paris. He very much wanted to paint portraits in this period, but could not afford models. Using his own reflection was a natural, inexpensive and easy solution. It allowed him to experiment with various styles, techniques and effects of light and color. As he later wrote to Theo: �If I succeed in painting the colors of my own face, which is not without its own difficulties, then I should be able to paint those of other men and women.� This series of self-portraits clearly illustrates how Van Gogh�s coloration became brighter and livelier over time. There is an enormous difference between the brown tints of the earliest studies and the light, bright colors of the Self-Portrait with Straw Hat and Pipe from Arles (August 1888, 40x32cm). The development of his characteristic �dash style� can also be followed in these examples.
Most of the Parisian self-portraits are somewhat smaller than the Self-Portrait as an Artist. They were clearly meant as studies and as experiments. This can be seen in the loose, very free manner in which many were executed, and in the use of cheap materials such as cardboard in place of linen or canvas. Van Gogh also saved money by using some of his supports twice, painting on both sides. He made a number of studies of his own face on the back of earlier still lifes, and on the reverse of The Potato Pealer (one of the oil sketches for The Potato Eaters) Another self-portrait was even painted over an older work, one Van Gogh apparently did not feel was very successful.
Self-portrait with a Straw Hat (41x32cm) [no pipe] _ Van Gogh painted at least twenty-four self-portraits in Paris between March 1886 and February 1888, including seven in which he wears a straw hat. This work, which shows the artist's awareness of Neo-Impressionist technique and color theory, is one of several that are painted on the reverse of an earlier peasant study. The Potato Peeler is on the reverse side.
The Potato Peeler (on reverse side of the above, 41x32cm) _ This painting of February�March 1885, with its restricted palette of dark tones, coarse fracture, and blocky drawing, is typical of the kind of works Van Gogh painted in Nuenen, the year before he left Holland for France. Van Gogh's peasant studies of 1885 culminated in his first important painting, The Potato Eaters. _ [This may be the same as the silhouetted Peasant Woman Seated before an Open Door, Peeling Potatoes (Nuenen: March 1885, 36x25cm) though the stated dimensions are different.]
Premiers Pas
Fourteen Sunflowers in a Vase (1888, 92x73cm) _ These sunflowers [15 of them, it seems] are in the light of the south of France, where Van Gogh had recently taken up residence. He painted them to decorate a room intended for Gauguin. Innovations in paint-making enabled him to use new chromium and cadmium yellows and the paint laid onto the canvas in thick strokes suggests three-dimensional flowers. Each bloom is at a different stage some newly blossomed, some wilting and dying. Traditionally in Dutch painting this is interpreted as representing the stages of human life.
This is one of four paintings of sunflowers dating from August and September 1888. Van Gogh intended to decorate Gauguin's room with these paintings in the so-called Yellow House that he rented in Arles in the South of France. He and Gauguin worked there together between October and December 1888. Van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo in August 1888, "I am hard at it, painting with the enthusiasm of a Marseillais eating bouillabaisse, which won't surprise you when you know that what I'm at is the painting of some sunflowers. If I carry out this idea there will be a dozen panels. So the whole thing will be a symphony in blue and yellow. I am working at it every morning from sunrise on, for the flowers fade so quickly. I am now on the fourth picture of sunflowers. This fourth one is a bunch of 14 flowers ... it gives a singular effect." The dying flowers are built up with thick brushstrokes (impasto). The impasto evokes the texture of the seed-heads. Van Gogh produced a replica of this painting in January 1889, and perhaps another one later in the year. The various versions and replicas remain much debated among Van Gogh scholars.
Still Life (27x35cm) Path between Garden Walls (Auvers Landscape) (30x39cm)
Women Picking Olives (1890, 73x91cm) _ In December and early January 1889�90, Van Gogh painted a group of three pictures of women gathering olives. This is probably the one he sent to his sister and mother. He wrote: "I hope that the picture of the women in the orchard of olive trees will be a little to your liking � I sent a drawing of it to Gauguin, . . . and he thinks it good. . .
The most complete Van Gogh web site
A few Self-Portraits of van Gogh [click on an image to enlarge]
^ Died on 30 March 1879: Thomas Couture, French Academic history, portrait, and genre painter born on 21 December 1815.
Couture was an academic history and genre painter. He studied under Baron Antoine-Jean Gros [16 Mar 1771 – 26 Jun 1835] and Paul Delaroche. Won Prix de Rome in 1837. Was very popular as a teacher. His students included Edouard Manet [23 Jan 1832 – 30 Apr 1883], Jean-Fran�ois Millet [04 Oct 1814 – 20 Jan 1875], Puvis de Chavannes [14 Dec 1824 – 24 Oct 1898], William Morris Hunt [21 Mar 1824 – 08 Sep 1879], John La Farge [1835-1910], Maria Oakey Dewing [1845-1927], George P.A. Healy [1813-1894], John Whetten Ehninger [1827-1889] and Elizabeth Lyman Boott Duveneck [1846-1888].
Couture was a student of Gros and Delaroche [1797-1856]. He is chiefly remembered for his vast orgy picture Les Romains de la Décadence , which was the sensation of the Salon of 1847. Like other one-picture painters, his reputation has sunk with that of his big work, which now if often cited as the classic example of the worst type of bombastic academic painting, impeccable in every detail and totally false in overall effect. His more informal works, however, are often much livelier in conception and technique, for as a teacher he encouraged direct study from landscape.
— Couture followed the path of numerous talented artists born to modest, provincial backgrounds in the nineteenth century. He was born in Senlis in 1815, but his shoemaker father moved the family to Paris in 1826. At the age of fourteen, Couture studied for one year (1829) at the �cole des Arts et M�tiers and then entered the studio of the academic history painter Gros the following year and then the state-sponsored �cole des Beaux-Arts (1831). Failing the prestigious Prix de Rome competition at the �cole six times, Couture turned to the official exhibitions, the Salons, to make his career.
He made his name in 1847 with the monumental historical genre painting The Romans of the Decadence, which garnered great acclaim.
Government commissions (The Enrollment of the Volunteers of 1792, The Baptism of the Prince Imperial, and religious mural paintings in the church of Saint-Eustache in Paris) followed from the late 1840s through the 1850s, spanning the political changes from the Second Republic to the Second Empire. But Couture never completed the first two commissions, while the third met with mixed criticism.
Troubled by his own inability to finish projects as well as the unfavorable reception of his murals, Couture moved away from Paris in 1860, first to his hometown of Senlis, then to Villiers-le-Bel, where he increasingly distanced himself from the art scene in Paris but continued to teach and advise artists who came to him.
Shortly after his 1847 success, Couture opened an independent atelier meant to challenge the �cole in producing the best new history painters. He published a book on his ideas and working methods, M�thode et entretiens d'atelier (1867), in which he encouraged the use of the �bauche and gave specific "recipes" for certain tonal effects. In making explicit his technique and process, Couture thumbed his nose at the academic establishment, which, until 1863, did not actually teach painting and sculpture in the �cole curriculum and had consistently mystified the process of artistic education in order to maintain control over it.
Among Couture's students were Manet, Anselm Feuerbach [12 Aug 1829 – 04 Jan 1880], and many men and women from the US. For this reason, a number of small works, some of which served as teaching exercises, found their way into US collections. These students, in turn, directed fellow US collectors to Couture, who was able to sustain his later career through such private patronage.
Couture died at Villiers-le-Bel. His fiery temperament and periods of self-doubt and sluggishness were significant factors in his rocky career. Perhaps he put it best, responding to an editor's request for an autobiography in 1856: “Biography is the exaltation of personality, and personality is the scourge of our time.”
Head of a Boy (lithograph 36x 26cm)
— Les Romains de la Décadence _ detail 1 _ detail 2 _ detail 3 _ Conservative critics admired Couture for having revived the flagging genre of history painting through a harmonious composition of numerous figures in various natural poses set within a grandiose architectural setting; the depicted nudity and wanton behavior were acceptable because they served as indications of the physical and moral decline of ancient Rome. More progressive commentators admired the textural, luminous quality achieved through Couture's innovative technique, in which he retained aspects of the �bauche, or preliminary phase of working up a final canvas, and exploited the ground color, letting it flicker up through darker tones or pulling drier, brighter paint over it.
— Pierrot � la correctionnelle (1870, 32x39cm) _ This painting belongs to a series illustrating the Pierrot and Harlequin story, a satirical tale of social behavior. The clown Pierrot, dressed in white, sits accused of stealing food from a restaurant. The chef and a cook sit at the left, witnesses for the prosecution, with food and wine nearby as evidence. As judges doze, the masked Harlequin speaks for the defense. Pierrot had great difficulty controlling his appetite, a personality trait that Couture apparently shared. The painter also despised lawyers and made several paintings mocking them.
— Pierrot the Politician (aka Arlequin et Pierrot) (1857, 119x155cm) — The Little Bather (1849, 117x90cm) — La soif de l�or (1844, 154x188cm) — Horace and Lydia (1843, 38x46cm)
— Bulles de Savon (1858, 131x98cm) _ There is an 1859 version. Soap bubbles are traditional symbols of ephemeral existence, and the wilting laurel wreath (which is fresh in the 1859 version) underscores the fleeting character of reward and fame.
^ Born on 30 March 1746: Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes, Spanish painter who died on 16 April 1828.
BIOGRAFÍA EN CASTELLANO (distinta de las que se dan aquí en Inglés)
Francisco de Goya is one of the great Spanish masters, known for such works as Nude Maja, Clothed Maja and Third of May, 1808. The student, and later brother-in-law, of Francisco Bayeu , Goya was initially trained in the then-current Rococo style. He gradually developed his own distinctive style of painting, showing the influence of Vel�zquez and Rembrandt . Goya's late works became quite dark in mood, from his satirical caricatures to the so-called Black Paintings such as Saturn Devouring One of his Sons .
Goya was a consummately Spanish artist whose multifarious paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters. The series of etchings
Los desastres de la guerra
(1810-1814) records the horrors of the Napoleonic invasion. His masterpieces in painting include
The Clothed Maja
(1805). [They never say what is a maja. It means a provocative young woman or a belle of the lower classes.]
For the bold technique of his paintings, the haunting satire of his etchings, and his belief that the artist's vision is more important than tradition, Goya is often called "the first of the moderns." His uncompromising portrayal of his times marks the beginning of 19th-century realism.
Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes was born in Fuendetodos, a village in northern Spain. The family later moved to Saragossa, where Goya's father worked as a gilder. At about 14 young Goya was apprenticed to José Luzán, a local painter. Later he went to Italy to continue his study of art. On returning to Saragossa in 1771, he painted frescoes for the local cathedral. These works, done in the decorative rococo tradition, established Goya's artistic reputation. In 1773 he married Josefa Bayeu, sister of Saragossa artist Francisco Bayeu. The couple had many children, but only one--a son, Xavier--survived to adulthood.
From 1775 to 1792 Goya painted cartoons (designs) for the royal tapestry factory in Madrid. This was the most important period in his artistic development. As a tapestry designer, Goya did his first genre paintings, or scenes from everyday life.
The experience helped him become a keen observer of human behavior. He was also influenced by neoclassicism, which was gaining favor over the rococo style. Finally, his study of the works of Velázquez in the royal collection resulted in a looser, more spontaneous painting technique.
At the same time, Goya achieved his first popular success. He became established as a portrait painter to the Spanish aristocracy. He was elected to the Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1780, named painter to the king in 1786, and made a court painter in 1789.
A serious illness in 1792 left Goya permanently deaf. Isolated from others by his deafness, he became increasingly occupied with the fantasies and inventions of his imagination and with critical and satirical observations of mankind. He evolved a bold, free new style close to caricature. In 1799 he published the
Caprichos
, a series of etchings satirizing human folly and weakness. His portraits became penetrating characterizations, revealing their subjects as Goya saw them. In his religious frescoes he employed a broad, free style and an earthy realism unprecedented in religious art.
Goya served as director of painting at the Royal Academy from 1795 to 1797 and was appointed first Spanish court painter in 1799. During the Napoleonic invasion and the Spanish war of independence from 1808 to 1814, Goya served as court painter to the French. He expressed his horror of armed conflict in
The Disasters of War
, a series of starkly realistic etchings on the atrocities of war. They were not published until 1863, long after Goya's death.
Upon the restoration of the Spanish monarchy, Goya was pardoned for serving the French, but his work was not favored by the new king. He was called before the Inquisition to explain his earlier portrait of
The Naked Maja
, one of the few nudes in Spanish art at that time.
In 1816 he published his etchings on bullfighting, called the
Tauromaquia
. From 1819 to 1824 Goya lived in seclusion in a house outside Madrid. Free from court restrictions, he adopted an increasingly personal style. In the
Black Paintings
, executed on the walls of his house, Goya gave expression to his darkest visions. A similar nightmarish quality haunts the satirical
Disparates
, a series of etchings also called
Proverbios
.
In 1824, after the failure of an attempt to restore liberal government, Goya went into voluntary exile in France. He settled in Bordeaux, continuing to work until his death there.
^ Goya was an innovative Spanish painter and etcher; one of the triumvirate�including El Greco and Diego Vel�zquez�of great Spanish masters. Much in the art of Goya is derived from that of Vel�zquez, just as much in the art of the 19th-century French master Edouard Manet and the 20th-century genius Pablo Picasso is taken from Goya. Trained in a mediocre rococo artistic milieu, Goya transformed this often frivolous style and created works, such as the famous Third of May, 1808 (1814, Museo del Prado, Madrid), that have as great an impact today as when they were created.
Early Training and First Projects
Goya was born in the small Aragonese town of Fuendetodos (near Saragossa) on March 30, 1746. His father was a painter and a gilder of altarpieces, and his mother was descended from a family of minor Aragonese nobility. Facts of Goya's childhood are scarce. He attended school in Saragossa at the Escuelas Pias. Goya's formal artistic education commenced when, at the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a local master, Jos� Luzan, a competent although little-known painter in whose studio Goya spent four years. In 1763 the young artist went to Madrid, where he hoped to win a prize at the Academy of San Fernando (founded 1752). Although he did not win the desired award, he did make the acquaintance of Francisco Bayeu, an artist also from Arag�n, who was working at the court in the academic manner imported to Spain by the German painter Anton Raphael Mengs. Bayeu (the brother of Goya's wife) was influential in forming Goya's early style and was responsible for his participation in an important commission, the fresco decoration (1771, 1780-1782) of the Church of the Virgin in El Pilar in Saragossa.
In 1771 Goya went to Italy for approximately one year. His activity there is relatively obscure; he spent some months in Rome and also entered a composition at the Parma Academy competition, in which he was successful. Returning to Spain about 1773, Goya participated in several other fresco projects, including that for the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, near Saragossa, in 1774, where his paintings prefigure those of his greatest fresco project, executed in the Church of San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid, in 1798. It was at this time that Goya began to do prints after paintings by Vel�zquez, who would remain, along with Rembrandt, his greatest source of inspiration.
Years as Court Painter
By 1786 Goya was working in an official capacity for King Charles III, the most enlightened Spanish monarch of the 18th century. Goya was appointed first court painter in 1799. His tapestry cartoons executed in the late 1780s and early 1790s were highly praised for their candid views of everyday Spanish life. With these cartoons Goya revolutionized the tapestry industry, which, until that time, had slavishly reproduced the Flemish genre scenes of the 17th-century painter David Teniers. Some of Goya's most beautiful portraits of his friends, members of the court, and the nobility date from the 1780s. Works such as Marquesa de Pontejos (1786) show that Goya was then painting in an elegant manner somewhat reminiscent of the style of his English contemporary Thomas Gainsborough.
^ Etchings and Later Paintings
In the winter of 1792, while on a visit to southern Spain, Goya contracted a serious disease that left him totally deaf and marked a turning point in his career. A mood of pessimism entered Goya's work. Between 1797 and 1799 he drew and etched the first of his great print series Los caprichos, which, in their satirical humor, mock the social mores and superstitions of the time. Later series, such as Desastres de la guerra (1810) and Disparates (1820-1823), present more caustic commentaries on the ills and follies of humanity. The horrors of warfare were of great concern to Goya, who observed firsthand the battles between French soldiers and Spanish citizens during the bloody years of the Napoleonic occupation of Spain. In 1814 he completed Second of May, 1808 and Third of May, 1808. These paintings depict horrifying and dramatically brutal massacres of groups of unarmed Spanish street fighters by French soldiers. Both are painted, like so many later pictures by Goya, in thick, bold strokes of dark color punctuated by brilliant yellow and red highlights.
Straightforward candor and honesty are also present in Goya's later portraits, such as Family of Charles IV (1800), in which the royal family is shown in a completely unidealized fashion, verging on caricature, as a group of strikingly homely individuals.
Final Works
The Black Paintings, scenes of witchcraft and other bizarre activities, are among the most outstanding works of the artist's late years (about 1820). Originally painted in fresco on the walls of Goya's country house and now transferred to canvas, they attest to his progressively darkening mood, possibly aggravated by an oppressive political situation in Spain that forced him to leave for France in 1824. In Bordeaux he took up the then new art of lithography, producing a series of bullfight scenes, considered among the finest lithographs ever made. Although he returned to Madrid for a brief visit in 1826, he died in self-imposed exile in Bordeaux two years later. Goya left no immediate followers of consequence, but his influence was strongly felt in mid-19th-century painting and printmaking and in 20th-century art.
Goya was born in a very poor village called Fuendetodos, near Saragossa, in Aragon, on 30 March 1746. Goya�s father was a gilder in Saragossa and it was there that Goya spent his childhood and adolescence.
He began his artistic studies at the age of 13 with a local artist, Jos� Lus�n, who had trained in Naples and who taught Goya to draw, to copy engravings and to paint in oils. In 1763 and 1766, he competed unsuccessfully for a scholarship of the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, probably working in the studio of the Court Painter Francisco Bayeu , who was also from Saragossa. To continue his studies he went to Rome at his own expense. In April of 1771 he participated in a competition held by the Academy of Parma introducing himself as a student of Francisco Bayeu. By the end of 1771, Goya was back in Saragossa, where he received his first official commission, the frescoes in the Cathedral of El Pilar.
In 1773 Goya married Josefa Bayeu, sister of Francisco Bayeu. In 1774, the German artist Anton Raphael Mengs summoned Goya to Madrid to paint cartoons for tapestries for the Royal Factory of Santa Barbara. It is possible that Goya first met Mengs in Rome, since many years later he wrote that it was Mengs who made him return to Spain. In any event, it was Mengs who started him on his career at court. Under the direction first of Mengs, and later of Francisco Bayeu and Mariano Maella, Goya executed over 60 tapestry cartoons between 1775 and 1792, see e.g. Fight at the Cock Inn , The Parasol , La Cometa .
In 1780, Goya was elected a member of the Royal Academy of San Fernando. In 1780-1781, he worked on the frescoes of El Pilar in Saragossa. On his return to Madrid he received the royal invitation to paint one of seven large altarpieces for the newly built church of San Francisco el Grande. The King�s opinion of his work must have been favorable, because in 1785, a year after the paintings were first shown to the public, Goya was appointed Deputy Director of Painting in the Academy. In 1786, he became a court painter.
Among Goya�s early admirers and most important patrons during a period of 20 years were the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, who commissioned not only portraits of themselves and a family group but also a number of paintings to decorate their country residence near Madrid, the Alameda Palace, known as El Capricho. Among other paintings for the Duke of Osuna are two altarpieces, commissioned in 1788 for the chapel of his ancestors, St. Francis Borgia, in Valencia Cathedral.
In 1783-1785, Goya painted a number of portraits of the influential persons of his time: the portrait of the Chief Minister of State, the Count of Floridablanca, in which Goya himself appears; the family portrait of the Infante Don Luis, the King�s brother, with himself again in the picture; the court architect, Ventura Rodriguez. In 1785, he was commissioned for a series of portraits of offices of the Banco Nacional de San Carlos. In these early official portraits, Goya adopted conventional XVIII century poses. His portrait of Charles III in Hunting Costume is based directly on Velásquez�s paintings of royal huntsmen.
The death of Charles III in 1788, and the outbreak of the French Revolution, brought to an end the period of comparative prosperity and enlightenment in Spain during which Goya had reached maturity. Under the rule of the weak Charles IV and his unscrupulous Queen, Mar�a Luisa, Spain fell into political and social corruption, which ended with the Napoleonic invasion of Spain. Under the new regime Goya reached the height of his career as the most fashionable and successful artist in Spain. The new King raised him to the rank of Court Painter in 1789.
During a visit to Andalusia towards the end of 1792, Goya was struck down by a long and serious illness of which the effect, as he wrote even a year later, made him, �At times rage with so ill a humor that he could not tolerate himself�. The nature of the illness is not known for certain but it caused temporary paralysis and partial blindness and left him permanently deaf, so that henceforth he could only communicate by writing and sign language. He returned to Madrid in the summer of 1793.
After the death of Francisco Bayeu in 1795, Goya succeeded his former teacher as Director of Painting in the Academy (but resigned for reasons of health two years later), and in 1799 was appointed First Court Painter. In 1799, Goya published the series of 80 etchings called Los Caprichos, bitter caricatures of life. Despite the veiled language of Los Caprichos they were withdrawn from sale after a few days.
From the time of their ascension until 1800, Charles IV and Mar�a Luisa sat for him on many occasions, and many replicas were made of his portraits of them. He painted them in various costumes and poses, ranging from the early decorative portraits in full regalia in the tradition of Mengs to the simpler and more natural compositions in the manner of Vel�zquez.
Goya was 62 years old when the Napoleonic invasion of Spain started in 1808, and Spain was subjected to six years of war and revolution. Goya was in Madrid during the tragic events of 02 and 03 May 1808 when the population rose against the French and the uprising was savagely repressed. In 1814 he recorded the events in two of the most famous of his paintings The Second of May, 1808: The Charge of Mamelukes. and The Third of May, 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid. Meanwhile, with thousands of other heads of families, Goya swore allegiance to the French King, Joseph Bonaparte. During the war he was occupied with portraits of family groups and private citizens. At the time he made his personal record of the war in expressive and fearful drawings Desastres de la Guerra, which were later used for a series of 82 etchings, which were published only in 1863.
In August 1812, when the British entered Madrid, Goya accepted a commission for an equestrian portrait of the Duke of Wellington and, soon afterwards, painted one other portrait of his only recorded English sitter. On the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814, Goya resumed his office as First Court Painter. The portraits of Ferdinand were Goya�s last royal portraits, he went out of favor and fashion. From now on Goya was chiefly occupied with paintings for private patrons, for friends and for himself. He continued to record his observations and ideas in drawings. During this period Goya received two important ecclesiastical commissions for St. Justa and St. Rufina, painted in 1817 for the Seville Cathedral, and for The Last Communion of St. Joseph of Calasanz , painted in 1819 for the church of the Escuelas P�as de San Ant�n in Madrid.
As a result of the revolution of 1820 Ferdinand VII was forced to recognize a constitution, but already in 1823 the French army restored the Spanish king to absolute power, and the persecution of the liberals was renewed with greater violence than ever before. Goya, who had made his last appearance at the Academy on 04 April 1820 to swear allegiance to the Constitution, went into hiding early in 1824. After the declaration of amnesty Goya left Spain. Except for two short visits to Madrid in 1826 and 1827, the painter remained in France, mainly in Bordeaux, for the rest of his life. He died in Bordeaux.
Inquisition Carlos III
Familia de Carlos IV (280x336cm)_ La Familia de Carlos IV supone la culminaci�n de todos los retratos pintados por Goya en esta �poca. Gracias a las cartas de la reina Mar�a Luisa de Parma a Godoy conocemos paso a paso la concepci�n del cuadro. La obra fue realizada en Aranjuez desde abril de 1800 y durante ese verano. En ella aparecen retratados, de izquierda a derecha, los siguientes personajes: Carlos Mar�a Isidro, hijo de Carlos IV y Mar�a Luisa de Parma; el futuro Fernando VII, hijo primog�nito de la real pareja; Goya pintando, como hab�a hecho Vel�zquez en Las Meninas; Do�a Mar�a Josefa, hermana de Carlos IV; un personaje desconocido que podr�a ser destinado a colocar el rostro de la futura esposa de Fernando cuando �ste contrajera matrimonio, por lo que aparece con la cabeza vuelta; Mar�a Isabel, hija menor de los reyes; la reina Mar�a Luisa de Parma en el centro de la escena, como se�al de poder ya que era ella la que llevaba las riendas del Estado a trav�s de Godoy; Francisco de Paula de la mano de su madre, de �l se dec�a que ten�a un indecente parecido con Godoy; el rey Carlos IV, en posici�n avanzada respecto al grupo; tras el monarca vemos a su hermano, Don Antonio Pascual; Carlota Joaquina, la hija mayor de los reyes, s�lo muestra la cabeza; cierra el grupo D. Luis de Parma; su esposa, Mar�a Luisa Josefina, hija tambi�n de Carlos IV; y el hijito de ambos, Carlos Luis, en brazos de su madre. Todos los hombres retratados portan la Orden de Carlos III y algunos tambi�n el Tois�n de Oro, mientras que las damas visten a la moda Imperio y ostentan la banda de la Orden de Mar�a Luisa. Carlos IV tambi�n luce la insignia de las Ordenes Militares y de la Orden de Cristo de Portugal. Alrededor de esta obra existe mucha literatura ya que siempre se considera que Goya ha ridiculizado a los personajes regios. Resulta extra�o pensar que nuestro pintor tuviera intenci�n de poner en rid�culo a la familia del monarca; incluso existen documentos en los que la reina comenta que est�n quedando todos muy propios y que ella estaba muy satisfecha. M�s l�gico resulta pensar que la familia real era as� porque, de lo contrario, el cuadro hubiese sido destruido y Goya hubiese ca�do en desgracia, lo que no ocurri�. El artista recoge a los personajes como si de un friso se tratara, en tres grupos para dar mayor movimiento a la obra; as�, en el centro se sit�an los monarcas con sus dos hijos menores; en la derecha, el grupo presidido por el pr�ncipe heredero realizado en una gama fr�a, mientras que en la izquierda los Pr�ncipes de Parma, en una gama caliente. Todas las figuras est�n envueltas en una especie de niebla dorada que pone en relaci�n la obra con Las Meninas. Lo que m�s interesa al pintor es captar la personalidad de los retratados, fundamentalmente de la reina, verdadera protagonista de la composici�n, y la del rey, con su car�cter ab�lico y ausente. La obra es un documento humano sin parang�n. Estil�sticamente destaca la pincelada tan suelta empleada por Goya; desde una distancia prudencial parece que ha detallado todas y cada una de las condecoraciones, pero al acercarse se aprecian claramente las manchas. Goya, a diferencia de Vel�zquez en Las Meninas, ha renunciado a los juegos de perspectiva pero gracias a la luz y al color consigue dar variedad a los vol�menes y ayuda a diferenciar los distintos planos en profundidad. Fue la primera obra de Goya que entr� en el Museo del Prado , siendo valorada en 1834 en 80'000 reales.
^ — Saturn Devouring One of his Sons (1823, 146x83cm) _ detail _
The image seems to have arisen in a nightmare: the cannibal god on bended knees, engulfed in darkness; the mad haunted eyes and black-blooded mouth; the rending fingers, threaded with blood, and the ravaged figure in their grasp — like a huge, mad Richard Nixon or Dubya Bush, devouring the young men of the US through their insane wars: a cannibal father, jealous of our freedoms, determined to destroy us, our ideals, our hopes. Critics have called this Saturn a symbol of evil, a Satan, a monster. The painting evokes in the viewer an interior terror, a sense of isolation, loneliness, grief — this god on his knees, tearing apart his own child, enshrouded in a blackness that is like a psychic tar, in a drama of primal murderousness.
This story of fathers and sons is one of the foundation tales of Western tradition: Abraham binding his son Isaac for sacrifice on Mount Moriah; God offering the sacrifice of His son Jesus on the cross. The earliest version of the Kronos myth — Saturn is the later Roman name — was written down by Hesiod in his Theogony, about the eighth century BC.
First comes Chaos; then Earth/Gaia; Tartarus in the bowels of Earth; and finally Eros. Earth gives birth to Heaven, also known as Ouranos, and then bears twelve of his children, the last, "most terrible of sons / The crooked-scheming Kronos."* Earth and Ouranos have three more sons, so fearsome and mighty that Ouranos forces them back inside their mother, burying them alive. She forms a sickle, and asks her other sons to use it against their father, “For it was he / Who first began devising shameful acts.” All are afraid, except Kronos. She gives him the sickle, hides him in her, and he castrates his father, preventing him from having more children, then assumes power among the Titans. But fear lives in his heart; a usurper himself, he learns that one of his own children will usurp him, and he devours them at birth: “As each child issued from the holy womb / And lay upon its mother's knees, each one / Was seized by mighty Kronos, and gulped down.” Through a ruse by his mother, the last born, Zeus, survives, leads a war against Kronos, and casts him down to Tartarus. Even gods cannot overcome Fate.
Goya produced a chalk drawing, Saturn Devouring His Sons, in 1797, most likely influenced by a Rubens painting of the same subject. Both works are illustrative of a literary theme, passionless, even morbidly comic. Rubens's Saturn is out on a stroll, his foot resting momentarily on a stone, one hand holding his staff, the other grasping his meal — his infant son — biting into the boy's chest like a sturdy Flemish burgher stooping to a roast goose. Goya's Titan is cunning-eyed; his mouth, clamped upon his son's leg to the thigh, is turned upwards in a leering grin; the legs of a second son he holds almost daintily, his pinky slightly raised. Neither work is likely to evoke more than a passing grimace from a viewer.
All of this changes with the Saturn of 1824, one of the series known as the Black Paintings. What returned Goya to this subject? What did he recognize in himself that charged the work with such raw, wounding power?
Goya and his wife, Josefa, had between five and twenty children: the exact number is unknown. Only one boy, Javier, survived beyond childhood. Did the early deaths of his other children, reflected upon in the solitude of the Quinta del Sordo — the house he moved into in 1819, seven years after Josefa died — inspire Goya's vision of the cannibal god? Was he portraying his sense of potential cut off, of lives interrupted before they can begin?
This interpretation is inconsistent with the fact that the figure gripped in the giant's hands is no child, but a full grown adult, which leads to another, allied interpretation: Saturn / Kronos as the ancient deity Time, implacable devourer of all humankind.
Shortly before he began the Black Paintings, Goya survived a near fatal illness, documented in his Self-portrait with Dr. Arrieta, where the pained and weary artist, surrounded by dark, phantasmal faces, is ministered to by the doctor. Did Goya, sick, deaf, in his seventies, paint his lonely terror of his own mortality through his Saturn?
But if the giant represents Time, why is he painted on bended knees, with spindly misshapen legs that seem unable to bear the weight of his enormous torso? Is this Goya's sardonic commentary on Spain's recent war with France — presenting a crippled Time, forced to overfeed on the numberless dead? On the dead of all wars? Did the early nineteenth century supply Saturn / Kronos with such quantities of corpses, that Time himself is brought to his knees, his wild eyes bulging, as if he were unable to stomach another bite? Or is the figure a symbol of war itself, the culminating portrait of the horrors he chronicled in his series of etchings, The Disasters of War, in 1810-1820?
Every interpretation of a painting rooted so complexly in the mind of Goya leads, as with dreams, to new interpretations.
In the universe before the coming of Christ, Saturn, frenziedly eating his own child-god, might be seen as engaged in an act of perverse communion. The Christian God sacrificed his son that all humankind might live; the Titan acts out of fear and jealousy, and the body of his child reveals not the mystery of resurrection, but the dark and violent mysteries of the psyche, a Tartarus of blood and madness, where all instincts and emotions merge, and consequence is forgotten. A realm of unconsciousness. Of mutilation and murder.
From this perspective, Saturn might be Goya's warning to humankind, whose wars and wanton cruelties, devotion to superstition and false gods will lead it to dissolution, to the Nada scrawled by the corpse as its last message in the etching, "Nothing. We shall see." (The Disasters of War #69)
And yet, for all the mythological, political, social, historical, and religious meanings we attach to the painting, there is something we still turn away from, the most basic theme — a man destroying his own son. Think of Javier, Goya's only child to survive to adulthood. From the beginning, Goya loved him, pampered him, fretted over him.
Fathers and sons enjoy, or are condemned to, the play of uniquely powerful forces of love and pride, disappointment and dominance, the scales forever unbalanced, sometimes seeming to shift in a single moment, then swaying back. Communications, in the best of circumstances, are infinitely complicated and the effects of Goya's deafness should not be underestimated. It developed in 1793, when Javier was nine, and the use of sign language must have impeded dialogue. What remained unsaid between them? We subtly shade our speech through inflection, expecting understanding. Did Javier feel Goya's eyes always on him — as father, as deaf man, as artist — studying his face for clues to his thoughts?
Goya had hopes that Javier would follow in his footsteps and devote himself to art. In 1803, he presented the plates and the remaining sets of his Caprichos to Charles IV, from whom he obtained a pension of twelve thousand reales for Francisco Javier.
In 1805, Javier married the daughter of a respected, wealthy family from Saragossa. Goya undertook, in the marriage contract, to be financially responsible for the couple, their servants, any children they might have. In his later years, it was said that he had spent most of his wealth on his only child and his daughter-in-law, leaving little for himself. Soon after the marriage, Goya painted a portrait of the twenty-one-year-old Javier. Despite his love and pride, he is an artist, and cannot help but render what he sees: a handsome, foppish, self-regarding young man with a somewhat weak chin, seeming to lacking the depth of character necessary to create great art. At what age did Javier realize that he would never fulfill his father's ambitions for him?
Seven years later, as the war against Napoleon's armies was ending, Josefa died. Javier claimed his mother's inheritance, and when the property was divided, Goya gave to his son the house, library, and, curiously, nearly all his own art work in a collection of seventy-eight paintings and prints, like a man making restitution for genius denied in the blood. He kept for himself only two portraits: the bullfighter Romero, and the Duchess of Alba, the celebrated beauty he had followed to Andalusia in 1795, after she was widowed, and had lived with for almost a year, while Josefa and the twelve-year-old Javier remained in Madrid. In her will, signed during Goya's stay, the Duchess bequeathed a lifetime annuity for Javier.
In 1819, Goya retreated across the Manzanares River on the outskirts of Madrid to his villa, known coincidentally as the Quinta del Sordo. He had already achieved the pre-eminent position of First Painter of the Royal Bedchamber, and was the most famous artist in Spain; survived war, pestilence, famine, a near-fatal illness; endured the deaths of so many loved ones. Surely he had earned, at seventy-three, an existence free of turmoil in the peace of the Quinta, if he so wished. Quickly, he filled the walls with vivid landscapes in lush greens and sky blues; mountains, rivers, donkeys, small figures; even a man dancing with castanets — all revealed in recent years through radiography and stratigraphy.
Then, something happens. Goya suddenly unleashes his art, covering over the colorful landscapes, refusing himself the bland pleasures of the merely picturesque, recognizing in every surface a new opportunity, until the Quinta mirrors his internal world, the meanings personal, all sense of decoration dismissed. Only truth remains. On the dining room wall, two-and-a half feet by four-and-a-half feet, a thick-shouldered, murderous colossus begins to take shape. If he once exposed his son's nature in a portrait, he now strips himself bare with his Saturn.
One more time, we look at the painting. Cover the right side of the face, and we see a Titan caught in the act, defying anyone to stop him, the bulging left eye staring wildly at some unseen witness to his savagery, his piratical coarseness heightened by the sharp vertical lines of the eyebrow, crossed like the stitches of a scar. Cover his left eye, and we are confronted by a being in pain, the dark student gazing down in horror at his own uncontrolled murderousness, the eyebrow curved upwards like an inverted question mark, as if he were asking, "Why am I compelled to do this?"
In this painting one may see, with revulsion, only the image of a gruesome giant, father as devourer. But it may be that a hidden knowledge evoked in Goya his terrible compassion for the cannibal god. The primal battle between fathers and sons is inescapable, the roots of such terrifying instincts too deep to be thoroughly excised. As fathers, we fear not only that we might destroy our sons — through anger, jealousy, fear; through our sometimes desperate love; through a thousand seemingly small sins — but that we secretly intend to destroy them. We want to protect them from the monsters that inhabit their nightmares, only to discover among the faces of those monsters our own.
If human beings are made free only by their admission of their darkest fears and impulses, this admission, unalterably expressed, may have granted Goya a sense of well-being, as did the entire series of Black Paintings. Javier, writing after his father's death, referred to the pleasure Goya had experienced in viewing daily in his house those pictures he had painted for himself with freedom and in accordance with his own genius.
The ancient myth that once provided him with the subject for an unmemorable drawing, becomes, in this late period of his life, the inspiration for uttering the unutterable. It is ironic that the very painting the world sees and shudders at — the image it considers one of the most horrifying in all Western art — may have given its creator peace.
^ Died on 30 March 1842: Marie Louise �lisabeth Vig�e-Lebrun, French Neoclassical painter specialized in Portraits, born on 16 April 1755. Starting in 1835, she wrote Souvenirs, her autobiography: VIGEE ONLINE: [ English translation ] <<<
Her students included Marie-Guillemine Benoist [1768-1826]
She was one of the most successful of all women artists, particularly noted for her portraits of women. Her father was Louis Vig�e, a pastel portraitist and her first teacher. She studied later with a number of well-known painters, among them Jean-Baptiste Greuze and Joseph Vernet . In 1776 she married a picture dealer, J.-B.-P. Lebrun. Her great opportunity came in 1779 when she was summoned to Versailles to paint a portrait of Queen Marie-Antoinette. The two women became friends, and in subsequent years Vig�e-Lebrun painted at least 25 portraits of Marie-Antoinette in a great variety of poses and costumes; a number of these may be seen in the museum at Versailles. Vig�e-Lebrun became a member of the Royal Academy in 1783. On the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, she left France and for 12 years traveled abroad, to Rome, Naples, Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, painting portraits and playing a leading role in society. In 1801 she returned to Paris but, disliking Parisian social life under Napoleon, soon left for London, where she painted portraits of the court and of Lord Byron. Later she went to Switzerland (and painted a portrait of Mme de Sta�l) and then again (1810) to Paris, where she ceased painting. Vig�e-Lebrun was a woman of much wit and charm, and her memoirs, Souvenirs de ma vie (1837), provide a lively account of her times as well as of her own work. She was one of the most technically fluent portraitists of her era, and her pictures are notable for the freshness, charm, and sensitivity of their presentation. During her career, according to her own account, she painted 877 pictures, including 622 portraits and about 200 landscapes.
Hyacinthe Gabrielle Roland, Marchioness Wellesley (1791, 99x75cm) Bacchante (1785, 112x85cm)
Prince Henry Lubomirski, amour de la gloire (1789, 105x83cm) [as “Genius of Fame”: a long-haired boy, with wings, down on one knee, holding a crown of laurel]
— Prince Henry Lubomirski, Allegory of the Genius of Alexander I (1814, 110x85cm) [same winged long-haired boy, facing the other way, holding a shield]
— Prince Henry Lubomirski as Amphion playing the Lyre, admired by three Naiads (Mlles Guichet, Polignac, and Julie Le Brun) (1795) _ The sitter is Heinrich Fürst Lubomirski [15 Sep 1777 – 20 Oct 1850]. Julie Le Brun [1780 – 1819], daughter of the artist, was the subject of 13 of her portraits, from Self portrait with daughter Julie (1786, 105x84cm) to Julie LeBrun as Flora (1799, the goddess of flowers, beloved of Zephyrus, the wind) and Sainte Geneviève (1821, Julie at age 12); one of the best being Julie Lebrun (1791).
La Reine Marie-Antoinette
Self-Portrait in a Straw Hat (after 1782, 98x70cm) _ The daughter and student of a minor Parisian painter, Louis Vig�e, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun was an attractive and charming woman, who specialised in the attractive and charming portrayal of women and children while remaining a competent portraitist of men. Eighteenth-century notions of graceful spontaneity may strike twentieth-century viewers as arch or sentimental; nevertheless, she pioneered a new style. Her fashionable portraits in the simplified dress called � la grecque dispense with Baroque props of columns or curtains to demonstrate 'natural' manners and feelings, anticipating the Neo-classical portraits of David.
Madame Vig�e-Lebrun fled the French Revolution in 1789, avoiding the fate of her most illustrious patron, Queen Marie-Antoinette, to become an international success in the capitals of Europe. She returned to her native city after the Restoration in 1814 and gave an account of her early life and later tribulations and triumphs in the highly readable, if unreliable, Memoirs published in 1835.
The painter Claude Joseph Vernet, she recalls, advised her to study the Italian and Flemish masters but above all to follow nature. This picture is an autograph replica of a self portrait painted in Brussels in 1782 which wittily records her admiration of a famous Flemish masterpiece, Rubens's Portrait of Susanna Lunden, known as the 'Chapeau de Paille'. '[Its] great effect', she wrote, 'resides in the two different kinds of illumination which simple daylight and the light of the sun create...This painting...has inspired me to the point that I made my own portrait...in search of the same effect.'
The bright gleam and the general radiance of direct and reflected outdoor light as represented in Rubens's picture are indeed carefully noted, but Madame Vig�e-Lebrun takes care also to record her debt to nature. She shows herself in the open against a cloud-flecked sky, and - not surprisingly since she is both sitter and painter - as almost a personification of the art of painting. For this fictitious excursion into the fields, but also to demonstrate her powers of observation, she wears a genuine chapeau de paille, unlike Rubens's sitter whose hat is actually made of beaver felt. To the dashing ostrich feather she has added a wreath of freshly picked rustic flowers. Her hair is her own, not a wig, and is left unpowdered. Where Susanna Lunden modestly crosses her arms above her waist and peers out from below her hat, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun extends her unaffected friendship to the viewer. Most natural of all, however, is her charming bosom. For unlike Rubens's beauty, whose breasts are moulded by her tight corset, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun lets it plainly be seen in her low d�colletage that she has no need of such artifice. another Self-Portrait (1800) yet another Self-Portrait (1781, 64x53cm, in a black hat)
Madame Perregaux (1789, 100x79cm) _ Madame Perregaux was the wife of a Parisian banker whose clients included the artist. Vig�e-Lebrun, ravished by the charm of her own appearance, and hardly able to paint a male sitter, continued the 18th century's cult of women. In Vig�e-Lebrun we have the last view of eighteen-century woman - who had begun as a goddess, became a courtesan, and now ended all heart - before Napoleon and War banished her from the centre of events.
Woman's Head (1780, 48x41cm) _ This picture, showing the head of an attractive woman, recalls the Rococo. In pastel - a popular medium in the 18th century - the artist modeled the laurel-wreath head of an allegorical figure of peace over a preparatory drawing in black chalk. The work was intended as a study for a painting (La paix ramenant l'Abondance). While the theme and technique are conventional, the flattened composition and the idealized beauty of the head with its cool lustrous and porcelain-like skin tones correspond to Classicist ideas.
— The Vigée-Lebrun supersite .
^ Died on 30 March 1929: Thomas Tuke, British painter born on 12 June 1858.
Tuke entered the Slade School of Art, London, in 1875, under Alphonse Legros and Sir Edward Poynter . In 1877 he won a Slade scholarship and in 1880 traveled to Italy, where he made his first nude life drawings, an important revelation to him of light, color and the human form. From 1881 to 1883 he was in Paris and met Jules Bastien-Lepage , who encouraged his studies en plein air. Admiring Bastien-Lepage's practice of focusing different areas of a painting by degrees of finish, Tuke adopted this in his own mature work.
In 1883 Tuke settled in Newlyn, Cornwall, and was a founder-member of the Newlyn school. In 1885 he moved to Falmouth, spending the rest of his life based there. During the 1880s he produced anecdotal plein-air paintings of the life of the Cornish fishing community. All Hands to the Pump (1888, 185X140cm) is a typical example, showing his alertness to tensions and movements in the human body and his ability to combine classical compositional principles with naturalistic detail, while giving coherence by sensitive rendering of atmosphere.
In 1892 Tuke traveled to Italy, Corfu and Albania; thereafter his palette lightened dramatically, and his technique gained a new Impressionistic freedom. The nude adolescent male emerged as his principal motif in such pictures as August Blue (1893, 122x183cm). His admiration of James McNeill Whistler appears in the creation of mood at the expense of narrative and in his preference for evocative titles. An implicit homoerotic element caused some unease at the time.
In 1886 Tuke was a founder-member of the New English Art Club and in 1900 he was elected an ARA. He also acquired a London studio where he spent the winters, usually working on portrait commissions. His work in this field was much admired, and he painted such notable figures as the cricketer W. G. Grace and T. E. Lawrence (1921). An accomplished watercolorist, in 1911 he became a member of the Royal Watercolor Society. He also worked in pastels and executed a single sculpture, The Watcher (1916), of which five bronze casts were made.
In 1914 Tuke was made an RA, and his painting style and subject-matter remained substantially unchanged: Aquamarine (1928), probably his last easel painting, closely resembles the earlier Ruby, Gold and Malachite (1901). In later pictures, however, the models are no longer portraits, but interchange heads and bodies as vehicles of Tuke's vision. Impersonality and detachment combined with sincere commitment to subject and atmosphere characterize his mature style and challenged artistic expectations of the time, broadening the parameters of British plein-air painting.
In 1923 Tuke visited Jamaica and Central America, producing some fine watercolors. Penetrating the interior of Belize, however, he became ill and was forced to return home. He never fully recovered his health, although his passion for travel remained undiminished.
| Francisco Goya |
Hanged at Wandsworth prison in 1949 for killing six people, which British criminal was known as 'The Acid Bath Murderer'? | ART / 4 / 2DAY
BIRTHS: 1635 VAN MIERIS 1755 VIGÉE~LEBRUN 1821 BROWN
^ Died on 16 April 1825: Johann Heinrich F�ssli “Henry Fuseli”, Swiss British Romantic painter, draftsman, and writer, active in England born on 06 February 1741. His students included George Richmond .
— The Füssli were a Swiss family of artists and writers. Johann Caspar F�ssli [1707-1782], descended from a long-established Zurich family of metalworkers, combined the practice of art with art-historical work in the mid-18th century, being followed in both by his eldest son, Johann Rudolf F�ssli, who worked mainly in Austria and Hungary. Johann Caspar�s younger son Johann Heinrich F�ssli left Zurich to travel in Germany, England and Italy, calling himself Henry Fuseli after he settled in London in 1779. There, through his strikingly original paintings and drawings and the influence of his teaching and writing, he remained a prominent figure in English art circles until his death in 1825. Johann Caspar�s other children, Hans Caspar F�ssli [1743�1786], Elisabeth F�ssli [1744�1780] and Anna F�ssli [1749�1772], were botanical and entomological illustrators. A later F�ssli of Zurich, Wilhelm Heinrich F�ssli [1830�1916], also was a painter.
— Johann Heinrich F�ssli spent most of his working life in England, where he established himself as the most original history painter and draughtsman of his generation. Renowned for his treatment of bizarre and psychologically penetrating subjects, he was also a prolific writer and, from 1779, Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy.
— Born Johann Heinrich F�ssli in Zurich, “Henry Fuseli” spent most of his life in England. He studied theology intending to become a priest, but the discovery of Italy, where he spent eight years absorbing the atmosphere of the recently uncovered ruins and the works of Michelangelo, drove him to paint themes which can be described as Romantic, centred around the imaginary, the Gothic and the horrible. He found in the works of Shakespeare, Milton and Wieland a dream-like universe which suited him. The cold, neo-classical purity to which he aspired does not mask the presence of the uneasy sexuality of the 1800s. He is most at home with the macabre, the realms of the unconscious and Romantic eccentricity, making him one of the great precursors of Symbolism and even of Surrealism.
— Johann Heinrich F�ssli was born in Zürich; he moved to England in 1764 and later changed his name to Henry Fuseli. The London theater, and in particular the productions of Shakespeare, charged his imagination and over the years he painted, etched and drew numerous scenes from the plays. He contributed nine paintings in the 1780s to Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery (scenes from Hamlet , Henry IV , Henry V , King Lear , Macbeth , and The Tempest and three scenes from A Midsummer Night's Dream ). He later painted five pictures for Woodmason's Irish Gallery (1793), an enterprise designed to emulate in Dublin the success of Boydell's exhibition in London. Fuseli turned often to Shakespeare for his inspiration; F�ssli pittore di Shakespeare: Pittura e teatro 1775-1825, the catalogue of the 1997 exhibition of Fuseli's Shakespeare paintings in Parma, Italy, lists 85 paintings, drawings, sketches and engravings drawn from the plays. After a prolific and successful career as an artist in England, he died in 1825. Fuseli admired the Romantic poets, and many of his illustrations for Shakespeare and Milton -- as well as a number of other poets and writers -- reveal his love for the grotesque, the sublime, and the fantastic. He is best remembered for his influential painting The Nightmare and his fascination with the realm of the dream-world in his works.
Füssli's works are among the most exotic, original, and sensual pieces of his time. Was raised in an intellectual and artistic environment and initially studied theology. Forced to leave Zürich due to political entanglements, he went first to Berlin, settling in London in 1764. Encouraged to become a painter by Joshua Reynolds, he left England in 1768 to study in Italy until 1778. In Rome he studied the works of Michelangelo and classical art, his major stylistic influences. Subject matter was mostly literary. Famous for his paintings and drawings of nude figures caught in strained and violent poses suggestive of intense emotion. Had a gift for inventing macabre fantasies, such as that in The Nightmare (1781, 127x102cm). Had a noticeable influence on the style of his younger contemporary, William Blake.
— A Lawyer (600x464pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1083pix)
— The Dressing Room (32x43cm) _ Fuseli made this portrait of himself as a sculpted faun when he was in Italy during the 1770s. By this time Fuseli already had a reputation for studied eccentricity. As a friend in Rome noted: He is everything in extremes � always an original; His look is lightning, his word a thunderstorm; his jest is death, his revenge, hell. He cannot draw a single mean breath. He never draws portraits, his features are all true, yet at the same time caricature...
— Titania's Awakening (A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act IV, scene i) (1789) _ Titania awakes and says, “My Oberon, what visions I have seen! / Methough I was enamored of an ass.” Oberon points to Bottom, sleeping beside her. Like its companion, Titania and Bottom, this painting is busy with detail and invites the viewer to interpret the various figures.
Titania Awakening divides into two contrasting parts. On the right are Oberon and Titania, bathed in light; standing between them is a fairy with the herb, "love-in-idleness," that breaks the spell cast by Puck. Surrounding the two are a group of laughing and dancing fairies, accompanied by an elf playing the bagpipe.
On the left, however, we find the shadowed figure of Bottom, with some kind of cloaked and hooded creature crawling from between his legs. The ass's head is held above him by a fairy, and just above his head in Queen Mab and her steed. The allusion is to Romeo and Juliet (I, iv) when Mercutio describes Queen Mab as "the fairies' midwife" who is drawn "Over men's noses as they lie asleep." She gallops by night "Through lovers' brains, and then they dream of love." At Bottom's left arm, to complete the sinister aspects of this half of the painting, are a group of witches, one of them clutching to her breast a baby demon. Here Fuseli depicts, as he did in Titania and Bottom, the two aspects of life and love: one light and carefree, the other dark and erotic.
Titania and Bottom — Midsummer Night's Dream IV.1 (1789, 49x63cm; 3/5 size _ ZOOM to 6/5 size) _ Shakespeare's text _ Bottom now wears the ass's head, and Titania says to him: Come, sit thee down upon this flow'ry bed, / While I thy amiable cheeks do coy, / And stick musk-roses in they sleek smooth head, / And kiss thy fair large ears, my gentle joy.
This is one of several illustrations by Fuseli on scenes from A Midsummer Night's Dream, a natural source for an artist so often drawn to the subject of dreams and nightmares. The central figure Titania calls on her fairies to wait on the seated Bottom. In Bottom's hand stands Mustardseed, ready to help Peaseblossom, who scratches Bottom's right ear. Cobweb is at the left of the painting, spear poised to kill a bee and to bring the honey-bag to Bottom. At the right is a girl holding the bowl of "dried pease" Bottom has requested. The woman standing behind the girl, looking wantonly from the picture at the viewer, leads a dwarfish old man on a leash. She represents the triumph of youth over age, of the senses over reason--and, in terms of the imagery established by the play itself, the victory of night over day, the forest of Oberon over the court of Theseus, the world of love and dreams over the rational, workaday world of Athens. In this one allegorical image Fuseli captures the polarity of much of the imagery of A Midsummer Night's Dream.
The two halves of the painting in fact contrast interestingly with one another. On Titania's right hand (our left side of the painting) is a well-lit scene with an attractive grouping of young women and a young girl in the lower-right hand corner. Contrasted to her is the waxen, gnomish little figure sitting in the lap of a hooded figure in the opposite corner. In opposition to the two figures smiling suggestively out at us on the right are the two women with hands outstretched on the left. Immediately to the left and behind Titania is another woman with arms folded, and she is duplicated on the right; the right-hand figure, however, is cast in shadows and her features are partially obscured. Is Fuseli suggesting to us something of the nature of the fairy world, with a lighter and untroubled scene on Titania's right hand and a darker, shadowy scene on her left hand, an iconographical presentation of the two sides of human nature? Again, this symbolic interpretation of the painting reflects some of the themes in Shakespeare's play.
— Fuseli was introduced to Shakespeare's plays during his student days in Zürich with the Swiss scholar Jacob Bodmer. A Midsummer Night's Dream held a special appeal for him, in that it explores the realms of the supernatural.
In the picture Fuseli illustrates a moment from Act IV scene 1, in which Oberon, in order to punish her for her pride, casts a spell on Queen Titania, as a result of which she falls in love with Bottom, whose head has been transformed into that of an ass. In the play she murmurs lovingly to the object of her affections,
Come, sit thee down upon this flowery bed,
While I thy amiable cheeks do coy,
And stick musk roses in thy sleek smooth head,
And kiss thy fair large ears, my gentle joy.
Fuseli's imagination is given free reign in this fantastical scene. Titania calls on her fairies, who are wearing contemporary dress, to attend to Bottom: Pease-blossom scratches his ass's head; Mustard-seed perches on his hand in order to assist; and Cobweb kills a bee and brings him the honey-bag. A leering young woman offers him a basket of dried peas. The young woman leading a dwarf-like creature by a string symbolises the triumph of youth over old age, of the senses over the mind and of woman over man. The hooded old woman on the right is holding a changeling newly formed out of wax. Similarly, on the left of the picture, the group of children are artificial beings created by witches.
The picture draws on several artistic sources. Fuseli has adapted Titania's seductive pose from Leonardo da Vinci's Leda (1506). The elves plunging into the calyx on the right are inspired by Botticelli's illustration of Canto XXX of Dante's Paradiso (1469). And the small girl with a butterfly head on the left derives from a type of child portrait developed by Reynolds, whereby the child's features closely resemble a cat, mouse or other small creature posed with her.
Fuseli painted several other scenes from A Midsummer Night's Dream, including Titania's Awakening (1790), where the Queen awakes and recounts her 'dream' to Oberon. He was also inspired by other Shakespearean texts and was particularly drawn to the supernatural and irrational elements in such plays as The Tempest, Hamlet and King Lear.
— Titania, Bottom and the Fairies (1794) (67x53inches) aka Titania Awakes, Surrounded by Attendant Fairies, Clinging Rapturously to Bottom, Still Wearing the Ass's Head; probably erroneously. In the play when Titania awakes, both Oberon and Puck are present, and almost immediately Oberon commands Puck to remove the spell and the ass's head from Bottom. Although Puck appears in the upper right-hand corner, Oberon is absent and Bottom should still be sleeping. The painting is, therefore, probably another version of Titania and Bottom, executed a few years later than the original.
In this later version the fairies wear contemporary dresses, and, besides Peaseblossom scratching Bottom's ears and Cobweb, in armor, killing the bee, we find various fairies making music, in accord with Titania's question in Act IV, scene i, "Wilt thou hear some music, my sweet love?" This version is more sensuous than the earlier one, with a clearly enamoured, even "rapturous," Titania stroking an almost naked and decidedly virile lover.
� Ariel (1810)
� Garrick and Mrs. Pritchard in Macbeth (1812, 102x127cm) _ aka Lady Macbeth Seizing the Daggers. The source is Act II, scene ii of Macbeth:
Lady Macbeth: Go get some water,
And wash this filthy witness from your hand.
Why did you bring these daggers from the place?
They must lie there: go carry them, and smear
The sleepy grooms with blood.
Macbeth: I'll go no more:
I am afraid to think what I have done;
Look on't again I dare not.
Lady Macbeth: Infirm of purpose!
Give me the daggers.
Fuseli saw the play on stage in 1760 with David Garrick playing Macbeth, and he made a watercolor of this scene; the production must have impressed him, for more than 50 years later he executed the painting. The two almost translucent figures vividly capture this particular moment of horror. Macbeth's hair stands on end and, with an expression of terror, he holds the daggers at arm's length as if attempting to distance himself from the assassination. The scene is set against a background of deep, regal purple, reminding us that this is no ordinary murder and that Macbeth has spilled the royal blood of a king:
Confusion now hath made his masterpiece:
Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope
The Lord's anointed temple and stole thence
The life o' th' building!
The source of lighting in this painting is difficult to determine, and Peter Tomory suggests that there may be an obscure force at work in the painting's starkly translucent figures: electricity. Artists and writers were drawn to the idea of electricity as soon as Joseph Priestley's The History of the Idea of Positive and Negative Electricity (1775) was published, and they soon began to experiment with his concepts in their works. The moment of terror, now becomes a violent electrical discharge, with its accompanying light and smell. This observation about artistic experiments with "electricity" and light helps explain the stark, glowing quality of the two figures, especially when the painting is compared with the earlier watercolor, which is much more conventional in the posing of the figures and the prosaic setting.
In the first years when Shakespeare subjects began to be painted in some quantity (the 1780's), a distinction was made between paintings derived from the literary text and those that originated in the theatre. The former bore the more honored credentials. The distinction can be applied to Fuseli's works; the 1812 painting is so much more powerful and suggestive of the moment of horror than the earlier watercolor. Although they are superficially similar, the painting finally has much more to do with a particularly frightening moment in Macbeth that with either David Garrick or Mrs. Pritchard.
— The Shepherd's Dream, from Paradise Lost (1793) _ Fuseli was introduced to the poetry of John Milton [1608-1674] during his student days in Zürich with the Swiss scholar Jacob Bodmer. Paradise Lost held a special appeal for him, and other Romantic artists, in that it explores the realms of the imagination, dreams and the supernatural.
The picture illustrates a moment in Milton's poem where he compares the fallen angels in the Hall of Pandemonium in Hell to the fairies who bewitch a passing peasant with the sound of their music and dancing:
Fairy Elves,
Whose midnight revels by a forest side
Or fountain some belated peasant sees,
Or dreams he sees, while over head the moon
Sits arbitress, and nearer to the earth
Wheels her pale course, they on their mirth and dance
Intent, with jocund music charm his ear;
At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds.
Instead of depicting the fairies as they appear in traditional woodcuts, dancing in a magic circle on the ground, Fuseli shows them linking arms and swirling, as in a dream or vision, above the sleeping shepherd. Emerging from the darkness they form a vortex of light above his head, which one fairy touches with a dream-inducing wand. Fuseli draws on his imagination for the supernatural creatures that populate the picture. In the bottom left-hand corner a crouching witch has just pulled a flower-headed mandrake out of the ground. In the opposite corner, seated on large stone steps, is Queen Mabs, the bringer of nightmares. Attached to her by a chain is a monster child, the demonic incubus, who points at the sleeping man. Farther up the steps behind them, a naked fairy combing her hair derives from Shropshire folklore. According to legend, these naked creatures entice unsuspecting travellers, overpower them and steal all their clothes. The building on the right possibly represents the Temple of Diana, since according to Medieval folklore Diana was transformed into a demon and led an army of witches through the sky by night. Alternatively, Fuseli may have intended it to represent the ivory portal, described by Homer and Virgil, through which delusive dreams emerge. The picture is based on a more detailed drawing in pencil, red chalk and wash.
^ Born on 16 April 1635: Frans van Mieris the Elder, Baroque Dutch painter who died on 12 March 1681.
Father of Jan van Mieris and Willem van Mieris . Studied under Gerrit Dou .
Dutch painter, the most distinguished member of a family of artists who worked in Leiden. He was one of the best students of Gerrit Dou and followed his master in choice of subjects (mainly domestic genre scenes ) and in his highly polished technique. The tradition was continued by his sons Jan and Willem , and by Willem's son Frans II.
— Frans van Mieris the Elder was after Dou the principal representative of the Leiden school of 'fijnschilders'. Apparently by the time he was born his parents stopped keeping track of the number of children they produced; he is vaguely mentioned as one of the last of twenty-three. Mieris studied with Dou, and the latter acknowledged him as the 'crown prince of his students'. The characterization is still valid. Mieris fell heir to Dou's technique and compositions.
Like his teacher, he was extremely popular with the wealthy collectors of his time. He received important commissions from Grand Duke Cosimo III de' Medici and Archduke Leopold Wilhelm. The latter invited him to work at his court in Vienna. He turned down the offer and, as far as we know, spent his life in his native town. A review of his oeuvre brings to mind the work of many of his contemporaries, although he always manages to keep his own personality, particularly his impeccable, highly polished finish which had a lasting effect on later painters with a passion for 'fine painting'.
— Gerrit Dou called Frans van Mieris 'the Prince of my students'. Van Mieris was the son of a Leiden goldsmith and, like Dou himself, had been trained in the studio of a glass-painter before entering that of a painter. Van Mieris mastered Dou's highly finished technique and after his master's death was the leading exponent of the fijnschilder (fine painter) style. He spent his entire working life in Leiden, although (once again like Dou) he enjoyed a considerable international reputation: he received commissions from, among others, Duke Cosimo III de'Medici and Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, who unsuccessfully offered van Mieris the position of court painter in Vienna. This painting shows the traditional subject of a woman admiring herself in a mirror: in the work of Hieronymous Bosch, for example, it was a symbol of the sin of superbia (pride) but by the time it was painted by Gerard ter Borch and van Mieris it simply provided an opportunity for the painter to display his skill in rendering reflections and rich materials. Van Mieris highlights the shimmering satin dress and brightly colored feather within the dark interior, encouraging the viewer to admire his craftsmanship and virtuosity.
Despite his success van Mieris was constantly in debt and contemporary documents appear to support the accounts of an early biographer, Arnold Houbraken, who described him as a habitual drunkard. He was, however, well respected in Leiden and established a dynasty of painters: his sons, Willem and Jan, and his grandson, Frans van Mieris the Younger, imitated his meticulous style and continued to work in his manner until the 1760s.
— Young Lady Before a Mirror (600x460pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1073pix)
— different Woman before the mirror (1670, 43x32cm) _ detail _ This painting shows the traditional subject of a woman admiring herself in a mirror: in the work of Hieronymous Bosch, for example, it was a symbol of the sin of superbia (pride) but by the time it was painted by Gerard ter Borch and van Mieris it simply provided an opportunity for the painter to display his skill in rendering reflections and rich materials. Van Mieris highlights the shimmering satin dress and brightly colored feather within the dark interior, encouraging the viewer to admire his craftsmanship and virtuosity.
Brothel Scene (1658, 43x33cm) _ Unlike a history painting, a genre picture does not generally refer to a written text. Its relation is to the popular, often crude and simplistic, metaphorical interpretation of the world. Genre picture, therefore, have a different structure from history painting, and that structure is one of their major characteristics. A history painting usually illustrates the decisive moment of the historical narrative to which it refers. For a genre painting, however, there never could be such a crucial moment: there was no story. A genre painting always presents a situation, which, through the introduction of key symbols, is reversed into a moral example. This is examplified by the Brothel Scene, which shows an interior with a rather coy lady pouring a smartly dressed young man a glass of wine. An elegant scene until one perceives, farther back in the room, two dogs copulating. This crude and explicit detail associates the picture with a popular expression of Italian origin: As is the lady, so is her dog. And another proverb, saying that beautiful woman and sweet wine are full of dangers, may also apply here. So what at first seems a harmless, attractive scene, is suddenly reversed when the viewer encounters an explicit symbol, often hidden in the background.
Duet (1658, 32x25cm) _ The curtain drawn aside lets the viewer spy on the elegant, mildly titillating musical partnership.
The Lacemaker (1680, 78v42cm) _ Frans van Mieris the Elder painted allegories, biblical, historical, literary subjects, and portraits. His principal contribution, however, is found in his genres scenes.
— Duet (1658, 32x25cm) — Carousing Couple — Interior with figures playing Tric Trac (1680, 78x42cm)
— A meal of Oysters (1661, 27x20cm) _ Oysters in the late 17th-century Dutch paintings were generally interpreted as erotic - vaginal - symbols. Here, however, they still had the religious symbolism of shell, with the meaning that had been given to it in a 3rd-century Christian book on animals called 'Physiologus.' Describing the behaviour of animals in 55 chapters, it then relates them to Christian doctrine. The shell is symbolically likened to Mary who gave birth to the 'pearl of great price,' Jesus.
— Young woman in the morning (52x40cm) _ The same woman appears in the Brothel Scene
— Pictura (an allegory of painting) (1661) _ This is a good exemple of the refined technique of van Mieris. Done on copper, the tiny picture follows more or less the formula Cesare Ripa gives in his Iconologia for representing the art of painting: 'A beautiful woman ... with a golden chain around her neck, on which hangs a face mask ... [with] brushes in one hand, and in the other a palette, dressed in a lustrous garment ...' Among the attributes Ripa prescribes for the allegorical representation of Pictura that Mieris thankfully omits are the inscription 'Imitatio' written on the woman's forehead and a bound cloth over her mouth. We have seen that a few years later Vermeer also turned to Ripa's Iconologia for his Art of Painting and Allegory of Faith and that he did not follow the iconographer's instructions to the letter either.
— The Doctors' visit (1667, 44x31cm) — The Death of Lucretia (1679, 38x17cm)
^ Died on 16 April 1978: Richard Lindner, US Pop painter born on 11 November 1901.
Lindner was born in Hamburg. His mother was from the US. He grew up in Nuremberg and studied there at the Kunstgewerbeschule. From 1924 to 1927 he lived in Munich and studied there from 1925 at the Kunstakademie. He moved to Berlin and stayed there until 1928 when he returned to Munich to become art director of a publishing firm. He remained there until 1933 when he was forced to flee to Paris, where he became politicaly engaged, sought contact with French artists and earned his living as a commercial artist. He was interned when the war broke out in 1939 and later served in the French army. In 1941 he went to the USA, worked in New York as an illustrator of books and magazines and made contact with New York artists and German emigrants. In 1948 he became a US citizen. From 1952 he taught at the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, from 1967 at Yale University School of Art and Architecture, New Haven. In 1965 he became Guest Professor at the Akademie f�r Bildende K�nste, Hamburg. His paintings at this time used the sexual symbolism of advertising and investigated definitions of gender roles in the media.
— A concert pianist from the age of eighteen to twenty-two, Lindner left Nazi Germany in 1933 for the Paris of Picasso and Gertrude Stein. In the 1941 he came to the United States, where he worked as a magazine illustrator; feeling that this hampered his painting, he abandoned illustration entirely in a few years for painting alone. Oxymorons describe his paintings-decadent vitality, icy voluptuousness, impersonal titillation, invulnerable victims. His technique is as impersonal as the modern world, yet "in a cool climate" he shows "the brilliant display of a heated imagination," in the words of Hilton Kramer.
— Lindner grew up in a bourgeois Jewish household in Nuremberg; the city�s fairy-tale appearance and atmosphere, its reputation as the toy capital of Europe and as the home of the Iron Maiden and its suffocating smugness were all later cited by him as influences on his work. Lindner�s early studies were in music and he seemed destined for a career as a concert pianist, but his growing interest in art led him to study at the Kunstakademie in Munich from 1925 to 1927. He lived in Berlin from 1927 to 1928 and returned to Munich in 1929 as art director at the large publishing house of Knorr & Hirth. Lindner�s politics were Social Democratic and on Hitler�s ascent to power in 1933 Lindner hurriedly left Germany just as he was about to be arrested by the Nazis. He went to Paris, where he continued to work in graphic design until 1939, when he was interned as an alien; shortly thereafter he joined the French army. In March 1941 he arrived in New York, where he quickly became a highly successful illustrator for such magazines as Fortune, Harper�s Bazaar and Vogue.
— Painter Richard Lindner's highly idiosyncratic work incorporates elements of his personal history, as well as literary associations. The element of introspection separates his work from pop art. He was born in Hamburg, Germany in 1901 to an American mother and a German father. After a brief career as a concert pianist, in 1925 Lindner entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich. Eventually, he became an art director for Knorr & Hirth, a publisher closely associated with the Nazis. There, Lindner met high-ranking Nazis, including Hitler.
The day after the Nazis came to power in 1933, he fled to Paris, where he was interned as an enemy alien when WW II started in 1939. To prove his loyalty, he served in the French and British armies. Finally, in 1941, he arrived in New York City. Lindner worked as an illustrator for Vogue, Fortune and Harper's Bazaar. He began painting seriously in 1952, holding his first one-man exhibit in 1954.
His style blends a mechanistic cubism with personal images and haunting symbolism. He used flat areas of rich, sometimes garish, colors separated by hard edges, to present ambiguous perspective. He modeled clothing, faces and body parts. His favorite subject was bizarre women. Corsets and straps emphasize their sexual qualities. Lindner professed no hatred of women; instead, he said, "I feel sorry for women. When I dress women in these corsets and contraptions in my painting, it's kind of the way I see them wrapping themselves up." His Ice (1966) established a connection between the metaphysical tradition and pop art. The painting shows harsh, flat geometric shapes framing an erotic but mechanical robot-woman. Lindner's characters-the women, precocious children and men who could be strangers or voyeurs--often are posed in slice-of-life scenes. But these scenes are obsessive, rather than normal visions. Though he became a United States citizen in 1948, Lindner considered himself a New Yorker, but not a true American. However, over the course of time, his continental circus women became New York City streetwalkers. New York police uniforms replaced European military uniforms as symbols of authority. Lindner taught at the Pratt Institute from 1952 to 1965.
Her students included Marie-Guillemine Benoist [1768-1826]
She was one of the most successful of all women artists, particularly noted for her portraits of women. Her father was Louis Vig�e, a pastel portraitist and her first teacher. She studied later with a number of well-known painters, among them Jean-Baptiste Greuze and Joseph Vernet . In 1776 she married a picture dealer, J.-B.-P. Lebrun. Her great opportunity came in 1779 when she was summoned to Versailles to paint a portrait of Queen Marie-Antoinette. The two women became friends, and in subsequent years Vig�e-Lebrun painted at least 25 portraits of Marie-Antoinette in a great variety of poses and costumes; a number of these may be seen in the museum at Versailles. Vig�e-Lebrun became a member of the Royal Academy in 1783. On the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, she left France and for 12 years traveled abroad, to Rome, Naples, Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, painting portraits and playing a leading role in society. In 1801 she returned to Paris but, disliking Parisian social life under Napoleon, soon left for London, where she painted portraits of the court and of Lord Byron. Later she went to Switzerland (and painted a portrait of Mme de Sta�l) and then again (1810) to Paris, where she ceased painting. Vig�e-Lebrun was a woman of much wit and charm, and her memoirs, Souvenirs de ma vie (1837), provide a lively account of her times as well as of her own work. She was one of the most technically fluent portraitists of her era, and her pictures are notable for the freshness, charm, and sensitivity of their presentation. During her career, according to her own account, she painted 877 pictures, including 622 portraits and about 200 landscapes.
LINKS
— Self-Portrait (1781, 64x53cm; 600x500pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1167pix) wearing a black hat.
Self-Portrait in a Straw Hat (after 1782, 98x70cm) _ The daughter and student of a minor Parisian painter, Louis Vig�e, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun was an attractive and charming woman, who specialised in the attractive and charming portrayal of women and children while remaining a competent portraitist of men. Eighteenth-century notions of graceful spontaneity may strike twentieth-century viewers as arch or sentimental; nevertheless, she pioneered a new style. Her fashionable portraits in the simplified dress called � la grecque dispense with Baroque props of columns or curtains to demonstrate 'natural' manners and feelings, anticipating the Neo-classical portraits of David.
Madame Vig�e-Lebrun fled the French Revolution in 1789, avoiding the fate of her most illustrious patron, Queen Marie-Antoinette, to become an international success in the capitals of Europe. She returned to her native city after the Restoration in 1814 and gave an account of her early life and later tribulations and triumphs in the highly readable, if unreliable, Memoirs published in 1835.
The painter Claude Joseph Vernet, she recalls, advised her to study the Italian and Flemish masters but above all to follow nature. This picture is an autograph replica of a self portrait painted in Brussels in 1782 which wittily records her admiration of a famous Flemish masterpiece, Rubens's Portrait of Susanna Lunden, known as the 'Chapeau de Paille'. '[Its] great effect', she wrote, 'resides in the two different kinds of illumination which simple daylight and the light of the sun create...This painting...has inspired me to the point that I made my own portrait...in search of the same effect.'
The bright gleam and the general radiance of direct and reflected outdoor light as represented in Rubens's picture are indeed carefully noted, but Madame Vig�e-Lebrun takes care also to record her debt to nature. She shows herself in the open against a cloud-flecked sky, and - not surprisingly since she is both sitter and painter - as almost a personification of the art of painting. For this fictitious excursion into the fields, but also to demonstrate her powers of observation, she wears a genuine chapeau de paille, unlike Rubens's sitter whose hat is actually made of beaver felt. To the dashing ostrich feather she has added a wreath of freshly picked rustic flowers. Her hair is her own, not a wig, and is left unpowdered. Where Susanna Lunden modestly crosses her arms above her waist and peers out from below her hat, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun extends her unaffected friendship to the viewer. Most natural of all, however, is her charming bosom. For unlike Rubens's beauty, whose breasts are moulded by her tight corset, Madame Vig�e-Lebrun lets it plainly be seen in her low d�colletage that she has no need of such artifice. another Self-Portrait (1800)
Hyacinthe Gabrielle Roland, later Marchioness Wellesley (1791, 99x75cm; 1/3 size _ ZOOM to 2/3 size)
Bacchante (1785, 112x85cm; 1/6 size _ ZOOM to 1/3 size _ ZOOM++ to 2/3 size)
— Flora or Hebe (600x484pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1129pix)
— Étienne Vigée the artist's brother (1773; 600x440pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1027pix)
— Charles-Alexandre de Calonne (1784; 600x528pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1232pix)
— Bacchante (1785; oval 600x460pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1073pix)
— Mme de Staël en Corinne (1808; 600x524pix _ ZOOM to 1400x1223pix)
Prince Henry Lubomirski, amour de la gloire (1789, 105x83cm _ ZOOM to 1400x1083pix) [as “Genius of Fame”: a long-haired boy, with wings, down on one knee, holding a crown of laurel] _ Henry Lubomirski [1777-1850]
— Prince Henry Lubomirski, Allegory of the Genius of Alexander I (1814, 110x85cm) [same winged long-haired boy, facing the other way, holding a shield]
— Prince Henry Lubomirski as Amphion playing the Lyre, admired by three Naiads (Mlles Guichet, Polignac, and Julie Le Brun) (1795) _ The sitter is Heinrich Fürst Lubomirski [15 Sep 1777 – 20 Oct 1850]. Julie Le Brun [1780 – 1819], daughter of the artist, was the subject of 13 of her portraits, from Self portrait with daughter Julie (1786, 105x84cm) to Julie LeBrun as Flora (1799, the goddess of flowers, beloved of Zephyrus, the wind) and Sainte Geneviève (1821, Julie at age 12); one of the best being Julie Lebrun (1791).
La Reine Marie-Antoinette
Madame Perregaux (1789, 100x79cm) _ Madame Perregaux was the wife of a Parisian banker whose clients included the artist. Vig�e-Lebrun, ravished by the charm of her own appearance, and hardly able to paint a male sitter, continued the 18th century's cult of women. In Vig�e-Lebrun we have the last view of eighteen-century woman - who had begun as a goddess, became a courtesan, and now ended all heart - before Napoleon and War banished her from the centre of events.
Woman's Head (1780, 48x41cm) _ This picture, showing the head of an attractive woman, recalls the Rococo. In pastel - a popular medium in the 18th century - the artist modeled the laurel-wreath head of an allegorical figure of peace over a preparatory drawing in black chalk. The work was intended as a study for a painting (La paix ramenant l'Abondance). While the theme and technique are conventional, the flattened composition and the idealized beauty of the head with its cool lustrous and porcelain-like skin tones correspond to Classicist ideas.
^ Died on 16 April 1828: Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes, Spanish painter born on 30 March 1746.
BIOGRAFÍA EN CASTELLANO (distinta de las que se dan aquí en Inglés)
Francisco de Goya is one of the great Spanish masters, known for such works as Nude Maja, Clothed Maja and Third of May, 1808. The student, and later brother-in-law, of Francisco Bayeu , Goya was initially trained in the then-current Rococo style. He gradually developed his own distinctive style of painting, showing the influence of Vel�zquez and Rembrandt . Goya's late works became quite dark in mood, from his satirical caricatures to the so-called Black Paintings such as Saturn Devouring One of his Sons .
Goya was a consummately Spanish artist whose multifarious paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters. The series of etchings Los desastres de la guerra (1810-1814) records the horrors of the Napoleonic invasion. His masterpieces in painting include The Naked Maja and The Clothed Maja (1805). [They never say what is a maja. It means a provocative young woman or a belle of the lower classes.]
For the bold technique of his paintings, the haunting satire of his etchings, and his belief that the artist's vision is more important than tradition, Goya is often called "the first of the moderns." His uncompromising portrayal of his times marks the beginning of 19th-century realism.
Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes was born in Fuendetodos, a village in northern Spain. The family later moved to Saragossa, where Goya's father worked as a gilder. At about 14 young Goya was apprenticed to José Luzán, a local painter. Later he went to Italy to continue his study of art. On returning to Saragossa in 1771, he painted frescoes for the local cathedral. These works, done in the decorative rococo tradition, established Goya's artistic reputation. In 1773 he married Josefa Bayeu, sister of Saragossa artist Francisco Bayeu. The couple had many children, but only one--a son, Xavier--survived to adulthood.
From 1775 to 1792 Goya painted cartoons (designs) for the royal tapestry factory in Madrid. This was the most important period in his artistic development. As a tapestry designer, Goya did his first genre paintings, or scenes from everyday life.
The experience helped him become a keen observer of human behavior. He was also influenced by neoclassicism, which was gaining favor over the rococo style. Finally, his study of the works of Velázquez in the royal collection resulted in a looser, more spontaneous painting technique.
At the same time, Goya achieved his first popular success. He became established as a portrait painter to the Spanish aristocracy. He was elected to the Royal Academy of San Fernando in 1780, named painter to the king in 1786, and made a court painter in 1789.
A serious illness in 1792 left Goya permanently deaf. Isolated from others by his deafness, he became increasingly occupied with the fantasies and inventions of his imagination and with critical and satirical observations of mankind. He evolved a bold, free new style close to caricature. In 1799 he published the Caprichos, a series of etchings satirizing human folly and weakness. His portraits became penetrating characterizations, revealing their subjects as Goya saw them. In his religious frescoes he employed a broad, free style and an earthy realism unprecedented in religious art.
Goya served as director of painting at the Royal Academy from 1795 to 1797 and was appointed first Spanish court painter in 1799. During the Napoleonic invasion and the Spanish war of independence from 1808 to 1814, Goya served as court painter to the French. He expressed his horror of armed conflict in The Disasters of War, a series of starkly realistic etchings on the atrocities of war. They were not published until 1863, long after Goya's death.
Upon the restoration of the Spanish monarchy, Goya was pardoned for serving the French, but his work was not favored by the new king. He was called before the Inquisition to explain his earlier portrait of The Naked Maja, one of the few nudes in Spanish art at that time.
In 1816 he published his etchings on bullfighting, called the Tauromaquia. From 1819 to 1824 Goya lived in seclusion in a house outside Madrid. Free from court restrictions, he adopted an increasingly personal style. In the Black Paintings, executed on the walls of his house, Goya gave expression to his darkest visions. A similar nightmarish quality haunts the satirical Disparates, a series of etchings also called Proverbios.
In 1824, after the failure of an attempt to restore liberal government, Goya went into voluntary exile in France. He settled in Bordeaux, continuing to work until his death there.
Goya was an innovative Spanish painter and etcher; one of the triumvirate�including El Greco and Diego Vel�zquez�of great Spanish masters. Much in the art of Goya is derived from that of Vel�zquez, just as much in the art of the 19th-century French master Edouard Manet and the 20th-century genius Pablo Picasso is taken from Goya. Trained in a mediocre rococo artistic milieu, Goya transformed this often frivolous style and created works, such as the famous Third of May, 1808 (1814), that have as great an impact today as when they were created.
Early Training and First Projects
Goya was born in the small Aragonese town of Fuendetodos (near Saragossa). His father was a painter and a gilder of altarpieces, and his mother was descended from a family of minor Aragonese nobility. Facts of Goya's childhood are scarce. He attended school in Saragossa at the Escuelas Pias. Goya's formal artistic education commenced when, at the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a local master, Jos� Luzan, a competent although little-known painter in whose studio Goya spent four years. In 1763 the young artist went to Madrid, where he hoped to win a prize at the Academy of San Fernando (founded 1752). Although he did not win the desired award, he did make the acquaintance of Francisco Bayeu, an artist also from Arag�n, who was working at the court in the academic manner imported to Spain by the German painter Anton Raphael Mengs. Bayeu (the brother of Goya's wife) was influential in forming Goya's early style and was responsible for his participation in an important commission, the fresco decoration (1771, 1780-1782) of the Church of the Virgin in El Pilar in Saragossa.
In 1771 Goya went to Italy for approximately one year. His activity there is relatively obscure; he spent some months in Rome and also entered a composition at the Parma Academy competition, in which he was successful. Returning to Spain about 1773, Goya participated in several other fresco projects, including that for the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, near Saragossa, in 1774, where his paintings prefigure those of his greatest fresco project, executed in the Church of San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid, in 1798. It was at this time that Goya began to do prints after paintings by Vel�zquez, who would remain, along with Rembrandt, his greatest source of inspiration.
Years as Court Painter
By 1786 Goya was working in an official capacity for King Charles III, the most enlightened Spanish monarch of the 18th century. Goya was appointed first court painter in 1799. His tapestry cartoons executed in the late 1780s and early 1790s were highly praised for their candid views of everyday Spanish life. With these cartoons Goya revolutionized the tapestry industry, which, until that time, had slavishly reproduced the Flemish genre scenes of the 17th-century painter David Teniers. Some of Goya's most beautiful portraits of his friends, members of the court, and the nobility date from the 1780s. Works such as Marquesa de Pontejos (1786) show that Goya was then painting in an elegant manner somewhat reminiscent of the style of his English contemporary Thomas Gainsborough.
Etchings and Later Paintings
In the winter of 1792, while on a visit to southern Spain, Goya contracted a serious disease that left him totally deaf and marked a turning point in his career. A mood of pessimism entered Goya's work. Between 1797 and 1799 he drew and etched the first of his great print series Los caprichos, which, in their satirical humor, mock the social mores and superstitions of the time. Later series, such as Desastres de la guerra (1810) and Disparates (1820-1823), present more caustic commentaries on the ills and follies of humanity. The horrors of warfare were of great concern to Goya, who observed firsthand the battles between French soldiers and Spanish citizens during the bloody years of the Napoleonic occupation of Spain. In 1814 he completed Second of May, 1808 and Third of May, 1808. These paintings depict horrifying and dramatically brutal massacres of groups of unarmed Spanish street fighters by French soldiers. Both are painted, like so many later pictures by Goya, in thick, bold strokes of dark color punctuated by brilliant yellow and red highlights.
Straightforward candor and honesty are also present in Goya's later portraits, such as Family of Charles IV (1800), in which the royal family is shown in a completely unidealized fashion, verging on caricature, as a group of strikingly homely individuals.
Final Works
The Black Paintings, scenes of witchcraft and other bizarre activities, are among the most outstanding works of the artist's late years (about 1820). Originally painted in fresco on the walls of Goya's country house and now transferred to canvas, they attest to his progressively darkening mood, possibly aggravated by an oppressive political situation in Spain that forced him to leave for France in 1824. In Bordeaux he took up the then new art of lithography, producing a series of bullfight scenes, considered among the finest lithographs ever made. Although he returned to Madrid for a brief visit in 1826, he died in self-imposed exile in Bordeaux two years later. Goya left no immediate followers of consequence, but his influence was strongly felt in mid-19th-century painting and printmaking and in 20th-century art.
Goya was born in a very poor village called Fuendetodos, near Saragossa, in Aragon, on 30 March 1746. Goya�s father was a gilder in Saragossa and it was there that Goya spent his childhood and adolescence.
He began his artistic studies at the age of 13 with a local artist, Jos� Lus�n, who had trained in Naples and who taught Goya to draw, to copy engravings and to paint in oils. In 1763 and 1766, he competed unsuccessfully for a scholarship of the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, probably working in the studio of the Court Painter Francisco Bayeu , who was also from Saragossa. To continue his studies he went to Rome at his own expense. In April of 1771 he participated in a competition held by the Academy of Parma introducing himself as a student of Francisco Bayeu. By the end of 1771, Goya was back in Saragossa, where he received his first official commission, the frescoes in the Cathedral of El Pilar.
In 1773 Goya married Josefa Bayeu, sister of Francisco Bayeu. In 1774, the German artist Anton Raphael Mengs summoned Goya to Madrid to paint cartoons for tapestries for the Royal Factory of Santa Barbara. It is possible that Goya first met Mengs in Rome, since many years later he wrote that it was Mengs who made him return to Spain. In any event, it was Mengs who started him on his career at court. Under the direction first of Mengs, and later of Francisco Bayeu and Mariano Maella, Goya executed over 60 tapestry cartoons between 1775 and 1792, see e.g. Fight at the Cock Inn , The Parasol , La Cometa .
In 1780, Goya was elected a member of the Royal Academy of San Fernando. In 1780-1781, he worked on the frescoes of El Pilar in Saragossa. On his return to Madrid he received the royal invitation to paint one of seven large altarpieces for the newly built church of San Francisco el Grande. The King�s opinion of his work must have been favorable, because in 1785, a year after the paintings were first shown to the public, Goya was appointed Deputy Director of Painting in the Academy. In 1786, he became a court painter.
Among Goya�s early admirers and most important patrons during a period of 20 years were the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, who commissioned not only portraits of themselves and a family group but also a number of paintings to decorate their country residence near Madrid, the Alameda Palace, known as El Capricho. Among other paintings for the Duke of Osuna are two altarpieces, commissioned in 1788 for the chapel of his ancestors, St. Francis Borgia, in Valencia Cathedral.
In 1783-1785, Goya painted a number of portraits of the influential persons of his time: the portrait of the Chief Minister of State, the Count of Floridablanca, in which Goya himself appears; the family portrait of the Infante Don Luis, the King�s brother, with himself again in the picture; the court architect, Ventura Rodriguez. In 1785, he was commissioned for a series of portraits of offices of the Banco Nacional de San Carlos. In these early official portraits, Goya adopted conventional XVIII century poses. His portrait of Charles III in Hunting Costume is based directly on Velásquez�s paintings of royal huntsmen.
The death of Charles III in 1788, and the outbreak of the French Revolution, brought to an end the period of comparative prosperity and enlightenment in Spain during which Goya had reached maturity. Under the rule of the weak Charles IV and his unscrupulous Queen, Mar�a Luisa, Spain fell into political and social corruption, which ended with the Napoleonic invasion of Spain. Under the new regime Goya reached the height of his career as the most fashionable and successful artist in Spain. The new King raised him to the rank of Court Painter in 1789.
During a visit to Andalusia towards the end of 1792, Goya was struck down by a long and serious illness of which the effect, as he wrote even a year later, made him, �At times rage with so ill a humor that he could not tolerate himself�. The nature of the illness is not known for certain but it caused temporary paralysis and partial blindness and left him permanently deaf, so that henceforth he could only communicate by writing and sign language. He returned to Madrid in the summer of 1793.
After the death of Francisco Bayeu in 1795, Goya succeeded his former teacher as Director of Painting in the Academy (but resigned for reasons of health two years later), and in 1799 was appointed First Court Painter. In 1799, Goya published the series of 80 etchings called Los Caprichos, bitter caricatures of life. Despite the veiled language of Los Caprichos they were withdrawn from sale after a few days.
From the time of their ascension until 1800, Charles IV and Mar�a Luisa sat for him on many occasions, and many replicas were made of his portraits of them. He painted them in various costumes and poses, ranging from the early decorative portraits in full regalia in the tradition of Mengs to the simpler and more natural compositions in the manner of Vel�zquez.
Goya was 62 years old when the Napoleonic invasion of Spain started in 1808, and Spain was subjected to six years of war and revolution. Goya was in Madrid during the tragic events of 02 and 03 May 1808 when the population rose against the French and the uprising was savagely repressed. In 1814 he recorded the events in two of the most famous of his paintings The Second of May, 1808: The Charge of Mamelukes. and The Third of May, 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid. Meanwhile, with thousands of other heads of families, Goya swore allegiance to the French King, Joseph Bonaparte. During the war he was occupied with portraits of family groups and private citizens. At the time he made his personal record of the war in expressive and fearful drawings Desastres de la Guerra, which were later used for a series of 82 etchings, which were published only in 1863.
In August 1812, when the British entered Madrid, Goya accepted a commission for an equestrian portrait of the Duke of Wellington and, soon afterwards, painted one other portrait of his only recorded English sitter. On the restoration of Ferdinand VII in 1814, Goya resumed his office as First Court Painter. The portraits of Ferdinand were Goya�s last royal portraits, he went out of favor and fashion. From now on Goya was chiefly occupied with paintings for private patrons, for friends and for himself. He continued to record his observations and ideas in drawings. During this period Goya received two important ecclesiastical commissions for St. Justa and St. Rufina, painted in 1817 for the Seville Cathedral, and for The Last Communion of St. Joseph of Calasanz , painted in 1819 for the church of the Escuelas P�as de San Ant�n in Madrid.
As a result of the revolution of 1820 Ferdinand VII was forced to recognize a constitution, but already in 1823 the French army restored the Spanish king to absolute power, and the persecution of the liberals was renewed with greater violence than ever before. Goya, who had made his last appearance at the Academy on 04 April 1820 to swear allegiance to the Constitution, went into hiding early in 1824. After the declaration of amnesty Goya left Spain. Except for two short visits to Madrid in 1826 and 1827, the painter remained in France, mainly in Bordeaux, for the rest of his life. He died in Bordeaux.
Inquisition Carlos III
Familia de Carlos IV (280x336cm)_ La Familia de Carlos IV supone la culminaci�n de todos los retratos pintados por Goya en esta �poca. Gracias a las cartas de la reina Mar�a Luisa de Parma a Godoy conocemos paso a paso la concepci�n del cuadro. La obra fue realizada en Aranjuez desde abril de 1800 y durante ese verano. En ella aparecen retratados, de izquierda a derecha, los siguientes personajes: Carlos Mar�a Isidro, hijo de Carlos IV y Mar�a Luisa de Parma; el futuro Fernando VII, hijo primog�nito de la real pareja; Goya pintando, como hab�a hecho Vel�zquez en Las Meninas; Do�a Mar�a Josefa, hermana de Carlos IV; un personaje desconocido que podr�a ser destinado a colocar el rostro de la futura esposa de Fernando cuando �ste contrajera matrimonio, por lo que aparece con la cabeza vuelta; Mar�a Isabel, hija menor de los reyes; la reina Mar�a Luisa de Parma en el centro de la escena, como se�al de poder ya que era ella la que llevaba las riendas del Estado a trav�s de Godoy; Francisco de Paula de la mano de su madre, de �l se dec�a que ten�a un indecente parecido con Godoy; el rey Carlos IV, en posici�n avanzada respecto al grupo; tras el monarca vemos a su hermano, Don Antonio Pascual; Carlota Joaquina, la hija mayor de los reyes, s�lo muestra la cabeza; cierra el grupo D. Luis de Parma; su esposa, Mar�a Luisa Josefina, hija tambi�n de Carlos IV; y el hijito de ambos, Carlos Luis, en brazos de su madre. Todos los hombres retratados portan la Orden de Carlos III y algunos tambi�n el Tois�n de Oro, mientras que las damas visten a la moda Imperio y ostentan la banda de la Orden de Mar�a Luisa. Carlos IV tambi�n luce la insignia de las Ordenes Militares y de la Orden de Cristo de Portugal. Alrededor de esta obra existe mucha literatura ya que siempre se considera que Goya ha ridiculizado a los personajes regios. Resulta extra�o pensar que nuestro pintor tuviera intenci�n de poner en rid�culo a la familia del monarca; incluso existen documentos en los que la reina comenta que est�n quedando todos muy propios y que ella estaba muy satisfecha. M�s l�gico resulta pensar que la familia real era as� porque, de lo contrario, el cuadro hubiese sido destruido y Goya hubiese ca�do en desgracia, lo que no ocurri�. El artista recoge a los personajes como si de un friso se tratara, en tres grupos para dar mayor movimiento a la obra; as�, en el centro se sit�an los monarcas con sus dos hijos menores; en la derecha, el grupo presidido por el pr�ncipe heredero realizado en una gama fr�a, mientras que en la izquierda los Pr�ncipes de Parma, en una gama caliente. Todas las figuras est�n envueltas en una especie de niebla dorada que pone en relaci�n la obra con Las Meninas. Lo que m�s interesa al pintor es captar la personalidad de los retratados, fundamentalmente de la reina, verdadera protagonista de la composici�n, y la del rey, con su car�cter ab�lico y ausente. La obra es un documento humano sin parang�n. Estil�sticamente destaca la pincelada tan suelta empleada por Goya; desde una distancia prudencial parece que ha detallado todas y cada una de las condecoraciones, pero al acercarse se aprecian claramente las manchas. Goya, a diferencia de Vel�zquez en Las Meninas, ha renunciado a los juegos de perspectiva pero gracias a la luz y al color consigue dar variedad a los vol�menes y ayuda a diferenciar los distintos planos en profundidad. Fue la primera obra de Goya que entr� en el Museo del Prado , siendo valorada en 1834 en 80'000 reales.
^ — Saturn Devouring One of his Sons (1823, 146x83cm) _ detail _
The image seems to have arisen in a nightmare: the cannibal god on bended knees, engulfed in darkness; the mad haunted eyes and black-blooded mouth; the rending fingers, threaded with blood, and the ravaged figure in their grasp — like a huge, mad Richard Nixon or Dubya Bush, devouring the young men of the US through their insane wars: a cannibal father, jealous of our freedoms, determined to destroy us, our ideals, our hopes. Critics have called this Saturn a symbol of evil, a Satan, a monster. The painting evokes in the viewer an interior terror, a sense of isolation, loneliness, grief — this god on his knees, tearing apart his own child, enshrouded in a blackness that is like a psychic tar, in a drama of primal murderousness.
This story of fathers and sons is one of the foundation tales of Western tradition: Abraham binding his son Isaac for sacrifice on Mount Moriah; God offering the sacrifice of His son Jesus on the cross. The earliest version of the Kronos myth — Saturn is the later Roman name — was written down by Hesiod in his Theogony, about the eighth century BC.
First comes Chaos; then Earth/Gaia; Tartarus in the bowels of Earth; and finally Eros. Earth gives birth to Heaven, also known as Ouranos, and then bears twelve of his children, the last, "most terrible of sons / The crooked-scheming Kronos."* Earth and Ouranos have three more sons, so fearsome and mighty that Ouranos forces them back inside their mother, burying them alive. She forms a sickle, and asks her other sons to use it against their father, “For it was he / Who first began devising shameful acts.” All are afraid, except Kronos. She gives him the sickle, hides him in her, and he castrates his father, preventing him from having more children, then assumes power among the Titans. But fear lives in his heart; a usurper himself, he learns that one of his own children will usurp him, and he devours them at birth: “As each child issued from the holy womb / And lay upon its mother's knees, each one / Was seized by mighty Kronos, and gulped down.” Through a ruse by his mother, the last born, Zeus, survives, leads a war against Kronos, and casts him down to Tartarus. Even gods cannot overcome Fate.
Goya produced a chalk drawing, Saturn Devouring His Sons, in 1797, most likely influenced by a Rubens painting of the same subject. Both works are illustrative of a literary theme, passionless, even morbidly comic. Rubens's Saturn is out on a stroll, his foot resting momentarily on a stone, one hand holding his staff, the other grasping his meal — his infant son — biting into the boy's chest like a sturdy Flemish burgher stooping to a roast goose. Goya's Titan is cunning-eyed; his mouth, clamped upon his son's leg to the thigh, is turned upwards in a leering grin; the legs of a second son he holds almost daintily, his pinky slightly raised. Neither work is likely to evoke more than a passing grimace from a viewer.
All of this changes with the Saturn of 1824, one of the series known as the Black Paintings. What returned Goya to this subject? What did he recognize in himself that charged the work with such raw, wounding power?
Goya and his wife, Josefa, had between five and twenty children: the exact number is unknown. Only one boy, Javier, survived beyond childhood. Did the early deaths of his other children, reflected upon in the solitude of the Quinta del Sordo — the house he moved into in 1819, seven years after Josefa died — inspire Goya's vision of the cannibal god? Was he portraying his sense of potential cut off, of lives interrupted before they can begin?
This interpretation is inconsistent with the fact that the figure gripped in the giant's hands is no child, but a full grown adult, which leads to another, allied interpretation: Saturn / Kronos as the ancient deity Time, implacable devourer of all humankind.
Shortly before he began the Black Paintings, Goya survived a near fatal illness, documented in his Self-portrait with Dr. Arrieta, where the pained and weary artist, surrounded by dark, phantasmal faces, is ministered to by the doctor. Did Goya, sick, deaf, in his seventies, paint his lonely terror of his own mortality through his Saturn?
But if the giant represents Time, why is he painted on bended knees, with spindly misshapen legs that seem unable to bear the weight of his enormous torso? Is this Goya's sardonic commentary on Spain's recent war with France — presenting a crippled Time, forced to overfeed on the numberless dead? On the dead of all wars? Did the early nineteenth century supply Saturn / Kronos with such quantities of corpses, that Time himself is brought to his knees, his wild eyes bulging, as if he were unable to stomach another bite? Or is the figure a symbol of war itself, the culminating portrait of the horrors he chronicled in his series of etchings, The Disasters of War, in 1810-1820?
Every interpretation of a painting rooted so complexly in the mind of Goya leads, as with dreams, to new interpretations.
In the universe before the coming of Christ, Saturn, frenziedly eating his own child-god, might be seen as engaged in an act of perverse communion. The Christian God sacrificed his son that all humankind might live; the Titan acts out of fear and jealousy, and the body of his child reveals not the mystery of resurrection, but the dark and violent mysteries of the psyche, a Tartarus of blood and madness, where all instincts and emotions merge, and consequence is forgotten. A realm of unconsciousness. Of mutilation and murder.
From this perspective, Saturn might be Goya's warning to humankind, whose wars and wanton cruelties, devotion to superstition and false gods will lead it to dissolution, to the Nada scrawled by the corpse as its last message in the etching, "Nothing. We shall see." (The Disasters of War #69)
And yet, for all the mythological, political, social, historical, and religious meanings we attach to the painting, there is something we still turn away from, the most basic theme — a man destroying his own son. Think of Javier, Goya's only child to survive to adulthood. From the beginning, Goya loved him, pampered him, fretted over him.
Fathers and sons enjoy, or are condemned to, the play of uniquely powerful forces of love and pride, disappointment and dominance, the scales forever unbalanced, sometimes seeming to shift in a single moment, then swaying back. Communications, in the best of circumstances, are infinitely complicated and the effects of Goya's deafness should not be underestimated. It developed in 1793, when Javier was nine, and the use of sign language must have impeded dialogue. What remained unsaid between them? We subtly shade our speech through inflection, expecting understanding. Did Javier feel Goya's eyes always on him — as father, as deaf man, as artist — studying his face for clues to his thoughts?
Goya had hopes that Javier would follow in his footsteps and devote himself to art. In 1803, he presented the plates and the remaining sets of his Caprichos to Charles IV, from whom he obtained a pension of twelve thousand reales for Francisco Javier.
In 1805, Javier married the daughter of a respected, wealthy family from Saragossa. Goya undertook, in the marriage contract, to be financially responsible for the couple, their servants, any children they might have. In his later years, it was said that he had spent most of his wealth on his only child and his daughter-in-law, leaving little for himself. Soon after the marriage, Goya painted a portrait of the twenty-one-year-old Javier. Despite his love and pride, he is an artist, and cannot help but render what he sees: a handsome, foppish, self-regarding young man with a somewhat weak chin, seeming to lacking the depth of character necessary to create great art. At what age did Javier realize that he would never fulfill his father's ambitions for him?
Seven years later, as the war against Napoleon's armies was ending, Josefa died. Javier claimed his mother's inheritance, and when the property was divided, Goya gave to his son the house, library, and, curiously, nearly all his own art work in a collection of seventy-eight paintings and prints, like a man making restitution for genius denied in the blood. He kept for himself only two portraits: the bullfighter Romero, and the Duchess of Alba, the celebrated beauty he had followed to Andalusia in 1795, after she was widowed, and had lived with for almost a year, while Josefa and the twelve-year-old Javier remained in Madrid. In her will, signed during Goya's stay, the Duchess bequeathed a lifetime annuity for Javier.
In 1819, Goya retreated across the Manzanares River on the outskirts of Madrid to his villa, known coincidentally as the Quinta del Sordo. He had already achieved the pre-eminent position of First Painter of the Royal Bedchamber, and was the most famous artist in Spain; survived war, pestilence, famine, a near-fatal illness; endured the deaths of so many loved ones. Surely he had earned, at seventy-three, an existence free of turmoil in the peace of the Quinta, if he so wished. Quickly, he filled the walls with vivid landscapes in lush greens and sky blues; mountains, rivers, donkeys, small figures; even a man dancing with castanets — all revealed in recent years through radiography and stratigraphy.
Then, something happens. Goya suddenly unleashes his art, covering over the colorful landscapes, refusing himself the bland pleasures of the merely picturesque, recognizing in every surface a new opportunity, until the Quinta mirrors his internal world, the meanings personal, all sense of decoration dismissed. Only truth remains. On the dining room wall, two-and-a half feet by four-and-a-half feet, a thick-shouldered, murderous colossus begins to take shape. If he once exposed his son's nature in a portrait, he now strips himself bare with his Saturn.
One more time, we look at the painting. Cover the right side of the face, and we see a Titan caught in the act, defying anyone to stop him, the bulging left eye staring wildly at some unseen witness to his savagery, his piratical coarseness heightened by the sharp vertical lines of the eyebrow, crossed like the stitches of a scar. Cover his left eye, and we are confronted by a being in pain, the dark student gazing down in horror at his own uncontrolled murderousness, the eyebrow curved upwards like an inverted question mark, as if he were asking, "Why am I compelled to do this?"
In this painting one may see, with revulsion, only the image of a gruesome giant, father as devourer. But it may be that a hidden knowledge evoked in Goya his terrible compassion for the cannibal god. The primal battle between fathers and sons is inescapable, the roots of such terrifying instincts too deep to be thoroughly excised. As fathers, we fear not only that we might destroy our sons — through anger, jealousy, fear; through our sometimes desperate love; through a thousand seemingly small sins — but that we secretly intend to destroy them. We want to protect them from the monsters that inhabit their nightmares, only to discover among the faces of those monsters our own.
If human beings are made free only by their admission of their darkest fears and impulses, this admission, unalterably expressed, may have granted Goya a sense of well-being, as did the entire series of Black Paintings. Javier, writing after his father's death, referred to the pleasure Goya had experienced in viewing daily in his house those pictures he had painted for himself with freedom and in accordance with his own genius.
The ancient myth that once provided him with the subject for an unmemorable drawing, becomes, in this late period of his life, the inspiration for uttering the unutterable. It is ironic that the very painting the world sees and shudders at — the image it considers one of the most horrifying in all Western art — may have given its creator peace.
^ Born on 16 April 1821: Ford Madox Brown, English Pre-Raphaelite painter who died on 11 October 1893.
He was the father of Lucy Madox Brown . His students included Marie Spartali Stillman .
Born in Calais, Ford Madox Brown revealed a precocious talent for art at an early age. From 1836 to 1846 he studied drawing in Europe, first in Bruges with a student of David, later in Antwerp with Baron Wappers. He travelled to Paris and Rome, where he befriended Cornelius and Overbeck, survivors of the German Romantic Nazarene movement. In 1841 he produced his first important oil painting, taking the execution of Mary Queen of Scots as his subject. Back in England, he met Rossetti and became associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, although he never joined it. From 1850 on, however, his works, mainly on historical and religious themes, closely adhered to the Pre-Raphaelite precepts. He executed an important series of frescoes in the Manchester Town Hall (1880-1893), illustrating episodes in the history of the city, and numerous stained-glass designs. His life was a continual succession of adversities and delusions; neglected by both the critics and the public, he never knew real success. He died in London.
He was born at Calais and trained at Antwerp (under Wappers), in Paris, and at Rome, where he came into contact with the Nazarenes. Settling in England in 1846, he became a friend of the Pre-Raphaelites and--with his taste for literary subjects and meticulous handling--an influence on their work, though he was never a member of the Brotherhood. Rossetti studied briefly with him in 1848 and Brown's Chaucer at the Court of Edward III (1851) contains portraits of several of the Brotherhood.
In 1861 Brown was a founder member of William Morris's company, for which he designed stained glass and furniture. The major work of the later part of his career is a cycle of paintings (1878-93) in Manchester Town Hall on the history of the city. Brown was an individualist and a man of prickly temperament; he opposed the Royal Academy and was a pioneer of the one-man show.
Always an outsider to the art establishment who viewed him as suspiciously foreign because of his birth outside Britain, although to British parents, Ford Madox Brown studied art in the great schools of Antwerp and Paris and brought their influence to bear in his paintings. His pictures are now much in demand, but his contemporaries largely ignored his work and he never made much money out of painting. After visiting Rome in 1845 he became very influenced by the Nazarene School of painting, as invented and practiced by the German painters Johann Overbeck [1789-1869] and Peter von Cornelius [1783-1875].
Madox Brown's work was highly original at a time when British art was mundane and predictable; his subjects were to do with English literature and language but produced in a dark, highly mannered, and dramatic style synthesized from his early European training and his tours of Italy and Switzerland. His work bore the brunt of his two great weaknesses finishing and retouching. Even more so than Rossetti, he was almost incapable of finishing his paintings, this meant that he was never able to leave a work alone, even when it was ostensibly finished, he would continually retouch it, even though sometimes the painting was already sold.
Ford Madox Brown first met Dante Gabriel Rossetti [ 09 Apr 1882 – 12 May 1828] in March 1848 and for a short time gave him academic painting lessons. This rather fell on deaf ears and Rossetti moved on, but in time they resumed their friendship. Ford Madox Brown became closely involved with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood through his friendship with Rossetti, but never a member because he was regarded with xenophobic suspicion by William Holman Hunt [ 02 Apr 1827 – 07 Sep 1910] and John Millais [08 Jun 1829 – 13 Aug 1896].
Ironically it is Ford Madox Brown who in years to come became regarded as the ultimate Pre-Raphaelite because he painted many of their characteristic paintings. One such, the very first shown in the 1852 summer exhibition, The Pretty Baa-Lambs, is a very Pre-Raphaelite-looking picture with its brilliant color (painted on a white ground), naturalistic detail and contemporary subject matter. He had often painted out of doors before but this was the first time he had painted in natural light and it showed to anyone who looked properly. Unfortunately few did, the painting was hung in a poor position and went largely unnoticed.
The same year he enjoyed perhaps his best period and produced three of his finest paintings, all of them Pre-Raphaelite in everything except name: The Last of England, An English Autumn and Work. The latter, landmark, painting took him 13 years to finish. It is a modern allegory of society and a literal rendition of Heath Street, Hampstead. In it he shows ordinary people as heroes, but without a shade of sentimentality: at the center are common navvies digging. They are surrounded by a thronging crowd of contemporary people: ragged working class children and beggars alongside street traders and smart upper class ladies. The muscle workers are the navvies and itinerant farm workers, while the brain workers are two of Brown's heroes - the Reverend F.D. Maurice, a pioneer of working class education and Christian socialist, and Thomas Carlyle, the author of Past and Present. Ford Madox Brown eventually made enough money from his paintings to buy a house in Fitzroy Square which became a lively center for artists and writers to gather together and swap ideas and gossip.
After receiving little notice for his work Brown gave up exhibiting at the R.A. after 1853; and by 1856 he had lost his belief in the Pre-Raphaelite ethos of painting modern morality works, instead he started collaborating with Morris and Co., working on designs for art glass and illustrations. He was commissioned to paint 12 large murals inside Manchester Town Hall showing the glorious history of Manchester, and he spent a great deal of time on the project, after which he played no significant part in artistic development.
Browns later career is peripheral to the Pre Raphaelite story although he lived until 1983. He taught at the Working Men's College and he was involved with design work for Morris and Company. In time, Brown achieved a level of financial security and his house in Fitroy Square became a noted rendezvous for artists and writers subsequently recalled by his grandson and biographer Ford Madox Ford. The later part of his career is taken up with work on his twelve murals in the Manchester Town Hall which illustrate the history of the city. The combination of a heroic style and local history proved not to be a success and the work is not among his best. However, Madox Brown retains his place as a seminal figure in the Pre Raphaelite movement and an artist of great power and originality.
Dates on Ford Madox Brown's paintings are odd because he never felt finished with a painting. He would keep making changes years later, even after a picture had been sold. So often a definitive date is just impossible to establish.
Let The Little Children Come To Me
Jesus washing Peter's feet at the Last Supper (1865) _ Brown's first religious painting in the Pre Raphaelite style. Here we can also see the other side of the Pre Raphaelite style and its effect on Brown in that in the same way as Millias details in 'The Carpenter's Shop' Brown shows Christ and his disciples as ordinary people. Christ is deliberately betrayed in a humble, unflattering way and his treatment of the figures is bold and realistic. Brown continued to paint religious and historical pictures of this style, blending Pre Raphaelite realism with his own highly academic mannerism.
William Shakespeare
The Seeds and Fruits of English Poetry (1853) _ This painting shows Chaucer reading at the court of Edward III with his patron, the Black Prince, on his left. In the wings appear the 'fruits' of English poetry: Milton , Spenser and Shakespeare on the left; Byron , Pope and Burns on the right; Goldsmith [10 Nov 1730 04 Apr 1774] and Thomson [11 Sep 1700 27 Aug 1748] in the roundels; and the names of Campbell , Moore , Shelley , Keats , Chatterton , Kirke White , Coleridge , and Wordsworth are written on the cartouches held by the standing children in the base.
The Last of England (1855) _ This is his best-known picture. It was inspired by the departure of Woolner, the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor, for Australia, and deals with the great emigration movement which attained its peak in 1865. Social realism is one more area of the Pre Raphaelite movement where Brown made an important contribution. It is also prominent in the picture Work.
Stages of Cruelty (1890) _ The title refers to William Hogarth's engravings on the theme of cruelty of animals leading to cruelty to humans.
The Pretty Baa-Lambs (1859) _ detail _ One of his first Pre Raphaelite paintings was 'The Pretty Baa-Lambs' first exhibited in 1852 which he painted outdoors in full sunlight. It is an uncompromisingly truthful picture and shows how determined Brown must have turned to the Pre Raphaelite style. Browns first important landscape in the Pre Raphaelite style. It was painted at Stockwell, in South London where the artist had been living and exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1852. Brown wrote in his diary that the picture 'was painted almost entirely in sunlight which twice gave me fever while painting ... The lambs and sheep used to be bought every morning from Clapham Common in a truck; one of them ate all the flowers one morning in the garden, and they used to behave very ill.' His wife and daughter modeled for the figures.
Work (1863, 137x197cm _ ZOOM ) _ detail ( ZOOM ) _ Ford Madox Brown had the idea for Work after seeing a group of navvies laying water pipes in Heath Street, Hampstead, London. Much of the painting was done on the spot in the open air. The famous anthology piece Work shows Brown's dedicated craftsmanship and brilliant coloring, but is somewhat swamped by its social idealism. Brown describes how the picture was painted 'To insure that peculiar look of light all round which objects have on a dull day at sea, it was painted for the most part in the open air on dull days, and, when the flesh was being painted, on cold days. Absolutely without regard to art of any period or country, I have tried to render this scene as it would appear.' This comment reflects the fearless honest search for reality which was also typical of Holman Hunt.
^ Died on 16 April 1932: Walter Launt Palmer, US painter born on 01 August 1854.
— Palmer was born in Albany NY, son of the sculptor Erastus Dow Palmer. In his youth he was acquainted with the leading artists of the day such as Frederick E. Church, John Kensett, and John McEntee, all of whom frequented the Palmer home. At age 24, he began his formal study of art with Frederick E. Church, the great Hudson Valley painter. In the early and mid-1870's Palmer traveled and studied extensively in Italy and France. He studied with Carolus-Duran in Paris. He studied the work of the Impressionists as well as that of the expatriate US artists in Europe. He was a friend of John Singer Sargent, with whom he went on at least one sketching trip. He also spent time with John Henry Twatchman, William Merrit Chase, Frank Druveneck, and Robert Blum.
Upon Palmer's return to the US in the late 1870's, he and Church rented a studio in New York City. They keep it from 1878 until 1881. Palmer first received major attention for his winter scenes in 1887 when he received the Second Halgarten Prize of the National Academy for his painting January. This award is for outstanding young (under 35) artists with potential. The artist's use of blue shadow in the snow is considered one of the first uses of this technique. He also received the gold medal from the Philadelphia Art club in 1894 and another gold medal from the Boston Art Club in 1895. More awards came from more prestigious Art Associations and his reputation continued to grow. His winter scenes became very popular but his scenes of Venice and interiors were also beautiful and desirable.
At the turn of the century Palmer was being compared to Claude Monet and John Henry Twatchman. In 1915, Palmer, now 61 years old, spent the summer in Gloucester Massachusetts, as he would do again in many later summers. His studio was rather quaint and situated on Rocky Neck in Gloucester Harbor. It was described by the Boston Globe in 1923 as one "which hangs down over the rocks and boasts an array of sky blue shutters .. in this studio by the sea." He actually found the summer studio a boost to his art sales as many visitors who came to see, actually bought. He complained that visitors interrupted him but it was good for business. Prices at that time were about $200 each without frames for good sized pictures. One person bought three for a reduced price of $500. He kept meticulous records of all his paintings and sales. He became active in the local art colony and the local art associations, basking in his celebrity status.
People would remark that it was strange to see him sitting on his Gloucester Bay dock in the summertime while painting a snow scene. All the while the picturesque harbor's beauty was right in front of him. But he responded that he felt that it was no more inconsistent than many of his fellow artists painting summer scenes in the dead of winter. Walter L. Palmer died in his hometown Albany NY.
After his death his work fell out of favor and many museums deaccessioned his paintings in the years following W.W.II. Indeed, by the early 1960's, representational art was out and often the frames were worth more than the paintings. People liked clean walls with no paintings -- a sort of a delayed reaction to the covered wall style of the Victorian period. In the last 20 years the trend has again reversed and the works of US Impressionist and realistic artists of the early 20th century have been rediscovered. Walter Launt Palmer is now recognized as an excellent artist.
— The sole survivor (paged 646 and 647 from Harper's Weekly, 05 Aug 1876, wood engraving 29x51cm)
— Fleeing from persecution (pages 614 and 615, from Harper's Weekly, 04 Aug 1877, wood engraving, 27x50cm)
— Library at Arbor Hill (Olcott Interior) (1878) _ Palmer painted this interior of the home today known as the Ten Broeck Mansion. Seated within is the house's owner, Thomas Worth Olcott [1795-1880], a prominent Albany banker. The furnishings are an eclectic mix of personal possessions, oriental rugs, a Shaker chair, a Japanese screen and a marble bust of Mary Olcott sculpted by Erastus Dow Palmer. Inclusion of the elderly Mr. Olcott reading a morning newspaper gives an idea of his social and economic status; he had both the means to pursue and acquire his possessions and the leisure time to enjoy them.
^ Died on 16 April 1817: Martin Dr�lling, French academic painter baptized as an infant on 19 September 1752.
— Both Martin Drölling and his son Michel-Martin Drolling [07 Mar 1786 – 09 Jan 1851] were portrait painters; whereas the father expanded his range by concentrating on bourgeois domestic interiors, the son produced a number of history paintings on mythological and religious subjects. Another of Martin Drölling�s three children by his second wife, Louise-Elisabeth (n�e Belot), was Louise-Ad�one Drolling [29 May 1797 – <1831), otherwise known as Mme Joubert; she also practised as a painter. — After receiving initial training from an unknown painter in S�lestat, Drölling moved to Paris, where he attended courses at the Acad�mie Royale. He supplemented his education there by studying Flemish and Dutch Old Masters in the collection at the Luxembourg Palace. From the Flemish school he derived his own rich impasto, while the Dutch was to influence him in his meticulous, supremely descriptive and unsentimental style of painting as well as his choice of subject-matter: unfussy bourgeois interiors and frank portraits. Drölling first exhibited at the Salon de la Correspondance in 1781 and again in 1782 and 1789. After the French Revolution he was able to participate in the Salon at the Louvre, despite the fact that he had never become a member of the Acad�mie Royale. He exhibited from 1793 to 1817, although the majority of his works extant today were shown after 1800. From 1802 to 1813 he was employed by the S�vres porcelain manufactory, and many of his designs were engraved.
� Les petits soldats (24x32cm; 448x593pix, 88kb)
^ Died on 16 April 1941: Émile Bernard, French painter and writer born on 28 April 1868 — He was the son of a cloth merchant. Relations with his parents were never harmonious, and in 1884, against his father�s wishes, he enrolled as a student at the Atelier Cormon in Paris. There he became a close friend of Louis Anquetin and Toulouse-Lautrec. In suburban views of Asni�res, where his parents lived, Bernard experimented with Impressionist and then Pointillist color theory, in direct opposition to his master�s academic teaching; an argument with Fernand Cormon led to his expulsion from the studio in 1886. He made a walking tour of Normandy and Brittany that year, drawn to Gothic architecture and the simplicity of the carved Breton calvaries. In Concarneau he struck up a friendship with Claude-Emile Schuffenecker and met Gauguin briefly in Pont-Aven. During the winter Bernard met van Gogh and frequented the shop of the color merchant Julien-Fran�ois Tanguy, where he gained access to the little-known work of C�zanne.
LINKS
— Self-Portrait with Portrait of Gauguin (1888, 46x55cm; 427x510cm, 49kb) _ In 1888 Bernard worked with Paul Gauguin in Pont-Aven, in Brittany. There he produced this self-portrait, which he inscribed with the text �� mon copaing Vincent� and sent to his friend Vincent in Arles. Van Gogh had actually requested a portrait of Gauguin, but Bernard replied that he did not feel confident enough to paint his older, better-known colleague. By way of a compromise he painted this self-portrait in blue and green tints, including Gauguin�s head on the wall in the background as a stylized drawing. Van Gogh was enthusiastic about the gift � �a couple of simple tones, a couple of dark lines, but it is as elegant as a real, genuine Manet�. Gauguin also sent Van Gogh a self-portrait, Les Misérables (1888), which included a portrait of Bernard in the background.
Jeune Fille sur la Colline (1904, 64x77cm; 2/5 size, 186kb _ ZOOM to 4/5 size, 714kb) _ This is strictly a landscape with a village The young lady occupies barely 1/200 of the picture area. This image is mirror-reversed, unless the artist signed his painting in reversed handwriting (inspired by Leonardo da Vinci?).
| i don't know |
Which famous animated character, first seen in 1953 in a feature called 'Cat Tails for Two' was usually wearing an over-sized sombrero, white shirt and trousers and red kerchief? | Speedy Gonzales (character) | Looney Tunes Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
[Source]
Speedy Gonzales is a speedy mouse character appearing in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons. Nicknamed "The Fastest Mouse In All Of Mexico," his major characteristics are the ability to run extremely fast and speaking with an exaggerated Mexican accent. He usually wears an oversized yellow sombrero, white shirt and trousers (which is a common traditional outfit worn by men and boys of rural Mexican villages), and a red kerchief, similar to that of a reveler in the San Fermin festival. To date there have been 45 cartoons in the Golden Age made either starring or featuring this character.
Contents
History
Robert McKimson's Speedy prototype
Speedy debuted in the 1953 cartoon Cat-Tails For Two , directed by Robert McKimson . This early Speedy was a leaner, rattier-looking creation with a sizable gold front tooth and also wore a red Polo shirt. The cartoon featured him outwitting a smart-and-stupid pair of cats, George and Benny (parodies of George and Lenny from the novel Of Mice & Men), aboard a ship. Later on, this original version of Speedy is used as an unnamed background character a couple of times. Although he was created by McKimson, the majority of the cartoons with him were directed by Friz Freleng .
It would be two years before director Friz Freleng and animator Hawley Pratt redesigned the character into his modern incarnation for the 1955 Freleng short, Speedy Gonzales . The cartoon features Sylvester The Cat guarding a cheese factory at the American/Mexican border from a group of starving Mexican mice. The mice call in the plucky, excessively energetic Speedy to save them, and amid cries of "¡Ándele! ¡Ándele! ¡Arriba! ¡Arriba! ¡Epa! ¡Epa! ¡Epa! Yeehaw!" (Spanish for "Go on! Go on! Up! Up!", although "Ándele arriba" may have been intended as meaning "hurry up") courtesy of Mel Blanc , Sylvester soon gets his comeuppance. The cartoon won the 1955 Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons).
While Speedy's last name is given as "Gonzalez" in Cat-Tails (on a printed business card shown in the cartoon), it is spelled with an 's' from Speedy Gonzales onward. Today, the earlier spelling is occasionally used by accident.
Friz and Robert soon set Sylvester up as Speedy's regular nemesis in a series of cartoons, much in the same way Chuck Jones had paired Wile E. Coyote and The Road-Runner in his Road-Runner cartoons. Sylvester (often called "El Gringo Pussygato" by Speedy) is constantly outsmarted and outrun by The Fastest Mouse In All Of Mexico, causing the cat to suffer all manner of pain and humiliation from mousetraps to accidentally consuming large amounts of Tabasco hot sauce and everything in-between. Other cartoons pair the mouse with his cousin, Slowpoke Rodriguez , The Slowest Mouse In All Of Mexico. Slowpoke regularly gets into all sorts of trouble that often require Speedy to save him—=but one cat in Mexicali Shmoes says that as if to compensate for his slowness, "he pack a gun!" In the mid-1960s when DePatie-Freleng Enterprises took over the production of Looney Tunes, Speedy's main nemesis became Daffy Duck .
Censorship
Speedy and Sylvester
In 1999, Cartoon Network ceased to air Speedy Gonzales. In an interview with Fox News on March 28, 2002, Cartoon Network spokeswoman Laurie Goldberg commented, "It hasn't been on the air for years because of its ethnic stereotypes." This is widely believed to refer to Speedy's fellow mice, who are all shown as being very slow and lazy, and sometimes even appear intoxicated. However, fan campaigns to put Speedy back on the air resulted in the return of the animated shorts to Cartoon Network in 2002, although the shorts are rarely shown.
In Gonzales' Tamales , the town mice instigate a feud between Speedy and Sylvester because the speedy rodent has been stealing the hearts of all the females. Much of the dialogue between Mexican characters is in English and the small amount of Spanish that peppers the dialogue consists of basic greetings, goodbyes, exclamations, and misplaced references to popular Mexican foods. This criticism prompted Cartoon Network to largely shelve Speedy's films when it gained exclusive rights to broadcast them in 1999. However, fan campaigns to put Speedy back on the air, backed by The League Of United Latin American Citizens, saw the shorts' return to air from 2002.
Despite the controversy in the U.S.A., Speedy Gonzales remains a very popular character in Latin America. In Mexico, The Speedy Gonzales Show has been on and off part of the regular programing of Televisia Canal 5 national channel ever since it was created, as well as the Mexican Cable children's network, ZAZ, where they show a still shot title card of Speedy Gonzales playing a guitar with the words "Buenas Noches" (Spanish for "good night") when they end their broadcast for the night.
In 2010, a Looney Tunes New Year's Day marathon the Cartoon Network showed the cartoon Mexican Boarders having both Speedy and Slowpoke.
Other appearances
In 1983, he co-starred in Daffy Duck's Movie: Fantastic Island . In 1988, he made a cameo appearance in the ending scene of Who Framed Roger Rabbit?. He has one appearance in the Tiny Toons episode segment The Acme Acres Summer Olympics, as the coach, and serving to be as the mentor of Lightning Rodriguez . In 1996, he made a short appearance in film Space Jam . In 2003, he made a cameo appearance alongside Porky Pig in the film Looney Tunes: Back in Action , making fun of his politically incorrect status. At around the same time, he made a non-speaking cameo in an episode of ¡Mucha Lucha! entitled "Lucha, Rinse and Repeat." In 2009, he made a cameo appearance on Kid vs. Kat in The Kat Whisperer.
Volume 4 of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection DVD series, released on November 14, 2006, has an entire disc of Speedy shorts, although some of his other shorts had previously been released on Volumes 1 and 3. Speedy is mentioned in one Duck Dodgers episode, after Porky Pig sits on Daffy Duck, prompting him to say, "I knew I should've chosen Speedy Gonzales as a sidekick!"
The Looney Tunes Show
Speedy in The Looney Tunes Show
As of May 2011 , Speedy has appeared in The Looney Tunes Show in a lot of episodes voiced by Fred Armisen . The Looney Tunes Show features a deeper voiced Speedy Gonzales. He lives with Bugs and Daffy as their "mouse-in-the-wall" and runs a pizza parlor called " Pizzarriba ". He is shown to act as Daffy's "Jiminy Cricket," which is a far cry from the antagonistic relationship they had in the old days. The episode Sunday Night Slice show that Bugs buys his favorite pizzeria to prevent it from being closed and hires Speedy to help him. When Bugs decides he doesn't want to own a restaurant anymore, he hands ownership of it to Speedy. He is also in a Zorro parody Merrie Melodies segment called Queso Bandito , and appears in his other Merrie Melodies segment called Pizzarriba , and another Merrie Melodies segment called Table For One .
Speedy Gonzales appeared in the 2015 Straight to video movie Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run . He is seen as Lola Bunny's landlord.
In other media
In 1962, pop singer Pat Boone scored a top 10 hit in the United States with the song Speedy Gonzales which featured Mel Blanc spouting fake-Mexican phrases as Speedy. It was also sung by Manolo Muñoz and A.B. Quintanilla's Kumbia All Star], whose music video featured Speedy.
Henry Mancini borrowed the character's name for the title of an instrumental composition, first featured on his 1961 album Mr. Lucky Goes Latin.
In the Family Guy episode Padre De Familia Peter creates an American version of Speedy called "Rapid Dave" after deciding that immigrants shouldn't be allowed into America.
In 2006, Volkswagen licensed Speedy Gonzales for a series of Spanish-language commercials for the Volkswagen Golf, using footage from the cartoon of the same name.
In October 2010, Speedy Gonzales appeared alongside other Looney Tunes characters in a Virgin Media T.V. advertisement. Speedy also serves as the current mascot for Virgin Media, a double reference to his own speed and to that of the company's fibre optic broadband.
Speedy briefly appears in the Robot Chicken episode Werewolf Vs. Unicorn when he penetrates Sylvester's fence.
Speedy Gonzales appears in the Drawn Together episode The One Wherein There Is A Big Twist, Part II when he is one of the candidates who wants to be the new housemates.
Speedy Gonzales is also a name for a third-party cheat to the popular Indie-game, Minecraft. It enables users to travel at a faster speed than normal.
Speedy also appeared in the MetLife Super Bowl commercial in 2012.
Film
In February 2010, New Line Cinema and parent company Warner Bros. Pictures announced that they are planning a live-action/animated combo feature film based on the Looney Tunes character, set to be released sometime in 2014. Alec Sokolow and Joel Cohen, who adapted the comic Garfield into a similar-style live-action/animated Family film, will write the script for the coming-of-age story which is set in the present day. The story features Speedy, a young and misunderstood Mexican mouse, finding himself leaving his family to go out in the world and figure out what he's good at. He soon makes friends with a nervous racecar driver. Eugenio Derbez will voice the character.
Filmography
| Speedy Gonzales |
The musical play 'Over the Rainbow' first shown in 2003 is a celebration of the life and music of which singer who died in 1996? | Speedy Gonzales (character) | Looney Tunes Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
[Source]
Speedy Gonzales is a speedy mouse character appearing in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoons. Nicknamed "The Fastest Mouse In All Of Mexico," his major characteristics are the ability to run extremely fast and speaking with an exaggerated Mexican accent. He usually wears an oversized yellow sombrero, white shirt and trousers (which is a common traditional outfit worn by men and boys of rural Mexican villages), and a red kerchief, similar to that of a reveler in the San Fermin festival. To date there have been 45 cartoons in the Golden Age made either starring or featuring this character.
Contents
History
Robert McKimson's Speedy prototype
Speedy debuted in the 1953 cartoon Cat-Tails For Two , directed by Robert McKimson . This early Speedy was a leaner, rattier-looking creation with a sizable gold front tooth and also wore a red Polo shirt. The cartoon featured him outwitting a smart-and-stupid pair of cats, George and Benny (parodies of George and Lenny from the novel Of Mice & Men), aboard a ship. Later on, this original version of Speedy is used as an unnamed background character a couple of times. Although he was created by McKimson, the majority of the cartoons with him were directed by Friz Freleng .
It would be two years before director Friz Freleng and animator Hawley Pratt redesigned the character into his modern incarnation for the 1955 Freleng short, Speedy Gonzales . The cartoon features Sylvester The Cat guarding a cheese factory at the American/Mexican border from a group of starving Mexican mice. The mice call in the plucky, excessively energetic Speedy to save them, and amid cries of "¡Ándele! ¡Ándele! ¡Arriba! ¡Arriba! ¡Epa! ¡Epa! ¡Epa! Yeehaw!" (Spanish for "Go on! Go on! Up! Up!", although "Ándele arriba" may have been intended as meaning "hurry up") courtesy of Mel Blanc , Sylvester soon gets his comeuppance. The cartoon won the 1955 Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons).
While Speedy's last name is given as "Gonzalez" in Cat-Tails (on a printed business card shown in the cartoon), it is spelled with an 's' from Speedy Gonzales onward. Today, the earlier spelling is occasionally used by accident.
Friz and Robert soon set Sylvester up as Speedy's regular nemesis in a series of cartoons, much in the same way Chuck Jones had paired Wile E. Coyote and The Road-Runner in his Road-Runner cartoons. Sylvester (often called "El Gringo Pussygato" by Speedy) is constantly outsmarted and outrun by The Fastest Mouse In All Of Mexico, causing the cat to suffer all manner of pain and humiliation from mousetraps to accidentally consuming large amounts of Tabasco hot sauce and everything in-between. Other cartoons pair the mouse with his cousin, Slowpoke Rodriguez , The Slowest Mouse In All Of Mexico. Slowpoke regularly gets into all sorts of trouble that often require Speedy to save him—=but one cat in Mexicali Shmoes says that as if to compensate for his slowness, "he pack a gun!" In the mid-1960s when DePatie-Freleng Enterprises took over the production of Looney Tunes, Speedy's main nemesis became Daffy Duck .
Censorship
Speedy and Sylvester
In 1999, Cartoon Network ceased to air Speedy Gonzales. In an interview with Fox News on March 28, 2002, Cartoon Network spokeswoman Laurie Goldberg commented, "It hasn't been on the air for years because of its ethnic stereotypes." This is widely believed to refer to Speedy's fellow mice, who are all shown as being very slow and lazy, and sometimes even appear intoxicated. However, fan campaigns to put Speedy back on the air resulted in the return of the animated shorts to Cartoon Network in 2002, although the shorts are rarely shown.
In Gonzales' Tamales , the town mice instigate a feud between Speedy and Sylvester because the speedy rodent has been stealing the hearts of all the females. Much of the dialogue between Mexican characters is in English and the small amount of Spanish that peppers the dialogue consists of basic greetings, goodbyes, exclamations, and misplaced references to popular Mexican foods. This criticism prompted Cartoon Network to largely shelve Speedy's films when it gained exclusive rights to broadcast them in 1999. However, fan campaigns to put Speedy back on the air, backed by The League Of United Latin American Citizens, saw the shorts' return to air from 2002.
Despite the controversy in the U.S.A., Speedy Gonzales remains a very popular character in Latin America. In Mexico, The Speedy Gonzales Show has been on and off part of the regular programing of Televisia Canal 5 national channel ever since it was created, as well as the Mexican Cable children's network, ZAZ, where they show a still shot title card of Speedy Gonzales playing a guitar with the words "Buenas Noches" (Spanish for "good night") when they end their broadcast for the night.
In 2010, a Looney Tunes New Year's Day marathon the Cartoon Network showed the cartoon Mexican Boarders having both Speedy and Slowpoke.
Other appearances
In 1983, he co-starred in Daffy Duck's Movie: Fantastic Island . In 1988, he made a cameo appearance in the ending scene of Who Framed Roger Rabbit?. He has one appearance in the Tiny Toons episode segment The Acme Acres Summer Olympics, as the coach, and serving to be as the mentor of Lightning Rodriguez . In 1996, he made a short appearance in film Space Jam . In 2003, he made a cameo appearance alongside Porky Pig in the film Looney Tunes: Back in Action , making fun of his politically incorrect status. At around the same time, he made a non-speaking cameo in an episode of ¡Mucha Lucha! entitled "Lucha, Rinse and Repeat." In 2009, he made a cameo appearance on Kid vs. Kat in The Kat Whisperer.
Volume 4 of the Looney Tunes Golden Collection DVD series, released on November 14, 2006, has an entire disc of Speedy shorts, although some of his other shorts had previously been released on Volumes 1 and 3. Speedy is mentioned in one Duck Dodgers episode, after Porky Pig sits on Daffy Duck, prompting him to say, "I knew I should've chosen Speedy Gonzales as a sidekick!"
The Looney Tunes Show
Speedy in The Looney Tunes Show
As of May 2011 , Speedy has appeared in The Looney Tunes Show in a lot of episodes voiced by Fred Armisen . The Looney Tunes Show features a deeper voiced Speedy Gonzales. He lives with Bugs and Daffy as their "mouse-in-the-wall" and runs a pizza parlor called " Pizzarriba ". He is shown to act as Daffy's "Jiminy Cricket," which is a far cry from the antagonistic relationship they had in the old days. The episode Sunday Night Slice show that Bugs buys his favorite pizzeria to prevent it from being closed and hires Speedy to help him. When Bugs decides he doesn't want to own a restaurant anymore, he hands ownership of it to Speedy. He is also in a Zorro parody Merrie Melodies segment called Queso Bandito , and appears in his other Merrie Melodies segment called Pizzarriba , and another Merrie Melodies segment called Table For One .
Speedy Gonzales appeared in the 2015 Straight to video movie Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run . He is seen as Lola Bunny's landlord.
In other media
In 1962, pop singer Pat Boone scored a top 10 hit in the United States with the song Speedy Gonzales which featured Mel Blanc spouting fake-Mexican phrases as Speedy. It was also sung by Manolo Muñoz and A.B. Quintanilla's Kumbia All Star], whose music video featured Speedy.
Henry Mancini borrowed the character's name for the title of an instrumental composition, first featured on his 1961 album Mr. Lucky Goes Latin.
In the Family Guy episode Padre De Familia Peter creates an American version of Speedy called "Rapid Dave" after deciding that immigrants shouldn't be allowed into America.
In 2006, Volkswagen licensed Speedy Gonzales for a series of Spanish-language commercials for the Volkswagen Golf, using footage from the cartoon of the same name.
In October 2010, Speedy Gonzales appeared alongside other Looney Tunes characters in a Virgin Media T.V. advertisement. Speedy also serves as the current mascot for Virgin Media, a double reference to his own speed and to that of the company's fibre optic broadband.
Speedy briefly appears in the Robot Chicken episode Werewolf Vs. Unicorn when he penetrates Sylvester's fence.
Speedy Gonzales appears in the Drawn Together episode The One Wherein There Is A Big Twist, Part II when he is one of the candidates who wants to be the new housemates.
Speedy Gonzales is also a name for a third-party cheat to the popular Indie-game, Minecraft. It enables users to travel at a faster speed than normal.
Speedy also appeared in the MetLife Super Bowl commercial in 2012.
Film
In February 2010, New Line Cinema and parent company Warner Bros. Pictures announced that they are planning a live-action/animated combo feature film based on the Looney Tunes character, set to be released sometime in 2014. Alec Sokolow and Joel Cohen, who adapted the comic Garfield into a similar-style live-action/animated Family film, will write the script for the coming-of-age story which is set in the present day. The story features Speedy, a young and misunderstood Mexican mouse, finding himself leaving his family to go out in the world and figure out what he's good at. He soon makes friends with a nervous racecar driver. Eugenio Derbez will voice the character.
Filmography
| i don't know |
What name is given to the Roman Road that links the cities of Exeter and Lincoln? | Roman Sites and Roman Remains in Britain
Aldborough Roman Site, Yorkshire
Urban Centre
Once the capital of a Romanised tribe of native Britons, visitors today can still see two beautiful Roman mosaics as well as the remains of the town wall and a museum exploring the history of the town.
Ambleside Roman Fort, Cumbria
Roman Fort
Dating back to the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, this fort was originally built for two purposes; to protect the Ravenglass to Brougham Roman Road as well as acting as a supply base for Hadrian's Wall to the north.
Aesica Roman Fort
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Excavated in the late 19th century, Aesica is the ninth fort on Hadrian's Wall. A Roman bathhouse has also been discovered a short distance south of the fort.
Agricola's Ditch
Roman Road / Ditch
This enormous earthwork follows the route of Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast, although its purpose has long been argued. It is now thought that Agricola's Ditch (also known as the Vallum) was built as a boundary for the militarised zone around Hadrian's Wall, i.e. so that the local civilians would keep their distance!
Arbeia Roman Fort, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Once a maritime supply fort for Hadrian's Wall, today Arbeias barracks and gatehouse have been reconstructed and a museum set up to showcase the history of the site.
Ardotalia, Derbyshire
Roman Fort
This unexcavated fort could have once housed up to 1000 troops and until the late 18th century, the stone remains could still be seen. Unfortunately the remains of the fort now lie underground although it is still possible to make out the ramparts.
Beckfoot (Bibra) Fort, Cumbria
Roman Villa
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall. Although many of these defences have now been lost, one of the major forts was located at Beckfort. Now just a series of crop marks, the fort was manned by the Romans until around AD 407 and was once home to the Cohors II Pannoniorum, a 500-strong infantry unit from the province of Pannonia, now a region of the Czech Republic. Excavated in 1879, evidence of a civilian settlement, or vicus, was also uncovered.
Bignor Roman Villa, Sussex
Roman Villa
Boasting some of the most complete Roman mosaics in the country, Bignor Roman Villa was discovered in 1811 by a local farmer and has been a popular visitor attraction ever since. The villa dates from around 200AD and was demolished or burnt down around 200 years later.
Birdoswald Roman Fort, Cumbria
Hadrian's Wall Fort
This well preserved fort on Hadrian's Wall was built around 110AD and included barracks, granaries, officers mess and even an exercise building (i.e. a Roman gym). There is also a visitor centre which includes displays and artifacts from the fort, and rumour has it that the tea rooms here are also very good!
Binchester Roman Fort, County Durham
Roman Fort
This large Roman fort was established around AD80 as a defensive measure for the newly built Dere Street. There is still a wonderfully preserved stretch of Roman road at the site, as well as remains of a bath house with underfloor heating.
Brading Roman Villa, Isle of Wight
Roman Villa
This large Roman villa and courtyard was built in the 1st century AD and despite frequent Anglo-Saxon raids and the occasional fire, remained in use until the 4th century AD. Today all of the 12 ground floor rooms can still be seen, including a fabulous mosaic in the main entertaining room.
Bremenium, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Bremenium was once an extremely well defended Dere Street fort complete with artillery defences. Remains of catapult emplacements have been found, once used by the Romans to fire boulders at marauders coming down Dere Street from the north.
Bremetennacum, Lancashire
Roman Baths
This cavalry fort actually sits in the middle of the modern day village of Ribchester. Although only small parts of the fort have been excavated, there have been some fantastic finds uncovered over the centuries including the Ribchester Hoard.
Burgh Castle, Suffolk
Roman Fort
This third century Saxon Shore Fort was built to defend the south coast of Britain against invaders from Denmark and Germany. Today the walls still stand up to an impressive 4 and half metres high.
Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk
Roman Fort
Although nowhere near as well preserved as its neighbour Burgh Castle just a few miles away, this Saxon Shore Fort was partially excavated in the 1950s although much of the fort now lies under modern housing. The excavated part of the site is now managed by English Heritage and is open to the public free of charge.
Caistor St. Edmund (Venta Icenorum), Norfolk
Urban Centre
Once the capital of the Iceni tribe (of Boudica fame), Venta Icenorum soon became one of the most important Roman settlements in East Anglia. Today the most visible part of the remains is the town wall which still stands at around 20 feet high. Much of the rest of the site still lies unexcavated.
Calleva Atrebatum, Hampshire
Urban Centre
This relatively well preserved town is unique in that it did not become completely abandoned after the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Instead, the Anglo-Saxons decided to make nearby Winchester their home, leaving the remarkably intact remains that can still be seen today, including the city walls and the amphitheatre.
Camulodunum (Colchester), Colchester
Urban Centre
Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) was the home of the first permanent Roman fortress to be built in Britain in AD 43. Over the next 400 years the fort grew into one of the largest Roman cities in the country and even, for a short time, the capital of Britain. If visiting, be sure to check out Balkerne Gate right next to the Hole in the Wall pub: this is the best preserved Roman gateway in Britain.
Carrawbugh, Northumberland
Roman Temple
Once the most northern fort on Hadrian's Wall, today the only visible remains of Carrawburgh fort (a.k.a. Brocolitia) are earthworks and a small Temple of Mithras.
The site of a small Roman town, fort, amphitheatre and mines. Only earthworks remain.
Chedworth Roman Villa, Gloucestershire
Roman Villa
Although the structure of this villa dates from around AD120, it went through a dramatic extension and improvement in around AD310. Today the site is managed by the National Trust and is one of the largest villas of its type in the UK. Be sure to look out for the amazing mosaics, some of which were unearthed as recently as 2011.
Chester Roman Amphitheatre, Cheshire
Roman Amphitheatre
Currently the largest amphitheatre ever found in Britain, only half of the site has actually been excavated. It is thought that the arena was rebuilt more than once, and that the remains of the current amphitheatre date from around 280AD. At its peak, the amphitheatre could have seated up to 8,000 people.
Chesters Bridge , Northumberland
Roman Bridge
This Roman bridge would have spanned the North Tyne River for some 60 metres, carrying the weight of both a military road and Hadrian's Wall upon its arches. Unfortunately very little remains of the western side of the support abutments, but on the eastern side there is still considerable stonework to be seen.
Chichester City Walls, Chichester
Roman Wall
A surprisingly large amount of the original Roman core remains in Chichester's city walls, although most of the visible stonework is the result of 18th century restoration.
Cilurnum, Nothumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Cilurnum was the supporting fort to Chesters Bridge, and today is considered the best preserved Roman fort along Hadrian's Wall. There is also a museum at the site which houses a collection of Roman finds from the nearby area.
Cirencester Roman Amphitheatre, Gloucestershire
Roman Amphitheatre
The remains of one of the largest Roman amphitheatres ever found in Britain although unfortunately no stonework can be seen, only earthworks. At its height the amphitheatre could have seated over 8,000 people.
Concangis, County Durham
Roman Fort
Little remains of this Dere Street fort except for a small excavation of the officers quarters which is located in the centre of Chester Le Street.
Corbridge Roman Site, Nothumberland
Urban Centre
Starting life as a Hadrian's Wall fort, Cordbridge developed into a large civilian centre sometime in the late 2nd century AD. Amongst the remains here are some of the best surviving examples of military granaries in Britain. There is also a museum on the site which displays the Corbridge Hoard.
Crofton Roman Villa, Kent
Roman Villa
The only publicly accessible Roman villa in London, Crofton is situated next door to Orpington Station and features some quite substantial remains including tessellated floors and a hypocaust. There is also a museum on site.
Cunetio, Wiltshire
Urban Centre
First discovered in the 1940s, Cunetio was a Roman town between the 2nd and 5th century AD. Today all of the remains lay underground with only minor earthworks being visible.
Dere Street
Roman Road
Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains. There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland.
Devils Causeway, Northumberland
Roman Road
A spur road leading from Dere Street to Berwick-upon-Tweet, the route of which can still be made out in several places.
Dubris, Kent
Urban Centre and Roman Lighthouse
Dubris, now known as Dover, was one of the most important sites in Roman Britain. Originally a base for the Roman fleet of the Classic Britannica (a branch of the navy designed to protect the English Channel), the town quickly grew into a major trading centre due to both its proximity to Gaul and its positioning at the start of Watling Street. Today there are considerable remains of both a Roman villa and the west wall of a fort at the Roman Painted House (which also includes a museum). The remains of a Roman lighthouse can also be seen within the grounds of Dover Castle.
Durovernum Cantiacorum (Canterbury)
Urban Centre (User Submitted)
Once the capital of a Celtic tribe called the Cantiaci, Canterbury was captured by the Romans in the 1st century AD and renamed Durovernum Cantiacorum (meaning 'stronghold of the Cantiaci'). By the 3rd century AD the city had been rebuilt and grown into an area of around 130 acres, enclosed by a massive city wall with seven gates and a substantial earth bank. Unfortunately not much remains of Roman Canterbury, however sections of the original city wall around the North Gate area can still be seen. There is also a Roman gate still visible, albeit blocked up and incorporated into the medieval city walls. If visiting, be sure to stop in at the Roman Museum which, amongst a host of finds from the city, includes an in situ mosaic dating from the late 2nd century AD.
Eboracum (York)
Urban Centre (User Submitted)
Founded in AD71, Eboracum started out as a Roman fort but soon grew into a urban centre with residents from throughout the Roman Empire. Remains that can be seen today include the military headquarters which is open to the public and located underneath modern day York Minster, as well as a Roman bath (located under the Roman Bath pub in St Sampson's Square), a temple and a portion of city wall in the Museum Gardens known as the Multangular Tower.
Epiacum (Whitley Castle), Cumbria
Roman Fort
This peculiar lozenge shaped fort was thought to have protected Roman lead mine interests in the area, as well as acting as a support fort for nearby Hadrian's Wall. The site is currently unexcavated but is popular with mole hill archaeologists, i.e. rummaging through mole hills looking for Roman remains!
Ermine Street
Roman Road
A major Roman road that ran from London to York via Lincoln. Most of the route has now been incorporated into the A1, but there are still parts (namely just south of Lincoln) where the original Roman road is a public footpath.
Exeter City Wall, Devon
Roman Wall
Over 70% of the original Exeter city wall still exists, and although much of it dates from Anglo-Saxon and medieval times, there are still large portions of the original Roman stonework.
Fishbourne Roman Palace, West Sussex
Roman Villa
Larger than Buckingham Palace and easily the largest Roman residence north of the Alps, Fishbourne Roman Palace was built in the 1st century AD although it is not known who for. Today there are some fantastic mosaics on display, as well as a museum and a reconstructed Roman garden.
Fosse Way
Roman Road
The Fosse Way was one of the most important Roman roads in Britain, linking Exeter, Bath, Cirencester, Leicester and ending in Lincoln. Many sections of the road are now public footpaths.
Gabrosentum, Cumbria
Roman Fort and Civilian Settlement
This former fort and adjoining settlement was built during Emperor Hadrian's reign and was in use until the late 4th century AD. Excavations have revealed official buildings including the commanding officers house, as well as numerous civilian buildings, a fort and a small natural harbour.
Gadebridge Roman Villa, Hertfordshire
Roman Villa
Excavated in the 1960s and again in 2000, Gatesbridge Villa once housed the second largest swimming baths ever found in Britain. Now that the excavations have been completed the villa has been recovered with grassland.
Great Witcombe Roman Villa, Gloucestershire
Roman Villa
Built in the first century AD, it is thought that Great Witcombe Villa once housed a fabulous water garden. Today the remains consist of a latrine, bath house and hypocaust, as well as the outline of the walls of the villa and a mosaic floor.
Habitancum, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Only ditches and a small amount of stonework at the north-eastern corner of this Dere Street fort can still be seen.
Hadrian's Wall, North of England
Roman Wall
Hadrian's Wall is the most prominent and important monument left by the Romans in Britain, spanning the entire width of the country. Read our full article about Hadrian's Wall here .
Halton Chesters, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Located at the juncture of Hadrian's Wall and Dere Street lies Halton Chesters Fort (also known as Hunnum), although only earthworks can still be seen.
Originally an Iron Age hill fort, the Romans captured the site from the Britons in AD45.
Hardknott Roman Fort , Cumbria
Roman Fort
Built between AD120 and AD138 during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, Hardknott Fort (Mediobogdum) appears to have been occupied initially only briefly before being re-occupied probably in the late 2nd century. It housed a cohort of 500 men, the fourth Cohort of Dalmatians, infantry soldiers from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro. Read our full article on Hardknott Roman Fort here .
Housesteads, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Built to house around 800 soldiers, Housesteads is one of a series of Hadrian's Wall forts and is relatively well preserved. In fact, rumour has it that Housesteads boasts the best preserved Roman latrine in all of Britain!
Jewry Wall, Leicester
Public Building
Standing up to 8 metres high, this strikingly well preserved wall was once part of a Roman bath house. The reason it has survived for almost 2000 years is that the wall was once used in the structure of a nearby church.
Letocetum, Staffordshire
Urban Centre
Letocetum was once a significant Roman settlement with temples, villas, a basilica, forum and amphitheatre. Although the majority of the remains now lie under the modern village of Wall, a bath house and official stopping place (mansio) can still be seen.
Littlecote Roman Villa, Wiltshire
Roman Villa
The remains of Littlecote Roman Villa is perhaps most famous for its well preserved Orpheus mosaic which dates from the latter half of the 4th century AD.
London Wall, London
Roman Wall
From around 200 AD, the shape of London was defined by one single structure; it’s massive city wall. Lost for centuries, many sections of the wall were uncovered during WW2 bombing and can now be seen from Tower Bridge all of the way to Farringdon. Click here for our full walking guide.
Longovicium, County Durham
Roman Fort
Yet another Dere Street fort, Longovicium is situated some 20 miles south of Hadrian's Wall. Although it is not currently open the public, there are plans by local authorities, Durham and Newcastle Universities and English Heritage to allow public access to the site.
Lullingstone Roman Villa, Kent
Roman Villa
Built in around 100AD, Lullingstone Villa is a family friendly site boasting fantastic mosaics and wall paintings, as well as the remains of a bath-suite and temple.
Lunt Fort, Warwickshire
Roman Fort
Built in AD60 to support the Roman army in their campaign against Boudica and the Iceni, Lunt Roman Fort has now been fully excavated and is open to the public. The fantastic wooden gateway was built in the 1970s with the same tools and equipment as would have been used by the Romans.
Lydney Park, Gloucestershire
Roman Temple
Once a Iron Age fort, Lydney Park was used by the Romans for the mining of iron ore. In the 4th century AD a temple was built on the site, the remains of which can still be seen today.
Carvoran Roman Fort, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
One of sixteen forts along Hadrian's Wall, Carvoran is not the most spectacular or most excavated site in the area, but it is the home to the Roman Army Museum which is well worth a visit.
Highfield Barrow, Hemel Hempstead
Roman Barrow (User submitted by Stephanie Nield)
This well preserved Roman barrow is at the junction of Queensway and High Street Green in Hemel Hempstead, and although not currently open to the public it can be seen from the side of the road.
Maryport (Alauna) Fort & Senhouse Roman Museum, Cumbria
Roman Fort
An early Roman fort, rebuilt around AD122 as a supply base for the coastal defences of the mighty Hadrian's Wall. The coastline to the south of the wall being vunerable to attack was defended by a series of Roman milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast. Maryport represents the southernmost fort of these defences, guarding a crossing of the Solway Firth. An observation tower in the museum grounds reveals the extensive remains of the site. Restricted opening times and entrance charges apply.
Milefortlet 21
Hadrian's Wall Fortlet
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall. Although many of these defences have now been lost, including the watchtowers that stood between each milefortlet, Milefortlet 21 is the first to be fully excavated. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Moresby (Gabrosentum) Fort, Cumbria
Hadrian's Wall Milefortlet
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall. Many of these defences have now been lost, and only the earthwork remains of Gabrosentum are visible. Occupied until the early 4th century, St Bridget’s church and graveyard now stand on the north-east corner of the fort.
Newport Arch / Lincoln City Wall, Lincoln
City Wall and Arch
Newport Arch was built in the 3rd century to carry Ermine Street through the city of Lincoln and is still used by traffic today. There is also a small section of Roman city wall to the east of the arch.
Noveum Museum & Roman Baths, Chichester
Public Baths
A purpose built museum designed to show the remains of the city’s Roman bath house, previously hidden under a car park. Excavated in 1975, the public baths served the local Romano-British community between the 2nd and 5th centuries. The museum also includes other collections, charting the social history, archaeology and geology of region. Restricted opening hours and entrance charges apply.
Pevensey Roman Fort, East Sussex
Roman Fort
This Saxon Shore Fort was built around AD290, and although most of the structure dates from the medieval times there is significant Roman masonry in the outer curtain wall.
Piddington Roman Villa, Northamptonshire
Roman Villa and Museum
This Roman villa was discovered by workmen in 1781 when they uncovered a complete mosaic. Unfortunately when the local townspeople of Northampton came along to see the mosaic they decided to break it up and take it away as souvenirs! Recently a museum was set up on the site displaying a host of finds and remains from the villa.
Piercebridge Roman Bridge, County Durham
Roman Bridge
The remains of a Roman Bridge which once led into Piercebridge Roman Fort from across the River Tees. Large masonry blocks and one of the bridge abutments can still be seen to this day.
Piercebridge Roman Fort, County Durham
Roman Fort
Piercebridge is the southernmost of the Dere Street forts, the main road linking York to Hadrian's Wall and on to the Antonine Wall.
Plumpton (Voreda) Fort
Roman Fort
With the earthworks still clearly visible from the adjacent A6, the fort was built upon the old Roman road that ran northwards to Hadrian’s Wall. Occupied between the first and fourth centuries, it is thought the fort was built by the 2nd Cohort of Gauls, or Cohors II Gallorum, a mounted cavalry unit recruited from the Gallic tribes of northern France. Although excavations around the fort have revealed the existence of a large civil settlement or vicus, we can find no evidence of this from the satellite image... but don’t just take our word for it, take a look for yourself!
Portchester Roman Fort, Hampshire
Roman Fort
The best preserved of all of the Roman Saxon Shore Forts, Portchester Fort (also known as Portus Adurni) appears almost as it did the day it was built… at least from a distance! Only four bastions have been lost in the past 1600 years, whilst inside the Roman perimeter walls is a Norman stronghold.
Ravenglass Bath House, Cumbria
Roman Bath House
With its stone walls still standing at almost 4m high, the ruined bath house stands outside the nearby 2nd century Ravenglass Roman fort. Although now on private land, the earthwork remains of the fort are still visible from the bath house. Originally of turf and timber construction, the fort served as an important naval base guarding the nearby harbour. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Rockbourne Roman Villa, Hampshire
Roman Villa
This courtyard villa includes fabulous Roman mosaics, a bath house, living quarters, workshops and underfloor heating. There is also a museum of the site which includes artefacts from the villa.
Roman Baths, Bath
Roman Baths
The Roman Baths and magnificent Temple were built around the natural hot spring which rises at 46°C and were at the centre of Roman life in Aquae Sulis between the first and fifth centuries. The remains are remarkably complete and include sculpture, coins, jewellery and the bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva.
Richborough Castle, Kent
Roman Fort
Situated on the site where the Romans first invaded Britain in 43AD, Richborough Castle was built in the late 3rd century as a Saxon Shore Fort. The castle is now managed by English Heritage and in places the walls stand at around 20 feet high.
Segedunum Roman Fort, North Tyneside
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Lying at the eastern corner of Hadrian's Wall, Segedunum is the most thoroughly excavated Roman fort in the country. Unfortunately only the foundations of the fort still remain, although there is also a modern reconstruction of the military bath house.
Stanegate, Cumbria / Northumberland
Roman Road
Stanegate Roman Road was built in around AD80 to link together two major forts but only became a frontier road after the withdrawal from Scotland in 105AD. The original path of Stanegate, including milestones, can still be seen in locations such as Corbridge and Vindolanda.
Temple of Mithras, London
Roman Temple
During the post-war reconstruction of London, an archaeological treasure was found amongst all of the rubble and debris; the Roman Temple of Mithras. Click here to read our full article about this site.
Tripontium, Warwickshire
Urban Centre
Situated around three miles from the town of Rugby, Tripontium was originally a frontier fort built in AD50 to support the Roman invasion to the north. The following centuries saw the site grow in size and become one of the most important towns in the area. Unfortunately the site is not open to the public after excavations were completed in 2006.
Verulamium, Hertfordshire
Urban Centre
Verulamium was settled in the first 10 years of the Roman occupation of Britain and was granted city-like status in AD50. In AD61 Boudica sacked the city and burnt it to the ground but it was soon rebuilt after the Iceni uprising had been quelled. Remains that are now visible include city walls and a theatre, although the majority of the old Roman city remains unexcavated.
Vindolanda, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Built to protect the Stanegate (a road which ran just south of Hadrian's Wall), Vindolanda is perhaps best known as the site where the Vindolanda Tablets (the oldest handwritten documents in Britain) were found.
Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter Roman City), Wroxeter
Urban Centre
Once the fourth largest Roman city in England, Viroconium Cornoviorum (now called Wroxeter) contains the largest free-standing Roman ruin in England as well as other extensive remains. There is also a museum on the site which is managed by English Heritage.
Watling Street
Roman Road
Running from Dover to Wroxeter via London, the path of the original Watling Street is today covered by the A2 and A5 roads although there are certain portions which are either accessible either as footpaths or bridleways.
Welwyn Roman Baths, Hertfordshire
Roman Baths
Preserved in a steel vault under the A1(M) motorway, these fantastic remains of a large villas baths are remarkably intact. There is also a small museum which includes an exhibition about the site as well as finds which were uncovered during excavation.
Wigton (Maglona) Fort, Cumbria
Roman Fort
Also known as Old Carlisle, the fort was constructed towards the end of the first century AD. A strategically important outpost, it formed part of a military frontier against the hostile Picts to the north. Home to a 500 strong cavalry regiment, a small civilian settlement or vicus formed just to the south of the fort. Although much of the stonework was recycled in the 18th century to rebuild Wigton, much of the earthen ramparts are well preserved. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Winchester City Walls, Winchester
Fragments of the Roman City Wall
Surrounding Winchester Cathedral's grounds is the old medieval city wall, with one visible section of the original Roman wall still intact.
Antonine Wall
Roman Wall
The building of the Antonine Wall started in AD 142 and is thought to have taken six years to complete. Running from east to west and stretching some 37 miles from modern Boness on the Firth of Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the River Clyde, the wall marked the extent of the Roman military advance northwards from the existing frontier of Hadrian's Wall.
Dere Street Roman Road
Roman Road
Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains. There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland.
Inchtuthil, Perthshire
Roman Fort
Built in AD 82 as a command headquarters for the Roman invasion of Scotland, Inchtuthil is fairly unique in that it was never built over and therefore was in remarkably good condition when excavated in the 1950s and 60s.
Trimontium, Scottish Borders
Roman Fort
Built as a base for the Romans advance into Scotland, Trimontium would have at one time housed around 2000 soldiers and civilians. Only faint earthworks can now be seen, along with a monument which marks the site of the fort.
Bar Hill Fort, East Dunbartonshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Situated on the highest point of the Antonine Wall, the remains of Bar Hill include a bath house, granary, barracks and fort headquarters. There are also the remains of an Iron Age fort on the site.
Bearsden Bath House, Glasgow
Antonine Wall Fort / Roman Baths
Almost all of the Roman fort at Bearsden is hidden under modern housing, although the fort's bath house has been excavated and is now on public display. These remains date back to around 143AD and were discovered by builders in 1973.
Castlecary, North Lanarkshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Built in AD 80 by Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the impressive remains of Castlecary Antonine Wall fort are well worth a visit and are easily accessed from the M80.
Croy Hill, North Lanarkshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Not much remains of this Antonine Wall fort except for a single wall ditch and two beacon platforms.
Pennymuir Roman Camps, Scottish Borders
Temporary Roman Camp
Pennymuir was once home to three temporary camps for Roman legions heading between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. Remains that can be seen today include Dere Street as well the camp's ramparts and entrances.
Rough Castle, Falkirk
Antonine Wall Fort
Although Rough Castle was the second smallest fort on the Antonine Wall, it is also one the best preserved with relatively well defined ramparts still visible today. Also visible is a set of Lilas pits which would have had stakes at the bottom, as well as the line of the military road that would have linked all of the Antonine Wall forts together.
Alabum Llandovery Roman Fort, Carmarthenshire
Roman Fort / Roman Road
Although not much of this 1st century auxiliary fort still remains, it is possible to see some scarped slopes to the north and west of St Marys Church. To the north of the church the path of a Roman road can also be seen. Finally, be sure to look out for Roman masonry which has been reused in the walls of the church.
Caer Gybi, Anglesey Roman Fort, Anglesey
Roman Fort
Built in the 4th century AD to protect Anglesey against Irish invaders, Caer Gybi is remarkably well preserved with some parts of the original wall standing to over 4 metres in height (notably the north-western corner). The other walls have Roman foundations although were rebuilt some time later.
Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Gwent
Romant Fort, Wall and Amphitheatre
Built in AD75 to support the Roman conquest of Wales, Isca Augusta once housed up to 5,000 soldiers and was not abandoned until the late 4th century / early 5th century AD. There is a phenomenal amount of remains still visible including an amphitheatre, baths and barracks.
Cardiff Roman Fort, Cardiff
Roman Fort
Although the majority of the Cardiff Roman Fort is a Victorian reconstruction, the original Roman walls can still be seen incorporated into certain portions of the Cardiff Castle. These visible remains are that of a Saxon Shore Short which was built around 300AD, although it is thought that the site housed at least two earlier forts.
Cold Knap, Barry, Barry Island
Roman Building, unknown use
Cold Knap was once a Roman port, and the remains of a 3rd century building can still be seen along the shore.
Dolaucothi Gold Mines and Luentinum Fort, Carmarthenshire
Roman Mines and Fort
Dolaucothi is though to have been the only Roman gold mine in Britannia, and would have been protected by an accompanying fort (known as Luentinum). In the 18th century a large hoard of Roman gold ornaments was found (now on show in the British Museum).
Moridunum, Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire
Roman Fort, Town and Amphitheatre
Situated in modern day Carmathen, the visible remains of Moidunum are limited to an amphitheatre thought to have been the furthest west ever built within the Roman empire. Artefacts from Moridunum excavations can be seen at the nearby museum in Abergwili.
Nidum, Neath, Neath
Roman Fort
Situated at the corner of a main road and a modern housing estate lies the remains of the south gate of Nidum Roman Fort.
Sarn Helen Roman Road, Powys
Roman Road
One of the best preserved Roman roads in the whole of Britain, the remains of both cobbles and a ditch are still visible at the Maen Madoc stone in the Brecon Beacons.
Segontium, Gwynedd
Roman Fort, Town and Temple
Built in around 80AD just a few years after completing their conquest of Wales, Segontium was the largest and most important Roman fort in north Wales. The remains of many of the forts buildings are still visible, quite surprising really considering that Edward I plundered most of the stonework for his castle at Caernarfon!
Tomen-y-Mur Roman Fort, Snowdonia
Roman Fort and Amphitheatre
Visible earthworks of a Roman amphitheatre (albeit a very small one), bath house, temple, parade ground and even a Roman road can be seen, although most of the remains here are from a much later Norman motte and bailey castle.
Venta Silurum, Monmouthshire
Urban Centre
Unquestionably the best surviving Roman town defence walls in Britain (standing up to 5 metres in places!), the remains at Venta Silurum also include a house with underfloor heating, basilica, forum and temple. The site is open to the public.
Y Gaer, Brecon Beacons
Roman Fort
Built in AD75 at the crossroads of two Roman roads, Y Gaer would have been occupied by a contingent of 500 Spanish-recruited cavalrymen. Visible remains today include the perimeter walls, gatehouses and guard towers.
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The annual Three Choirs Festival alternates between Gloucester, Worcester and which other cathedral? | A Little Bit of Leicester History
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A Little Bit of Leicester History
Leicester is one of the oldest cities in England dating over 2000 years. There are very many things historians consider interesting in this city. The history of the origin of Leicester city is lost in time. However, there are two major theories explaining the origin of Leicester city.
The first theory is that the first name is from Celtic one, Coriletav. This theory is supported by the name given to the settlement by the Romans: Ratae Corieltauvorum. The other theory believes that there is a mythical British King who was called Leir.
Leir was the one who founded the settlement around the same time that the Celts were in the area. It is believed that King Leir was supposedly buried under River Soar.
What we sure of is the fact that the Romans built a fort there around 47 or 48 AD. By about 50 AD, a city had grown around the fort. Ratae Corieltauvorum was very important to the Romans as it was one of the key staging posts on a major Roman road, the Fosse Way which is linked what are now Exeter and Lincoln.
Rapidly becoming a market town for local people and their produce, the settlement thrived on the trade that Romans brought to the area.
After the Romans moved north to conquer more of England, the settlement was well established and could continue to prosper without the Romans. The Jewry Wall and its Bath house in Leicester is the main feature that is still visible showing that Romans were once there.
As with most of England, little is known of the history of Leicester during the Dark Ages following the Roman departure. The next important event was in 680 when Leicester is known to have been given a Bishop.
It seems that life in Leicester was good as the settlement continued to prosper. Artifacts have been found showing that Leicester with its farming community had potters, cloth weavers, blacksmiths, and carpenters.
The ninth century saw a downturn in fortunes when the settlements fell to the Danish Viking invaders. Until the 20th century, Leicester had no bishop as the Bishop had run away.
The Norman Conquest sees Leicester mentioned in the Doomsday book as Ledcestre. The name is believed to have been derived from Ligeraceaster which is a combination of Castra-camp and Ligore-Legro an early name given to River Soar.
Leicester city had some importance in medieval times. The Normans saw the city as large enough to build a wooden fort since it had a population of about 1500. In the 12th century, the fort was rebuilt with stone.
Leicester was ruled by an Earl as was the custom during those days. Unfortunately, the Earl of Leicester rebelled in 1173 against King Henry II. This caused untold suffering to the citizens as many were killed by the King’s wrath with Robert.
During the middle Ages, Leicester was well known for its quality wool cloth and the hosiery made from the wool. It was around this time also when leather was considered an important industry in Leicester. This is what gave rise to its association with shoes and footwear. To find out more about Leicester in numbers, click here .
The trade was so strong in 1464 that the cities merchants were able to form a corporation. As a result, Leicester could elect its own mayor to run the town. The population had doubled to 3000 by 1500. It continued to rise despite the frequent outbreaks of plague which could decimate the town population.
The town was given a coat of arms in 1619. Leicester declared itself for the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War and was laid to siege by the Royalists in 1645. After breaching the town wall, the Royalists killed many of the inhabitants.
The population had doubled again to about 6000 at the beginning of the 18 century. Leicester’s population and prosperity would flourish thanks to the birth of the industrial revolution.
The opening of the Soar canal in 1974 literally fuelled the boom in the industry by providing quick and cheap methods of coal and iron transportation into Leicester. Next time you hear the name Leicester, you will understand where the name came from and how the city came into being. You can learn more about the location of Leicester in our other article.
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Which famous animated character, first seen in 1932, is portrayed as having a glass jaw? On occasions he has been knocked out by his rival's girlfriend and on other occasions even by her infant son. | IMDb: Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Buried"
Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Buried"
1-50 of 656 names.
Toby Jones
Widely regarded as the one of greatest stage and screen actors both in his native Great Britain and internationally, Toby Edward Heslewood Jones was born on September 7, 1966 in Hammersmith, London. His parents, Freddie Jones and Jennie Heslewood , are actors as well. Toby has two brothers: Rupert, a director, and Casper, a fellow actor. He studied Drama at the University of Manchester from 1986 to 1989, and at L'École Internationale de Théâtre in Paris under Jacques Lecoq in Paris from 1989 to 1991. Naturally, his career began on the stage (and continues there), but film and television roles came soon after his studies.
Toby made his film debut with a small role in Sally Potter 's experimental take on Virginia Woolf 's novel, Orlando , starring Tilda Swinton . Other small film roles included the doorkeeper in Les Misérables and a memorable turn as the Royal Page in Ever After: A Cinderella Story with Drew Barrymore .
Yul Brynner
Exotic leading man of American films, famed as much for his completely bald head as for his performances, Yul Brynner masked much of his life in mystery and outright lies designed to tease people he considered gullible. It was not until the publication of the books "Yul: The Man Who Would Be King" and "Empire and Odyssey" by his son, Yul "Rock" Brynner, that many of the details of Brynner's early life became clear.
Yul sometimes claimed to be a half-Swiss, half-Japanese named Taidje Khan, born on the island of Sakhalin; in reality, he was the son of Marousia Dimitrievna (Blagovidova), the Russian daughter of a doctor, and Boris Yuliyevich Bryner, an engineer and inventor of Swiss-German and Russian descent. He was born in their home town of Vladivostok on 11 July 1920 and named Yuli after his grandfather, Jules Bryner. When Yuli's father abandoned the family, his mother took him and his sister Vera to Harbin, Manchuria, where they attended a YMCA school. In 1934 Yuli's mother took her children to Paris. Her son was sent to the exclusive Lycée Moncelle, but his attendance was spotty. He dropped out and became a musician, playing guitar in the nightclubs among the Russian gypsies who gave him his first real sense of family. He met luminaries such as Jean Cocteau and became an apprentice at the Theatre des Mathurins. He worked as a trapeze artist with the famed Cirque d'Hiver company.
He traveled to the U.S. in 1941 to study with acting teacher Michael Chekhov and toured the country with Chekhov's theatrical troupe. That same year, he debuted in New York as Fabian in "Twelfth Night" (billed as Youl Bryner). After working in a very early TV series, Mr. Jones and His Neighbors , he played on Broadway in "Lute Song" with Mary Martin , winning awards and mild acclaim. He and his wife, actress Virginia Gilmore , starred in the first TV talk show, Mr. and Mrs. . Brynner then joined CBS as a television director. He made his film debut in Port of New York . Two years later Mary Martin recommended him for the part he would forever be known for: the King in Richard Rodgers ' and Oscar Hammerstein II 's musical "The King and I". Brynner became an immediate sensation in the role, repeating it for film ( The King and I ) and winning the Oscar for Best Actor.
For the next two decades, he maintained a starring film career despite the exotic nature of his persona, performing in a wide range of roles from Egyptian pharaohs to Western gunfighters, almost all with the same shaved head and indefinable accent. In the 1970s he returned to the role that had made him a star, and spent most of the rest of his life touring the world in "The King and I". When he developed lung cancer in the mid 1980s, he left a powerful public service announcement denouncing smoking as the cause, for broadcast after his death. The cancer and its complications, after a long illness, ended his life. Brynner was cremated and his ashes buried in a remote part of France, on the grounds of the Abbey of Saint-Michel de Bois Aubry, a short distance outside the village of Luzé. He remains one of the most fascinating, unusual and beloved stars of his time.
Lee Van Cleef
One of the great movie villains, Clarence Leroy Van Cleef, Jr. was born in Somerville, New Jersey, to Marion Lavinia (Van Fleet) and Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef, Sr. His parents were both of Dutch ancestry. Van Cleef started out as an accountant. He served in the U.S. Navy aboard minesweepers and subchasers during World War II. After the war he worked as an office administrator, becoming involved in amateur theatrics in his spare time. An audition for a professional role led to a touring company job in "Mr. Roberts". His performance was seen by Stanley Kramer , who cast him as henchman Jack Colby in High Noon , a role that brought him great recognition despite the fact that he had no dialogue. For the next decade he played a string of memorably villainous characters, primarily in westerns but also in crime dramas such as The Big Combo . His hawk nose and steely, slit eyes seemed destined to keep him always in the realm of heavies, but in the mid- Sergio Leone cast him as the tough but decent Col. Mortimer opposite Clint Eastwood in For a Few Dollars More . A new career as a western hero (or at least anti-hero) opened up, and Van Cleef became an international star, though in films of decreasing quality. In the 1980s he moved easily into action and martial-arts movies, and starred in The Master , a TV series featuring almost non-stop martial arts action. He died of a heart attack in December 1989, and was buried at Forest Lawn in the Hollywood Hills.
Jayne Mansfield
One of the leading sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s, film actress Jayne Mansfield was born Vera Jayne Palmer on April 19, 1933 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, to Vera J. and Herbert W. Palmer. Her parents were well-to-do, with her father a successful attorney in Phillipburg, New Jersey, where Jayne began her girlhood. Her parents were both born with the same surname, and her ancestry was 7/8ths English and 1/8th German. Jayne was a talented pianist and violin player as a child.
Tragedy struck when Jayne was three, when her father suddenly died of a heart attack. Three years later, her mother remarried and the family moved south to Dallas, Texas. The family bought a little home where she had violin concerts in the driveway of their home. Up until the move, Jayne had no aspirations of being a star, but with maturity and the fact that she devoured the fan magazines of the day convinced her to try acting.
Amazingly, her I.Q. was reported to be a 163, and she attended the University of Dallas and participated in little-theatre productions. In 1949, at age 16, she married a man five years her senior named Paul Mansfield, the next year when Jayne was 17. Their daughter, Jayne Marie Mansfield, was born in November.
After some productions there and elsewhere, Jayne decided to go to Hollywood. Her first film was a bit role as a cigarette girl in Pete Kelly's Blues . Although the roles in the beginning were not much, she was successful in gaining those roles because of her ample physical attributes which placed her in two other films that year, Hell on Frisco Bay and Illegal . Her breakout role came the next year with a featured part in The Burglar . By the time she portrayed Rita Marlowe in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? and Too Hot to Handle , Jayne was now known as the poor man's Marilyn Monroe . She did not get the plum roles that Marilyn got in her productions. Instead, Jayne's films were more of a showcase for her body more than anything else. Jayne did have a real talent for acting, but the movie executives insisted she stay in her dumb blonde stereotype roles. For the balance of her career, Jayne never received any standout performances although she was more than capable of doing them.
By the 1960s, Mansfield's career had options that grew lower. She made somewhat embarrassing guest appearances like on the popular game show What's My Line? , she appeared on the show four times in 1956, 1957, 1964, and 1966 and many other 1950s and 1960s game shows. By 1962, she was dropped from 20th Century Fox and the rest of her career had smaller options like being in B movies and low budget movies or performing at food stores or small nightclubs.
While traveling from a nightclub in Biloxi, Mississippi and 30 miles from New Orleans to where she was to be on television the following day, she was killed instantly on Highway 90 in a car crash in the early hours of June 29, 1967, when the car in which she was riding in slammed into the back of a semi-tractor trailer truck that had stopped due to a truck in front of the tractor trailer that was spraying for bugs, and the car in which she was riding went under the truck at nearly 80 miles per hour along with boyfriend Samuel Brody and their driver Ronnie Harrison. The damage to the car was so bad that the engine was twisted sideways.
The beautiful woman who starred in 31 movies, the woman who fought so hard for respect, the woman who, in her own right, was a very good actress, was dead at age 34. Mansfield's funeral was on July 3, 1967 which was a small ceremony which her family, first child, and second husband Mickey Hargitay attended the same place in Pen Argyl, Pennsylvania, where her father was buried. Her final film, Single Room Furnished , was released the following year of her death.
Jayne Mansfield's fame lives on in the success of her best movies, her documentary film appearances, her 22 television appearances, and in the career of her 4th child, actress Mariska Hargitay who plays Olivia Benson on the popular NBC crime drama Law & Order: Special Victims Unit .
Charles Chaplin
Charlie Chaplin, considered to be one of the most pivotal stars of the early days of Hollywood, lived an interesting life both in his films and behind the camera. He is most recognized as an icon of the silent film era, often associated with his popular "Little Tramp" character; the man with the toothbrush mustache, bowler hat, bamboo cane, and a funny walk.
Charles Spencer Chaplin was born in Walworth, London, England on April 16th, 1889, to Hannah Harriet Pedlingham (Hill) and Charles Chaplin, both music hall performers, who were married on June 22nd, 1885. After Charles Sr. separated from Hannah to perform in New York City, Hannah then tried to resurrect her stage career. Unfortunately, her singing voice had a tendency to break at unexpected moments. When this happened, the stage manager spotted young Charlie standing in the wings and led him on stage, where five-year-old Charlie began to sing a popular tune. Charlie and his half-brother, Syd Chaplin spent their lives in and out of charity homes and workhouses between their mother's bouts of insanity. Hannah was committed to Cane Hill Asylum in May of 1903 and lived there until 1921, when Chaplin moved her to California.
Chaplin began his official acting career at the age of eight, touring with The Eight Lancashire Lads. At 18 he began touring with Fred Karno 's vaudeville troupe, joining them on the troupe's 1910 US tour. He traveled west to California in December 1913 and signed on with Keystone Studios' popular comedy director Mack Sennett , who had seen Chaplin perform on stage in New York. Charlie soon wrote his brother Syd, asking him to become his manager. While at Keystone, Chaplin appeared in and directed 35 films, starring as the Little Tramp in nearly all.
In November 1914, he left Keystone and signed on at Essanay, where he made 15 films. In 1916, he signed on at Mutual and made 12 films. In June 1917, Chaplin signed up with First National Studios, after which he built Chaplin Studios. In 1919 he and Douglas Fairbanks , Mary Pickford and D.W. Griffith formed United Artists (UA).
Chaplin's life and career was full of scandal and controversy. His first big scandal was during World War I, during which time his loyalty to England, his home country, was questioned. He had never applied for US citizenship, but claimed that he was a "paying visitor" to the United States. Many British citizens called Chaplin a coward and a slacker. This and his other career eccentricities sparked suspicion with FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover and the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), who believed that he was injecting Communist propaganda into his films. Chaplin's later film The Great Dictator , which was his first "talkie", also created a stir. In the film Chaplin plays a humorous caricature of Adolf Hitler . Some thought the film was poorly done and in bad taste. However it grossed over $5 million and earned five Academy Award Nominations.
Another scandal occurred when Chaplin briefly dated 22-year-old Joan Barry. However Chaplin's relationship with Barry came to an end in 1942, after a series of harassing actions from her. In May of 1943 Barry returned to inform Chaplin that she was pregnant and filed a paternity suit, claiming that the unborn child was his. During the 1944 trial blood tests proved that Chaplin was not the father, but at the time blood tests were inadmissible evidence and he was ordered to pay $75 a week until the child turned 21.
Chaplin was also scrutinized for his support in aiding the Russian struggle against the invading Nazis during World War II, and the U.S. government questioned his moral and political views, suspecting him of having Communist ties. For this reason HUAC subpoenaed him in 1947. However HUAC finally decided that it was no longer necessary for him to appear for testimony. Conversely, when Chaplin and his family traveled to London for the premier of Limelight , he was denied re-entry to the United States. In reality, the government had almost no evidence to prove that he was a threat to national security. He and his wife decided, instead, to settle in Switzerland.
Chaplin was married four times and had a total of 11 children. In 1918 he wed Mildred Harris and they had a son together, Norman Spencer Chaplin, who only lived three days. Chaplin and Mildred were divorced in 1920. He married Lita Grey in 1924, who had two sons, Charles Chaplin Jr. and Sydney Chaplin . They were divorced in 1927. In 1936, Chaplin married Paulette Goddard and his final marriage was to Oona O'Neill ( Oona Chaplin ), daughter of playwright Eugene O'Neill in 1943. Oona gave birth to eight children: Geraldine Chaplin , Michael Chaplin , Josephine Chaplin , Victoria Chaplin , Eugene, Jane, Annette-Emilie and Christopher Chaplin .
In contrast to many of his boisterous characters, Chaplin was a quiet man who kept to himself a lot. He also had an "un-millionaire" way of living. Even after he had accumulated millions, he continued to live in shabby accommodations. In 1921 Chaplin was decorated by the French government for his outstanding work as a filmmaker, and was elevated to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honor in 1952. In 1972 he was honored with an Academy Award for his "incalculable effect in making motion pictures the art form of the century." He was created Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1975 New Year's Honours List. No formal reason for the honour was listed. The citation simply reads "Charles Spencer CHAPLIN, Film Actor and Producer".
Chaplin's other works included musical scores he composed for many of his films. He also authored two autobiographical books, "My Autobiography" in 1964 and its companion volume, "My Life in Pictures" in 1974.
Chaplin died of natural causes on December 25, 1977 at his home in Switzerland. In 1978 Chaplin's corpse was stolen from its grave and was not recovered for three months; he was re-buried in a vault surrounded by cement.
Charlie Chaplin was considered one of the greatest filmmakers in the history of American cinema, whose movies were and still are popular throughout the world, and have even gained notoriety as time progresses. His films show, through the Little Tramp's positive outlook on life in a world full of chaos, that the human spirit has and always will remain the same.
Mary McDonnell
Mary McDonnell is a two-time Oscar®-nominated actress, who is known for her character portrayals in both period and present-day screen roles.
Mary Eileen McDonnell was born on April 28, 1952 in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to Eileen (Mundy) and John McDonnell, a computer consultant, both of Irish descent. Mary was raised in Ithaca, New York. After graduating from the State University of New York at Fredonia, she attended drama school and joined the Long Wharf Theatre Company on the East Coast. It was not until 20 years after working on the theater stage that she had her breakthrough film role, in Kevin Costner 's Dances with Wolves , playing Stands with a Fist, a white woman raised by the Sioux Indians. McDonnell received an Academy Award nomination for the role, and also garnered a Best Actress Academy Award® nomination and Golden Globe nomination for her portrayal of a paraplegic soap opera star in John Sayles' critically acclaimed Passion Fish .
McDonnell's extensive list of film credits include the Lawrence Kasdan films Grand Canyon and Mumford; Sneakers, opposite Robert Redford, Sidney Poitier and Sir Ben Kingsley; Roland Emmerich's smash Independence Day, with Bill Pullman and Will Smith; acclaimed art house cult-hit Donnie Darko; and Margin Call, opposite Kevin Spacey, which also earned her the Robert Altman Award at the 2012 Independent Spirit Awards. On the small screen, McDonnell starred in four seasons on the Syfy Network's award-winning series Battlestar Galactica in her critically praised performance as the President Laura Roslin. The series earned a Peabody Award, and AFI deemed the series TV Program of the Year for two years in a row. McDonnell garnered an Emmy nomination for her recurring guest role on the television series ER. Some of her other television credits include the ABC hit-series Grey's Anatomy, the CBS series High Society, TNT's adaptation of Arthur Miller's The American Clock, the critically acclaimed CBS movie Behind The Mask and Lifetime's Two Small Voices. McDonnell received rave reviews for her performance opposite David Strathairn in Emily Mann's acclaimed adaptation of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard. McDonnell began her career in theatre and has starred in a wide variety of both Broadway and off-Broadway productions. She received an Obie Award for her performance in Emily Mann's Still Life and has starred in off-Broadway productions such as Sam Shepard's Pulitzer Prize-winning Buried Child, John Patrick Shanley's Savage in Limbo, John O'Keefe's All Night Long, Michael Cristofer's Black Angel, Kathleen Tolan's A Weekend Near Madison, Paula Cizmar's Death of a Miner and Dennis McIntyre's National Anthem. Her Broadway credits include Tennessee Williams' Summer and Smoke, the title role in Wendy Wasserstein's Pulitzer Prize-winning The Heidi Chronicles and Emily Mann's Execution of Justice.
Mary stars as Captain Sharon Raydor on the TNT's hit drama series Major Crimes, the follow-up to The Closer, in which McDonnell originated the role and for which she earned a Primetime Emmy® nomination. McDonnell received her first Oscar nomination and Golden Globe® nomination for her portrayal of .
Mary lives in Pacific Palisades, California with her husband, actor Randle Mell , and their two children, Olivia and Michael.
Brandon Lee
Born on February 1, 1965 to Bruce Lee (Martial Arts idol) and Linda Lee Cadwell . Brother to Shannon Lee . In 1970-71, they moved to Hong Kong where Brandon became fluent in Cantonese by the age of 8. He attended Boston's Art-Oriented Emerson College in Massachusetts. He studied Martial Arts and drama, like his father. In 1983, he was expelled from school because of misbehavior, but received his diploma at Miraleste High School. He was in Rapid Fire , Showdown in Little Tokyo and a few more films, including The Crow . He turned down offers to be in Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story . Bruce died (while filming) at the age of 32, of what is to be believed, a brain hemorrhage. Brandon died at the age of 28 on the set of The Crow . The film crew shot a scene in which it was decided to use a gun without consent from the weapons coordinator, who had been sent home early that night. They handed Michael Massee the gun loaded with full power blanks and shot the scene, unaware that a bullet had become dislodged from a previous shot and had lodged itself in the barrel. Upon shooting of the scene the blank round forced the bullet out the barrel striking Brandon Lee. The crew only noticed when Lee was slow getting up. The doctors worked desperately for five hours, but it was no use. The bullet had lodged itself in Mr Lee's lower spine. He was pronounced dead at 1:04 P.M. the next day. He was supposed to marry Eliza Hutton on April 17, 1993. His body was flown to Seattle to be buried beside his father in Lake View Cemetery.
Nick Frost
Nick Frost is an English actor, screenwriter and comedian. He is known for his work in the series of British comedic genre films The Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy, Shaun of the Dead (2004), Hot Fuzz (2007), and The World's End (2013). He also co-starred in Paul (2011), with frequent collaborator and friend Simon Pegg .
Nicholas John "Nick" Frost is good friends with Simon Pegg and they have appeared alongside each other in several Movies. He resides with his half-Swedish wife, production executive Christina in St Margaret s, London. He previously lived in Fins-bury Park, which was also the filming location for Shaun of the Dead. In a 2005 interview, Frost stated that he was brought up as a Catholic. He is a supporter of West Ham United, as well as being a rugby player, formerly playing for Barking RFC. On 22 June 2011, Frost's wife gave birth to a son.
John Belushi
John Belushi was born in Chicago, Illinois, USA, on January 24, 1949, to Agnes Demetri (Samaras) and Adam Anastos Belushi, a restaurant owner. His father was an Albanian immigrant, from Qytezë, and his mother was also of Albanian descent. He grew up in Wheaton, where the family moved when he was six. Though a young hellion in grade school, John became the perfect all-American boy during his high school years where he was co-captain of the Wheaton Central High School football team and was elected homecoming king his senior year. He also developed an interest in acting and appeared in the high school variety show. Encouraged by his drama teacher, John decided to put aside his plans to become a football coach to pursue a career in acting.
After graduation in 1967, John performed in summer stock in rural Indiana in a variety of roles from "Cardinal Wolsey" in "Anne of a Thousand Days" to a comic detective in "Ten Little Indians". In the fall of his freshman year at the University of Wisconsin at Whitewater, John changed his image into a bad-boy appearance by growing his hair long and began to have problems with discipline and structure of attending classes.
Dropping out of Wisconsin, John spent the next two years at the College of DuPage, a junior college a few miles from his parents' Wheaton home, where his father began persuading him to become a partner in his restaurant, but John still preferred acting. While attending DuPage, John helped found the "West Compass Players", an improv comedy troupe patterned after Chicago's famous "Second City" ensemble.
In 1971, John made the leap to "Second City" itself where he performed in various on-stage comic performances with others, who included Harold Ramis and Joe Flaherty . John loved his life at "Second City" where he performed six nights a week, perfecting the physical "gonzo" style of comedy he later made famous.
A year later, John and his live-in girlfriend from his high school years, Judith Belushi-Pisano , moved to New York because John had joined the cast of National Lampoon's Lemmings, an off-Broadway rock musical revue that was originally booked for a six-week run but played to full crowds for nearly 10 months.
In 1973, John was hired as a writer for the syndicated National Lampoon's Radio Hour which became the National Lampoon Show in 1975. John's big break came that same year when he joined the ground-breaking TV variety series Saturday Night Live which made him a star. The unpredictable, aggressively physical style of humor that he began on "Second City" flowered on SNL.
In 1978, while still working on Saturday Night Live , John appeared in the movie Goin' South which starred and was directed by Jack Nicholson . It was here that director John Landis noticed John and decided to cast him in his movie National Lampoon's Animal House . John's minor role as the notorious, beer-swilling "Bluto" made it a box-office smash and the year's top grossing comedy. Despite appearing in only a dozen scenes, John's performance stole the movie, which portrays college fraternity shenanigans at a small college set in the year 1962.
In 1979, John along with fellow SNL regular Dan Aykroyd quit the series to pursue movie projects. John and Dan Aykroyd appeared in minor roles in Steven Spielberg 's financially unsuccessful 1941 and, the following year, in John Landis ' The Blues Brothers . Around this time, John's drug use began escalating. Cocaine, which was ubiquitous in show-business circles in the 1970's, became his drug of choice. After he first experimented with cocaine in the mid 1970s, John almost immediately became addicted to it. His frequent cocaine sniffing binges became a source of friction between him and Judy, whom he married in 1976.
John's love for blues and soul music inspired the "Blues Brothers". He and Aykroyd first appeared as Joliet Jake and Elwood Blues, a pair of white soul men dressed in black suits, skinny ties, fedora hats and Rayban sunglasses, as a warm-up act before the telecasts of Saturday Night Live . Building on the success of their acts and the release of their album "A Briefcase Full of Blues", John and Dan Aykroyd starred in the movie, which gave John a chance to act with his favorite musical heroes including Ray Charles , James Brown and Aretha Franklin .
Although John's reputation for being an off-screen party animal is legendary, his generous side is less well known. Using some of his money, he bought his father a ranch outside San Diego for him to live. John helped set up some of his Chicago friends with their own businesses and even financially helped his younger brother, Jim Belushi , who followed his older brother's path to both "Second City" and Saturday Night Live .
In 1981, John appeared in the movie Continental Divide , playing a hard-nosed Chicago newspaperman who finds romance in Colorado with eagle expert Blair Brown . That same year, John and Dan Aykroyd appeared again in the movie Neighbors , which gave them a chance to reverse roles, with John playing a straight-arrow family man whose life is turned upside down when a wild family man (Aykroyd) moves in next door.
In January 1982, John began work on the screenplay for another movie to be titled "Noble Rot". Also, John had checked into a bungalow at the Chateau Marmont, a popular celebrity hotel in Los Angeles. John's drug use had been steadily increasing for over a year now, which alarmed his wife and friends, but he continued to promise Judy that he would quit someday. On March 5, 1982, John Belushi was found dead in his hotel room at the age of 33. The local coroner gave the cause of death as a lethal injection of cocaine and heroin. Several years later, John's drug dealing/drug user companion during his final weeks, Cathy Smith, was tried and sentenced to three years in prison for supplying John with the drugs. Close friend James Taylor sang "That Lonesome Road" at a memorial service at Martha's Vineyard cemetery where John was buried.
Myrna Loy
Myrna Loy was born Myrna Adele Williams on August 2, 1905 in Helena, Montana, to Adelle Mae (Johnson) and David Franklin Williams. Her paternal grandparents were Welsh, and her mother was of Scottish and Swedish descent. Myrna was raised in Helena and nearby Radersburg. Her father, a rancher, was the youngest person ever elected to the Montana State legislature.
At the age of thirteen, Myrna's father died of influenza, and the rest of the family moved to Los Angeles. She was educated in L.A. and the Westlake School for Girls where she caught the acting bug. She started at the age of 15 when she appeared in local stage productions in order to help support her family. Some of the stage plays were held in the now famous Grauman's Theater in Hollywood. Mrs. Rudolph Valentino happened to be in the audience one night who managed to pull some strings to get Myrna some parts in the motion picture industry.
Her first film was a small part in the production of What Price Beauty? . Later, she appeared the same year in Pretty Ladies along with Joan Crawford . She was one of the few stars that would start in the silent movies and make a successful transition into the sound era. In her silent films, Myrna would appear as a Theda Bara -like, exotic, femme fatale. Later in the sound era, she would become a refined, wholesome character. Unable to land a contract with MGM, she continued to appear in small, bit roles, nothing that one could really call acting. In 1926, Myrna appeared in the Warner Brothers film called Satan in Sables which, at long last, landed her a contract. Her first appearance as a contract player was The Caveman where she played a maid. Although she was typecast over and over again as a vamp, Myrna continued to stay busy with small parts. Finally, in 1927, she received star billing in Bitter Apples . The excitement was short lived as she returned to the usual smaller roles afterward.
Myrna would take any role that would give her exposure and showcase the talent she felt was being wasted. It seemed that she would play one vamp after another. She wanted something better. Finally her contract ran out with warner and she signed with MGM where she got two meaty roles. One was in the The Prizefighter and the Lady , and the other as Nora Charles in The Thin Man with William Powell . Most agreed that the Thin Man series would never have been successful without Myrna. Her witty perception of situations gave her the image that one could not pull a fast one over on the no-nonsense Mrs. Charles. After The Thin Man , Myrna would appear in five more in the series. Myrna was a big box-office draw. She was popular enough that, in 1936, she was named Queen of the Movies and Clark Gable the king in a nationwide poll of movie goers. Her popularity was at its zenith. She continued to make films through the 40s and 50s but the roles were fewer and fewer. By the 1960's the parts had all but dried up as producers and directors looked elsewhere for talent.
In 1960, she appeared in Midnight Lace and was not in another until 1969 in The April Fools . The 1970s found her in TV movies, not theatrical productions. Her last film was in 1981 called Summer Solstice . By the time Myrna passed away, on December 14, 1993, at the age of 88, she had appeared in a phenomenal 129 motion pictures. She was buried in Helena, Montana.
Clark Gable
William Clark Gable was born on February 1, 1901 in Cadiz, Ohio, to Adeline (Hershelman) and William Henry Gable, an oil-well driller. He was of German, Irish, and Swiss-German descent. When he was seven months old, his mother died, and his father sent him to live with his maternal aunt and uncle in Pennsylvania, where he stayed until he was two. His father then returned to take him back to Cadiz. At 16, he quit high school, went to work in an Akron, Ohio, tire factory, and decided to become an actor after seeing the play "The Bird of Paradise". He toured in stock companies, worked oil fields and sold ties. On December 13, 1924, he married Josephine Dillon , his acting coach and 15 years his senior. Around that time, they moved to Hollywood, so that Clark could concentrate on his acting career. In April 1930, they divorced and a year later, he married Maria Langham (a.k.a. Maria Franklin Gable ), also about 17 years older than him.
While Gable acted on stage, he became a lifelong friend of Lionel Barrymore . After several failed screen tests (for Barrymore and Darryl F. Zanuck ), Gable was signed in 1930 by MGM's Irving Thalberg . He had a small part in The Painted Desert in 1931. Joan Crawford asked for him as co-star in Dance, Fools, Dance and the public loved him manhandling Norma Shearer in A Free Soul the same year. His unshaven lovemaking with bra-less Jean Harlow in Red Dust made him MGM's most important star.
His acting career then flourished. At one point, he refused an assignment, and the studio punished him by loaning him out to (at the time) low-rent Columbia Pictures, which put him in Frank Capra 's It Happened One Night , which won him an Academy Award for his performance. The next year saw a starring role in Call of the Wild with Loretta Young , with whom he had an affair (resulting in the birth of a daughter, Judy Lewis ). He returned to far more substantial roles at MGM, such as Fletcher Christian in Mutiny on the Bounty and Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind .
After divorcing Maria Langham, in March 1939 Clark married Carole Lombard , but tragedy struck in January 1942 when the plane in which Carole and her mother were flying crashed into Table Rock Mountain, Nevada, killing them both. A grief-stricken Gable joined the US Army Air Force and was off the screen for three years, flying combat missions in Europe. When he returned the studio regarded his salary as excessive and did not renew his contract. He freelanced, but his films didn't do well at the box office. He married Silvia Ashley, the widow of Douglas Fairbanks , in 1949. Unfortunately this marriage was short-lived and they divorced in 1952. In July 1955 he married a former sweetheart, Kathleen Williams Spreckles (a.k.a. Kay Williams ) and became stepfather to her two children, Joan and Adolph ("Bunker") Spreckels III.
On November 16, 1959, Gable became a grandfather when Judy Lewis , his daughter with Loretta Young , gave birth to a daughter, Maria. In 1960, Gable's wife Kay discovered that she was expecting their first child. In early November 1960, he had just completed filming The Misfits , when he suffered a heart attack, and died later that month, on November 16, 1960. Gable was buried shortly afterwards in the shrine that he had built for Carole Lombard and her mother when they died, at Forest Lawn Cemetery.
In March 1961, Kay Gable gave birth to a boy, whom she named John Clark Gable after his father.
George Peppard
Handsome and elegant George Peppard occasionally displayed considerable talent through his career, but was too often cast in undemanding action roles. Following Broadway and television experience, he made a strong film debut in The Strange One . He started getting noticed when he played Robert Mitchum 's illegitimate son in the popular melodrama Home from the Hill . He then established himself as a leading man, giving arguably his most memorable film performance as Audrey Hepburn 's love interest in Breakfast at Tiffany's . Seen by the studios as a promising young star, Peppard was subsequently cast in some of the major blockbusters of the early/mid-1960s: How the West Was Won , The Victors , The Carpetbaggers and Operation Crossbow . He reached the peak of his popularity in another such lavish production, The Blue Max , in which he effectively played an obsessively competitive German flying officer during World War I.
However, by the late 1960s, he seemed to settle as a tough lead in more average, often hokum, adventures, including House of Cards , Cannon for Cordoba and The Groundstar Conspiracy . In the early 1970s, his declining popularity was temporarily boosted thanks to the television series Banacek . With his film roles becoming increasingly uninteresting, he acted in, directed and produced the drama Five Days from Home , but the result was rather disappointing. In the mid-1980s, he again obtained success on television as Colonel John "Hannibal" Smith, the cigar-chomping leader of The A-Team . George Peppard died at age 65 of pneumonia on May 8, 1994 in Los Angeles, California. He is buried alongside his parents in Northview Cemetary in Dearborn, Michigan.
Bob Hoskins
Bob Hoskins was born on October 26, 1942, in Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk, where his mother was living after being evacuated as a result of the heavy bombings. He is the son of Elsie Lillian (Hopkins), a nursery school teacher and cook, and Robert William Hoskins, Sr., who drove a lorry and worked as a bookkeeper. Growing up, Hoskins received only limited education and he left school at 15, but with a passion for language and literature instilled by his former English teacher. A regular theatre-goer, Hoskins dreamed of starring on stage, but before he could do so he had to work odd jobs for a long time to make ends meet. His acting career started out more by accident than by design, when he accompanied a friend to watch some auditions, only to be confused for one of the people auditioning, getting a script pushed into his hands with the message "You're next". He got the part and acquired an agent. After some stage success, he expanded to television with roles in television series such as Villains and Thick as Thieves . In the mid-'70s, he started his film career, standing out when he performed alongside Richard Dreyfuss in John Byrum 's Inserts and in a smaller part in Richard Lester 's Royal Flash .
Hoskins broke through in 1978 in Dennis Potter 's mini TV series, Pennies from Heaven , playing "Arthur Parker", the doomed salesman. After this, a string of high-profile and successful films followed, starting with his true major movie debut in 1980's The Long Good Friday as the ultimately doomed "Harold Shand". This was followed by such works as The Cotton Club , Mona Lisa , which won him an Oscar nomination as well as a BAFTA award, Cannes Film Festival and Golden Globe), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (Golden Globe nomination), Mermaids , Hook , Nixon , Felicia's Journey and Enemy at the Gates .
Hoskins always carefully balanced the riches of Hollywood with the labor of independent film, though leaned more towards the latter than the former. He worked at smaller projects such as Shane Meadows ' debut Twenty Four Seven , in which he starred as "Allen Darcy". Besides this, he found time to direct, write and star in The Raggedy Rawney , as well as direct and star in Rainbow , and contributing to HBO's Tales from the Crypt and Tube Tales .
Suffering from Parkinson's disease in later years, Hoskins died of pneumonia at age 71 in a London hospital.
Anita Ekberg
Kerstin Anita Marianne Ekberg was born on September 29, 1931 in Malmo, Sweden. Growing up with seven brothers and sisters was not an adventure, but Anita's adventure began when she was elected Miss Sweden in 1950. She did not win the Miss Universe contest but she got a modeling contract in the United States. She quickly got a film contract with Howard Hughes 's RKO that did not lead anywhere (but Anita herself has said that Hughes wanted to marry her). Instead, she started making movies with Universal, small roles that more often than not only required her to look beautiful. After five years in Hollywood, she found herself in Rome, where Federico Fellini 's La Dolce Vita meant her breakthrough. She stayed in Italy and made around 20 movies during the next ten years, some roles memorable, some to be forgotten. Her two marriages gave her a great deal of attention from the press. During the 1970s, the roles became less frequent, but she made a marvellous comeback with Fellini's Intervista .
Anita Ekberg retired from acting in 2002 after 50 years in the motion picture industry. In December 2011, she was destitute following three months in a hospital with a broken thigh in Rimini, during which her home was robbed of jewelry and furniture, and her villa was badly damaged in a fire. Ekberg applied for help from the Fellini Foundation, which also found itself in difficult financial straits. She died at age 83 from complications of an enduring illness on January 11, 2015 at the clinic San Raffaele in Rocca di Papa, Italy. Anita Ekberg had a new film project with exclusively female Italian producer "Le Bestevem", in which her character, as movie star, should've been recovered again as an icon of the big screen, a project that was interrupted by her death.
Her funeral was held on January 14, 2015, at the Lutheran-Evangelical Christuskirche in Rome, after which her body was cremated and her remains were buried at the cemetery of Skanor Church in Sweden.
Horst Buchholz
On the cast list of The Magnificent Seven , you will find several names that doubtless you know well: Charles Bronson , Steve McQueen , and Yul Brynner . But there is one name that you will have difficulty pronouncing, let alone identifying as an actor you have seen before. That man is Horst Buchholz , and he was one of the few German actors to have a considerable success in both Hollywood and in Europe. One would hardly guess that he was sought out to act in one of the most famous films of all time, only to have to turn it down.
Horst Buchholz was born in Berlin, Germany, in the year 1933. His father was a German shoemaker, while his mother was born to Danish parents. Buccholz was put in a foster home in Czecheslovakia when World War II broke out in Europe, but he returned to Berlin the moment he had the chance. Realizing his talent in acting, Buchholz dropped out of school to perfect his acting skills. After moving from East Berlin to West Berlin, he became well-known for his work in theatre and on the radio. In 1952 he turned to film, and after a series of small roles, he found a larger one in the Julien Duvivier film Marianne of My Youth . He won a Best Actor award at Cannes for his role in the romantic/drama film Sky Without Stars by Helmut Käutner . However, it was the lead role in the comedic Confessions of Felix Krull that made him an established German actor.
He followed this breakthrough role with the romantic film Two Worlds and the thriller Wet Asphalt , where the handsome young actor plays a former criminal who associates himself with a journalist. Now a familiar face in his country, Buchholz pursued making foreign films. His first non-German film was the British film Tiger Bay . The film is about a girl who witnesses a seaman named Korchinsky (Buchholz) murder his girlfriend. The film won praise in both Germany and Britain, but it was Buchholz' next foreign film that secured his name in the history of classic films. This film was the epic western The Magnificent Seven directed by John Sturges . Buchholz played Chico, the inexperienced Mexican youth that wants to be a gunman and abandon his past. Buchholz starred alongside such legends as Charles Bronson and Yul Brynner . both of whom had strong European roots. The film was a hit, first in Europe, then was re-distributed in the States to a much higher profit. The film gained massive popularity, and even now is treasured as a classic.
Buchholz could now find good and steady work nationally and internationally, which is something few actors could do at the time. He worked on the romantic film Fanny , which is based on a trilogy of plays written by legendary writer Marcel Pagnol . Buchholz plays the role of Marius, a passionate but unsure youth who must choose between the girl he loves, and the life at sea he has always wanted. The film was a fine success, nominated for five Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Charles Boyer (who plays Buchholz' onscreen father).
It was at this point in his film career where he was sought as the first choice to play the role of Sherif Ali in David Lean 's legendary film Lawrence of Arabia . However, Buchholz had to turn it down, as he had already signed up for another film, which turned out to be the Oscar-nominated comedy One, Two, Three (directed by Billy Wilder ). The film was once again a fine success to add to Buchholz' career, but ultimately gained nowhere near as much of a status as David Lean 's film. Buchholz also made the Italian film The Empty Canvas in which he plays an untalented artist who begins a love affair with a young model. Throughout his in the early 60s, Buchholz had made a name for himself, acting in one Oscar-nominated film after another and showing off his talent as an actor. However, the success he had reached was not to last.
Buchholz continued with film, including the James Bond spoof That Man in Istanbul and the crime film Johnny Banco . He starred in the B-movie failure that was Young Rebel . Buchholz rebounded with the fiery film The Savior in which he plays a man who claims to be organizing resistance against the Nazis. He also played Johann Strauss in the Golden Globe-nominated musical The Great Waltz . which was sadly another failure.
The rest of the 1970s and the early 1980s were spent mostly on television and movies released for televison, whether it be foreign (Dead of Night (1977), Return to Fantasy Island (1978)) or German (Derrick). Buchholz found mild success again when he returned to the big screen with the WW II espionage film Code Name: Emerald in which he plays alongside such stars as Ed Harris and Max von Sydow . After this film, Buchholz returned to European movies, such as And the Violins Stopped Playing in which a group of gypsies flee Nazi persecutors. After taking a supporting role in the fantasy film Faraway, So Close! , Buchholz acted in one of his most well known films: the Oscar-winning Italian film Life Is Beautiful which was directed by and starred Roberto Benigni . Buchholz played the role of a doctor who befriends Benigni's character and frequently duels with him in riddles. This choice of role proved to be an echo of Buchholz' taste in choosing his projects in earlier years; the film won best foreign film that year, and was also nominated for Best Picture. Thanks to his gift for languages, Buchholz was able to dub himself in the foreign releases of the film.
Buchholz continued making films and television appearances until 2002, by which time he was sixty-eight years old. He died the next year, in Berlin, of pneumonia. Berlin had been the city of his heart, and was buried there in honour of that fact. Horst Buchholz had been a renowned German actor, and had gained credibility in the United States and other countries. He was a varied performer, acting all kinds of roles in his life, but was always a proud German to the last.
Chuck Connors
Chuck Connors was born Kevin Joseph Connors in Brooklyn, New York, to Marcella (Londrigan) and Alban Francis "Allan" Connors. His parents were immigrants from the Dominion of Newfoundland (now part of Canada), and were of Irish descent. Chuck and his two-years-younger sister, Gloria, grew up in a working-class section of the west side of Brooklyn, where their father worked the local docks as a longshoreman.
Chuck's natural athletic prowess earned him a scholarship to Adelphi Academy, a private high school, and then to Seton Hall, a Catholic college in South Orange, New Jersey. Leaving Seton Hall after two years, on October 20, 1942, he joined the army, listing his occupation as a ski instructor. After enlistment in the infantry at Fort Knox, he later served mostly as a tank-warfare instructor at Camp Campbell, Kentucky, and then finally at West Point. Following his discharge early in 1946, he resumed his athletic pursuits. He played center for the Boston Celtics in the 1946-47 season but left early for spring training with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Baseball had always been his first love, and for the next several years he knocked about the minor leagues in such places as Rochester (NY), Norfolk (VA), Newark (NJ), Newport News (VA), Mobile (AL) and Montreal, Canada (while in Montreal he met Elizabeth Riddell, whom he married in October 1948. They had four sons during their 13-year marriage). He finally reached his goal, playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers, in May 1949, but after just five weeks and one at-bat he returned to Montreal. After a brief stint with the Chicago Cubs in 1951, during which he hit two home runs, Chuck wound up with the Cubs' Triple-A farm team, the L.A. Angels, in 1952. A baseball fan who was also a casting director for MGM spotted Chuck and recommended him for a part in the Spencer Tracy - Katharine Hepburn comedy Pat and Mike . Originally cast to play a prizefighter, but that role went instead to Aldo Ray . Chuck was cast as a captain in the state police. He now abandoned his athletic hopes and devoted full time to his acting career, which often emphasized his muscular 6'6" physique.
During the next several years he made 20 movies, culminating in a key role in William Wyler 's 1958 western The Big Country . Also appearing in many television series, he finally hit the big time in 1958 with The Rifleman , which began its highly successful five-year run on ABC. Other television series followed, as did a number of movies which, though mostly minor, allowed Chuck to display his range as both a stalwart "good guy" and a menacing "heavy".
Chuck Connors died at age 71 of lung cancer and pneumonia on November 10, 1992 in Los Angeles, California. He is buried in San Fernando Mission Cemetery with his tombstone carrying a photo of Connors as Lucas McCain in "The Rifleman" as well as logos from the three professional sports teams he played for: the Dodgers, Cubs and Celtics.
Audie Murphy
Audie Murphy became a national hero during World War II as the most decorated combat soldier of the war. Among his 33 awards was the Medal of Honor, the highest award for bravery that a soldier can receive. In addition, he was also decorated for bravery by the governments of France and Belgium, and was credited with killing over 240 German soldiers and wounding and capturing many more.
Audie Leon Murphy was born 20 June 1925 in Kingston, Hunt County, Texas, to Josie Bell (Killian) and Emmett Berry Murphy, poor sharecroppers. After the death of his mother and the outbreak of WWII, Murphy enlisted in the army after being turned down by the Navy and the Marines. Being underage at the time, his older sister and designated legal guardian Corinne provided him a letter of consent. After undergoing basic military training, he was sent first to North Africa. But the Allies drove the German army from Tunisia, their last foothold in North Africa, before Murphys' unit could be sent into battle. His first engagement with Axis forces came when his unit was sent to Europe. First landing on the island of Sicily, next mainland Italy, and finally France, he fought in seven major campaigns over three years and rose from the rank of private to a battlefield commission as a second lieutenant. Part of Murphy's appeal to many people was that he didn't fit the "image" most had of a war hero. He was a slight, almost fragile-looking, shy and soft-spoken young man, whose boyish appearance (something he never lost throughout his life; he always looked at least 15 years younger than he actually was) often shocked people when they found out that, for example, during one battle he leaped on top of a burning tank--which was loaded with fuel and ammunition and could have exploded at any second--and used its machine gun to hold off waves of attacking German troops, killing dozens of them and saving his unit from certain destruction and the entire line from being overrun. In September 1945 Murphy was released from active duty, promoted to 1st Lieutenant, and assigned to inactive status. His story caught the interest of superstar James Cagney , who invited Murphy to Hollywood.
Cagney Productions paid for acting and dancing lessons but was reluctantly forced to admit that Murphy--at least at that point in his career--didn't have what it took to become a movie star. For the next several years he struggled to make it as an actor, but jobs were few, specifically just two bit parts, in Beyond Glory and Texas, Brooklyn & Heaven . He finally got a lead role in Bad Boy , and starred in the trouble-plagued production of MGM's The Red Badge of Courage , directed by John Huston . While this film is now considered a minor classic, the politics behind the production sparked an irreparable fissure within the ranks of the studio's upper management. Murphy proved adequate as an actor, but the film, with virtually no female presence (or appeal), bombed badly at the box office. Murphy, however, had already signed with Universal-International Pictures, which was putting him in a string of modestly budgeted Westerns, a genre that suited his easygoing image and Texas drawl. He starred in the film version of his autobiography, To Hell and Back , which was a huge hit, setting a box-office record for Universal that wasn't broken for 20 years until it was finally surpassed by Jaws ). One of his better pictures was Night Passage , a Western in which he played the kid brother of James Stewart . He worked for Huston again on The Unforgiven . Meanwhile, the studio system that Murphy grew into as an actor crumbled. Universal's new owners, MCA, dumped its "International" tag in 1962 and turned the studio's focus toward the more lucrative television industry. For theatrical productions, it dropped its roster of contract players and hired actors on a per-picture basis only. That cheap Westerns on the big screen were becoming a thing of the past bode no good for Murphy, either. The Texican , his lone attempt at a new, European form of inexpensive horse opera, to be known as the Spaghetti Western, was unsuccessful. His star was falling fast.
In addition to his acting career--he made a total of 44 films--Murphy was also a successful rancher and businessman. He bred and raised thoroughbred horses and owned several ranches in Texas, Arizona and California. He was also a songwriter, and penned hits for such singers as Dean Martin , Eddy Arnold , Charley Pride and many others.
His postwar life wasn't all roses, however. He suffered from what is now called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) but was then called "combat fatigue", and was known to have a hair-trigger temper. He woke up screaming at night and slept with a loaded M1911 .45 semi-automatic pistol nearby. He was acquitted of attempted murder charges brought about by injuries he inflicted on a man in a bar fight. Director Don Siegel said in an interview that Murphy often carried a pistol on the set of The Gun Runners and many of the cast and crew were afraid of him. He had a short-lived and turbulent marriage to actress Wanda Hendrix , and in the 1960s his increasing bouts of insomnia and depression resulted in his becoming addicted to a particularly powerful sleeping pill called Placidyl, an addiction he eventually broke. He ran into a streak of bad financial luck and was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1968. Admirably, he campaigned vigorously for the government to spend more time and money on taking care of returning Vietnam War veterans, as he more than most others knew exactly what kinds of problems they were going to have.
On May 18, 1971, Murphy was aboard a private plane on his way to a business meeting when it ran into thick fog near Roanoke, VA, and crashed into the side of a mountain, killing all six aboard. He was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery. According to cemetery records, the only grave site visited by more people than Murphy's is that of assassinated President John F. Kennedy .
Ted Cassidy
Ted Cassidy was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and raised in Philippi, West Virginia. He was a well respected actor who portrayed many different characters during his film and television career. His most notable role was Lurch, the faithful butler on the television series The Addams Family . His most memorable dialogue as Lurch would be, "You rang?", whenever someone summoned him. Due to his large size, (6ft. 9in.) he portrayed larger than life characters. His deep voice, was used for narrations and for dubbing certain character's voices. His acting career spanned three decades. Ted Cassidy died in 1979 from complications following open-heart surgery. His live-in girlfriend had his remains cremated, then buried in the backyard of their Woodland Hills home.
Randolph Scott
Handsome leading man who developed into one of Hollywood's greatest and most popular western stars. Born to George and Lucy Crane Scott during a visit to Virginia, Scott was raised in Charlotte, North Carolina in a wealthy family. He attended Georgia Institute of Technology but, after being injured playing football, transferred to the University of North Carolina, from which he graduated with a degree in textile engineering and manufacturing. He discovered acting and went to California, where he met Howard Hughes , who obtained an audition for him for Cecil B. DeMille 's Dynamite , a role which went instead to Joel McCrea . He was hired to coach Gary Cooper in a Virginia dialect for The Virginian and played a bit part in the film. Paramount scouts saw him in a play and offered him a contract. He met Cary Grant , another Paramount contract player, on the set of Hot Saturday and immediately moved in together. Their on-and-off living arrangement would last until 1942. Scott married and divorced wealthy heiress Marion DuPont in the late 1930's. He moved into leading roles at Paramount, although his easy-going charm was not enough to indicate the tremendous success that would come to him later. He was a pleasant figure in comedies, dramas and the occasional adventure, but it was not until he began focusing on westerns in the late 1940s that he reached his greatest stardom. His screen persona altered into that of a stoic, craggy, and uncompromising figure, a tough, hard-bitten man seemingly unconnected to the light comedy lead he had been in the 1930s. He became one of the top box office stars of the 1950s and, in the westerns of Budd Boetticher especially, a critically important figure in the western as an art form. Following a critically acclaimed, less-heroic-than-usual role in one of the classics of the genre, Ride the High Country , Scott retired from films. A multimillionaire as a result of canny investments, Scott spent his remaining years playing golf and avoiding film industry affairs, stating that he didn't like publicity. He died in 1987 survived by his second wife, Patricia Stillman, and his two adopted children, Christopher and Sandra. He is buried in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Will Sampson
A Native American actor of the Creek Nation, Sampson's "big break" came from his memorable role in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest opposite Jack Nicholson . He was also starred opposite Clint Eastwood in the western The Outlaw Josey Wales . He had supporting roles in Orca , The White Buffalo and Fish Hawk . In 1986, he co-starred in Poltergeist II: The Other Side as a Native American shaman. He died of complications from kidney failure and malnutrition during heart and lung replacement surgery in 1987 and was buried on the reservation where he grew up.
William Frawley
William Frawley was born in Burlington, Iowa. As a boy he sang at St. Paul's Catholic Church and played at the Burlington Opera House. His first job was as a stenographer for the Union Pacific Railroad. He did vaudeville with his brother Paul, then joined pianist Franz Rath in an act they took to San Francisco in 1910. Four years later he formed a light comedy act with his new wife Edna Louise Broedt, "Frawley and Louise", touring the Orpheum and Keith circuits until they divorced in 1927. He next moved to Broadway and then, in 1932, to Hollywood with Paramount. By 1951, when he contacted Lucille Ball about a part in her TV show I Love Lucy , he had performed in over 100 films. His Fred Mertz role lasted until the show ended in 1960, after which he did a five-year stint on My Three Sons . Poor health forced his retirement. He collapsed of a heart attack on March 3, 1966, aged 79, walking along Hollywood Boulevard after seeing a movie. He is buried in San Fernando Mission Cemetery.
Todd Stashwick
Stashwick was born in Chicago and raised in the suburbs right outside of the city. As a child, he always loved making people laugh, and he aspired to one day perform at Chicago's famous The Second City. Soon after graduating from Illinois State University with a degree in Theatre, he began performing at several local improvisational theaters, and his dream came true when he was hired in 1992 to tour nationally with The Second City.
Following productions at The Second City Detroit and The Second City Northwest, he moved to New York. There, he formed a company of improvisers and began staging the underground critically acclaimed "Burn Manhattan" all over the city. Other performers included Kate Walsh, Jeremy Piven and Spencer Kayden.
Aside from his work in improvisational theatre, Stashwick worked for several years in late 1997 through Spring 2000 on "Late Night With Conan O'Brien," performing as part of their rotating stable of comedy actors.
Work in television and film ultimately drew him to Los Angeles where he soon landed roles in pilots and series and film.
Stashwick remains true to his improvisational roots, and he produces, performs and teaches at his own improvisational theatre that he co-founded in North Hollywood called "The Hothouse". In addition he performs annually with the Macabre improv cabaret The Doubtful Guests who just celebrated their ten year anniversary. He has also taught and performed his unique style of avant-garde improvisation internationally. He directed a show in Liverpool called "Hoof!," which still tours throughout Europe.
He is also the writer and co-creator of the online action/horror web comic Devil Inside. He publishes a new free episode weekly on his website www.toddstashwick.com. The comic has brought him to comic book conventions across the country with his collaborator, comic book artist Dennis Calero.
Stashwick resides in Los Angeles with his wife Charity, whom he married in 1997 in the middle of Times Square in front of twenty close family members and friends, as well as all of New York City. The couple has two children. Their household also includes two dogs, two cats and a Conure (small parrot).
In his spare time, Stashwick enjoys surfing, noodling on the ukulele, writing screenplays and pilots. He's an avid TV (his current favorites are Breaking Bad, Walking Dead and Doctor Who) and a huge Film buff (Star Wars, There Will be Blood and Hedwig and the Angry Inch are among his favorites) . A shameless geek he can be found playing video games with his son or with his nose buried in a comic book. He's been a vegetarian since 1988. He loves traveling overseas as often as his hectic schedule permits. A self-professed Anglophile, Stashwick loves English comedy, music and television.
Stephen Walters
Stephen Walters, an Royal Television Society (RTS) Best Actor nominee, was born on 22 May 1975 in Merseyside, England (UK), where he spent the remainder of his childhood. A regular both on British television and film, for many years he has played a wide range and variety of character roles in both drama and comedy. The roles with which he is most commonly associated are unpredictable, complex figures. These characters illustrate a wide range of dialect accents and backgrounds including American, RP, Scottish, Irish ,Eastern European, Cockney, Mancunian and others. Stephen has also worked alongside directors as eclectic as Matthew Vaughan, Danny Boyle, Ronny Yu, Guy Ritchie, Peter Webber, Sam Miller, Rowan Joffe, and the late Antonia Bird.
After completion of a BTEC in Performing arts at Southport Collage (1990-1992), he went on to gain a place at the prestigious Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (1994-1996). In 1994 Stephen played the lead role of Joey Jackson, a poetic soul searching for the meaning of life, in Jim Morris' "Blood on the Dole" as part of the "Alan Bleasdale Presents" series for Channel 4. This performance garnered much critical acclaim for Walters and with the personal advice of Bleasdale he decided to apply to train at drama school. Stephen has spoken about this period in his career by saying, "I owe everything to Alan Bleasdale in that, after seeing Blood on the Dole, he made me realize and see for the first time that I was an actor...Bleasdale opened the door for me...literally and metaphorically speaking".
In 1989, whilst still at Saint Wilfrids secondary school, Stephen got his first break in television through a now defunct agency run by fellow Liverpudlian actor Ricky Tomlinson, with whom he has appeared in no less than five different projects. Cast as part of ITVs "Dramarama" series on an episode entitled "Ghost Story", Stephen played the featured role of Corporal Tomkins. This was directed by future award winning Director Julian Jarrold, whom Stephen went on to work with again on an ITV drama entitled "Touching Evil". Stephen portrayed lead guest character Jack McCaffrey, a slippery cockney, in a two-part drama written by Paul Abbott.
Coincidentally, by a strange quirk of fate in the spring of 2013, Stephen played the lead role of Ricky Tomlinson in "Ragged", which was a one-off drama for the "Sky Arts Presents" series directed by comedian Johnny Vegas. The role dealt with Tomlinson's incarceration during the 1970's builders strike. For his performance, Stephen was nominated, alongside Derek Jacobi, for an RTS Award as Best Actor in a single drama.
After leaving drama school Stephen appeared as Ian Glover in Jimmy McGovern's highly acclaimed drama "Hillsborough", which went on to win a Bafta for best drama. His next performance was in the role of Jamie Spencer on ITV's ill fated drama series "Springhill" (1996), though Stephen did not return for the second series due to artistic differences.
Between 1998 and 2000, Stephen appeared in numerous eye catching episodic performances such as BBC's "Pie In the Sky", opposite the late Richard Griffiths, Mikey Sullivan in Jimmy McGovern's "Liverpool 1", Private John McGrath in "Band of Brothers" (HBO), and Scot in "Nice Guy Eddie". Stephen also played Kick Box Stevie in the feature film "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang" by Stuart Suggs.
In 2001, with three back-to-back roles, Stephen's work and range were presented to a larger much larger audience. Stephen starred in the BBC's production of writer Jim Cartwright's (Road, Little Voices) "Strumpet" opposite Christopher Eccleston. "Strumpet" was directed by Oscar winning director Danny Boyle. The role of Knockoff was, in Stephen's words, "An actor's dream". This performance was in complete contrast to Walters' more dramatic work up to this point and showed his love for comedy. Walters has gone on record as saying..."It took someone like Danny to take a chance on me...previously I had done more intense, perhaps disturbed kind of characters...then along came this script that I read for and Danny thought I could play it...working with Danny Boyle, Christopher Eccleston and Jim Cartwright was a real learning curve for me".
That same year Stephen featured in the film "Mean Machine" (2001), a remake of the 1974 Burt Reynolds film produced by Matthew Vaughn, as bomb expert Nitro opposite actor Vinny Jones. He then played the role of Nazi skinhead Blowfish in Ronny Yu's film "51st State" (AKA-"Formula 51") opposite Samuel L Jackson and Robert Carlyle. Both characters showcase the more unpredictable, dangerous type of characters that Walters seems to relish. Interestingly, Stephen also worked with Carlyle in his first ever feature film "Plunkett and McCleane", directed by Jake Scot, son of acclaimed director Ridley Scot, where he played the role of Denis. Robert Carlyle has been an important influence on Stephen's career.
These consecutive roles were the springboard to Stephen being cast in the lead role of prison Psychiatrist Nick Vaughn, alongside Lenny James, in Channel 4's eight-part drama series "Buried" (2002). The series, by award winning producer Tony Garner, was awarded the Bafta for Best Drama and Stephen was the recipient of critical acclaim for his performance.
In 2003, Stephen played a two episode lead guest as Dylan Forbes in the ITV drama "Murder City", directed by Sam Miller. The following year (2004) Stephen was directed by Matthew Vaughn in the explosive supporting role of Shanks, opposite Daniel Craig, in the feature film "Layer Cake". Vaughn, who had produced Barry Scholnick's Mean Machine, offered Stephen the role.
Continuing with his eclectic list of credits, Stephen's next project was Guy Richie's film "Revolver" (2005) where, opposite Jason Statham, he portrayed Irish Joe. That same year saw a cameo appearance, as the Arkham Lunatic, in Christopher Nolan's acclaimed feature "Batman Begins" and a turn later as master Lord Gilbert Gifford in the BBC's "Virgin Queen".
In 2007, after a self imposed year hiatus, Stephen undertook three new projects. First was the feature film "Hannibal Rising", the final installment of the Hannibal series which explored the origins of Hannibal Lecter, where he was featured alongside fellow actor Rhys Ifans. Stephen portrayed Zigmas Milko, a man of Eastern European origin and one of Hannibal's main victims. Director Peter Webber described the death of Zigmas Milko as one of his favorite scenes in the movie. Immediately following his role in Hannibal, Stephen was featured in BBC 3's six part comedy series entitled "The Visit", which was set in a prison waiting room. Stephen played the colorful character Splodge, a Manchunian rogue and a troublesome yet likable loser. Later that same year, Stephen played the frighteningly strange, oddly comedic Maddison Twatter (AKA-Mad Twatter) in a three episodes stint for E4's cult smash "Skins".
In 2008 Stephen appeared in "Franklyn", a film directed by Gerald McMorrow, which premiered at the London Film Festival. His dual role as Bill Wasnik/Wormsnakes was played opposite Bernard Hill and Ryan Philippe respectively. In another two-part drama entitled "Wire In The Blood", Stephen played serial killer on the loose James Williams. Robson Green, also featured in the series, collaborated with Stephen in ITV's 1997 drama "Touching Evil". These episodes were directed by Philip John who, coincidentally, would later direct Walters in Outlander (2014-2016).
"Splintered", a horror movie released cinematically in 2010, was demanding for Stephen since he played dual roles as brothers Vincent and Gavin. Playing opposite himself in the same scene presented unique challenges, yet garnered recognition and acclaim for Walters.
"Powder" (2011), based on Kevin Sampson's novel of the same name, featured Stephen in the lead role of Johnny Winegums, the manager of an aspiring POP music group. Some scenes in the film involved filming in front of a live audience, composed of over fifty thousand fans, at the V Festival. This was an experience Stephen thoroughly enjoyed. Later that year Stephen featured heavily in "Age of Heroes" along with Sean Bean. The WWII drama, directed by Adrian Vitoria, highlighted the story of Ian Fleming's Commandos who were assigned to infiltrate behind enemy lines in the Nazi controlled snowy mountains of Norway. Walters has commented that the role of Private Syd Brightling was both a physical and mental test of endurance. Walters would work with Sean Bean again in 2013's "The Accused", penned by Jimmy McGovern.
In 2012 Stephen played the role of gangster Callum Rose, opposite his name-sake and friend actor Stephen Graham, in the BBC's production "Good Cop". Written by Stephen Butchard, and despite only running for one series, "Good Cop" won the RTS award for Best Drama. Sam Miller acted as director. That same year Stephen played the role of Gaz in Niall Griffith's "Kelly + Victor", a film which received a Bafta for Best Debut Feature and critical acclaim for its director Kieran Evans.
2013 brought Stephen lead roles in two back to back television series, highlighting his range and versatility. First was the comedy "Great Night Out", from Jimmy Mulville's HatTrick Productions, where Walters played the lovable but simple Daz Taylor. Second was "The Village" where he played Crispin Ingram, a sadistic teacher from Derbyshire. Director Antonia Bird cast Stephen in the latter and he was devastated to hear of her sudden death not long after filming. Gillies McKinnon, another director Stephen worked with on "The Village", also directed Jimmy McGovermn's "Needle" (1990), Stephen's second professional project that told the story of the heroin epidemic in Liverpool. A second series of "The Village" was re-commissioned, though Stephen was unable to reprise his role due to a scheduling conflict with "Outlander" (2014-2016).
Stephen worked extensively with director Brian Kelly in 2014. He filmed three episodes of NBC's "Dracula", opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers, as Hungarian detective Hackett. The series was shot in Budapest, Hungary. Kelly then cast Walters as Simon the Sorcerer in NBC's series "AD the Bible" (2015). The series was shot in Morocco.
From 2014-2016, opposite Caitriona Balfe and Graham McTavish, Walters portrayed the featured role of Angus Mhor in the television adaptation of Diana Gabaldon's best selling Scottish time travel novel "Outlander". Presented by Starz/Sony and executive producer Ronald D Moore, the show has been re-commissioned for seasons three and four.
Between seasons one and two of "Outlander", Stephen was featured in two stylistically different shows back to back, both for the BBC. First, he was in two episodes of "Dickensian" (2015) opposite Stephen Rea. Second, was a lead episode of "Musketeers" (2015), shot in Prague, in the role of Borel. Walters received strong accolades for this role.
Early in 2016, Stephen completed filming on Rowan Joffe's "Tin Star" for Sky Atlantic. Filmed in Canada, the production features Tim Roth and Christina Hendricks, and has been described as a contemporary western. Stephen is featured as failed Rock Star Johnny.
During the summer of 2016 Stephen completed filming on two episodes of "Into the Badlands" where he played The Engineer, an American Warlord, opposite Daniel Wu and Nick Frost. At present Stephen is shooting "Little Boy Blue", written for ITV by Jeff Pope, with fellow actor Stephen Graham.
In addition to his acting credits, Stephen is also an accomplished writer and director, with several short films completed. The first is award winning short "Danny Boy", an intense drama where a man must come to terms with his mother's Alzheimer's. Second, a recently completed film titled "I'm not Here", is an exploration of Charles Manson wherein Stephen plays the lead role. Stephen also has numerous original scripts in various stages of development.
Lee J. Cobb
Lee J. Cobb, one of the premier character actors in American film for three decades in the post-World War II period, was born Leo Jacoby in New York City's Lower East Side on December 8, 1911. The son of a Jewish newspaper editor, young Leo was a child prodigy in music, mastering the violin and the harmonica. Any hopes of a career as a violin virtuoso were dashed when he broke his wrist, but his talent on the harmonica may have brought him his first professional success. At the age of 16 or 17 he ran away from home to Hollywood to try to break into motion pictures as an actor. He reportedly made his film debut as a member of Borrah Minevitch and His Harmonica Rascals (their first known movie appearance was in the 1929 two-reeler Boyhood Days), but that cannot be substantiated. However, it's known that after Leo was unable to find work he returned to New York City, where he attended City College of New York at night to study accounting while acting in radio dramas during the day.
An older Cobb tried his luck in California once more, making his debut as a professional stage actor at the Pasadena Playhouse in 1931. After again returning to his native New York, he made his Broadway debut as a saloonkeeper in a dramatization of Fyodor Dostoevsky 's Crime and Punishment, but it closed after 15 performances (later in his career, Dostoevsky would prove more of a charm, with Cobb's role as Father Karamazov in The Brothers Karamazov garnering him his second Oscar nomination),
Cobb joined the politically progressive Group Theater in 1935 and made a name for himself in Clifford Odets ' politically liberal dramas Waiting for Lefty and Til the Day I Die, appearing in both plays that year in casts that included Elia Kazan , who later became famous as a film director. Cobb also appeared in the 1937 Group Theater production of Odets' Golden Boy, playing the role of Mr. Carp, in a cast that also included Kazan, Julius Garfinkle (later better known under his stage name of John Garfield ), and Martin Ritt , all of whom later came under the scrutiny of the House Un-American Activities Committee during the heyday of the McCarthy Red Scare hysteria more than a decade later. Cobb took over the role of Mr. Bonaparte, the protagonist's father, in the 1939 film version of the play, despite the fact that he was not yet 30 years old. The role of a patriarch suited him, and he'd play many more in his film career.
It was as a different kind of patriarch that he scored his greatest success. Cobb achieved immortality by giving life to the character of Willy Loman in the original 1949 Broadway production of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman. His performance was a towering achievement that ranks with such performances as Edwin Booth as Richard III and John Barrymore as Hamlet in the annals of the American theater. Cobb later won an Emmy nomination as Willy when he played the role in a made-for-TV movie of the play ( Death of a Salesman ). Miller said that he wrote the role with Cobb in mind.
Before triumphing as Miller's Salesman, Cobb had appeared on Broadway only a handful of times in the 1940s, including in Ernest Hemingway 's The Fifth Column (1940), Odets' "Clash by Night" (1942) and the US Army Air Force's Winged Victory (1943-44). Later he reprised the role of Joe Bonaparte's father in the 1952 revival of Golden Boy opposite Garfield as his son, and appeared the following year in The Emperor's Clothes. His final Broadway appearance was as King Lear in the Repertory Theatre of Lincoln Center's 1968 production of Shakespeare's play.
Aside from his possible late 1920s movie debut and his 1934 appearance in the western The Vanishing Shadow , Cobb's film career proper began in 1937 with the westerns North of the Rio Grande (in which he was billed as Lee Colt) and Rustlers' Valley and spanned nearly 40 years until his death. After a hiatus while serving in the Army Air Force during World War II, Cobb's movie career resumed in 1946. He continued to play major supporting roles in prestigious A-list pictures. His movie career reached its artistic peak in the 1950s, when he was twice nominated for Best Supporting Actor Academy Awards, for his role as Johnny Friendly in On the Waterfront and as the father in The Brothers Karamazov . Other memorable supporting roles in the 1950s included the sagacious Judge Bernstein in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit , as the probing psychiatrist Dr. Luther in The Three Faces of Eve and as the volatile Juror #3 in 12 Angry Men .
It was in the 1950s that Cobb achieved the sort of fame that most artists dreaded: he was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee on charges that he was or had been a Communist. The charges were rooted in Cobb's membership in the Group Theater in the 1930s. Other Group Theater members already investigated by HUAC included Clifford Odets and Elia Kazan , both of whom provided friendly testimony before the committee, and John Garfield , who did not.
Cobb's own persecution by HUAC had already caused a nervous breakdown in his wife, and he decided to appear as a friendly witness in order to preserve her sanity and his career, by bringing the inquisition to a halt. Appearing before the committee in 1953, he named names and thus saved his career. Ironically, he would win his first Oscar nomination in On the Waterfront directed and written by fellow HUAC informers Kazan and Budd Schulberg . The film can be seen as a stalwart defense of informing, as epitomized by the character Terry Malloy's testimony before a Congressional committee investigating racketeering on the waterfront.
Fred MacMurray
Fred MacMurray was likely the most underrated actor of his generation. True, his earliest work is mostly dismissed as pedestrian, but no other actor working in the 1940s and 50s was able to score so supremely whenever cast against type.
Frederick Martin MacMurray was born in Kankakee, Illinois, to Maleta Martin and Frederick MacMurray. His father had Scottish ancestry and his mother's family was German. His father's sister was vaudeville performer and actress Fay Holderness . When MacMurray was five years old, the family moved to Beaver Dam in Wisconsin, his parents' birth state. He graduated from Beaver Dam High School (later the site of Beaver Dam Middle School), where he was a three-sport star in football, baseball, and basketball. Fred retained a special place in his heart for his small-town Wisconsin upbringing, referring at any opportunity in magazine articles or interviews to the lifelong friends and cherished memories of Beaver Dam, even including mementos of his childhood in several of his films. In "Pardon my Past", Fred and fellow GI William Demarest are moving to Beaver Dam, WI to start a mink farm.
MacMurray earned a full scholarship to attend Carroll College in Waukesha, Wisconsin and had ambitions to become a musician. In college, MacMurray participated in numerous local bands, playing the saxophone. In 1930, he played saxophone in the Gus Arnheim and his Coconut Grove Orchestra when Bing Crosby was the lead vocalist and Russ Columbo was in the violin section. MacMurray recorded a vocal with Arnheim's orchestra "All I Want Is Just One Girl" -- Victor 22384, 3/20/30. He appeared on Broadway in the 1930 hit production of "Three's a Crowd" starring Sydney Greenstreet , Clifton Webb and Libby Holman . He next worked alongside Bob Hope in the 1933 production of "Roberta" before he signed on with Paramount Pictures in 1934 for the then-standard 7-year contract (the hit show made Bob Hope a star and he was also signed by Paramount). MacMurray married Lillian Lamont (D: June 22, 1953) on June 20, 1936, and they adopted two children.
Although his early film work is largely overlooked by film historians and critics today, he rose steadily within the ranks of Paramount's contract stars, working with some of Hollywood's greatest talents, including wunderkind writer-director Preston Sturges (whom he intensely disliked) and actors Humphrey Bogart and Marlene Dietrich . Although the majority of his films of the 30's can largely be dismissed as standard fare there are exceptions: he played opposite Claudette Colbert in seven films, beginning with The Gilded Lily . He also co-starred with Katharine Hepburn in the classic, Alice Adams , and with Carole Lombard in Hands Across the Table , The Trail of the Lonesome Pine -- an ambitious early outdoor 3-strip Technicolor hit, co-starring with Henry Fonda and Sylvia Sidney directed by Henry Hathaway -- The Princess Comes Across , and True Confession . MacMurray spent the decade learning his craft and developing a reputation as a solid actor. In an interesting sidebar, artist C.C. Beck used MacMurray as the initial model for a superhero character who would become Fawcett Comics' Captain Marvel in 1939.
The 1940s gave him his chance to shine. He proved himself in melodramas such as Above Suspicion and musicals ( Where Do We Go from Here? ), somewhat ironically becoming one of Hollywood's highest-paid actors by 1943, when his salary reached $420,000. He scored a huge hit with the thoroughly entertaining The Egg and I , again teamed with Ms. Colbert and today largely remembered for launching the long-running Ma and Pa Kettle franchise. In 1941, MacMurray purchased a large parcel of land in Sonoma County, California and began a winery/cattle ranch. He raised his family on the ranch and it became the home to his second wife, June Haver after their marriage in 1954. The winery remains in operation today in the capable hands of their daughter, Kate MacMurray. Despite being habitually typecast as a "nice guy", MacMurray often said that his best roles were when he was cast against type by Billy Wilder . In 1944, he played the role of "Walter Neff", an insurance salesman (numerous other actors had turned the role down) who plots with a greedy wife Barbara Stanwyck to murder her husband in Double Indemnity -- inarguably the greatest role of his entire career. Indeed, anyone today having any doubts as to his potential depth as an actor should watch this film. He did another stellar turn in the "not so nice" category, playing the cynical, spineless "Lieutenant Thomas Keefer" in the 1954 production of The Caine Mutiny , directed by Edward Dmytryk . He gave another superb dramatic performance cast against type as a hard-boiled crooked cop in Pushover .
Despite these and other successes, his career waned considerably by the late 1950s and he finished out the decade working in a handful of non-descript westerns. MacMurray's career got its second wind beginning in 1959 when he was cast as the dog-hating father figure (well, he was a retired mailman) in the first Walt Disney live-action comedy, The Shaggy Dog . The film was an enormous hit and Uncle Walt green lighted several projects around his middle-aged star. Billy Wilder came calling again and he did a masterful turn in the role of Jeff Sheldrake, a two-timing corporate executive in Wilder's Oscar-winning comedy-drama The Apartment , with Shirley MacLaine and Jack Lemmon -- arguably his second greatest role and the last one to really challenge him as an actor. Although this role would ultimately be remembered as his last great performance, he continued with the lightweight Disney comedies while pulling double duty, thanks to an exceptionally generous contract, on TV.
MacMurray was cast in 1961 as Professor Ned Brainerd in Disney's The Absent Minded Professor and in its superior sequel, Son of Flubber . These hit Disney comedies raised his late-career profile considerably and producer Don Fedderson beckoned with My Three Sons debuting in 1960 on ABC. The gentle sitcom staple remained on the air for 12 seasons (380 episodes). Concerned about his work load and time away from his ranch and family, Fred played hardball with his series contract. In addition to his generous salary, the "Sons" contract was written so that all the scenes requiring his presence to be shot first, requiring him to work only 65 days per season on the show (the contract was reportedly used as an example by Dean Martin when negotiating the wildly generous terms contained in his later variety show contract). This requirement meant the series actors had to work with stand-ins and posed wardrobe continuity issues. The series moved without a hitch to CBS in the fall of 1965 in color after ABC, then still an also-ran network with its eyes peeled on the bottom line, refused to increase the budget required for color production (color became a U.S. industry standard in the 1968 season). This freed him to pursue his film work, family, ranch, and his principal hobby, golf.
Politically very conservative, MacMurray was a staunch supporter of the Republican Party; he joined his old friend Bob Hope and James Stewart in campaigning for Richard Nixon in 1968. He was also widely known one of the most -- to be polite -- frugal actors in the business. Stories floated around the industry in the 60s regarding famous hard-boiled egg brown bag lunches and stingy tips. After the cancellation of My Three Sons in 1972, MacMurray made only a few more film appearances before retiring to his ranch in 1978. As a result of a long battle with leukemia, MacMurray died of pneumonia at the age of eighty-three in Santa Monica on November 5, 1991. He was buried in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City.
Bela Lugosi
It's ironic that Martin Landau won an Oscar for impersonating Bela Lugosi (in Ed Wood ) when Lugosi himself never came within a mile of one, but that's just the latest of many sad ironies surrounding Lugosi's career.
Bela Lugosi was born Béla Ferenc Dezsö Blaskó on October 20, 1882, Lugos, Hungary, Austria-Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania), to Paula de Vojnich and István Blaskó, a banker. He was the youngest of four children. During WWI, he volunteered and was commissioned as an infantry lieutenant, and was wounded three times.
A distinguished stage actor in his native Hungary, Austria-Hungary, he ended up a drug-addicted pauper in Hollywood, thanks largely to typecasting brought about by his most famous role. He began his stage career in 1901 and started appearing in films during World War I, fleeing to Germany in 1919 as a result of his left-wing political activity (he organized an actors' union). In 1920 he emigrated to the US and made a living as a character actor, shooting to fame when he played Count Dracula in the legendary 1927 Broadway stage adaptation of Bram Stoker 's novel. It ran for three years, and was subsequently, and memorably, filmed by Tod Browning in 1931, establishing Lugosi as one of the screen's greatest personifications of pure evil. Also in 1931, he became a U.S. citizen. Sadly, his reputation rapidly declined, mainly because he was only too happy to accept any part (and script) handed to him, and ended up playing pathetic parodies of his greatest role, in low-grade poverty row shockers. He ended his career working for the legendary Worst Director of All Time, Edward D. Wood Jr. .
Lugosi was married Ilona Szmik (1917 - 1920), Ilona von Montagh (? - ?), and Lillian Arch (1933 - 1951). He is the father of Bela Lugosi Jr. (1938). Lugosi helped organize the Screen Actors Guild in the mid-'30s, joining as member number 28.
Bela Lugosi died of a heart attack August 16, 1956. He was buried in his full Dracula costume, including a cape.
Efrem Zimbalist Jr.
It's hardly surprising that the son of renowned Russian-born concert violinist Efrem Zimbalist Sr. (1889-1985) and Romanian-born opera singer Alma Gluck (1884-1938) would desire a performing career of some kind. Born in New York City on November 30, 1918, surrounded by people of wealth and privilege throughout his childhood, Efrem Zimbalist Jr. received a boarding school education. Acting in school plays, he later trained briefly at the Yale School of Drama but didn't apply himself enough and quit. As an NBC network radio page, he auditioned when he could and found minor TV and stock theatre parts while joining up with the Neighborhood Playhouse.
Following WWII war service with the Army infantry in which he was awarded the Purple Heart after being wounded, a director and friend of the family, Garson Kanin , gave the aspiring actor his first professional role in his Broadway production of "The Rugged Path" (1945) which starred Spencer Tracy . With his dark, friendly, clean-scrubbed good looks and a deep, rich voice that could cut butter, Zimbalist found little trouble finding work. He continued with the American Repertory Theatre performing in such classics as "Henry VIII" and "Androcles and the Lion" while appearing opposite the legendary Eva Le Gallienne in "Hedda Gabler".
Zimbalist then tried his hand as a stage producer, successfully bringing opera to Broadway audiences for the first time with memorable presentations of "The Medium" and "The Telephone". As producer of Gian Carlo Menotti 's "The Consul", he won the New York Drama Critic's Award and the Pulitzer Prize for best musical in 1950. An auspicious film debut opposite Edward G. Robinson in House of Strangers brought little career momentum due to the untimely death of his wife Emily (a onetime actress who appeared with him in "Hedda Gabler" and bore him two children, Nancy and Efrem III) to cancer in 1950. Making an abrupt decision to abandon acting, he served as assistant director/researcher at the Curtis School of Music for his father and buried himself with studies and music composition.
Howard Hughes
Billionaire businessman, film producer, film director, and aviator, born in Humble, Texas just north of Houston. He studied at two prestigious institutions of higher learning: Rice University in Houston and California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. Inherited his father's machine tool company in 1923. In 1926 he ventured into films, producing Hell's Angels , Scarface and The Outlaw . He also founded his own aircraft company, designed, built and flew his own aircraft, and broke several world air speed records (1935-1938). His most famous aircraft, the Hercules (nicknamed "The Spruce Goose"), which was as he discovered, an under-powered wooden seaplane designed to carry 750 passengers. That plane was completed in 1947, but flew only once over a distance of one mile despite having eight Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major engines, among the most powerful radial piston engines of the day. Throughout his life he shunned publicity, eventually becoming a recluse but still controlling his vast business interests from sealed-off hotel suites, and giving rise to endless rumors and speculation. In 1971 an "authorized" biography was announced, but the authors wound up in prison for fraud, and the mystery surrounding him continued until his death in Houston. He is buried in Glenwood Cemetery, Houston
Ann Miller
Ann Miller was born Johnnie Lucille Ann Collier on April 12, 1923 in Chireno, Texas. She lived there until she was nine, when her mother left her philandering father and moved with Ann to Los Angeles, California. Even at that young age, she had to support her mother, who was hearing-impaired and unable to hold a job. After taking tap-dancing lessons, she got jobs dancing in various Hollywood nightclubs while being home-schooled. Then, in 1937, RKO asked her to sign on as a contract player, but only if she could prove she was 18. Though she was really barely 14, she managed to get hold of a fake birth certificate, and so was signed on, playing dancers and ingénues in such films as Stage Door , You Can't Take It with You , Room Service and Too Many Girls . In 1939, she appeared on Broadway in "George White's Scandals" and was a smash, staying on for two years. Eventually, RKO released her from her contract, but Columbia Pictures snapped her up to appear in such World War II morale boosters as True to the Army and Reveille with Beverly . When she decided to get married, Columbia released her from her contract. The marriage was sadly unhappy and she was divorced in two years. This time, MGM picked her up, showcasing her in such films as Easter Parade , On the Town and Kiss Me Kate . In the mid-1950s, she asked to leave to marry again, and her request was granted. This marriage didn't last long, either, nor did a third. Ann then threw herself into work, appearing on television, in nightclubs and on the stage. She was a smash as the last actress to headline the Broadway production of "Mame" in 1969 and 1970, and an even bigger smash in "Sugar Babies" in 1979, which she played for nine years, on Broadway and on tour. She has cut back in recent years, but did appear in the Paper Mill Playhouse (Millburn, New Jersey) production of Stephen Sondheim 's "Follies" in 1998, in which she sang the song "I'm Still Here", a perfect way to sum up the life and career of Ann Miller. On January 22, 2004, Ann Miller died at age 80 of lung cancer and was buried at the Holy Cross Cemetary in Culver City, California.
John Barrymore
American stage and screen actor whose rise to superstardom and subsequent decline is one of the legendary tragedies of Hollywood. A member of the most famous generation of the most famous theatrical family in America, he was also its most acclaimed star. His father was Maurice Blyth (or Blythe; family spellings vary), a stage success under the name 'Maurice Barrymore'. His mother, Georgie Drew, was the daughter of actor John Drew. Although well known in the theatre, Maurice and Georgie were eclipsed by their three children, John, Lionel Barrymore , and Ethel Barrymore , each of whom became legendary stars. John was handsome and roguish. He made his stage debut at 18 in one of his father's productions, but was much more interested in becoming an artist. Briefly educated at King's College, Wimbledon, and at New York's Art Students League, Barrymore worked as a freelance artist and for a while sketched for the New York Evening Journal. Gradually, though, the draw of his family's profession ensnared him and by 1905 he had given up professional drawing and was touring the country in plays. He survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and in 1909 became a major Broadway star in "The Fortune Hunter." In 1922, Barrymore became his generation's most acclaimed Hamlet, in New York and London. But by this time he had become a frequent player in motion pictures. His screen debut supposedly came in An American Citizen , though records of several lost films indicate he may have made appearances as far back as 1912. He became every bit the star of films that he was on stage, eclipsing his siblings in both arenas. Though his striking matinee-idol looks had garnered him the nickname "The Great Profile", he often buried them under makeup or distortion in order to create memorable characters of degradation or horror. He was a romantic leading man into the early days of sound films, but his heavy drinking (since boyhood) began to take a toll, and he degenerated quickly into a man old before his time. He made a number of memorable appearances in character roles, but these became over time more memorable for the humiliation of a once-great star than for his gifts. His last few films were broad and distasteful caricatures of himself, though in even the worst, such as Playmates , he could rouse himself to a moving soliloquy from Hamlet. He died in 1942, mourned as much for the loss of his life as for the loss of grace, wit, and brilliance which had characterized his career at its height.
Anne Haney
Anne Haney held prominent roles acting on stage, on the screen, and on TV. All these achievements came in her mid 40s, after she had raised a daughter and buried a husband. It wasn't until after she had packed her daughter off to college and "the maid quit", as she said, that she decided to try her hand at acting. She was born in Memphis, Tennessee and studied drama, radio and TV at the University of North Carolina, where she met her husband, John Haney. She did apply her schooling briefly at a Memphis television station, but soon settled down with her husband and devoted herself to family life. "I was a lovely faculty wife. We made ambrosia salad. We did good works. We played a lot of bridge", she said of those times. By the 1970s, however, Haney began seeking work in local theatre productions and television commercials. Soon, she was traveling with a touring company performing as the maid in Noël Coward 's "Fallen Angels". She toured for two years. Eventually, she joined the Screen Actors Guild and the American Federation of T.V. and Radio Artists. She and her husband had, in fact, planned to move to Southern California after his retirement. She was eager to experience and, she hoped, benefit from the variety and prestige available only in Hollywood. Those plans changed when Mr. Haney died of kidney disease in 1980; Anne Haney made the trek to California, alone. Not long after arriving, she had an agent and a part in the Walter Matthau vehicle Hopscotch . As her career took off, she also secured roles on stage, notably the role of Margaret Fielding in the Theatre West production of "Verdigris". When asked whether she ever dwelled on the prospect that had she begun her career too late, she replied that "this is gravy to me. It's a wonderful way to spend the last third of my life".
Freddie Prinze
Freddie Prinze was born Frederick Karl Pruetzel in New York City, New York, to a Puerto Rican mother, Aurea Elena Ruiz, and a German immigrant father, Edward Karl Pruetzel. Freddie grew up in the Washington Heights section of New York City. As a chubby child, he was often bullied, but was quite creative and bright in his extracurricular activities (he was known to have handmade a ham radio, which he used regularly). Early on, he aspired to become famous, and, after enrolling at Fiorella LaGuardia High School of the Performing Arts, he obtained a job at the Improv Club, in New York, where people started to take notice of his comedic talent (but the long hours he worked at night, balanced by increasing absences in school, caused him to drop out of high school to pursue comedy full-time). He changed his name to Freddie Prinze (to indicate that he was "The Prince of Comedy"). In December 1973, he was invited to perform on "The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson", which proved to be a breakthrough performance, as he was invited to chat with Johnny after his performance (only two other comedians have enjoyed that privilege). Soon afterwards, he won the role of "Chico Rodriquez" in an NBC-produced TV series called Chico and the Man (he and co-star Jack Albertson forged a great friendship while working on the show). In 1975, he released a comedy album, titled "Looking Good", and further boosted his popularity with appearances on various TV talk shows (such as the "Tony Orlando & Dawn" show). In Las Vegas in August 1975, he married Katherine Cochran, with whom he had a son, Freddie Prinze, Jr. (born on March 8, 1976 in Albuquerque, New Mexico). He loved his role as a father, and his growing popularity. But all the fame had a downside to it: Freddie developed an addiction to drugs (namely Quaaludes and cocaine), and was subsequently arrested in Nov. 1976 for DUI. Also, his marriage to Kathy was dissolving, and they separated. Things were unraveling quickly for him, and he started to mention thoughts of suicide to many of his close friends and family (including his best friends: singer 'Tony Orlando' and comedian David Brenner). In January 1977, following his final public appearance (at the Inaugural Ball for President Jimmy Carter), 22-year-old Freddie called his mother, friends and manager and announced that he was committing suicide. While his manager tried to stop him, he placed a .32 caliber pistol against his temple and pulled the trigger. Miraculously, he did not die right away, and was rushed to UCLA Medical Center with a massive head wound. He was kept on life support until January 29, 1977, when his family and friends decided to turn off the life support, to let him rest in peace. On his TV show, his death resulted in his "Chico" character being replaced by a young child; the show was canceled soon afterwards. He was buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park, and his funeral was attended by many who had known him (Jack Albertson, his co-star and friend, Tony Orlando, Sammy Davis, Jr., etc.). He left behind a wife and infant son. On a positive note, more than two decades after his death, his only son, 'Freddie Prinze, Jr.', has carried on the Prinze name and become a star in his own right.
Frank Capra
One of seven children, Frank Capra was born on May 18, 1897, in Bisacquino, Sicily. On May 10, 1903, his family left for America aboard the ship Germania, arriving in New York on May 23rd. "There's no ventilation, and it stinks like hell. They're all miserable. It's the most degrading place you could ever be," Capra said about his Atlantic passage. "Oh, it was awful, awful. It seems to always be storming, raining like hell and very windy, with these big long rolling Atlantic waves. Everybody was sick, vomiting. God, they were sick. And the poor kids were always crying."
The family boarded a train for the trip to California, where Frank's older brother Benjamin was living. On their journey, they subsisted on bread and bananas, as their lack of English made it impossible for them to ask for any other kind of foodstuffs. On June 3, the Capra family arrived at the Southern Pacific station in Los Angeles, at the time, a small city of approximately 102,000 people. The family stayed with Capra's older brother Benjamin, and on September 14, 1903, Frank began his schooling at the Castelar Elementary school.
In 1909, he entered Los Angeles' Manual Arts High School. Capra made money selling newspapers in downtown L.A. after school and on Saturdays, sometimes working with his brother Tony. When sales were slow, Tony punched Frank to attract attention, which would attract a crowd and make Frank's papers sell quicker. Frank later became part of a two-man music combo, playing at various places in the red light district of L.A., including brothels, getting paid a dollar per night, performing the popular songs. He also worked as a janitor at the high school in the early mornings. It was at high school that he became interested in the theater, typically doing back-stage work such as lighting.
Capra's family pressured him to drop out of school and go to work, but he refused, as he wanted to partake fully of the American Dream, and for that he needed an education. Capra later reminisced that his family "thought I was a bum. My mother would slap me around; she wanted me to quit school. My teachers would urge me to keep going....I was going to school because I had a fight on my hands that I wanted to win."
Capra graduated from high school on January 27, 1915, and in September of that year, he entered the Throop College of Technology (later the California Institute of Technology) to study chemical engineering. The school's annual tuition was $250, and Capra received occasional financial support from his family, who were resigned to the fact they had a scholar in their midst. Throop had a fine arts department, and Capra discovered poetry and the essays of Montaigne, which he fell in love with, while matriculating at the technical school. He then decided to write.
"It was a great discovery for me. I discovered language. I discovered poetry. I discovered poetry at Caltech, can you imagine that? That was a big turning point in my life. I didn't know anything could be so beautiful." Capra penned "The Butler's Failure," about an English butler provoked by poverty to murder his employer, then to suicide."
Capra was singled out for a cash award of $250 for having the highest grades in the school. Part of his prize was a six-week trip across the U.S. and Canada. When Capra's father, Turiddu, died in 1916, Capra started working at the campus laundry to make money.
After the U.S. Congress declared War on Germany on April 6, 1917, Capra enlisted in the Army, and while he was not a naturalized citizen yet, he was allowed to join the military as part of the Coastal Artillery. Capra became a supply officer for the student soldiers at Throop, who have been enrolled in a Reserve Officers Training Corps program. At his enlistment, Capra discovered he was not an American citizen; he became naturalized in 1920.
On September 15, 1918, Capra graduated from Throop with his bachelor's degree, and was inducted into the U.S. Army on October 18th and shipped out to the Presidio at San Francisco. An armistice ending the fighting of World War One would be declared in less than a month. While at the Presidio, Capra became ill with the Spanish influenza that claimed 20 million lives worldwide. He was discharged from the Army on December 13th and moved to his brother Ben's home in L.A. While recuperating, Capra answered a cattle call for extras for John Ford 's film "The The Outcasts of Poker Flat (Capra, cast as a laborer in the Ford picture, introduced himself to the film's star, Harry Carey . Two decades later, Capra, designated the #1 director in Hollywood by "Time" magazine, would cast Carey and his movie actress wife Olive in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington for which Carey won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination).
While living at his mother's house, Capra took on a wide variety of manual laboring jobs, including errand boy and ditch digger, even working as an orange tree pruner at 20 cents a day. He continued to be employed as an extra at movie studios and as a prop buyer at an independent studio at Sunset Boulevard and Gower Street, which later became the home of Columbia Pictures, where Capra would make his reputation as the most successful movie director of the 1930s. Most of his time was spent unemployed and idle, which gave credence to his family's earlier opposition to him seeking higher education. Capra wrote short stories but was unable to get them published. He eventually got work as a live-in tutor for the son of "Lucky" Baldwin, a rich gambler. (He later used the Baldwin estate as a location for Dirigible ).
Smitten by the movie bug, in August of that year, Capra, former actor W. M. Plank, and financial backer Ida May Heitmann incorporated the Tri-State Motion Picture Co. in Nevada. Tri-State produced three short films in Nevada in 1920, Don't Change Your Husband , The Pulse of Life , and The Scar of Love (1920), all directed by Plank, and possibly based on story treatments written by Capra. The films were failures, and Capra returned to Los Angeles when Tri-State broke up. In March 1920, Capra was employed by CBC Film Sales Co., the corporate precursor of Columbia Films, where he also worked as an editor and director on a series called "Screen Snapshots." He quit CBC in August and moved to San Francisco, but the only jobs he could find were that of bookseller and door-to-door salesman. Once again seeming to fulfill his family's prophecy, he turned to gambling, and also learned to ride the rails with a hobo named Frank Dwyer. There was also a rumor that he became a traveling salesman specializing in worthless securities, according to a "Time" magazine story "Columbia's Gem" (August 8, 1938 issue, V.32, No. 6).
Still based in San Francisco in 1921, producer Walter Montague hired Capra for $75 per week to help direct the short movie The Ballad of Fisher's Boarding House , which was based on a poem by Rudyard Kipling . Montague, a former actor, had the dubious idea that foggy San Francisco was destined to become the capital of movies, and that he could make a fortune making movies based on poems. Capra helped Montague produced the one-reeler, which was budgeted at $1,700 and subsequently sold to the Pathe Exchange for $3,500. Capra quit Montague when he demanded that the next movie be based upon one of his own poems.
Unable to find another professional filmmaking job, Capra hired himself out as a maker of shorts for the public-at-large while working as an assistant at Walter Ball's film lab. Finally, in October 1921, the Paul Gerson Picture Corp. hired him to help make its two-reel comedies, around the time that he began dating the actress Helen Edith Howe, who would become his first wife. Capra continued to work for both Ball and Gerson, primarily as a cutter. On November 25, 1923, Capra married Helen Howell, and the couple soon moved to Hollywood.
Hal Roach hired Capra as a gag-writer for the "Our Gang" series in January, 1924. After writing the gags for five "Our Gang" comedies in seven weeks, he asked Roach to make him a director. When Roach refused (he somewhat rightly felt he had found the right man in director Bob McGowan ), Capra quit. Roach's arch rival Mack Sennett subsequently hired him as a writer, one of a six-man team that wrote for silent movie comedian Harry Langdon , the last major star of the rapidly disintegrating Mack Sennett Studios, and reigning briefly as fourth major silent comedian after Charles Chaplin , Buster Keaton , and Harold Lloyd . Capra began working with the Harry Langdon production unit as a gag writer, first credited on the short Plain Clothes .
As Harry Langdon became more popular, his production unit at Sennett had moved from two- to three-reelers before Langdon, determined to follow the example of Chaplin, Keaton, and Lloyd, went into features. After making his first feature-length comedy, His First Flame for Sennett, Langdon signed a three-year contract with Sol Lesser 's First National Pictures to annually produce two feature-length comedies at a fixed fee per film. For a multitude of reasons Mack Sennett was never able to retain top talent. On September 15, 1925, Harry Langdon left Sennett in an egotistical rage, taking many of his key production personnel with him. Sennett promoted Capra to director but fired him after three days in his new position. In addition to the Langdon comedies, Capra had also written material for other Sennett films, eventually working on twenty-five movies.
After being sacked by Sennett, Capra was hired as a gag-writer by Harry Langdon , working on Langdon's first First National feature-length film, Tramp, Tramp, Tramp . The movie was directed by Harry Edwards who had directed all of Harry Langdon 's films at Sennett. His first comedy for First National, Tramp, Tramp, Tramp did well at the box office, but it had ran over budget, which came out of Langdon's end. Harry Edwards was sacked, and for his next picture, The Strong Man , Langdon promoted Capra to director, boosting his salary to $750 per week. The movie was a hit, but trouble was brewing among members of the Harry Langdon company. Langdon was increasingly believing his own press.
His marriage with Helen began to unravel when it is discovered that she had a life-threatening ectopic pregnancy that had to be terminated. In order to cope with the tragedy, Capra became a work-a-holic while Helen turned to drink. The deterioration of his marriage was mirrored by the disintegration of his professional relationship with Harry Langdon during the making of the new feature, Long Pants .
The movie, which was released in March 1927, proved to be Capra's last with Harry Langdon , as the comedian soon sacked Capra after its release. Capra later explained the principle of Langdon comedies to James Agee , "It is the principal of the brick: If there was a rule for writing Langdon material, it was this: his only ally was God. Harry Langdon might be saved by a brick falling on a cop, but it was verboten that he in any way motivated the bricks fall."
During the production of Long Pants , Capra had a falling out with Langdon. Screenwriter Arthur Ripley 's dark sensibility did not mesh well with that of the more optimistic Capra, and Harry Langdon usually sided with Ripley. The picture fell behind schedule and went over budget, and since Langdon was paid a fixed fee for each film, this represented a financial loss to his own Harry Langdon Corp. Stung by the financial set-back, and desiring to further emulate the great Chaplin, Harry Langdon made a fateful decision: He fired Capra and decided to direct himself. (Langdon's next three movies for First National were dismal failures, the two surviving films being very dark and grim black comedies, one of which, The Chaser , touched on the subject of suicide. It was the late years of the Jazz Age, a time of unprecedented prosperity and boundless bonhomie, and the critics, and more critically, the ticket-buying public, rejected Harry. In 1928, First National did not pick up his contract. The Harry Langdon Corp. soon went bankrupt, and his career as the "fourth major silent comedian" was through, just as sound was coming in.)
In April of 1927, Capra and his wife Helen split up, and Capra went off to New York to direct For the Love of Mike for First National, his first picture with Claudette Colbert . The director and his star did not get along, and the film went over budget. Subsequently, First National refused to pay Capra, and he had to hitchhike back to Hollywood. The film proved to be Capra's only genuine flop.
By September 1927, he was back working as a writer for Mack Sennett , but in October, he was hired as a director by Columbia Pictures President and Production Chief Harry Cohn for $1,000. The event was momentous for both of them, for at Columbia Capra would soon become the #1 director in Hollywood in the 1930s, and the success of Capra's films would propel the Poverty Row studio into the major leagues. But at first, Cohn was displeased with him. When viewing the first three days of rushes of his first Columbia film, That Certain Thing , Cohn wanted to fire him as everything on the first day had been shot in long shot, on the second day in medium shot, and on the third day in close-ups.
"I did it that way for time," Capra later recalled. "It was so easy to be better than the other directors, because they were all dopes. They would shoot a long shot, then they would have to change the setup to shoot a medium shot, then they would take their close-ups. Then they would come back and start over again. You lose time, you see, moving the cameras and the big goddamn lights. I said, 'I'll get all the long shots on that first set first, then all the medium shots, and then the close-ups.' I wouldn't shoot the whole scene each way unless it was necessary. If I knew that part of it was going to play in long shot, I wouldn't shoot that part in close-up. But the trick was not to move nine times, just to move three times. This saved a day, maybe two days."
Cohn decided to stick with Capra (he was ultimately delighted at the picture and gave Capra a $1,500 bonus and upped his per-picture salary), and in 1928, Cohn raised his salary again, now to to $3,000 per picture after he made several successful pictures, including Submarine . The Younger Generation , the first of a series of films with higher budgets to be directed by Capra, would prove to be his first sound film, when scenes were reshot for dialogue. In the summer of that year, he was introduced to a young widow, Lucille Warner Reyburn (who became Capra's second wife Lou Capra ). He also met a transplanted stage actress, Barbara Stanwyck , who had been recruited for the talkie but had been in three successive unsuccessful films and wanted to return to the New York stage. Harry Cohn wanted Stanwyck to appear in Capra's planned film, Ladies of Leisure , but the interview with Capra did not go well, and Capra refused to use her.
Stanwyck went home crying after being dismissed by Capra, and her husband, a furious Frank Fay , called Capra up. In his defense, Capra said that Stanwyck didn't seem to want the part. According to Capra's 1961 autobiography, "The Name Above the Title," Fay said, "Frank, she's young, and shy, and she's been kicked around out here. Let me show you a test she made at Warner's." After viewing her Warners' test for The Noose , Capra became enthusiastic and urged Cohn to sign her. In January of 1930, Capra began shooting Ladies of Leisure with Stanwyck in the lead. The movies the two made together in the early '30s established them both on their separate journeys towards becoming movieland legends. Though Capra would admit to falling in love with his leading lady, it was Lucille Warner Reyburn who became the second Mrs. Capra.
"You're wondering why I was at that party. That's my racket. I'm a party girl. Do you know what that is?"
Stanwyck played a working-class "party girl" hired as a model by the painter Jerry, who hails from a wealthy family. Capra had written the first draft of the movie before screenwriter Jo Swerling took over. Swerling thought the treatment was dreadful. According to Capra, Swerling told Harry Cohn , when he initially had approached about adapting the play "Ladies of the Evening" into Capra's next proposed film, "I don't like Hollywood, I don't like you, and I certainly don't like this putrid piece of gorgonzola somebody gave me to read. It stunk when Belasco produced it as Ladies of Leisure , and it will stink as Ladies of Leisure, even if your little tin Jesus does direct it. The script is inane, vacuous, pompous, unreal, unbelievable - - and incredibly dull."
Capra, who favored extensive rehearsals before shooting a scene, developed his mature directorial style while collaborating with Stanwyck, a trained stage actress whose performance steadily deteriorated after rehearsals or retakes. Stanwyck's first take in a scene usually was her best. Capra started blocking out scenes in advance, and carefully preparing his other actors so that they could react to Stanwyck in the first shot, whose acting often was unpredictable, so they wouldn't foul up the continuity. In response to this semi-improvisatory style, Capra's crew had to boost its level of craftsmanship to beyond normal Hollywood standards, which were forged in more static and prosaic work conditions. Thus, the professionalism of Capra's crews became better than those of other directors. Capra's philosophy for his crew was, "You guys are working for the actors, they're not working for you."
After "Ladies of Leisure," Capra was assigned to direct Platinum Blonde starring Jean Harlow . The script had been the product of a series of writers, including Jo Swerling (who was given credit for adaptation), but was polished by Capra and Robert Riskin (who was given screen credit for the dialogue). Along with Jo Swerling , Riskin would rank as one of Capra's most important collaborators, ultimately having a hand in 13 movies. (Riskin wrote nine screenplays for Capra, and Capra based four other films on Riskin's work.)
Riskin created a hard-boiled newspaperman, Stew Smith for the film, a character his widow, the actress Fay Wray , said came closest to Riskin of any character he wrote. A comic character, the wise-cracking reporter who wants to lampoon high society but finds himself hostage to the pretensions of the rich he had previously mocked is the debut of the prototypical "Capra" hero. The dilemma faced by Stew, akin to the immigrant's desire to assimilate but being rejected by established society, was repeated in Mr. Deeds Goes to Town and in Meet John Doe .
Capra, Stanwyck, Riskin and Jo Swerling all were together to create Capra's next picture, The Miracle Woman , a story about a shady evangelist. With John Meehan , Riskin wrote the play that the movie is based on, "Bless You, Sister," and there is a possibly apocryphal story that has Riskin at a story conference at which Capra relates the treatment for the proposed film. Capra, finished, asked Riskin for his input, and Riskin replied, "I wrote that play. My brother and I were stupid enough to produce it on Broadway. It cost us almost every cent we had. If you intend to make a picture of it, it only proves one thing: You're even more stupid than we were."
Jo Swerling adapted Riskin's play, which he and his brother Everett patterned after Sinclair Lewis ' "Elmer Gantry." Like the Lewis novel, the play focuses on the relationship between a lady evangelist and a con man. The difference, though, is that the nature of the relationship is just implied in Riskin's play (and the Capra film). There is also the addition of the blind war-vet as the moral conscience of the story; he is the pivotal character, whereas in Lewis' tale, the con artist comes to have complete control over the evangelist after eventually seducing her. Like some other Capra films, The Miracle Woman is about the love between a romantic, idealizing man and a cynical, bitter woman. Riskin had based his character on lady evangelist Uldine Utley, while Stanwyck based her characterization on Aimee Semple McPherson .
Recognizing that he had something in his star director, Harry Cohn took full advantage of the lowly position his studio had in Hollywood. Both Warner Brothers and mighty MGM habitually lent Cohn their troublesome stars -- anyone rejecting scripts or demanding a pay raise was fodder for a loan out to Cohn's Poverty Row studio. Cohn himself was habitually loathe to sign long-term stars in the early 1930s (although he made rare exceptions to Peter Lorre and The Three Stooges ) and was delighted to land the talents of any top flight star and invariably assigned them to Capra's pictures. Most began their tenure in purgatory with trepidation but left eagerly wanting to work with Capra again.
In 1932, Capra decided to make a motion picture that reflected the social conditions of the day. He and Riskin wrote the screenplay for American Madness , a melodrama that is an important precursor to later Capra films, not only with It's a Wonderful Life which shares the plot device of a bank run, but also in the depiction of the irrationality of a crowd mentality and the ability of the individual to make a difference. In the movie, an idealistic banker is excoriated by his conservative board of directors for making loans to small businesses on the basis of character rather than on sounder financial criteria. Since the Great Depression is on, and many people lack collateral, it would be impossible to productively lend money on any other criteria than character, the banker argues. When there is a run on the bank due to a scandal, it appears that the board of directors are rights the bank depositors make a run on the bank to take out their money before the bank fails. The fear of a bank failure ensures that the failure will become a reality as a crowd mentality takes over among the clientèle. The board of directors refuse to pledge their capital to stave off the collapse of the bank, but the banker makes a plea to the crowd, and just like George Bailey's depositors in It's a Wonderful Life , the bank is saved as the fears of the crowd are ameliorated and businessmen grateful to the banker pledge their capital to save the bank. The board of directors, impressed by the banker's character and his belief in the character of his individual clients (as opposed to the irrationality of the crowd), pledge their capital and the bank run is staved off and the bank is saved.
In his biography, "The Name Above the Picture," Capra wrote that before American Madness , he had only made "escapist" pictures with no basis in reality. He recounts how Poverty Row studios, lacking stars and production values, had to resort to "gimmick" movies to pull the crowds in, making films on au courant controversial subjects that were equivalent to "yellow journalism."
What was more important than the subject and its handling was the maturation of Capra's directorial style with the film. Capra had become convinced that the mass-experience of watching a motion picture with an audience had the psychological effect in individual audience members of slowing down the pace of a film. A film that during shooting and then when viewed on a movieola editing device and on a small screen in a screening room among a few professionals that had seemed normally paced became sluggish when projected on the big screen. While this could have been the result of the projection process blowing up the actors to such large proportions, Capra ultimately believed it was the effect of mass psychology affecting crowds since he also noticed this "slowing down" phenomenon at ball games and at political conventions. Since American Madness dealt with crowds, he feared that the effect would be magnified.
He decided to boost the pace of the film, during the shooting. He did away with characters' entrances and exits that were a common part of cinematic "grammar" in the early 1930s, a survival of the "photoplays" days. Instead, he "jumped" characters in and out of scenes, and jettisoned the dissolves that were also part of cinematic grammar that typically ended scenes and indicated changes in time or locale so as not to make cutting between scenes seem choppy to the audience. Dialogue was deliberately overlapped, a radical innovation in the early talkies, when actors were instructed to let the other actor finish his or her lines completely before taking up their cue and beginning their own lines, in order to facilitate the editing of the sound-track. What he felt was his greatest innovation was to boost the pacing of the acting in the film by a third by making a scene that would normally play in one minute take only 40 seconds.
When all these innovations were combined in his final cut, it made the movie seem normally paced on the big screen, though while shooting individual scenes, the pacing had seemed exaggerated. It also gave the film a sense of urgency that befitted the subject of a financial panic and a run on a bank. More importantly, it "kept audience attention riveted to the screen," as he said in his autobiography. Except for "mood pieces," Capra subsequently used these techniques in all his films, and he was amused by critics who commented on the "naturalness" of his direction.
Capra was close to completely establishing his themes and style. Justly accused of indulging in sentiment which some critics labeled "Capra-corn," Capra's next film, Lady for a Day was an adaptation of Damon Runyon 's 1929 short story "Madame La Gimp" about a nearly destitute apple peddler whom the superstitious gambler Dave the Dude (portrayed by Warner Brothers star Warren William ) sets up in high style so she and her daughter, who is visiting with her finance, will not be embarrassed. Dave the Dude believes his luck at gambling comes from his ritualistically buying an apple a day from Annie, who is distraught and considering suicide to avoid the shame of her daughter seeing her reduced to living on the street. The Dude and his criminal confederates put Annie up in a luxury apartment with a faux husband in order to establish Annie in the eyes of her daughter as a dignified and respectable woman, but in typical Runyon fashion, Annie becomes more than a fake as the masquerade continues.
Robert Riskin wrote the first four drafts of Lady for a Day , and of all the scripts he worked on for Capra, the film deviates less from the script than any other. After seeing the movie, Runyon sent a telegraph to Riskin praising him for his success at elaborating on the story and fleshing out the characters while maintain his basic story. Lady for a Day was the favorite Capra film of John Ford , the great filmmaker who once directed the unknown extra. The movie cost $300,000 and was the first of Capra's oeuvre to attract the attention of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, getting a Best Director nomination for Capra, plus nods for Riskin and Best Actress. The movie received Columbia's first Best Picture nomination, the studio never having attracted any attention from the Academy before Lady for a Day . (Capra's last film was the flop remake of Lady for a Day with Bette Davis and Glenn Ford , Pocketful of Miracles )
Capra reunited with Stanwyck and produced his first universally acknowledged classic, The Bitter Tea of General Yen , a film that now seems to belong more to the oeuvre of Josef von Sternberg than it does to Frank Capra. With "General Yen," Capra had consciously set out to make a movie that would win Academy Awards. Frustrated that the innovative, timely, and critically well-received American Madness had not received any recognition at the Oscars (particularly in the director's category in recognition of his innovations in pacing), he vented his displeasure to Columbia boss Cohn.
"Forget it," Cohn told Capra, as recounted in his autobiography. "You ain't got a Chinaman's chance. They only vote for that arty junk."
Capra set out to boost his chances by making an arty film featuring a "Chinaman" that confronted that major taboo of American cinema of the first half of the century, miscegenation.
In the movie, the American missionary Megan Davis is in China to marry another missionary. Abducted by the Chinese Warlord General Yen, she is torn away from the American compound that kept her isolated from the Chinese and finds herself in a strange, dangerous culture. The two fall in love despite their different races and life-views. The film ran up against the taboo against miscegenation embedded in the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association's Production Code, and while Megan merely kisses General Yen's hand in the picture, the fact that she was undeniably in love with a man from a different race attracted the vituperation of many bigots.
Having fallen for Megan, General Yen engenders her escape back to the Americans before willingly drinking a poisoned cup of tea, his involvement with her having cost him his army, his wealth, and now his desire to live. The Bitter Tea of General Yen marks the introduction of suicide as a Capra theme that will come back repeatedly, most especially in George Bailey's breakdown on the snowy bridge in It's a Wonderful Life .
Despair often shows itself in Capra films, and although in his post-"General Yen" work, the final reel wraps things up in a happy way, until that final reel, there is tragedy, cynicism, heartless exploitation, and other grim subject matter that Capra's audiences must have known were the truth of the world, but that were too grim to face when walking out of a movie theater. When pre-Code movies were rediscovered and showcased across the United States in the 1990s, they were often accompanied by thesis about how contemporary audiences "read" the films (and post-1934 more Puritanical works), as the movies were not so frank or racy as supposed. There was a great deal of signaling going on which the audience could read into, and the same must have been true for Capra's films, giving lie to the fact that he was a sentimentalist with a saccharine view of America. There are few films as bitter as those of Frank Capra before the final reel.
Despair was what befell Frank Capra, personally, on the night of March 16, 1934, which he attended as one of the Best Director nominees for Lady for a Day . Capra had caught Oscar fever, and in his own words, "In the interim between the nominations and the final voting...my mind was on those Oscars." When Oscar host Will Rogers opened the envelope for Best Director, he commented, "Well, well, well. What do you know. I've watched this young man for a long time. Saw him come up from the bottom, and I mean the bottom. It couldn't have happened to a nicer guy. Come on up and get it, Frank!"
Capra got up to go get it, squeezing past tables and making his way to the open dance floor to accept his Oscar. "The spotlight searched around trying to find me. 'Over here!' I waved. Then it suddenly swept away from me -- and picked up a flustered man standing on the other side of the dance floor - Frank Lloyd !"
Frank Lloyd went up to the dais to accept HIS Oscar while a voice in back of Capra yelled, "Down in front!"
Capra's walk back to his table amidst shouts of "Sit down!" turned into the "Longest, saddest, most shattering walk in my life. I wished I could have crawled under the rug like a miserable worm. When I slumped in my chair I felt like one. All of my friends at the table were crying."
That night, after Lloyd's Cavalcade , beat Lady for a Day for Best Picture, Capra got drunk at his house and passed out. "Big 'stupido,'" Capra thought to himself, "running up to get an Oscar dying with excitement, only to crawl back dying with shame. Those crummy Academy voters; to hell with their lousy awards. If ever they did vote me one, I would never, never, NEVER show up to accept it."
Capra would win his first of three Best Director Oscars the next year, and would show up to accept it. More importantly, he would become the president of the Academy in 1935 and take it out of the labor relations field a time when labor strife and the formation of the talent guilds threatened to destroy it.
The International Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences had been the brainchild of Louis B. Mayer in 1927 (it dropped the "International" soon after its formation). In order to forestall unionization by the creative talent (directors, actors and screenwriters) who were not covered by the Basic Agreement signed in 1926, Mayer had the idea of forming a company union, which is how the Academy came into being. The nascent Screen Writers Union, which had been created in 1920 in Hollywood, had never succeeded in getting a contract from the studios. It went out of existence in 1927, when labor relations between writers and studios were handled by the Academy's writers' branch.
The Academy had brokered studio-mandated pay-cuts of 10% in 1927 and 1931, and massive layoffs in 1930 and 1931. With the inauguration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 4, 1933, Roosevelt took no time in attempting to tackle the Great Depression. The day after his inauguration, he declared a National Bank Holiday, which hurt the movie industry as it was heavily dependent on bank loans. Louis B. Mayer , as president of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Inc. (the co-equal arm of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association charged with handling labor relations) huddled with a group from the Academy (the organization he created and had long been criticized for dominating, in both labor relations and during the awards season) and announced a 50% across-the-board pay cut. In response, stagehands called a strike for March 13th, which shut down every studio in Hollywood.
After another caucus between Mayer and the Academy committee, a proposal for a pay-cut on a sliding-scale up to 50% for everyone making over $50 a week; which would only last for eight weeks, was inaugurated. Screen writers resigned en masse from the Academy and joined a reformed Screen Writers Guild, but most employees had little choice and went along with it. All the studios but Warner Bros. and Sam Goldwyn honored the pledge to restore full salaries after the eight weeks, and Warners production chief Darryl F. Zanuck resigned in protest over his studio's failure to honor its pledge. A time of bad feelings persisted, and much anger was directed towards the Academy in its role as company union.
The Academy, trying to position itself as an independent arbiter, hired the accounting firm of Price Waterhouse for the first time to inspect the books of the studios. The audit revealed that all the studios were solvent, but Harry Warner refused to budge and Academy President 'Conrad Nagel' resigned, although some said he was forced out after a vote of no-confidence after arguing Warner's case. The Academy announced that the studio bosses would never again try to impose a horizontal salary cut, but the usefulness of the Academy as a company union was over.
Under Roosevelt's New Deal, the self-regulation imposed by the National Industrial Relations Act (signed into law on June 16th) to bring business sectors back to economic health was predicated upon cartelization, in which the industry itself wrote its own regulatory code. With Hollywood, it meant the re-imposition of paternalistic labor relations that the Academy had been created to wallpaper over. The last nail in the company union's coffin was when it became public knowledge that the Academy appointed a committee to investigate the continued feasibility of the industry practice of giving actors and writers long-term contracts. High salaries to directors, actors, and screen writers was compensation to the creative people for producers refusing to ceded control over creative decision-making. Long-term contracts were the only stability in the Hollywood economic set-up up creative people,. Up to 20%-25% of net earnings of the movie industry went to bonuses to studio owners, production chiefs, and senior executives at the end of each year, and this created a good deal of resentment that fueled the militancy of the SWG and led to the formation of the Screen Actors Guild in July 1933 when they, too, felt that the Academy had sold them out.
The industry code instituted a cap on the salaries of actors, directors, and writers, but not of movie executives; mandated the licensing of agents by producers; and created a reserve clause similar to baseball where studios had renewal options with talent with expired contracts, who could only move to a new studio if the studio they had last been signed to did not pick up their option.
The SWG sent a telegram to FDR in October 1933 denouncing this policy, arguing that the executives had taken millions of dollars of bonuses while running their companies into receivership and bankruptcy. The SWG denounced the continued membership of executives who had led their studios into financial failure remaining on the corporate boards and in the management of the reorganized companies, and furthermore protested their use of the NIRA to write their corrupt and failed business practices into law at the expense of the workers.
There was a mass resignation of actors from the Academy in October 1933, with the actors switching their allegiance to SAG. SAG joined with the SWG to publish "The Screen Guilds Magazine," a periodical whose editorial content attacked the Academy as a company union in the producers' pocket. SAG President Eddie Cantor, a friend of Roosevelt who had bee invited to spend the Thanksgiving Day holiday with the president, informed him of the guild's grievances over the NIRA code. Roosevelt struck down many of the movie industry code's anti-labor provisions by executive order.
The labor battles between the guilds and the studios would continue until the late 1930s, and by the time Frank Capra was elected president of the Academy in 1935, the post was an unenviable one. The Screen Directors Guild was formed at King Vidor's house on January 15, 1936, and one of its first acts was to send a letter to its members urging them to boycott the Academy Awards ceremony, which was three days away. None of the guilds had been recognized as bargaining agents by the studios, and it was argued to grace the Academy Awards would give the Academy, a company union, recognition. Academy membership had declined to 40 from a high of 600, and Capra believed that the guilds wanted to punish the studios financially by depriving them of the good publicity the Oscars generated.
But the studios couldn't care less. Seeing that the Academy was worthless to help them in its attempts to enforce wage cuts, it too abandoned the Academy, which it had financed. Capra and the Board members had to pay for the Oscar statuettes for the 1936 ceremony. In order to counter the boycott threat, Capra needed a good publicity gimmick himself, and the Academy came up with one, voting D.W. Griffith an honorary Oscar, the first bestowed since one had been given to Charles Chaplin at the first Academy Awards ceremony.
The Guilds believed the boycott had worked as only 20 SAG members and 13 SWG members had showed up at the Oscars, but Capra remembered the night as a victory as all the winners had shown up. However, 'Variety' wrote that "there was not the galaxy of stars and celebs in the director and writer groups which distinguished awards banquets in recent years." "Variety" reported that to boost attendance, tickets had been given to secretaries and the like. Bette Davis and Victor McLaglen had showed up to accept their Oscars, but McLaglen's director and screenwriter, John Ford and Dudley Nichols , both winners like McLaglen for The Informer , were not there, and Nichols became the first person to refuse an Academy Award when he sent back his statuette to the Academy with a note saying he would not turn his back on his fellow writers in the SWG. Capra sent it back to him. Ford, the treasurer of the SDG, had not showed up to accept his Oscar, he explained, because he wasn't a member of the Academy. When Capra staged a ceremony where Ford accepted his award, the SDG voted him out of office.
To save the Academy and the Oscars, Capra convinced the board to get it out of the labor relations field. He also democratized the nomination process to eliminate studio politics, opened the cinematography and interior decoration awards to films made outside the U.S., and created two new acting awards for supporting performances to win over SAG.
By the 1937 awards ceremony, SAG signaled its pleasure that the Academy had mostly stayed out of labor relations by announcing it had no objection to its members attending the awards ceremony. The ceremony was a success, despite the fact that the Academy had to charge admission due to its poor finances. Frank Capra had saved the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and he even won his second Oscar that night, for directing Mr. Deeds Goes to Town . At the end of the evening, Capra announced the creation of the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award to honor "the most consistent high level of production achievement by an individual producer." It was an award he himself was not destined to win.
By the 1938 awards, the Academy and all three guilds had buried the hatchet, and the guild presidents all attended the ceremony: SWG President Dudley Nichols , who finally had accepted his Oscar, SAG President Robert Montgomery, and SDG President King Vidor . Capra also had introduced the secret ballot, the results of which were unknown to everyone but the press, who were informed just before the dinner so they could make their deadlines. The first Irving Thalberg Award was given to long-time Academy supporter and anti-Guild stalwart Darryl F. Zanuck by Cecil B. DeMille , who in his preparatory remarks, declared that the Academy was "now free of all labor struggles."
But those struggles weren't over. In 1939, Capra had been voted president of the SDG and began negotiating with AMPP President 'Joseph Schenck', the head of 20th Century-Fox, for the industry to recognize the SDG as the sole collective bargaining agent for directors. When Schenck refused, Capra mobilized the directors and threatened a strike. He also threatened to resign from the Academy and mount a boycott of the awards ceremony, which was to be held a week later. Schenck gave in, and Capra won another victory when he was named Best Director for a third time at the Academy Awards, and his movie, You Can't Take It with You , was voted Best Picture of 1938.
The 1940 awards ceremony was the last that Capra presided over, and he directed a documentary about them, which was sold to Warner Bros' for $30,000, the monies going to the Academy. He was nominated himself for Best Director and Best Picture for Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , but lost to the Gone with the Wind juggernaut. Under Capra's guidance, the Academy had left the labor relations field behind in order to concentrated on the awards (publicity for the industry), research and education.
"I believe the guilds should more or less conduct the operations and functions of this institution," he said in his farewell speech. He would be nominated for Best Director and Best Picture once more with It's a Wonderful Life in 1947, but the Academy would never again honor him, not even with an honorary award after all his service. ( Bob Hope , in contrast, received four honorary awards, including a lifetime membership in 1945, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian award in 1960 from the Academy.) The SDG (subsequently renamed the Directors Guild of America after its 1960 with the Radio and Television Directors Guild and which Capra served as its first president from 1960-61), the union he had struggled with in the mid-1930s but which he had first served as president from 1939 to 1941 and won it recognition, voted him a lifetime membership in 1941 and a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1959.
Whenever Capra convinced studio boss Harry Cohn to let him make movies with more controversial or ambitious themes, the movies typically lost money after under-performing at the box office. The Bitter Tea of General Yen and Lost Horizon were both expensive, philosophically minded pictures that sought to reposition Capra and Columbia into the prestige end of the movie market. After the former's relative failure at the box office and with critics, Capra turned to making a screwball comedy, a genre he excelled at, with It Happened One Night . Bookended with You Can't Take It with You , these two huge hits won Columbia Best Picture Oscars and Capra Best Director Academy Awards. These films, along with Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , and It's a Wonderful Life are the heart of Capra's cinematic canon. They are all classics and products of superb craftsmanship, but they gave rise to the canard of "Capra-corn." One cannot consider Capra without taking into account The Bitter Tea of General Yen , American Madness , and Meet John Doe , all three dark films tackling major issues, Imperialism, the American plutocracy, and domestic fascism. Capra was no Pollyanna, and the man who was called a "dago" by Mack Sennett and who went on to become one of the most unique, highly honored and successful directors, whose depictions of America are considered Americana themselves, did not live his cinematic life looking through a rose-colored range-finder
In his autobiography "The Name Above the Title," Capra says that at the time of American Madness , critics began commenting on his "gee-whiz" style of filmmaking. The critics attacked "gee whiz" cultural artifacts as their fabricators "wander about wide-eyed and breathless, seeing everything as larger than life." Capra's response was "Gee whiz!"
Defining Hollywood as split between two camps, "Mr. Up-beat" and "Mr. Down-beat," Capra defended the up-beat gee whiz on the grounds that, "To some of us, all that meets the eye IS larger than life, including life itself. Who ca match the wonder of it?"
Among the artists of the "Gee-Whiz:" school were Ernest Hemingway , Homer , and Paul Gauguin , a novelist who lived a heroic life larger than life itself, a poet who limned the lives of gods and heroes, and a painter who created a mythic Tahiti, the Tahiti that he wanted to find. Capra pointed to Moses and the apostles as examples of men who were larger than life. Capra was proud to be "Mr. Up-beat" rather than belong to "the 'ashcan' school" whose "films depict life as an alley of cats clawing lids off garbage cans, and man as less noble than a hyena. The 'ash-canners,' in turn, call us Pollyannas, mawkish sentimentalists, and corny happy-enders."
What really moves Capra is that in America, there was room for both schools, that there was no government interference that kept him from making a film like American Madness . (While Ambassador to the Court of St. James, Joseph P. Kennedy had asked Harry Cohn to stop exporting Mr. Smith Goes to Washington to Europe as it portrayed American democracy so negatively.) About Mr. Up-beat and Mr-Downbeat and "Mr. In-between," Capra says, "We all respect and admire each other because the great majority freely express their own individual artistry unfettered by subsidies or strictures from government, pressure groups, or ideologists."
In the period 1934 to 1941, Capra the created the core of his canon with the classics It Happened One Night , Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , You Can't Take It with You , Mr. Smith Goes to Washington and Meet John Doe , wining three Best Director Oscars in the process. Some cine-historians call Capra the great American propagandist, he was so effective in creating an indelible impression of America in the 1930s. "Maybe there never was an America in the thirties," John Cassavetes was quoted as saying. "Maybe it was all Frank Capra."
After the United States went to war in December 1941, Frank Capra rejoined the Army and became an actual propagandist. His "Why We Fight" series of propaganda films were highly lauded for their remarkable craftsmanship and were the best of the U.S. propaganda output during the war. Capra's philosophy, which has been variously described as a kind of Christian socialism (his films frequently feature a male protagonist who can be seen a Christ figure in a story about redemption emphasizing New Testament values) that is best understood as an expression of humanism, made him an ideal propagandist. He loved his adopted country with the fervor of the immigrant who had realized the American dream. One of his propaganda films, The Negro Soldier , is a milestone in race relations.
Capra, a genius in the manipulation of the first form of "mass media," was opposed to "massism." The crowd in a Capra film is invariably wrong, and he comes down on the side of the individual, who can make a difference in a society of free individuals. In an interview, Capra said he was against "mass entertainment, mass production, mass education, mass everything. Especially mass man. I was fighting for, in a sense, the preservation of the liberty of the individual person against the mass."
Capra had left Columbia after "Mr. Smith" and formed his own production company. After the war, he founded Liberty Films with John Ford and made his last masterpiece, It's a Wonderful Life . Liberty folded prior to its release (another Liberty film, William Wyler 's masterpiece, The Best Years of Our Lives was released through United Artists). Though Capra received his sixth Oscar nomination as best director, the movie flopped at the box office, which is hard to believe now that the film is considered must-see viewing each Christmas. Capra's period of greatness was over, and after making three under-whelming films from 1948 to '51 (including a remake of his earlier Broadway Bill ), Capra didn't direct another picture for eight years, instead making a series of memorable semi-comic science documentaries for television that became required viewing for most 1960's school kids. His last two movies, A Hole in the Head and Pocketful of Miracles his remake of Lady for a Day did little to enhance his reputation.
But a great reputation it was, and is. Capra's films withstood the test of time and continue to be as beloved as when they were embraced by the movie-going "masses" in the 1930s. It was the craftsmanship: Capra was undeniably a master of his medium. The great English novelist Graham Greene, who supported himself as a film critic in the 1930s, loved Capra's films due to their sense of responsibility and of common life, and due to his connection with his audience. (Capra, according to the 1938 "Time" article, believed that what he liked would be liked by moviegoers). In his review of Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , Greene elucidated the central theme of Capra
Patsy Kelly
Patsy Kelly was born Bridget Sarah Veronica Rose Kelly on January 12, 1910, in Brooklyn, New York. She began performing in vaudeville when she was just twelve years old. Patsy worked with comedian Frank Fay and starred in several Broadway shows. She was discovered by producer Hal Roach who paired her with Thelma Todd in a series of comedy shorts. They became a popular onscreen team and made thirty-five films together including Top Flat and Done In Oil. Although Patsy never became an A-list star she continued to work throughout the 1930s. She had supporting roles in Pigskin Parade, Merrily We Live, and Topper Returns. Patsy was a lesbian and she was always open with the press about her sexuality. She had a long-term relationship with actress Wilma Cox. By the early 1940s Patsy was drinking heavily and making headlines for her erratic behavior. She decided to quit show business and moved to New York City. She started dating Tallulah Bankhead and worked as her secretary. Eventually Patsy went back to acting and appeared on numerous television shows. She also had small roles in the films Rosemary's Baby and Freaky Friday. Patsy won a Tony award in 1971 for her performance in No No Nanette. After suffering a stroke she moved into a nursing home. She died from pneumonia on September 24, 1981. Patsy is buried at Calvary Cemetery in Queens, New York.
Anthony Higgins
Higgins was born May 9, 1947 in East Northamptonshire, England to parents who had emigrated from Ireland just before World War II in search of economic opportunity. His parents lived in London during the Blitz. Eventually, they left London for Northamptonshire so that his father could obtain work as a builder for American army bases. Young Anthony completed his studies at a state school and then intended to be a journalist. He worked as a butcher in Bedford and then as a "navvy," a builder's helper, in the small town of Grendon, near Northampton. At the age of 16, he obtained a job on a local paper but, by law, he had to be over 17 before he could work so he spent the time learning shorthand and typing. Then, a friend took him to a weekend drama course run by the distinguished Shavian actress, Margaretta Scott. She encouraged him to consider a career as an actor. He said, "It felt right so I decided to pursue it." Higgins won a scholarship to the Birmingham School of Speech and Dramatic Arts in 1964 and studied there for three years. He made his first professional appearance at the Birmingham Repertory Theater Company in Shakespeare's "A Winter's Tale" as a walk-on while still at school. He then joined the company full time and was assigned principal roles nearly at once. His portrayal of Romeo, opposite Anna Calder-Marshall as Juliet, received rave reviews throughout England. He also played Cassio in "Othello," and Louis Debedat in "The Doctor's Dilemma." He then worked onstage in classics and contemporary plays in Chichester and London. However, it was a theatrical portrayal of Edmund Tyrone in Eugene O'Neill's, "A Long Day's Journey Into Night" in Birmingham that led to Higgins' cinema debut for director John Huston under the name, Anthony Corlan, (his mother's maiden name), in "A Walk with Love and Death" (1969). The film takes place during Europe's 100 Years War and was shot in Vienna and the Vienna Woods. The film is notable for the debut of Huston's daughter, Angelica. Corlan plays Robert, a nobleman, wearing authentic looking armor. It was Huston who taught him how to ride horses. Higgins rides with style in many subsequent films. Later, he would own a racehorse in Ireland.
After appearing in "A Walk with Love and Death," the actor was in several television plays for the BBC, including an original drama, "The Blood of the Lamb," for "The Wednesday Play" and "Mary, Queen of Scots" for "Play of the Month." He then made two films for television, one an episode of "Journey to the Unknown" with Janice Rule, and the other, a segment of "Strange Report," with Anthony Quayle. His next feature film role was in "Something for Everyone," also known as "The Cook," (1970), after auditioning for director Hal Prince and producer John Flaxman in London. This was stage director Prince's first flirtation with film, with a script by Hugh Wheeler, author of "Sweeney Todd." Higgins plays a quiet, sheltered young German royal, Helmuth, with Angela Lansbury as his mother. Helmut is forced into an arranged marriage with Annaliese, played by German actress, Heidelinde Weis. He discovers the darker motives that lurk beneath Michael York's gleaming blonde appearance against brilliant cinematography in the shadow of King Ludwig's Castle, in Neuschwanstein, Germany. In 1972, Higgins acted in "Vampire Circus" as a circus performer who changes into a panther-vampire. The film has become a cult classic. It was banned in Britain (because of its bestiality). The actor has said that it is the last of the great vampire films produced under the Hammer banner. There is a badly edited version for sale in the United States; an uncut edition has been seen in Europe that is much clearer. "Flavia, the Moslem Nun," (1974), with Brazilian born Florinda Bolkan, gave Higgins an opportunity to work in Italy. The DVD is a great piece of cinema history rescued by high technology and enhanced by a recent interview with Ms. Bolkan, who became an international screen legend in her own time. The story is derived from actual events in the 1400s that culminated in "The Martyrdom of the 800" in Otranto. The exotic soundtrack is by Academy Award winning composer, Nicola Piovani ("Life is Beautiful"). If one can get past the explicit physical mutilation of animals and humans and the insults to the Catholic Church, the script can be seen as supportive of feminism. Director Gianfranco Mingozzi's vision is representative of the wild cinema of the sexual revolution of the 70s in which auteurs were bursting to break free from the establishment. "Flavia" has haunting performances by Bolkan, Maria Casares, (the princess in Cocteau's "Orpheus") and Higgins. He is dazzling as the Moslem commander with no name who initiates Flavia as a sexual being, encourages her to carry out a bloody revenge and then disillusions her. That Higgins does not speak much is of no consequence. He communicates some of his best acting with movements and facial expressions, particularly, with his eyes. He can say volumes with one mesmerizing gaze.
The actor flourished on stage, television and screen throughout the 70s. Notably, he starred as a Roman soldier looking for his vanished father in Caledonia, in BBC Scotland's miniseries, "Eagle of the Ninth" with Patrick Malahide in 1977. However, Higgins has said that he is most proud to have been a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company's original London cast of "Piaf," a biography of the French singer, Edith Piaf, written by Pam Gems, which starred Jane Lapotaire in 1979. The play was resurrected to rave reviews in London in 1994 but without any of the original players. Higgins won Best Actor of 1979 from Time Out magazine for his work with The Royal Shakespeare Company that year. He acted in mainly new work with the RSC but he also played Lucentio in "The Taming of the Shrew" opposite Zoe Wanamaker as his sweet Bianca. Older London stage audiences may discern that among his many stage to television appearances in the 80s was the role of Camille in "Danton's Death." The play by George Buechner ran at the National Theater in London for a year and was then produced for television by the BBC. Zoe Wanamaker played opposite him once more. As the actor matured in his thirties, his persona grew more interesting with more unusual works. Higgins' face is often recognized for his having played the artist in "The Draughtsman's Contract," (1982), opposite the brilliant Shakespearean actress, Janet Suzman. The film is suggestive of classical restoration drama with a mysterious plot, elegant landscape shots of England's County Kent and a Purcell-like soundtrack by Michael Nyman. Director Peter Greenaway has said that he cast Higgins in the lead because he best expressed a combination of arrogance and innocence. Higgins gives a subtle depiction of the outcast, the son of a tenant farmer, who turns out to be too trusting and is tragically deceived. After Draughtsman's initial release, many viewers wondered what the lead actor would do next but Higgins does not generally pursue publicity. Although he appeared at the Edinburgh Festival with the cast, he did not do many interviews. "Draughtsman" experienced resurgence in 1994 and the actor's face was plastered on larger than life posters across the high walls of London's underground tube stops. His face has often been well utilized to represent a variety of ethnic origins. It is an oval face with a long thin nose and high, almost oriental cheekbones. It is usually framed by dark, wavy hair, sometimes ending at his collar. His balanced brows can look calm but lying dormant behind his deeply inset, hazel eyes is a prospective fire. Behind the face lies great inventiveness that has not always been allowed to surface but when it does, the effect can be striking. Higgins seems to have unlocked a storeroom of intensity by taking on the role of Stephan, a hard-luck Polish immigrant to 1920s Paris in the Merchant-Ivory film, "Quartet" (1981). The film, based on the novel by Jean Rhys, is sharply directed by James Ivory and has a heart-felt script by Ruth Prawer Jhabvala ("Le Divorce"). Isabelle Adjani garnered a Cannes Film Festival award for Best Actress for her gut-wrenching performance as Stephan's defenseless wife. Stephan is an impetuous man, who takes the dishonest road to acquiring wealth, with a small amount of shiftiness and a large amount of charm. Higgins infuses the role with detailed mannerisms such as holding his cigarette by cupping the end with his fingers, as many Slavic men do.
Higgins' height (6' 2"), dark looks and air of moral strength have frequently rendered him romantic roles. He sometimes appears to be aloof but a warmth sneaks out. The tough guy who softens for a vulnerable female might be what he is all about. Thus, it seems only natural that an actor whom he greatly admires is Robert Mitchum. Indeed, in another era, Higgins himself might have fit nicely into film noir. Higgins stars in a dark mystery film, "Sweet Killing," (1993), which was filmed in Montreal and also features F. Murray Abraham. Female admiration of Higgins became universal with his winsome portrayal of Abdullah, in "Lace," (1984-5), a cleverly written television miniseries by Elliot Baker, based on the popular English novel by Shirley Conran. Angela Lansbury, Brooke Adams and Arielle Dombasle are outstanding. Most critics condemned Phoebe Cates for her unconvincing acting but unanimously praised Higgins' persuasive performance as an Arabian prince, who is the lynch pin of the plot. The film also captures glamorous scenery of the French Alps, Chamonix and other jet-set locales; it has wonderful women's fashions, particularly hats, by Barbara Lane; it is the ultimate "chick flick." Higgins, astonished to hear that it is frequently repeated on cable in the U.S., has reacted, "It was great fun to do, actually. It has no pretense to be Strindberg. It is glamorous trash. Still, we had great character actors in it like Anthony Quayle, an old friend, who is now dead; and the director, Billy Hale, and I hit it off in a big way." Far from charming in "Reilly, Ace of Spies," (1983), the actor plays a cold Communist assassin in the British miniseries with Sam Neill in the title role; Higgins' innocence seen in previous roles is totally obscured here. In 1986, he acted with Jeanne Moreau in Agatha Christie's mystery, "The Last Séance," for Granada TV. "Max, Mon Amour," a feature film for the daring director Nagisa Oshima ("Realm of the Senses") followed in 1986. It has an outrageous plot about a bored wife (Charlotte Rampling) with a chimpanzee as her lover. Higgins plays her British diplomat husband who invites the ape to live with them in Paris.
Higgins continued to work in France to play Napoleon's elder brother in "Napoleon and Josephine," with Armand Assante and Jacqueline Bisset in the title roles in 1987. It gave Higgins the opportunity to work again with Jane Lapotaire as mother Bonaparte. After Napoleon cuts up Europe for his family, Joseph satirically delivers a memorable aside, "Louis gets Holland and all I get is disease-ridden Naples." Lavishly photographed in Europe and North Africa, the television miniseries has subtle humor; it airs occasionally on cable in the U.S. A tendency of Higgins' style has been to hold something back, compelling the viewer to wonder what else he has stored up, adding mystery to his character. In "Darlings of the Gods," an Australian television film, (1991), he may have held back a bit much in the lead as Laurence Olivier, opposite Mel Martin as Vivien Leigh, to the disappointment of some critics. Still, the film aired around the world, received good ratings and repeated several times. In spin offs of the Sherlock Holmes legend, Higgins is the only actor besides Orson Welles to have played both Moriarty ("Young Sherlock Holmes" 1985) and Holmes ("Sherlock Holmes Returns" 1993). Both works display his skills in fencing and oration of long monologues; both versions proved popular in several countries, among them Germany. Higgins is fluent in German. German artist and photographer, Heide Lausen, whom he met while working on "Something for Everyone" in Germany, widows him. He has one daughter, who was born in 1974 and raised in Bavaria. He is often recognized for having played a stereotypical Nazi villain in Stephen Spielberg's, "Raiders of the Lost Ark," (1981). However, of the television film, "One Against the Wind," also known as "Mary Lindell," (1991), starring Judy Davis, Higgins has said that he enjoyed playing a non-typical German SS officer, who had been classically educated in England, because it was not a hackneyed image. "The Bridge," (1992), based on the Whitbread award winning novel by Maggie Hemingway, is an engaging film that takes place in the 19th century with actress Saskia Reeves struggling against sociological constraints. Here, his power simmers rather than explodes, as he plays a husband, who makes a shrewd move to eliminate his wife's lover. In a scene with his daughters at the breakfast table, one can sense that his character might do anything to prevent his family from breaking apart.
A family role that Higgins took on enthusiastically was that of Johann Strauss, Sr. in "The Strauss Dynasty," (1991). The award winning television miniseries, which was filmed in Austria and Hungary over eight months, contains a cast of hundreds. The scope covers the entire Strauss family and the music and politics of their time. The twelve-hour program aired successfully in Europe and Australia in the 90s. The actor shows great range in this role, growing from young adored "Waltz King" conductor of Vienna to world weary, exhausted composer. The series shines with many international stars, enlightening history and music by the Strausses. Higgins grew up in a large musical and creative family of five brothers and one sister in Northamptonshire. Before Higgins was born, his father sang with a band in Cork in the 1930s. His mother was the local church organist and would sometimes accompany him on piano. Later, his father went to New York and studied opera but he returned to Ireland after six years. Anthony plays flugelhorn; he had an instrument especially crafted for him in Germany. He has said that his mother taught him to read even before he went to school. He is a voracious reader; he writes, having used an old manual typewriter prior to the computer era. He also has a penchant for classical music, jazz and fine art; when in New York, he likes to visit the Frick Museum and the Pierpont Morgan Library. He has always had a passion for athletics, having played rugby in his youth, then cricket and now it is golf. The actor's search for cutting-edge productions led him to "Nostradamus" (1994), an eccentric version of the 16th century visionary filmed in Romania. Tcheky Karyo plays the title role and Higgins brings up the ranks as King Henry II of France. Diana Quick (Higgins' mistress in "Max, Mon Amour") plays Diane de Poitier alongside Amanda Plummer as his quirky queen, Catherine de Medici. Higgins plays Henry as extremely effective politically and a great athlete. Higgins' research found that jousting was his other great love as evidenced from the time, effort and money that went into his armor, which is embossed with exquisite scenes from classical history and still exists as an extraordinary artifact.
One of Higgins' best moments onscreen is as Korah, a Hebrew in "Moses" (1996), a television miniseries that aired internationally with Ben Kingsley in the title role. After initial skepticism, Korah silently communicates religious rapture as manna slowly falls from heaven on his ecstatic face, revealing a believer in the end. In the middle 1990s, it seems that there was a chic rush for heterosexual male stars to play roles as HIV-stricken patients, i.e., witness Jeremy Irons in "Stealing Beauty." Higgins brings an understated dignity to the role of a Cuban choreographer in the AIDS-related film, "Alive and Kicking," also known as "Indian Summer" (1996). The film stars Jason Flemyng as his student and has a hopeful conclusion by author Martin Sherman ("Bent"). Higgins returned to the stage in November 1996 with the title role in "Max Klapper - A Life in Pictures." He received excellent notices as a post WWII German film director opposite Emily Lloyd as the actress whom he regards as his creation. The event marked the reopening as a live theater of the Electric Cinema in London, where, curiously, during WWII the theater's manager was suspected of sending messages to German Zeppelins from the roof. Higgins fervently plays Marcel, a Hungarian archaeologist in the Irish feature film, "The Fifth Province," (1997), with Ian Richardson, with whom he previously appeared in "Danton's Death" on British television. Higgins has been particularly commended for the scene where he digs furiously for treasure that was buried by the high kings of Ireland. The script is by the Irish Times-Aer Lingus prize winning, hilarious novelist, Nina Fitzpatrick (Fables of the Irish Intelligentsia). The film sometimes surfaces on Sky TV. In the late 90s, Higgins continued to appear on British television in various roles and slipped into the snakeskins of seriously degenerated criminals in the television crime dramas, "The Governor I," "Supply and Demand I," and "Trial and Retribution III" (now available on DVD in Region 2). All were written by Lynda LaPlante ("Prime Suspect"), who was, coincidentally, an extra in "The Draughtsman's Contract." However, the actor becomes orderly again in 2001, as he plays a talent agent of dubious trust in "The Last Minute," directed by Stephen Norrington ("League of Extraordinary Gentlemen"). The theme is the unworthiness of fame in trendy London. The hero, labeled as "the next big thing," rebels against the agent and descends into hell before finding out how to value his life.
One key to understanding Higgins' personality might be to recognize that his true love is the horn. In 2000, he commissioned British trumpeter Guy Barker, ("Great Expectations" 1998), to write a jazz soundtrack for a short film that Higgins wrote and directed, starring himself and British actress, Frances Barber, "Blood Count." It has been playing at European Film Festivals. In March 2003, Higgins lent his deep, but mellifluous, voice to narrate "Sounds in Black and White," Barker's homage concert to film noir, with the 60 piece London Metropolitan Orchestra at the Barbican Theater in London. In 2004, American television viewers can look forward to seeing him in an "Inspector Lynley Series II" episode on PBS' "Mystery Theater." A large part of Higgins' charisma is due to his voice, mannerisms and unique style that remain unruffled as he ages. He is not on the celebrity A list, the B list or even the Z list but he is high on many viewers' lists of interesting actors to watch because of his magnetism, intensity and unpredictability. The first decade of the new millennium has presented several new interesting British actors on the screen. However, many do not seem to have a strong classical stage training, which is Higgins' rock, and they often throw their lines away. Although not all of his roles have grandeur, people invariably comment about Higgins what he has said of Robert Mitchum, "Even in terrible movies, he is always good." Higgins' light may have reached millions of viewers but he never sold out for money. Some have called him a "career actor" but he has yet to receive the recognition of which his talent is worthy. Where is he? He is building a legacy as a character actor. Film history will show that he is a noteworthy one.
Stephen Boyd
Stephen Boyd was born William Millar on July 4, 1931, at Glengormley, Northern Ireland, one of nine children of Martha Boyd and Canadian truck driver James Alexander Millar, who worked for Fleming's on Tomb Street in Belfast. He attended Glengormley & Ballyrobert primary school and then moved on to Ballyclare High School and studied bookkeeping at Hughes Commercial Academy. In Ireland he worked in an insurance office and travel agency during the day and rehearsed with a semi-professional acting company at night during the week and weekends. He would eventually manage to be on the list for professional acting companies to call him when they had a role. He joined the Ulster Theatre Group and was a leading man with that company for three years, playing all kinds of roles. He did quite a bit of radio work in between as well, but then decided it was distracting him from acting and completely surrendered to his passion. Eventually he went to London as an understudy in an Irish play that was being given there, "The Passing Day".
In England he became very ill and was in and out of work, supplementing his acting assignments with odd jobs such as waiting in a cafeteria, doorman at the Odeon Theatre and even busking on the streets of London. Even as things turned for the worst, he would always write back to his mother that all was well and things were moving along so as not to alarm her in any way or make her worry. Sir Michael Redgrave discovered him one night at the Odeon Theatre and arranged an introduction to the Windsor Repertory Company. The Arts Council of Great Britain was looking for a leading man and part-time director for the only major repertory company that was left in England, The Arts Council Midland Theatre Company, and he got the job. During his stay in England he went into television with the BBC, and for 18 months he was in every big play on TV. One of the major roles in his early career was the one in the play "Barnett's Folly", which he himself ranked as one of his favorites.
In 1956 he signed a seven-year contract with 20th Century-Fox. This led to his first film role, as an IRA member spying for the Nazis in The Man Who Never Was , a job he was offered by legendary producer Alexander Korda . William Wyler was so struck by Boyd's performance in that film that he asked Fox to loan him Boyd, resulting in his being cast in what is probably his most famous role, that of Messala in the classic Ben-Hur opposite Charlton Heston . He received a Golden Globe award for his work on that film but was surprisingly bypassed on Oscar night. Still under contract with Fox, Boyd waited around to play the role of Marc Anthony in Cleopatra opposite Elizabeth Taylor . However, Taylor became so seriously ill that the production was delayed for months, which caused Boyd and other actors to withdraw from the film and move on to other projects.
Boyd made several films under contract before going independent. One of the highlights was Fantastic Voyage , a science-fiction film about a crew of scientists miniaturized and injected into the human body as if in inner space. He also received a nomination for his role of Insp. Jongman in Lisa (aka "The Inspector") co-starring with Dolores Hart .
Boyd's Hollywood career began to fade by the late 1960s as he started to spend more time in Europe, where he seemed to find better roles more suited to his interests. When he went independent it was obvious that he took on roles that spoke to him rather than just taking on assignments for the money, and several of the projects he undertook were, at the time, quite controversial, such as Slaves and Carter's Army . Boyd chose his roles based solely on character development and the value of the story that was told to the public, and never based on monetary compensation or peer pressure.
Although at the height of his career he was considered one of Hollywood's leading men, he never forgot where he came from, and always reminded everyone that he was, first and foremost, an Irishman. When the money started coming in, one of the first things he did was to ensure that his family was taken care of. He was particularly close to his mother Martha and his brother Alex.
Boyd was married twice, the first time in 1958 to Italian-born MCA executive Mariella di Sarzana, but that only lasted (officially) during the filming of "Ben Hur". His second marriage was to Elizabeth Mills, secretary at the British Arts Council and a friend since 1955. Liz Mills followed Boyd to the US in the late 1950s and was his personal assistant and secretary for years before they married, about ten months before his death on June 2, 1977, in Northridge, California, from a massive heart attack while playing golf - one of his favorite pastimes - at the Porter Valley Country Club. He is buried at Oakwood Memorial Park in Chatsworth, California. It was a terrible loss, just as he seemed to be making a comeback with his recent roles in the series Hawaii Five-O and the English movie The Squeeze .
It is a real tragedy to see that a man who was so passionate about his work, who wanted nothing but to tell a story with character, a man who was ahead of his time in many ways ended up being overlooked by many of his peers. One fact remains about Stephen Boyd, however--his fans are still passionate about his work to this day, almost 30 years after his death, and one has to wonder if he ever realized that perhaps in some way he achieved the goal he set out for himself: to entertain the public and draw attention to the true art of acting while maintaining glamor as he defined it by remaining himself a mystery.
Bobby Driscoll
Bobby Driscoll was a natural-born actor. Discovered by chance at the age of five-and-a-half in a barber shop in Altadena, CA. and then convincing in anything he ever undertook on the movie screen and on television throughout his career spanning 17 years (1943-1960). Includes such notable movie screen appearances as The Sullivans , Song of the South , So Dear to My Heart , and The Window , which was not only the sleeper of 1949 but even earned him his Academy Award in March 1950 as the outstanding juvenile actor of 1949. For his role as Jim Hawkins in Walt Disney's Treasure Island , he eventually received his Hollywood Star on 1560 Vine Street, and in 1954 he was chosen in a nation-wide poll for a Milky Way Gold Star Award (for his work on TV and radio). But all the more tragic, then, was his fruitless struggle to find a place in a pitiless adolescent world after severe acne had stalled his acting career at 16. When his face was no longer charming and his voice not smooth enough to be used for voice-over jobs, his last big movie hit was the voice of animated Peter Pan , for which he was also the live-action model. When his contract with the Disney studios was prematurely terminated shortly after the release of Peter Pan in late March 1953, his mother additionally took him from the talent-supporting Hollywood Professional School, which he attended by then. On his new School, the public Westwood University High School, on which he graduated in 1955, all of a sudden his former stardom became more burden than advantage. He successfully continued acting on TV until 1957 and even managed to get two final screen roles; in The Scarlet Coat and opposite of Mark Damon and Connie Stevens in The Party Crashers . His life became more and more a roller coaster ride that included several encounters with the law and his eventual sentencing as a drug addict in October 1961. Released in early 1962, rehabilitated and eager to make a comeback, Bobby was ignored by the very industry that once had raised and nurtured him, because of his record as a convict and former drug addict. First famous... now infamous. Hoping to revive his career on the stage after his parole had expired in 1964, he eventually traveled to New York, only to learn that his reputation had preceded him, and no one wanted to hire him there, either. After a final appearance in 'Piero Heliczer''s Underground short _Dirt_, in 1965 and a short art-period at Andy Warhol 's so-called Factory, he disappeared into the underground, thoroughly dispirited, funds depleted. On March 30, 1968, two playing children found his dead body in an abandoned East Village tenement. Believed to be an unclaimed and homeless person, he was buried in an unmarked pauper's grave on Hart Island, where he remains.
Forrest Tucker
Forrest Tucker, best known to the Baby Boom generation as Sergeant O'Rourke on the classic TV sitcom F Troop , was born on February 12, 1919, in Plainfield, Indiana. He began his performing career at age 14 at the 1933 Chicago "Century of Progress" World's Fair, pushing big wicker tourists' chairs by day and singing at night. His family moved to Arlington, Virginia, where he attended Washington-Lee High School in 1938.
Big for his age, as a youth Tucker was hired by the Old Gayety Burlesque Theater in Washington, DC, to serve as a Master of Ceremonies for the burly-cue after consecutively winning Saturday night amateur contests. He was fired when it was found out that he was underage. When he turned 18, he was rehired by the Old Gayety.
After graduating from high school in 1938, the 6'4", 200-lb. Tucker played semi-pro football in the Washington, DC, area. He also enlisted in the National Guard and was assigned to a cavalry unit in Ft. Myers, Virginia. He started at the top when he entered the movies, in a supporting role in William Wyler 's The Westerner opposite Gary Cooper and Walter Brennan , who won his third Oscar for portraying Judge Roy Bean in the picture. He got the role during his 1939 vacation from the Old Gayety, which shut down due to the District of Columbia's horrible summers in the days before air conditioning was common.He was signed to the part in the Wyler picture, which required a big fellow with enough presence for a fight scene with the 6'3" superstar Cooper.
Tucker moved to California and began auditioning for parts in films. After "The Westerner", it was off to Poverty Row, where he appeared in William Beaudine 's Emergency Landing at rock-bottom PRC (Producers Releasing Corp.). He was soon signed by Columbia and assigned to the B-pictures unit, though he was lent to MGM for the Spencer Tracy - Katharine Hepburn vehicle Keeper of the Flame , his last film before going off to World War II.
Tucker served as an enlisted man in the Army during the war, being discharged as a second lieutenant in 1945. He returned to Columbia and resumed his acting career with an appearance in the classic film The Yearling . He signed with Republic Pictures in 1948, which brought him one of his greatest roles, that of the Marine corporal bearing a grudge against gung-ho sergeant John Wayne in Sands of Iwo Jima . At Republic Tucker was top-billed in many of the "B' pictures in the action and western genres the studio was famous for, such as Rock Island Trail , California Passage and Ride the Man Down , among many others. In 1958 he broke out of action / western pictures and played Beauregard Burnside to Rosalind Russell 's Auntie Mame , the highest grossing US film of the year. It showed that Tucker was capable of performing in light comedy.
Morton DaCosta , his director on "Auntie Mame", cast Tucker as "Professor" Harold Hill in the national touring production of The Music Man , and he was a more than credible substitute for the great Broadway star Robert Preston , who originated the role. Tucker made 2,008 appearances in The Music Man over the next five years, then starred in "Fair Game for Lovers" on Broadway in 1964.
However, it was television that provided Tucker with his most famous role: scheming cavalry sergeant Morgan O'Rourke in "F Troop", which ran from 1965 to 1967 on ABC. Ably supported by Larry Storch , Ken Berry and James Hampton , Tucker showed a flair for comedy and he and Storch had great chemistry, but the series was canceled after only two seasons. It has, however, remained in syndication ever since.
Following "F Troop", Tucker returned to films in supporting parts (having a good turn as the villain in the John Wayne western Chisum ) and character leads ( The Wild McCullochs ). On television he was a regular on three series: Dusty's Trail with Bob Denver ; The Ghost Busters , which reunited him with Larry Storch; and Filthy Rich . Tucker was also a frequent guest star on TV, with many appearances on Gunsmoke and in the recurring role of Jarvis Castleberry, Flo's estranged father, on Alice and its spin-off, Flo . He continued to be active on stage as well, starring in the national productions of Plaza Suite , Show Boat , and That Championship Season . He also toured with Roy Radin 's Vaudeville Revue, a variety show in which, as a headliner, he told Irish stories and jokes and sang Irish songs.
Tucker returned to the big screen after an absence of several years in 1986, playing hero trucker Charlie Morrison in the action film Thunder Run . His comeback to features was short-lived, however, as he died on October 25, 1986, in the Los Angeles suburb of Woodland Hills, of complications from lung cancer and emphysema. He was 67 years old. Tucker was buried in Forest Lawn-Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.
Pete Duel
Born on 24 February 1940 in Rochester, New York, Pete Duel moved to West Hollywood in 1963 following a tour with the National Road Company's "Take Her, She's Mine". After landing small guest spots on various TV series, Pete was cast in a recurring role alongside Sally Field on Gidget in 1965. The series only lasted one season but Pete was immediately cast in another Columbia Screen Gems comedy series Love on a Rooftop with Judy Carne . The series gained good reviews but was once again canceled after one season. Pete then signed a seven-year contract with Universal Studios in July 1967. Guest spots and movie roles followed and, in 1970, he was offered the part of Hannibal Heyes on a comedy Western pilot Alias Smith and Jones , loosely based on the 1969 hit movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid . The pilot was sold to the ABC network and a series was commissioned. The series was a big hit with the youth audience and Duel became subject matter for teen magazines, gaining a loyal following. When news of his sudden death by an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound was reported on TV and radio on December 31st 1971, it came as a shock to his family and friends. Early suspicion of foul play soon gave way to evidence pointing to death by suicide with depression and serious alcohol problems seen as contributing factors. Following a memorial service at the Self-Realization Temple in California on January 2nd 1972, Pete's body was flown to Penfield, New York. He was buried in Oakwood Cemetery following a memorial service at Penfield Baptist Church.
Sara Montiel
Sara Montiel was born in the village of Campo de Criptana, province of Ciudad Real, in the region of Castille-La Mancha, Spain. Her parents were Isidoro Abad, a peasant, and Maria Vicenta Fernández, a door-to-door beautician. The future star was christened Maria Antonia Alejandra Abad Fernández. Barely in her teens, she won a beauty and talent contest held by Cifesa, the most influential Spanish film studio of that era. She was promptly signed to a movie contract and in 1944 made her debut playing a teenager in Te quiero para mí , credited in the cast as "Maria Alejandra". By the end of 1944 she was given the starring role in Empezó en boda , which introduced her with a more adult image and a new name: Sara Montiel.
In the next four years she appeared in 14 films, including her first international success Locura de amor , which led to a long term-contract in Mexico. She quickly established herself as one of the most popular film actors of the decade. starring in over a dozen films between 1950 and 1954. Hollywood came calling and she was formally introduced to American moviegoers in Vera Cruz , playing Gary Cooper 's love interest. Later she worked at Warner Bros. in Serenade with Mario Lanza , directed by Anthony Mann , who became her first husband. After starring in Samuel Fuller 's Run of the Arrow with Rod Steiger , Sarita shot The Last Torch Song ("The Last Song") in Spain, a musical production that turned out to be the biggest box-office success in Spain's film history. It played for over a year in the same theaters in which it opened. A similar reaction followed in Western Europe and Latin America. Sarita Montiel had become the most popular actress-singer of 1957 and a national treasure for Spain.
The unprecedented success of "El Último Cuplé" threw a wrench into her Hollywood career, as she was offered a multimillion-dollar contract to star in four films in Europe. Her next vehicle, La violetera ("The Violet Peddler"), confirmed Sara's popularity and broke the box-office records set by the previous movie. The theme song from "La Violetera" became Montiel's signature song. The soundtrack albums from both films reportedly outsold Elvis Presley and Frank Sinatra in the world market. From then on, Sarita would combine the making of films with the recording of highly successful albums and live concerts in four continents. By 1962 she had become a legend to millions of fans worldwide, reaching markets that had previously been uncharted territory for Spanish cinema. Among her many blockbusters of the 1960s were Mi último tango , Pecado de amor , La bella Lola , La reina del Chantecler and Esa mujer .
However, by the 1970s her interest in films diminished, due largely to the almost pornographic turn of Spanish films in the post- Francisco Franco era when censorship was abolished. Her activities turned mainly to recording and stage work, and she achieved uncontested successes with her stage shows "Sara en Persona" (1970-73), "Saritísima" (1974-75), "Increible Sara" (1977-78), "Super Sara Show"(1979-80), "Doña Sara de La Mancha" (1981-82), "Taxi Vamos Al Victoria" (1983-84), "Nostalgia" (1985-86), "Sara, Siempre Sara" (1987-88) and others.
In the 1990s Sara surprised everyone by branching out into television: Sara y punto , a mini-series of seven one-hour episodes, included a serialized biography of the star, many popular guests (including Luciano Pavarotti and Charles Aznavour , among others) and Miss Montiel singing her greatest hits in addition to new songs written especially for her. Next came Ven al Paralelo , taped in a Barcelona theater where Montiel hosted,sang and acted in comedy sketches in front of a live audience.
It is quite impossible to cover here all the awards Sara Montiel has won in her long successful career but we must mention the "Premio del Sindicato" (at that time Spain's equivalent of the Oscar) for best actress, won two years in a row for her performances in "El Último Cuplé" and "La Violetera". In 1972 she was proclaimed an honorary citizen of Los Angeles by Mayor Sam Yorty and was given the gold key to the city. Similarly she has been awarded the gold keys of New York, Miami and Chicago. In 1981 she received Israel's most prestigious honor, the Ben Guiron Award and in 1983 she was awarded France's Legion of Honor medal, after a retrospective of her career ran at the Autumn Film Festival in Paris. In 1986 "Nosotros", a Hollywood-based Hispanic actors advocacy organization founded by Ricardo Montalban , gave her its Golden Eagle Award for life achievement. The trophy was presented to Sarita by her "Vera Cruz" costar-producer Burt Lancaster in an emotional reunion that triggered a standing ovation from all their Hollywood peers witnessing the event. In 1997 she was awarded the "Gold Medal", also a life achievement recognition, given--rarely0--by Spain's Academy of Arts and Sciences. The two-hour ceremony was beamed live by national television. In 2008 Sara returned to her hometown to unveil a sculpture with her image at the new Sara Montiel Park. A nearby avenue was also named after her and there was at the same time a dedication ceremony of her newly renovated museum, located inside a 16th-century windmill. In addition, the government placed a commemorative plaque on the house where she was born.
Sara Montiel's private life has also been a large part of her legend. After divorcing Anthony Mann in 1963, she married three more times (Vicente Ramirez Olalla 1964-1978; Jose Tous 1979-1992; Antonio Hernandez 2002-2004). Before, during and after these marriages she had countless affairs, among them Nobel prize-winning scientist Severo Ochoa and Italian actor Giancarlo Del Duca . Unable to have children, she adopted two during her marriage to Jose Tous: Thais (born in 1979) and Zeus (born 1983). In 2000 she published her autobiography, which became a best seller. Undaunted by the passage of time and ignoring critics who accused her of mishandling her legendary image, Sara Montiel continued living and working at a hectic pace. She kept touring with her one woman show and making guests appearances on television. In 2009 she won a new generation of fans when she recorded "Absolutamente," an outrageous duet with Fangoria's vocalist Alaska. Both the record and the promotional video reached the top of the popularity charts and remained there for weeks.
Next Sara recorded some love duets with baritone José Antonio Román Marcos and traveled to the United States for a short tour sponsored by New York's Cervantes Institute and the universities of Chicago and Cincinnati. In every city she charmed the audiences with her charismatic presence and sense of humor. Back in Spain she continued her activities which now included supporting the singing career of her son Zeus. She appeared in his 2011 "Sex Dance" video and caused quite a stir.
In February 2013 Sara Montiel became the subject of a made-for-TV documentary titled "Sara's Dream" which aired in Spain to high ratings and great reviews. It was a fitting celebration of her fantastic life and career which came at the right time. A couple of months later, the star who had seemed eternal, passed away suddenly and quietly in her Madrid penthouse. By her family's request, funeral services were private but the funeral procession, organized by the city of Madrid, was a very moving event attended by thousands who showed up at Plaza Callao to bid farewell to their beloved Sara. She was buried in the San Justo cemetery family plot.
Ian Richardson
A classical actor (and founding member in 1960 of the Royal Shakespeare Company), Richardson earned international fame as the villainous Francis Urquart in the BBC television trilogy, "House of Cards." Uttered in a cut-glass accent, the Machiavellian Prime Minister's sly "You might well think that ... I couldn't possibly comment" became a catchphrase when the series was broadcast in the 1990s. Richardson's contributions to his art were honored in 1989 when he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE.) Fittingly, his family had his ashes buried beneath the auditorium of the new Royal Shakespeare theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon.
Born the son of John and Margaret (Drummond) Richardson on April 7, 1934, he was educated at Tynecastle School in Edinburgh, and studied for the stage at the College of Dramatic Art in Glasgow, where he was awarded the James Bridie Gold Medal in 1957. He joined the Birmingham Repertory Theatre Company a year later where he played Hamlet as well as John Worthing in "The Importance of being Earnest." In 1960 he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company (then called the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre) and drew excellent notices for his work in "The Merchant of Venice," "Twelfth Night," "The Winter's Tale," "Much Ado About Nothing," "A Midsummer Night's Dream," "The Taming of the Shrew," "The Comedy of Errors" and "King Lear", among others. In 1964 Richardson played the role of the Herald before advancing to the title role of Jean-Paul Marat in the stunning, avant-garde RSC production of "Marat-Sade". In addition, he made his Broadway debut in said role at the very end of 1965, and recreated it to critical acclaim in Peter Brooks ' film adaptation with Glenda Jackson as murderess Charlotte Corday. Richardson also went on to replay Oberon in a lukewarm film version of RSC's A Midsummer Night's Dream that nevertheless bore an elite company of Britain's finest pre-Dames -- Judi Dench , Helen Mirren and Diana Rigg . One of his lower film points during that time period, however, was appearing in the huge musical movie misfire Man of La Mancha in the role of the Padre opposite Peter O'Toole and Sophia Loren .
Richardson was never far from the Shakespearean stage after his induction into films with majestic portraits of Coriolanus, Pericles, Richard II, Richard III, Cassius ("Julius Caesar"), Malcolm ("Macbeth"), Angelo ("Measure for Measure"), Prospero ("The Tempest") and Mercutio ("Romeo and "Juliet") paving the way. Elsewhere on Broadway he received a Drama Desk Award and Tony nomination for his splendid Henry Higgins in a revival of "My Fair Lady" in 1976, and was part of the cast of the short-lived (12 performances) production of "Lolita" (1981), written by Edward Albee and starring Donald Sutherland as Humbert Humbert.
Edmund Gwenn
There are very few character actors from the 1930s, '40s or '50s who rose to the rank of stardom. Only a rare man or woman reached the level of renown and admiration, and had enough audience appeal, to be the first name in a cast's billing, a name that got marquee posting. Charles Coburn comes to mind, but there aren't many others. However, one who made it was Edmund Gwenn.
Gwenn was born Edmund Kellaway in Wandsworth, London, on September 26, 1877. He was the oldest boy in the family, which at that time meant he was the only one who really mattered. His father was a British civil servant, and he groomed Edmund to take a position of power in the Empire. However, early on, the boy had a mind of his own. For a while, his inclination was to go to sea, but that ended when one of his forebear's in the Queen's Navy was court-martialed for exceeding his "wine bill". In addition to that, Edmund had poor eyesight and perhaps most importantly, he was his mother's darling, and she kept having visions of shipwrecks and desert island strandings. As for the civil service, to the boy it seemed like a "continent of unexplored boredom".
He attended St. Olaf's College and would attend King's College in London as well. Surprisingly, he excelled at rugby and amateur boxing. Meanwhile, he developed a strong inclination to the stage, partly because of his admiration for the great English actor, Henry Irving . A major roadblock to that ambition, however, was his father, who, at that time, was stationed in Ireland. When Edmund broke the news to his father that he had chosen acting as a career, there followed "a scene without parallel in Victorian melodrama." His father called the theatre "that sink of iniquity." He predicted that, if Edmund went into theatre, he would end up in the gutter, and then literally "showed him the door." Years later his father would admit he had been wrong, but that didn't help the young man during an all-night crossing from Dublin to England during which he had time to reflect. He was penniless. His experience consisted of a few performances in amateur productions, and he knew that if he failed, there was no going back home.
However, in 1895, at the age of eighteen, he made his first appearance on the English stage with a group of amateurs just turned professional, playing two roles, "Dodo Twinkle" and "Damper", in "Rogue and Vagabond". For a long time afterward, he refused to go on stage without a false beard or some other disguise, fearing someone would recognize him and tell his father (it's a bit ironic, by the way, that Edmund's younger brother Arthur would also become an actor using the name of Arthur Chesney ). During the next few years, roles were hard to come by but, by 1899, he made his first appearance on the West End in London in "A Jealous Mistake". This was followed by ten years in the hinterlands acting with stock and touring companies, gradually working his way up from small parts to juicier roles. While with Edmund Tearle's Repertory Company, which toured the provinces, he played a different role each night. It was excellent training, in that he acted in everything from William Shakespeare to old melodrama.
About this time, he married Minnie Terry, niece of the more famous actress Ellen Terry , a marriage that evidently was short-lived. Most sources list it as beginning and ending in 1901, perhaps only for a matter of days or even hours. From that point, Gwenn would remain a bachelor for the rest of his life. He seems to have preferred not going into any details about the marriage and divorce, and Minnie Terry, who outlived Gwenn, apparently never mentioned what happened, at least not publicly. That same year, however, he went to Australia and acted there for three years, not returning to London until 1904. There, he took a small part in "In the Hospital", which led to his receiving a postcard from George Bernard Shaw , offering him a leading role as "Straker", the Cockney chauffeur, in "Man and Superman". Gwenn accepted (by this time he was Edmund Gwenn) and the play was a success. Shaw became a sort of professional godfather for him. He appeared in "John Bull's Island", "Major Barbara", "You Never Can Tell", "Captain Brassbound's Conversion" and "The Devil's Disciple", all by Shaw. He spent three years in Shaw's company, years which he called "the happiest I've ever had in the theatre".
From 1908 until 1915, he performed in new plays by noted playwrights of the time, including John Masefield 's "The Campden Wonder", 'John Galsworthy''s "Justice" and "The Skin Game", J.M. Barrie 's "What Every Woman Knows" and "The Twelve Pound Look", as well as Henrik Ibsen 's "The Wild Duck" and Harley Granville-Barker 's "The Voysey Inheritance". By this time, World War I had started and Gwenn, despite his poor eyesight, was inducted into the British Army. Most of his time during "The Great War" was spent drawing supplies up to the front lines, while under fire. He was so successful at this task that, after a year as a private, he received a steady stream of promotions until eventually becoming a captain.
After the War, he returned to the stage and, in 1921, made his first appearance in the US in "A Voice from the Minaret" and "Fedora". He would return to America in 1928 to replace his friend, Dennis Eadie , who had died while in rehearsal for "The House of Arrows", but for most of this time, he was in England doing more stage roles and two dozen British films.
His first appearance on screen was in a British short, The Real Thing at Last in 1916, while he was still in the army. His next film roles were in Shaw's How He Lied to Her Husband and J.B. Priestley 's The Good Companions . He was also in Unmarried in 1920 and a silent version of "The Skin Game" ( The Skin Game ) as "Hornblower", a role he would reprise in 1931 for a talking version ( The Skin Game ) directed by Alfred Hitchcock . From then on, Gwenn was to work steadily until the end of his life. He appeared in English stage plays and films, eventually doing more and more on Broadway and in Hollywood. For example, he played the amiable counterfeiter in "Laburnum Grove" in 1933 (later to become the film Laburnum Grove in which he would star) and then with the entire British company brought it to New York. He was also a huge success in "The Wookey" in 1942, playing a Cockney tugboat captain. That same year, he appeared as "Chebutykin" in Anton Chekhov 's "The Three Sisters", with Katharine Cornell , Ruth Gordon and Judith Anderson . In such illustrious company, Gwenn was hailed by critics as "magnificent" and "superlatively good".
Arthur Kennedy
Arthur Kennedy, one of the premier character actors in American film from the late 1940s through the early 1960s, achieved fame in the role of Biff in Elia Kazan 's historic production of Arthur Miller 's Pultizer-Prize winning play "Death of a Salesman." Although he was not selected to recreate the role on screen, he won one Best Actor and four Best Supporting Academy Award nominations between 1949 and 1959 and ranked as one of Hollywood's finest players.
Born John Arthur Kennedy to a dentist and his wife on February 17, 1914 in Worcester, Massachusetts. As a young man, known as "Johnny" to his friends, studied drama at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. By the time he was 20 years old, he was involved in local theatrical groups. Kennedy's first professional gig was was with the Globe Theatre Company, which toured the Midwest offering abbreviated versions of Shakespearian plays. Shakesperian star Maurice Evans hired Kennedy for his company, with which he appeared in the Broadway production of "Richard II" in 1937. While performing in Evans' repertory company, Kennedy also worked in the Federal Theatre project.
Arthur Kennedy made his Broadway debut in "Everywhere I Roam" in 1938, the same year that he married Mary Cheffrey, who would remain his wife until her death in 1975. He also appeared on Broadway in "Life and Death of an American" in 1939 and in "An International Incident" in 1940 at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, in support of the great American actress the theater had been named after.
Kennedy and his wife moved west to Los Angeles, California in 1938, and it was while acting on the stage in L.A. that he was discovered by fellow Irish-American actor James Cagney , who cast him as his brother in the film City for Conquest . The role brought with it a contract with Warner Bros., and the studio put him in supporting roles in some prestigious movies, including High Sierra , the film that made Humphrey Bogart a star, They Died with Their Boots On with Errol Flynn , and Howard Hawks 's Air Force alongside future Best Supporting Actor Oscar winner Gig Young and the great John Garfield . His career was interrupted by military service in World War Two.
After the war, Kennedy went back to the Broadway stage, where he gained a reputation as an actor's actor, appearing in Arthur Miller 's 1947 Tony Award-winning play "All My Sons," which was directed by Kazan. He played John Proctor in the original production of Miller's reflection on McCarthyism, "The Crucible" - which Kazan, an informer who prostrated himself before the forces of McCarthyism, refused to direct - and also appeared in Miller's last Broadway triumph, "The Price."
When Kennedy returned to film work, he quickly distinguished himself as one of the best and most talented of supporting actors & character leads, appearing in such major films as Boomerang! , Champion (for which he received his first Oscar nomination as Best Supporting Actor) and The Glass Menagerie , playing Tom in a mediocre adaptation of Tennessee Williams 's classic play. Kennedy won his first and only Best Actor nomination for Bright Victory , playing a blinded vet, a role for which he won the New York Film Critics Circle award over such competition as Marlon Brando and Humphrey Bogart . Other films included Fritz Lang 's 'Rancho Notorious (1951)', Anthony Mann 's Bend of the River , William Wyler 's The Desperate Hours , Richard Brooks ' Elmer Gantry , David Lean 's Lawrence of Arabia , and John Ford 's Cheyenne Autumn .
In 1956, Kennedy won another Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his role in Trial , plus two more Supporting nods in 1958 and 1959 for his appearances in the screen adaptations of Grace Metalious 's Peyton Place , and James Jones Some Came Running .
Kennedy returned to Broadway frequently in the 1950s, and headlined the 1952 play "See the Jaguar", a flop best remembered for giving a young actor named James Dean one of his first important parts. A decade later, Kennedy replaced his good friend Anthony Quinn in the Broadway production of "Beckett", alternating the roles of Beckett and Henry II with Laurence Olivier , who was quite fond of working with him. In the 1960s, the prestigious movie parts dried up as he matured, but he continued working in movies and on TV until he retired in the mid-1980s. He moved out of Los Angeles to live with family members in Connecticut. In the last years of his life, he was afflicted with thyroid cancer and eye disease. He died of a brain tumor at 75, survived by his two children by his wife Mary, Terence and actress Laurie Kennedy . He is buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in Lequille, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Martha Scott
Martha Ellen Scott was born in Jamesport, Missouri, to Letha (McKinley) and Walter Alva Scott, an engineer and garage owner. She entered films in the early 1940s, following an initial appearance in stock. Her first film appearance was Our Town , playing the same character as she played on the stage. She won an Academy Award nomination for her superb performance in the film. Martha Scott is remembered as a highly talented actress, however her work is often forgotten today as she was never seen as a truly bankable star by the major studios.
A recent memorable performance for Martha was as Sister Beatrice in the camp disaster movie Airport 1975 . She played a dominant experienced nun with Helen Reddy , in a cast of major stars facing disaster on the stricken Boeing 747 jetliner.
She continued to work consistently throughout the 1970s and 1980s, often appearing in television movies and on the stage. She died at the age of 90 in May 2003 and is buried with her husband Mel Powell .
Darla Hood
Darla Hood was born in a small rural Oklahoma town on Sunday, November 8th, 1931, she grew up as dark-banged cute girl, Darla Hood began her association with the motley "Our Gang" group at the tender age of 2 1/2, as she stated on the The Jack Benny Program . Her father, James Claude Hood, Jr., a banker, and especially her mother, Elizabeth (nee Davner), prodded Darla's innate musical talents with singing and dancing lessons in Oklahoma City. Little Darla made an unscheduled, impromptu singing debut at Edison Hotel in Times Square when the band-leader invited her onto the stage, and the crowd roared in appreciation. By sheerest coincidence, Joe Rivkin, (an agent of Hal Roach ) spotted the four-year-old scene-stealer, screen tested her & signed her to a long-term (7 year) contract at $75 weekly, ($27,375 was the amount of her 7 year contract, if never raised, annually).
Darla went on to perform as "leading rascal actress" in 51 of the popular short films, and her last was act was an off-screen television movie, totaling 52 Little Rascal filmings, exactly. As the solo staff member of the motley Rascals' crew, she recalled finding her off-camera times on the set as being rather lonely as the boys tended to group together and play 'boy' games, especially baseball and football. Toward the beginning of this lucrative association, she also managed to appear opposite Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy with the title character & leading role, in one of their handful of feature films The Bohemian Girl . Darla Hood 's tenure as most popular "Little Rascal" actress, began in 1935 Our Gang Follies of 1936 & her finale, Wedding Worries . Then, 37+ years later, was hers & almost all others finale, as a "Little Rascal" character with the animated off screen special, The Little Rascals' Christmas Special . She did not live to see when it was originally televised. It was filmed during the last four months, of her life-time, in late winter, or early spring of 1979.
While very few of the "Our Gang" shorts were made during World War II because of the scarcity of film (a majority of them were saved for feature-length films), by the time the series was to be finally revived in 1945, Darla had already outgrown her popular character role. Following her exit, she had trouble dealing with the inevitable transitioning into a teen actor and her career faltered badly. After returning to school (Fairfax High School in Hollywood), she graduated as an honor student. She was able to find some work with Ken Murray 's popular "Blackbirds" variety show on the Los Angeles stage as well as some behind-the-scenes work in the post-war years. With her first husband, Robert W. Decker, she married him when she was 17, she formed the vocal group "Darla Hood and the Enchanters", which provided incidental background music for such classic films as A Letter to Three Wives . She also made appearances in nightclubs and on television variety shows, The Ken Murray Show , The Paul Whiteman's Goodyear Revue , and she was also performed & or sang songs, on a few Merv Griffin 's radio programs. Another successful outlet for her was in the field of voice-over work in cartoons and commercials "Chicken of the Sea" was her longest lasting commercial tenure, as the mermaid. She also did some "Campbell's Soup" commercials, at the same time, but much fewer. In time, she became a well-oiled impressionist and trick voice artist, almost like a ventriloquist.
She divorced from her first husband of eight years, with whom she had her first two children, (one son and one daughter), Brett and Darla Jo, she was 25 when she immediately married her one-time manager, Jose Granson, a musical publisher, in 1957. (Her divorce and second marriage, both occurred in 1957). She & her second husband, Jose Granson were parents to her youngest three children, (her third, fourth & fifth). Darla remained small in show business until her untimely end. She died on Wednesday, June 13th, 1979 of acute hepatitis. She had heart failure, after heart surgery at a Hollywood hospital after contracting acute hepatitis following a relatively minor operation. Following her funeral, she was buried at Hollywood Memorial Park Cemetery. The cemetery was renamed Hollywood Forever, less than a decade after she was buried there.
Dylan Kenin
From Taos, New Mexico, Dylan began acting in the theatre at Taos High School. Encouraged by his parents and mentored by the Vaudeville trained Actor, Director, Producer, and TV Star, John Newland, Dylan attended the USC School of Theatre. Upon graduation, Dylan spent five years on stages throughout Los Angeles, becoming a member of the acclaimed Evidence Room Theatre company. During this time he invested four summers in repertoire Theatre at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in Scotland and at the Espace Pierre Cardin in Paris, under the direction of J.E. Blankenchip. Notable performances there include Bradley in Buried Child, Kip in Raised in Captivity, and Darth Vader/Chewbacca in the Star Wars Trilogy in Thirty Minutes. Since 2005 Dylan has pursued work in film and television with continued success, while maintaining his craft and passion by working live Theatre.
Frank Sutton
As the brash and bruising tough guy with wide, flaring nostrils, compact features and boorish, bullying personality, you could have placed bets that anyone who had the guts to go nose-to-nose against crew cut-wearing badger Frank Sutton had better be one tough order. Nope. Far from it. Sutton's most feared, ulcer-inducing on-camera nemesis would be none other than one of TV's gentlest souls ever--Mayberry's own lovable gas station attendant Gomer Pyle.
As the antagonistic, in-your-face Sgt. Vince Carter, whose outer bluster occasionally revealed a softer inner core, the 41-year-old Sutton finally found himself front and center co-starring in one of sitcomdom's most successful spin-offs-- Gomer Pyle: USMC , the offspring of The Andy Griffith Show . Fans really took to Sutton's volatile character whose hilarious slow burn meshed perfectly with Jim Nabors ' awkward guile. The gimmick of watching Carter's devious but ultimately failed plans to transfer Pyle out of his unit each week worked for five seasons. Off-stage Nabors and Sutton shared a mutual respect for each other. After the show's demise, in fact, Sutton went on to become a part of Jim's roster of regulars on The Jim Nabors Hour , a variety show that had a very short run.
Frank Spencer Sutton was born in Clarksville, Tennessee. Although some sources list the year of his birth as 1922, his grave marker indicates 1923. An only child, both his parents had jobs working for the local newspaper. When he was eight, the family moved to Nashville, his father dying some time later of an intestinal ailment. Belonging to the drama club and appearing in high school plays sparked his early interest in acting, and he majored in Dramatic Arts at Columbia University, graduating cum laude. Gaining experience on the local stages, he eventually found a job as a radio announcer. Following WWII military service, he returned to acting and in the 1950s segued into TV, appearing on a couple of the more popular children's adventure series -- Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Tom Corbett, Space Cadet . Based in New York, Sutton also found work on the soaps The Edge of Night and The Secret Storm .
Sutton's imposing mug and hothead countenance proved quite suitable for playing both good guys and bad guys and he became a steady, reliable fixture in rugged surroundings. With work on such series as "Gunsmoke", "Maverick", "The Fugitive", "Combat!", and "The Untouchables" he could be counted on to play everything from a crass, outspoken blue-collar buddy to a menacing henchman. Film appearances were sporadic, with only a few secondary roles offered. His best chances were in Four Boys and a Gun , Town Without Pity (a very good performance as one of a trio of American GIs accused of raping a young German girl) and The Satan Bug .
In the early 1970s, after the success of the "Gomer Pyle" series, Sutton was seen in TV guest spots while performing in small-scale stock plays all over the US. His stage work would include comedic roles in "The Odd Couple," "Anything Goes" and "No Hard Feelings." In fact, he died suddenly of a heart attack on June 28, 1974, while in rehearsals for a show at a Louisiana dinner theater. The 50-year-old actor was survived by his wife of 25 years, daytime soap writer Toby Igler, and children Joseph and Amanda. He was buried in his home town.
Sabu
Sabu Dastagir (or Selar Shaik Sabu, depending on your resource) was born on January 27, 1924, in the little town of Mysore, India, which is nestled in the jungles of Karapur. The son of an elephant driver (mahout) in service for the Maharajah of his town, the young stable boy learned responsibility early in life when, at age 9, his father died and Sabu immediately became the ward of the royal elephant stables. As with many Hollywood success stories, good timing, and dumb luck allowed the impoverished youth a chance for a better life. By sheer chance the timid 12-year-old orphan was discovered by a British location crew while searching for a youth to play the title role (an elephant driver!) in their upcoming feature Elephant Boy . Quite taken aback by his earnest looks, engaging naturalness and adaptability to wild animals and their natural habitat, the studio handed the boy a film career on a sterling silver platter and was placed under exclusive contract by the mogul Alexander Korda himself.
Sabu and his older brother (as guardian) were whisked away to England to complete the picture and became subsequent wards of the British government. They were given excellent schooling in the process and Sabu quickly learned the English language in preparation for his upcoming films. Elephant Boy was an unqualified hit and the young actor was promptly placed front and center once again in the film Drums surrounded by an impressive British cast that included Raymond Massey and Valerie Hobson . With the parallel success of the Tarzan jungle movies in America, Hollywood starting taking a keen look at this refreshingly new boy talent when he first arrived in the U.S. for a publicity tour of the film. Again, his second film was given rave reviews, proving that Sabu would not be just a one-hit wonder.
His third film for Korda is considered one of the great true classics. In the Arabian fantasy-adventure The Thief of Bagdad , Sabu plays Abu the Thief and is not only surrounded by superb actors -- notably June Duprez , John Justin , Rex Ingram (as the genie) and Conrad Veidt (as the evil Grand Vizier) -- but exceptional writing and incredible special effects. Sabu's name began stirring international ears. His last pairing with Korda was the excellent adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's classic book Jungle Book playing Mowgli, the boy raised by wolves, who must adapt to the ways of mankind after being returned to his mother. The movie was directed by Alexander's brother Zoltan Korda .
Following this triumph, Sabu officially became the exotic commodity of Universal Pictures and he settled in America. Although initially rewarding monetarily, it proved to be undoing. Unfortunately (and too often typical), a haphazard assembly-line of empty-minded features were developed that hardly compared to the quality pictures in England under Korda. Saddled alongside the unexceptional Maria Montez and Jon Hall , his vehicles Arabian Nights , White Savage and Cobra Woman were, for the most part, drivel but certainly did fit the bill as colorful, mindless entertainment.
Almost 20 years old by the time he became a citizen of the U.S. in 1944, he enlisted in the Army Air Force and earned WWII distinction in combat missions (Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal, among others) as a tail gunner. By the time Sabu returned to Universal and filming, the charm of his youth had worn off and the boyish stereotype impossible to escape.
Post-war audiences developed new tastes, but Sabu had no choice but to trudge on with retreads of his former glory. Films such as Tangier again opposite Ms. Montez, Man-Eater of Kumaon and Song of India opposite lovely princess Gail Russell did little to advance his career. While filming the last-mentioned movie, Sabu met and married actress Marilyn Cooper who temporarily filled in for an ailing Ms. Russell on the set. The couple went on to have two children.
Sabu actually fared better back in England during the late 40s, starring in the crime drama The End of the River and appearing fourth-billed as a native general in the exquisitely photographed Black Narcissus . Daring in subject matter, the film had Deborah Kerr heading up a group of Anglican nuns who battle crude traditions, unexpected passions and stark raving madness while setting up a Himalayan order. By the mid-50s Sabu's career was rapidly approaching extinction, seeking work wherever he could find it - in low-budget Europe productions, public appearances, etc. An attempt to conjure up a TV series for himself failed. His life was further aggravated by unpleasant civil and paternity suits brought about against him. His last two pictures were supporting roles in Rampage , which starred Robert Mitchum , and A Tiger Walks , a thoroughly routine Disney picture which was released posthumously.
Sabu died unexpectedly at age 39 of a heart attack on December 2, 1963, at his home in Southern California and was buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills. Son Paul Sabu developed into an accomplished songwriter and even formed a rock band called Sabu; daughter Jasmine Sabu , who died in 2001, was a noted horse trainer whose skill was utilized occasionally for films. Although he went the way of too many of our former stars, Sabu continues to enchant and excite newer generations with his unmatched athletic skills and magnetic charm in those early adventure fantasies of yesteryear.
Jane Austen
Jane Austen was born on December 16th, 1775, to the local rector, Rev. George Austen (1731-1805), and Cassandra Leigh (1739-1827). She was the seventh of eight children. She had one older sister, Cassandra. In 1783 she went to Southampton to be taught by a relative, Mrs. Cawley, but was brought home due to a local outbreak of disease. Two years later she attended the Abbey Boarding School in Reading, reportedly wanting to follow her sister Cassandra, until 1786.
Jane was mostly educated at home, where she learned how to play the piano, draw and write creatively. She read frequently and later came to enjoy social events such as parties, dances and balls. She disliked the busy life of towns and preferred the country life, where she took to taking long walks.
In 1801 Jane, her parents and sister moved to Bath, a year after her father's retirement, and the family frequented the coast. While on one of those coastal holidays she met a young man, but the resulting romantic involvement ended tragically when he died. It is believed by many astute Austen fans that her novel, "Persuasion", was inspired by this incident.
Following her father's passing in January of 1805--which left his widow and daughters with financial problems--the family moved several times until finally settling into a small house, in Chawton, Hampshire, owned by her brother Edward, which is reminiscent of "Sense and Sensibility". It was in this house that she wrote most of her works.
In March of 1817 her health began to decline and she was forced to abandon her work on "Sanditon", which she never completed. It turned out that she had Addisons disease. In April she wrote out her will and then on May 24th moved with Cassandra to Winchester, to be near her physician. It was in Winchester she died, in the arms of her sister, on Friday, 18 July 1817, at the age of only 41. She was buried the 24th of July at Winchester Cathedral. Jane never married.
During her formative years, Jane wrote plays and poems. At 14 she wrote her first novel, "Love and Freindship [sic]" and other juvenilia. Her first (unsuccessful) submission to a publisher, however, was in 1797 titled "First Impressions" (later "Pride and Prejudice"). In 1803 "Susan" (later "Northanger Abbey") was actually sold to a publisher for a mere £10 but was not published until 14 years later, posthumously. Her first accepted work was in 1811 titled "Sense and Sensibility", which was published anonymously as were all books published during her lifetime. She revised "First Impressions" and published it entitled "Pride and Prejudice" in 1813. "Mansfield Park" was published in 1814, followed by "Emma" in 1816, the same year she completed "Persuasion" and began "Sanditon", which was ultimately left unfinished. Both "Persuasion" and "Northanger Abbey" were published in 1818, after her death.
| Bluto |
Hanged at Bedford prison in 1962, which British criminal was responsible for the murder of scientist Michael Gregston in a lay-by in Bedfordshire? He claimed an alibi saying he had been in Rhyl on the night of the murder. | IMDb: Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Buried"
Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Buried"
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Toby Jones
Widely regarded as the one of greatest stage and screen actors both in his native Great Britain and internationally, Toby Edward Heslewood Jones was born on September 7, 1966 in Hammersmith, London. His parents, Freddie Jones and Jennie Heslewood , are actors as well. Toby has two brothers: Rupert, a director, and Casper, a fellow actor. He studied Drama at the University of Manchester from 1986 to 1989, and at L'École Internationale de Théâtre in Paris under Jacques Lecoq in Paris from 1989 to 1991. Naturally, his career began on the stage (and continues there), but film and television roles came soon after his studies.
Toby made his film debut with a small role in Sally Potter 's experimental take on Virginia Woolf 's novel, Orlando , starring Tilda Swinton . Other small film roles included the doorkeeper in Les Misérables and a memorable turn as the Royal Page in Ever After: A Cinderella Story with Drew Barrymore .
Yul Brynner
Exotic leading man of American films, famed as much for his completely bald head as for his performances, Yul Brynner masked much of his life in mystery and outright lies designed to tease people he considered gullible. It was not until the publication of the books "Yul: The Man Who Would Be King" and "Empire and Odyssey" by his son, Yul "Rock" Brynner, that many of the details of Brynner's early life became clear.
Yul sometimes claimed to be a half-Swiss, half-Japanese named Taidje Khan, born on the island of Sakhalin; in reality, he was the son of Marousia Dimitrievna (Blagovidova), the Russian daughter of a doctor, and Boris Yuliyevich Bryner, an engineer and inventor of Swiss-German and Russian descent. He was born in their home town of Vladivostok on 11 July 1920 and named Yuli after his grandfather, Jules Bryner. When Yuli's father abandoned the family, his mother took him and his sister Vera to Harbin, Manchuria, where they attended a YMCA school. In 1934 Yuli's mother took her children to Paris. Her son was sent to the exclusive Lycée Moncelle, but his attendance was spotty. He dropped out and became a musician, playing guitar in the nightclubs among the Russian gypsies who gave him his first real sense of family. He met luminaries such as Jean Cocteau and became an apprentice at the Theatre des Mathurins. He worked as a trapeze artist with the famed Cirque d'Hiver company.
He traveled to the U.S. in 1941 to study with acting teacher Michael Chekhov and toured the country with Chekhov's theatrical troupe. That same year, he debuted in New York as Fabian in "Twelfth Night" (billed as Youl Bryner). After working in a very early TV series, Mr. Jones and His Neighbors , he played on Broadway in "Lute Song" with Mary Martin , winning awards and mild acclaim. He and his wife, actress Virginia Gilmore , starred in the first TV talk show, Mr. and Mrs. . Brynner then joined CBS as a television director. He made his film debut in Port of New York . Two years later Mary Martin recommended him for the part he would forever be known for: the King in Richard Rodgers ' and Oscar Hammerstein II 's musical "The King and I". Brynner became an immediate sensation in the role, repeating it for film ( The King and I ) and winning the Oscar for Best Actor.
For the next two decades, he maintained a starring film career despite the exotic nature of his persona, performing in a wide range of roles from Egyptian pharaohs to Western gunfighters, almost all with the same shaved head and indefinable accent. In the 1970s he returned to the role that had made him a star, and spent most of the rest of his life touring the world in "The King and I". When he developed lung cancer in the mid 1980s, he left a powerful public service announcement denouncing smoking as the cause, for broadcast after his death. The cancer and its complications, after a long illness, ended his life. Brynner was cremated and his ashes buried in a remote part of France, on the grounds of the Abbey of Saint-Michel de Bois Aubry, a short distance outside the village of Luzé. He remains one of the most fascinating, unusual and beloved stars of his time.
Lee Van Cleef
One of the great movie villains, Clarence Leroy Van Cleef, Jr. was born in Somerville, New Jersey, to Marion Lavinia (Van Fleet) and Clarence LeRoy Van Cleef, Sr. His parents were both of Dutch ancestry. Van Cleef started out as an accountant. He served in the U.S. Navy aboard minesweepers and subchasers during World War II. After the war he worked as an office administrator, becoming involved in amateur theatrics in his spare time. An audition for a professional role led to a touring company job in "Mr. Roberts". His performance was seen by Stanley Kramer , who cast him as henchman Jack Colby in High Noon , a role that brought him great recognition despite the fact that he had no dialogue. For the next decade he played a string of memorably villainous characters, primarily in westerns but also in crime dramas such as The Big Combo . His hawk nose and steely, slit eyes seemed destined to keep him always in the realm of heavies, but in the mid- Sergio Leone cast him as the tough but decent Col. Mortimer opposite Clint Eastwood in For a Few Dollars More . A new career as a western hero (or at least anti-hero) opened up, and Van Cleef became an international star, though in films of decreasing quality. In the 1980s he moved easily into action and martial-arts movies, and starred in The Master , a TV series featuring almost non-stop martial arts action. He died of a heart attack in December 1989, and was buried at Forest Lawn in the Hollywood Hills.
Jayne Mansfield
One of the leading sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s, film actress Jayne Mansfield was born Vera Jayne Palmer on April 19, 1933 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, to Vera J. and Herbert W. Palmer. Her parents were well-to-do, with her father a successful attorney in Phillipburg, New Jersey, where Jayne began her girlhood. Her parents were both born with the same surname, and her ancestry was 7/8ths English and 1/8th German. Jayne was a talented pianist and violin player as a child.
Tragedy struck when Jayne was three, when her father suddenly died of a heart attack. Three years later, her mother remarried and the family moved south to Dallas, Texas. The family bought a little home where she had violin concerts in the driveway of their home. Up until the move, Jayne had no aspirations of being a star, but with maturity and the fact that she devoured the fan magazines of the day convinced her to try acting.
Amazingly, her I.Q. was reported to be a 163, and she attended the University of Dallas and participated in little-theatre productions. In 1949, at age 16, she married a man five years her senior named Paul Mansfield, the next year when Jayne was 17. Their daughter, Jayne Marie Mansfield, was born in November.
After some productions there and elsewhere, Jayne decided to go to Hollywood. Her first film was a bit role as a cigarette girl in Pete Kelly's Blues . Although the roles in the beginning were not much, she was successful in gaining those roles because of her ample physical attributes which placed her in two other films that year, Hell on Frisco Bay and Illegal . Her breakout role came the next year with a featured part in The Burglar . By the time she portrayed Rita Marlowe in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? and Too Hot to Handle , Jayne was now known as the poor man's Marilyn Monroe . She did not get the plum roles that Marilyn got in her productions. Instead, Jayne's films were more of a showcase for her body more than anything else. Jayne did have a real talent for acting, but the movie executives insisted she stay in her dumb blonde stereotype roles. For the balance of her career, Jayne never received any standout performances although she was more than capable of doing them.
By the 1960s, Mansfield's career had options that grew lower. She made somewhat embarrassing guest appearances like on the popular game show What's My Line? , she appeared on the show four times in 1956, 1957, 1964, and 1966 and many other 1950s and 1960s game shows. By 1962, she was dropped from 20th Century Fox and the rest of her career had smaller options like being in B movies and low budget movies or performing at food stores or small nightclubs.
While traveling from a nightclub in Biloxi, Mississippi and 30 miles from New Orleans to where she was to be on television the following day, she was killed instantly on Highway 90 in a car crash in the early hours of June 29, 1967, when the car in which she was riding in slammed into the back of a semi-tractor trailer truck that had stopped due to a truck in front of the tractor trailer that was spraying for bugs, and the car in which she was riding went under the truck at nearly 80 miles per hour along with boyfriend Samuel Brody and their driver Ronnie Harrison. The damage to the car was so bad that the engine was twisted sideways.
The beautiful woman who starred in 31 movies, the woman who fought so hard for respect, the woman who, in her own right, was a very good actress, was dead at age 34. Mansfield's funeral was on July 3, 1967 which was a small ceremony which her family, first child, and second husband Mickey Hargitay attended the same place in Pen Argyl, Pennsylvania, where her father was buried. Her final film, Single Room Furnished , was released the following year of her death.
Jayne Mansfield's fame lives on in the success of her best movies, her documentary film appearances, her 22 television appearances, and in the career of her 4th child, actress Mariska Hargitay who plays Olivia Benson on the popular NBC crime drama Law & Order: Special Victims Unit .
Charles Chaplin
Charlie Chaplin, considered to be one of the most pivotal stars of the early days of Hollywood, lived an interesting life both in his films and behind the camera. He is most recognized as an icon of the silent film era, often associated with his popular "Little Tramp" character; the man with the toothbrush mustache, bowler hat, bamboo cane, and a funny walk.
Charles Spencer Chaplin was born in Walworth, London, England on April 16th, 1889, to Hannah Harriet Pedlingham (Hill) and Charles Chaplin, both music hall performers, who were married on June 22nd, 1885. After Charles Sr. separated from Hannah to perform in New York City, Hannah then tried to resurrect her stage career. Unfortunately, her singing voice had a tendency to break at unexpected moments. When this happened, the stage manager spotted young Charlie standing in the wings and led him on stage, where five-year-old Charlie began to sing a popular tune. Charlie and his half-brother, Syd Chaplin spent their lives in and out of charity homes and workhouses between their mother's bouts of insanity. Hannah was committed to Cane Hill Asylum in May of 1903 and lived there until 1921, when Chaplin moved her to California.
Chaplin began his official acting career at the age of eight, touring with The Eight Lancashire Lads. At 18 he began touring with Fred Karno 's vaudeville troupe, joining them on the troupe's 1910 US tour. He traveled west to California in December 1913 and signed on with Keystone Studios' popular comedy director Mack Sennett , who had seen Chaplin perform on stage in New York. Charlie soon wrote his brother Syd, asking him to become his manager. While at Keystone, Chaplin appeared in and directed 35 films, starring as the Little Tramp in nearly all.
In November 1914, he left Keystone and signed on at Essanay, where he made 15 films. In 1916, he signed on at Mutual and made 12 films. In June 1917, Chaplin signed up with First National Studios, after which he built Chaplin Studios. In 1919 he and Douglas Fairbanks , Mary Pickford and D.W. Griffith formed United Artists (UA).
Chaplin's life and career was full of scandal and controversy. His first big scandal was during World War I, during which time his loyalty to England, his home country, was questioned. He had never applied for US citizenship, but claimed that he was a "paying visitor" to the United States. Many British citizens called Chaplin a coward and a slacker. This and his other career eccentricities sparked suspicion with FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover and the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), who believed that he was injecting Communist propaganda into his films. Chaplin's later film The Great Dictator , which was his first "talkie", also created a stir. In the film Chaplin plays a humorous caricature of Adolf Hitler . Some thought the film was poorly done and in bad taste. However it grossed over $5 million and earned five Academy Award Nominations.
Another scandal occurred when Chaplin briefly dated 22-year-old Joan Barry. However Chaplin's relationship with Barry came to an end in 1942, after a series of harassing actions from her. In May of 1943 Barry returned to inform Chaplin that she was pregnant and filed a paternity suit, claiming that the unborn child was his. During the 1944 trial blood tests proved that Chaplin was not the father, but at the time blood tests were inadmissible evidence and he was ordered to pay $75 a week until the child turned 21.
Chaplin was also scrutinized for his support in aiding the Russian struggle against the invading Nazis during World War II, and the U.S. government questioned his moral and political views, suspecting him of having Communist ties. For this reason HUAC subpoenaed him in 1947. However HUAC finally decided that it was no longer necessary for him to appear for testimony. Conversely, when Chaplin and his family traveled to London for the premier of Limelight , he was denied re-entry to the United States. In reality, the government had almost no evidence to prove that he was a threat to national security. He and his wife decided, instead, to settle in Switzerland.
Chaplin was married four times and had a total of 11 children. In 1918 he wed Mildred Harris and they had a son together, Norman Spencer Chaplin, who only lived three days. Chaplin and Mildred were divorced in 1920. He married Lita Grey in 1924, who had two sons, Charles Chaplin Jr. and Sydney Chaplin . They were divorced in 1927. In 1936, Chaplin married Paulette Goddard and his final marriage was to Oona O'Neill ( Oona Chaplin ), daughter of playwright Eugene O'Neill in 1943. Oona gave birth to eight children: Geraldine Chaplin , Michael Chaplin , Josephine Chaplin , Victoria Chaplin , Eugene, Jane, Annette-Emilie and Christopher Chaplin .
In contrast to many of his boisterous characters, Chaplin was a quiet man who kept to himself a lot. He also had an "un-millionaire" way of living. Even after he had accumulated millions, he continued to live in shabby accommodations. In 1921 Chaplin was decorated by the French government for his outstanding work as a filmmaker, and was elevated to the rank of Officer of the Legion of Honor in 1952. In 1972 he was honored with an Academy Award for his "incalculable effect in making motion pictures the art form of the century." He was created Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1975 New Year's Honours List. No formal reason for the honour was listed. The citation simply reads "Charles Spencer CHAPLIN, Film Actor and Producer".
Chaplin's other works included musical scores he composed for many of his films. He also authored two autobiographical books, "My Autobiography" in 1964 and its companion volume, "My Life in Pictures" in 1974.
Chaplin died of natural causes on December 25, 1977 at his home in Switzerland. In 1978 Chaplin's corpse was stolen from its grave and was not recovered for three months; he was re-buried in a vault surrounded by cement.
Charlie Chaplin was considered one of the greatest filmmakers in the history of American cinema, whose movies were and still are popular throughout the world, and have even gained notoriety as time progresses. His films show, through the Little Tramp's positive outlook on life in a world full of chaos, that the human spirit has and always will remain the same.
Mary McDonnell
Mary McDonnell is a two-time Oscar®-nominated actress, who is known for her character portrayals in both period and present-day screen roles.
Mary Eileen McDonnell was born on April 28, 1952 in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to Eileen (Mundy) and John McDonnell, a computer consultant, both of Irish descent. Mary was raised in Ithaca, New York. After graduating from the State University of New York at Fredonia, she attended drama school and joined the Long Wharf Theatre Company on the East Coast. It was not until 20 years after working on the theater stage that she had her breakthrough film role, in Kevin Costner 's Dances with Wolves , playing Stands with a Fist, a white woman raised by the Sioux Indians. McDonnell received an Academy Award nomination for the role, and also garnered a Best Actress Academy Award® nomination and Golden Globe nomination for her portrayal of a paraplegic soap opera star in John Sayles' critically acclaimed Passion Fish .
McDonnell's extensive list of film credits include the Lawrence Kasdan films Grand Canyon and Mumford; Sneakers, opposite Robert Redford, Sidney Poitier and Sir Ben Kingsley; Roland Emmerich's smash Independence Day, with Bill Pullman and Will Smith; acclaimed art house cult-hit Donnie Darko; and Margin Call, opposite Kevin Spacey, which also earned her the Robert Altman Award at the 2012 Independent Spirit Awards. On the small screen, McDonnell starred in four seasons on the Syfy Network's award-winning series Battlestar Galactica in her critically praised performance as the President Laura Roslin. The series earned a Peabody Award, and AFI deemed the series TV Program of the Year for two years in a row. McDonnell garnered an Emmy nomination for her recurring guest role on the television series ER. Some of her other television credits include the ABC hit-series Grey's Anatomy, the CBS series High Society, TNT's adaptation of Arthur Miller's The American Clock, the critically acclaimed CBS movie Behind The Mask and Lifetime's Two Small Voices. McDonnell received rave reviews for her performance opposite David Strathairn in Emily Mann's acclaimed adaptation of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard. McDonnell began her career in theatre and has starred in a wide variety of both Broadway and off-Broadway productions. She received an Obie Award for her performance in Emily Mann's Still Life and has starred in off-Broadway productions such as Sam Shepard's Pulitzer Prize-winning Buried Child, John Patrick Shanley's Savage in Limbo, John O'Keefe's All Night Long, Michael Cristofer's Black Angel, Kathleen Tolan's A Weekend Near Madison, Paula Cizmar's Death of a Miner and Dennis McIntyre's National Anthem. Her Broadway credits include Tennessee Williams' Summer and Smoke, the title role in Wendy Wasserstein's Pulitzer Prize-winning The Heidi Chronicles and Emily Mann's Execution of Justice.
Mary stars as Captain Sharon Raydor on the TNT's hit drama series Major Crimes, the follow-up to The Closer, in which McDonnell originated the role and for which she earned a Primetime Emmy® nomination. McDonnell received her first Oscar nomination and Golden Globe® nomination for her portrayal of .
Mary lives in Pacific Palisades, California with her husband, actor Randle Mell , and their two children, Olivia and Michael.
Brandon Lee
Born on February 1, 1965 to Bruce Lee (Martial Arts idol) and Linda Lee Cadwell . Brother to Shannon Lee . In 1970-71, they moved to Hong Kong where Brandon became fluent in Cantonese by the age of 8. He attended Boston's Art-Oriented Emerson College in Massachusetts. He studied Martial Arts and drama, like his father. In 1983, he was expelled from school because of misbehavior, but received his diploma at Miraleste High School. He was in Rapid Fire , Showdown in Little Tokyo and a few more films, including The Crow . He turned down offers to be in Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story . Bruce died (while filming) at the age of 32, of what is to be believed, a brain hemorrhage. Brandon died at the age of 28 on the set of The Crow . The film crew shot a scene in which it was decided to use a gun without consent from the weapons coordinator, who had been sent home early that night. They handed Michael Massee the gun loaded with full power blanks and shot the scene, unaware that a bullet had become dislodged from a previous shot and had lodged itself in the barrel. Upon shooting of the scene the blank round forced the bullet out the barrel striking Brandon Lee. The crew only noticed when Lee was slow getting up. The doctors worked desperately for five hours, but it was no use. The bullet had lodged itself in Mr Lee's lower spine. He was pronounced dead at 1:04 P.M. the next day. He was supposed to marry Eliza Hutton on April 17, 1993. His body was flown to Seattle to be buried beside his father in Lake View Cemetery.
Nick Frost
Nick Frost is an English actor, screenwriter and comedian. He is known for his work in the series of British comedic genre films The Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy, Shaun of the Dead (2004), Hot Fuzz (2007), and The World's End (2013). He also co-starred in Paul (2011), with frequent collaborator and friend Simon Pegg .
Nicholas John "Nick" Frost is good friends with Simon Pegg and they have appeared alongside each other in several Movies. He resides with his half-Swedish wife, production executive Christina in St Margaret s, London. He previously lived in Fins-bury Park, which was also the filming location for Shaun of the Dead. In a 2005 interview, Frost stated that he was brought up as a Catholic. He is a supporter of West Ham United, as well as being a rugby player, formerly playing for Barking RFC. On 22 June 2011, Frost's wife gave birth to a son.
John Belushi
John Belushi was born in Chicago, Illinois, USA, on January 24, 1949, to Agnes Demetri (Samaras) and Adam Anastos Belushi, a restaurant owner. His father was an Albanian immigrant, from Qytezë, and his mother was also of Albanian descent. He grew up in Wheaton, where the family moved when he was six. Though a young hellion in grade school, John became the perfect all-American boy during his high school years where he was co-captain of the Wheaton Central High School football team and was elected homecoming king his senior year. He also developed an interest in acting and appeared in the high school variety show. Encouraged by his drama teacher, John decided to put aside his plans to become a football coach to pursue a career in acting.
After graduation in 1967, John performed in summer stock in rural Indiana in a variety of roles from "Cardinal Wolsey" in "Anne of a Thousand Days" to a comic detective in "Ten Little Indians". In the fall of his freshman year at the University of Wisconsin at Whitewater, John changed his image into a bad-boy appearance by growing his hair long and began to have problems with discipline and structure of attending classes.
Dropping out of Wisconsin, John spent the next two years at the College of DuPage, a junior college a few miles from his parents' Wheaton home, where his father began persuading him to become a partner in his restaurant, but John still preferred acting. While attending DuPage, John helped found the "West Compass Players", an improv comedy troupe patterned after Chicago's famous "Second City" ensemble.
In 1971, John made the leap to "Second City" itself where he performed in various on-stage comic performances with others, who included Harold Ramis and Joe Flaherty . John loved his life at "Second City" where he performed six nights a week, perfecting the physical "gonzo" style of comedy he later made famous.
A year later, John and his live-in girlfriend from his high school years, Judith Belushi-Pisano , moved to New York because John had joined the cast of National Lampoon's Lemmings, an off-Broadway rock musical revue that was originally booked for a six-week run but played to full crowds for nearly 10 months.
In 1973, John was hired as a writer for the syndicated National Lampoon's Radio Hour which became the National Lampoon Show in 1975. John's big break came that same year when he joined the ground-breaking TV variety series Saturday Night Live which made him a star. The unpredictable, aggressively physical style of humor that he began on "Second City" flowered on SNL.
In 1978, while still working on Saturday Night Live , John appeared in the movie Goin' South which starred and was directed by Jack Nicholson . It was here that director John Landis noticed John and decided to cast him in his movie National Lampoon's Animal House . John's minor role as the notorious, beer-swilling "Bluto" made it a box-office smash and the year's top grossing comedy. Despite appearing in only a dozen scenes, John's performance stole the movie, which portrays college fraternity shenanigans at a small college set in the year 1962.
In 1979, John along with fellow SNL regular Dan Aykroyd quit the series to pursue movie projects. John and Dan Aykroyd appeared in minor roles in Steven Spielberg 's financially unsuccessful 1941 and, the following year, in John Landis ' The Blues Brothers . Around this time, John's drug use began escalating. Cocaine, which was ubiquitous in show-business circles in the 1970's, became his drug of choice. After he first experimented with cocaine in the mid 1970s, John almost immediately became addicted to it. His frequent cocaine sniffing binges became a source of friction between him and Judy, whom he married in 1976.
John's love for blues and soul music inspired the "Blues Brothers". He and Aykroyd first appeared as Joliet Jake and Elwood Blues, a pair of white soul men dressed in black suits, skinny ties, fedora hats and Rayban sunglasses, as a warm-up act before the telecasts of Saturday Night Live . Building on the success of their acts and the release of their album "A Briefcase Full of Blues", John and Dan Aykroyd starred in the movie, which gave John a chance to act with his favorite musical heroes including Ray Charles , James Brown and Aretha Franklin .
Although John's reputation for being an off-screen party animal is legendary, his generous side is less well known. Using some of his money, he bought his father a ranch outside San Diego for him to live. John helped set up some of his Chicago friends with their own businesses and even financially helped his younger brother, Jim Belushi , who followed his older brother's path to both "Second City" and Saturday Night Live .
In 1981, John appeared in the movie Continental Divide , playing a hard-nosed Chicago newspaperman who finds romance in Colorado with eagle expert Blair Brown . That same year, John and Dan Aykroyd appeared again in the movie Neighbors , which gave them a chance to reverse roles, with John playing a straight-arrow family man whose life is turned upside down when a wild family man (Aykroyd) moves in next door.
In January 1982, John began work on the screenplay for another movie to be titled "Noble Rot". Also, John had checked into a bungalow at the Chateau Marmont, a popular celebrity hotel in Los Angeles. John's drug use had been steadily increasing for over a year now, which alarmed his wife and friends, but he continued to promise Judy that he would quit someday. On March 5, 1982, John Belushi was found dead in his hotel room at the age of 33. The local coroner gave the cause of death as a lethal injection of cocaine and heroin. Several years later, John's drug dealing/drug user companion during his final weeks, Cathy Smith, was tried and sentenced to three years in prison for supplying John with the drugs. Close friend James Taylor sang "That Lonesome Road" at a memorial service at Martha's Vineyard cemetery where John was buried.
Myrna Loy
Myrna Loy was born Myrna Adele Williams on August 2, 1905 in Helena, Montana, to Adelle Mae (Johnson) and David Franklin Williams. Her paternal grandparents were Welsh, and her mother was of Scottish and Swedish descent. Myrna was raised in Helena and nearby Radersburg. Her father, a rancher, was the youngest person ever elected to the Montana State legislature.
At the age of thirteen, Myrna's father died of influenza, and the rest of the family moved to Los Angeles. She was educated in L.A. and the Westlake School for Girls where she caught the acting bug. She started at the age of 15 when she appeared in local stage productions in order to help support her family. Some of the stage plays were held in the now famous Grauman's Theater in Hollywood. Mrs. Rudolph Valentino happened to be in the audience one night who managed to pull some strings to get Myrna some parts in the motion picture industry.
Her first film was a small part in the production of What Price Beauty? . Later, she appeared the same year in Pretty Ladies along with Joan Crawford . She was one of the few stars that would start in the silent movies and make a successful transition into the sound era. In her silent films, Myrna would appear as a Theda Bara -like, exotic, femme fatale. Later in the sound era, she would become a refined, wholesome character. Unable to land a contract with MGM, she continued to appear in small, bit roles, nothing that one could really call acting. In 1926, Myrna appeared in the Warner Brothers film called Satan in Sables which, at long last, landed her a contract. Her first appearance as a contract player was The Caveman where she played a maid. Although she was typecast over and over again as a vamp, Myrna continued to stay busy with small parts. Finally, in 1927, she received star billing in Bitter Apples . The excitement was short lived as she returned to the usual smaller roles afterward.
Myrna would take any role that would give her exposure and showcase the talent she felt was being wasted. It seemed that she would play one vamp after another. She wanted something better. Finally her contract ran out with warner and she signed with MGM where she got two meaty roles. One was in the The Prizefighter and the Lady , and the other as Nora Charles in The Thin Man with William Powell . Most agreed that the Thin Man series would never have been successful without Myrna. Her witty perception of situations gave her the image that one could not pull a fast one over on the no-nonsense Mrs. Charles. After The Thin Man , Myrna would appear in five more in the series. Myrna was a big box-office draw. She was popular enough that, in 1936, she was named Queen of the Movies and Clark Gable the king in a nationwide poll of movie goers. Her popularity was at its zenith. She continued to make films through the 40s and 50s but the roles were fewer and fewer. By the 1960's the parts had all but dried up as producers and directors looked elsewhere for talent.
In 1960, she appeared in Midnight Lace and was not in another until 1969 in The April Fools . The 1970s found her in TV movies, not theatrical productions. Her last film was in 1981 called Summer Solstice . By the time Myrna passed away, on December 14, 1993, at the age of 88, she had appeared in a phenomenal 129 motion pictures. She was buried in Helena, Montana.
Clark Gable
William Clark Gable was born on February 1, 1901 in Cadiz, Ohio, to Adeline (Hershelman) and William Henry Gable, an oil-well driller. He was of German, Irish, and Swiss-German descent. When he was seven months old, his mother died, and his father sent him to live with his maternal aunt and uncle in Pennsylvania, where he stayed until he was two. His father then returned to take him back to Cadiz. At 16, he quit high school, went to work in an Akron, Ohio, tire factory, and decided to become an actor after seeing the play "The Bird of Paradise". He toured in stock companies, worked oil fields and sold ties. On December 13, 1924, he married Josephine Dillon , his acting coach and 15 years his senior. Around that time, they moved to Hollywood, so that Clark could concentrate on his acting career. In April 1930, they divorced and a year later, he married Maria Langham (a.k.a. Maria Franklin Gable ), also about 17 years older than him.
While Gable acted on stage, he became a lifelong friend of Lionel Barrymore . After several failed screen tests (for Barrymore and Darryl F. Zanuck ), Gable was signed in 1930 by MGM's Irving Thalberg . He had a small part in The Painted Desert in 1931. Joan Crawford asked for him as co-star in Dance, Fools, Dance and the public loved him manhandling Norma Shearer in A Free Soul the same year. His unshaven lovemaking with bra-less Jean Harlow in Red Dust made him MGM's most important star.
His acting career then flourished. At one point, he refused an assignment, and the studio punished him by loaning him out to (at the time) low-rent Columbia Pictures, which put him in Frank Capra 's It Happened One Night , which won him an Academy Award for his performance. The next year saw a starring role in Call of the Wild with Loretta Young , with whom he had an affair (resulting in the birth of a daughter, Judy Lewis ). He returned to far more substantial roles at MGM, such as Fletcher Christian in Mutiny on the Bounty and Rhett Butler in Gone with the Wind .
After divorcing Maria Langham, in March 1939 Clark married Carole Lombard , but tragedy struck in January 1942 when the plane in which Carole and her mother were flying crashed into Table Rock Mountain, Nevada, killing them both. A grief-stricken Gable joined the US Army Air Force and was off the screen for three years, flying combat missions in Europe. When he returned the studio regarded his salary as excessive and did not renew his contract. He freelanced, but his films didn't do well at the box office. He married Silvia Ashley, the widow of Douglas Fairbanks , in 1949. Unfortunately this marriage was short-lived and they divorced in 1952. In July 1955 he married a former sweetheart, Kathleen Williams Spreckles (a.k.a. Kay Williams ) and became stepfather to her two children, Joan and Adolph ("Bunker") Spreckels III.
On November 16, 1959, Gable became a grandfather when Judy Lewis , his daughter with Loretta Young , gave birth to a daughter, Maria. In 1960, Gable's wife Kay discovered that she was expecting their first child. In early November 1960, he had just completed filming The Misfits , when he suffered a heart attack, and died later that month, on November 16, 1960. Gable was buried shortly afterwards in the shrine that he had built for Carole Lombard and her mother when they died, at Forest Lawn Cemetery.
In March 1961, Kay Gable gave birth to a boy, whom she named John Clark Gable after his father.
George Peppard
Handsome and elegant George Peppard occasionally displayed considerable talent through his career, but was too often cast in undemanding action roles. Following Broadway and television experience, he made a strong film debut in The Strange One . He started getting noticed when he played Robert Mitchum 's illegitimate son in the popular melodrama Home from the Hill . He then established himself as a leading man, giving arguably his most memorable film performance as Audrey Hepburn 's love interest in Breakfast at Tiffany's . Seen by the studios as a promising young star, Peppard was subsequently cast in some of the major blockbusters of the early/mid-1960s: How the West Was Won , The Victors , The Carpetbaggers and Operation Crossbow . He reached the peak of his popularity in another such lavish production, The Blue Max , in which he effectively played an obsessively competitive German flying officer during World War I.
However, by the late 1960s, he seemed to settle as a tough lead in more average, often hokum, adventures, including House of Cards , Cannon for Cordoba and The Groundstar Conspiracy . In the early 1970s, his declining popularity was temporarily boosted thanks to the television series Banacek . With his film roles becoming increasingly uninteresting, he acted in, directed and produced the drama Five Days from Home , but the result was rather disappointing. In the mid-1980s, he again obtained success on television as Colonel John "Hannibal" Smith, the cigar-chomping leader of The A-Team . George Peppard died at age 65 of pneumonia on May 8, 1994 in Los Angeles, California. He is buried alongside his parents in Northview Cemetary in Dearborn, Michigan.
Bob Hoskins
Bob Hoskins was born on October 26, 1942, in Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk, where his mother was living after being evacuated as a result of the heavy bombings. He is the son of Elsie Lillian (Hopkins), a nursery school teacher and cook, and Robert William Hoskins, Sr., who drove a lorry and worked as a bookkeeper. Growing up, Hoskins received only limited education and he left school at 15, but with a passion for language and literature instilled by his former English teacher. A regular theatre-goer, Hoskins dreamed of starring on stage, but before he could do so he had to work odd jobs for a long time to make ends meet. His acting career started out more by accident than by design, when he accompanied a friend to watch some auditions, only to be confused for one of the people auditioning, getting a script pushed into his hands with the message "You're next". He got the part and acquired an agent. After some stage success, he expanded to television with roles in television series such as Villains and Thick as Thieves . In the mid-'70s, he started his film career, standing out when he performed alongside Richard Dreyfuss in John Byrum 's Inserts and in a smaller part in Richard Lester 's Royal Flash .
Hoskins broke through in 1978 in Dennis Potter 's mini TV series, Pennies from Heaven , playing "Arthur Parker", the doomed salesman. After this, a string of high-profile and successful films followed, starting with his true major movie debut in 1980's The Long Good Friday as the ultimately doomed "Harold Shand". This was followed by such works as The Cotton Club , Mona Lisa , which won him an Oscar nomination as well as a BAFTA award, Cannes Film Festival and Golden Globe), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (Golden Globe nomination), Mermaids , Hook , Nixon , Felicia's Journey and Enemy at the Gates .
Hoskins always carefully balanced the riches of Hollywood with the labor of independent film, though leaned more towards the latter than the former. He worked at smaller projects such as Shane Meadows ' debut Twenty Four Seven , in which he starred as "Allen Darcy". Besides this, he found time to direct, write and star in The Raggedy Rawney , as well as direct and star in Rainbow , and contributing to HBO's Tales from the Crypt and Tube Tales .
Suffering from Parkinson's disease in later years, Hoskins died of pneumonia at age 71 in a London hospital.
Anita Ekberg
Kerstin Anita Marianne Ekberg was born on September 29, 1931 in Malmo, Sweden. Growing up with seven brothers and sisters was not an adventure, but Anita's adventure began when she was elected Miss Sweden in 1950. She did not win the Miss Universe contest but she got a modeling contract in the United States. She quickly got a film contract with Howard Hughes 's RKO that did not lead anywhere (but Anita herself has said that Hughes wanted to marry her). Instead, she started making movies with Universal, small roles that more often than not only required her to look beautiful. After five years in Hollywood, she found herself in Rome, where Federico Fellini 's La Dolce Vita meant her breakthrough. She stayed in Italy and made around 20 movies during the next ten years, some roles memorable, some to be forgotten. Her two marriages gave her a great deal of attention from the press. During the 1970s, the roles became less frequent, but she made a marvellous comeback with Fellini's Intervista .
Anita Ekberg retired from acting in 2002 after 50 years in the motion picture industry. In December 2011, she was destitute following three months in a hospital with a broken thigh in Rimini, during which her home was robbed of jewelry and furniture, and her villa was badly damaged in a fire. Ekberg applied for help from the Fellini Foundation, which also found itself in difficult financial straits. She died at age 83 from complications of an enduring illness on January 11, 2015 at the clinic San Raffaele in Rocca di Papa, Italy. Anita Ekberg had a new film project with exclusively female Italian producer "Le Bestevem", in which her character, as movie star, should've been recovered again as an icon of the big screen, a project that was interrupted by her death.
Her funeral was held on January 14, 2015, at the Lutheran-Evangelical Christuskirche in Rome, after which her body was cremated and her remains were buried at the cemetery of Skanor Church in Sweden.
Horst Buchholz
On the cast list of The Magnificent Seven , you will find several names that doubtless you know well: Charles Bronson , Steve McQueen , and Yul Brynner . But there is one name that you will have difficulty pronouncing, let alone identifying as an actor you have seen before. That man is Horst Buchholz , and he was one of the few German actors to have a considerable success in both Hollywood and in Europe. One would hardly guess that he was sought out to act in one of the most famous films of all time, only to have to turn it down.
Horst Buchholz was born in Berlin, Germany, in the year 1933. His father was a German shoemaker, while his mother was born to Danish parents. Buccholz was put in a foster home in Czecheslovakia when World War II broke out in Europe, but he returned to Berlin the moment he had the chance. Realizing his talent in acting, Buchholz dropped out of school to perfect his acting skills. After moving from East Berlin to West Berlin, he became well-known for his work in theatre and on the radio. In 1952 he turned to film, and after a series of small roles, he found a larger one in the Julien Duvivier film Marianne of My Youth . He won a Best Actor award at Cannes for his role in the romantic/drama film Sky Without Stars by Helmut Käutner . However, it was the lead role in the comedic Confessions of Felix Krull that made him an established German actor.
He followed this breakthrough role with the romantic film Two Worlds and the thriller Wet Asphalt , where the handsome young actor plays a former criminal who associates himself with a journalist. Now a familiar face in his country, Buchholz pursued making foreign films. His first non-German film was the British film Tiger Bay . The film is about a girl who witnesses a seaman named Korchinsky (Buchholz) murder his girlfriend. The film won praise in both Germany and Britain, but it was Buchholz' next foreign film that secured his name in the history of classic films. This film was the epic western The Magnificent Seven directed by John Sturges . Buchholz played Chico, the inexperienced Mexican youth that wants to be a gunman and abandon his past. Buchholz starred alongside such legends as Charles Bronson and Yul Brynner . both of whom had strong European roots. The film was a hit, first in Europe, then was re-distributed in the States to a much higher profit. The film gained massive popularity, and even now is treasured as a classic.
Buchholz could now find good and steady work nationally and internationally, which is something few actors could do at the time. He worked on the romantic film Fanny , which is based on a trilogy of plays written by legendary writer Marcel Pagnol . Buchholz plays the role of Marius, a passionate but unsure youth who must choose between the girl he loves, and the life at sea he has always wanted. The film was a fine success, nominated for five Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Charles Boyer (who plays Buchholz' onscreen father).
It was at this point in his film career where he was sought as the first choice to play the role of Sherif Ali in David Lean 's legendary film Lawrence of Arabia . However, Buchholz had to turn it down, as he had already signed up for another film, which turned out to be the Oscar-nominated comedy One, Two, Three (directed by Billy Wilder ). The film was once again a fine success to add to Buchholz' career, but ultimately gained nowhere near as much of a status as David Lean 's film. Buchholz also made the Italian film The Empty Canvas in which he plays an untalented artist who begins a love affair with a young model. Throughout his in the early 60s, Buchholz had made a name for himself, acting in one Oscar-nominated film after another and showing off his talent as an actor. However, the success he had reached was not to last.
Buchholz continued with film, including the James Bond spoof That Man in Istanbul and the crime film Johnny Banco . He starred in the B-movie failure that was Young Rebel . Buchholz rebounded with the fiery film The Savior in which he plays a man who claims to be organizing resistance against the Nazis. He also played Johann Strauss in the Golden Globe-nominated musical The Great Waltz . which was sadly another failure.
The rest of the 1970s and the early 1980s were spent mostly on television and movies released for televison, whether it be foreign (Dead of Night (1977), Return to Fantasy Island (1978)) or German (Derrick). Buchholz found mild success again when he returned to the big screen with the WW II espionage film Code Name: Emerald in which he plays alongside such stars as Ed Harris and Max von Sydow . After this film, Buchholz returned to European movies, such as And the Violins Stopped Playing in which a group of gypsies flee Nazi persecutors. After taking a supporting role in the fantasy film Faraway, So Close! , Buchholz acted in one of his most well known films: the Oscar-winning Italian film Life Is Beautiful which was directed by and starred Roberto Benigni . Buchholz played the role of a doctor who befriends Benigni's character and frequently duels with him in riddles. This choice of role proved to be an echo of Buchholz' taste in choosing his projects in earlier years; the film won best foreign film that year, and was also nominated for Best Picture. Thanks to his gift for languages, Buchholz was able to dub himself in the foreign releases of the film.
Buchholz continued making films and television appearances until 2002, by which time he was sixty-eight years old. He died the next year, in Berlin, of pneumonia. Berlin had been the city of his heart, and was buried there in honour of that fact. Horst Buchholz had been a renowned German actor, and had gained credibility in the United States and other countries. He was a varied performer, acting all kinds of roles in his life, but was always a proud German to the last.
Chuck Connors
Chuck Connors was born Kevin Joseph Connors in Brooklyn, New York, to Marcella (Londrigan) and Alban Francis "Allan" Connors. His parents were immigrants from the Dominion of Newfoundland (now part of Canada), and were of Irish descent. Chuck and his two-years-younger sister, Gloria, grew up in a working-class section of the west side of Brooklyn, where their father worked the local docks as a longshoreman.
Chuck's natural athletic prowess earned him a scholarship to Adelphi Academy, a private high school, and then to Seton Hall, a Catholic college in South Orange, New Jersey. Leaving Seton Hall after two years, on October 20, 1942, he joined the army, listing his occupation as a ski instructor. After enlistment in the infantry at Fort Knox, he later served mostly as a tank-warfare instructor at Camp Campbell, Kentucky, and then finally at West Point. Following his discharge early in 1946, he resumed his athletic pursuits. He played center for the Boston Celtics in the 1946-47 season but left early for spring training with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Baseball had always been his first love, and for the next several years he knocked about the minor leagues in such places as Rochester (NY), Norfolk (VA), Newark (NJ), Newport News (VA), Mobile (AL) and Montreal, Canada (while in Montreal he met Elizabeth Riddell, whom he married in October 1948. They had four sons during their 13-year marriage). He finally reached his goal, playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers, in May 1949, but after just five weeks and one at-bat he returned to Montreal. After a brief stint with the Chicago Cubs in 1951, during which he hit two home runs, Chuck wound up with the Cubs' Triple-A farm team, the L.A. Angels, in 1952. A baseball fan who was also a casting director for MGM spotted Chuck and recommended him for a part in the Spencer Tracy - Katharine Hepburn comedy Pat and Mike . Originally cast to play a prizefighter, but that role went instead to Aldo Ray . Chuck was cast as a captain in the state police. He now abandoned his athletic hopes and devoted full time to his acting career, which often emphasized his muscular 6'6" physique.
During the next several years he made 20 movies, culminating in a key role in William Wyler 's 1958 western The Big Country . Also appearing in many television series, he finally hit the big time in 1958 with The Rifleman , which began its highly successful five-year run on ABC. Other television series followed, as did a number of movies which, though mostly minor, allowed Chuck to display his range as both a stalwart "good guy" and a menacing "heavy".
Chuck Connors died at age 71 of lung cancer and pneumonia on November 10, 1992 in Los Angeles, California. He is buried in San Fernando Mission Cemetery with his tombstone carrying a photo of Connors as Lucas McCain in "The Rifleman" as well as logos from the three professional sports teams he played for: the Dodgers, Cubs and Celtics.
Audie Murphy
Audie Murphy became a national hero during World War II as the most decorated combat soldier of the war. Among his 33 awards was the Medal of Honor, the highest award for bravery that a soldier can receive. In addition, he was also decorated for bravery by the governments of France and Belgium, and was credited with killing over 240 German soldiers and wounding and capturing many more.
Audie Leon Murphy was born 20 June 1925 in Kingston, Hunt County, Texas, to Josie Bell (Killian) and Emmett Berry Murphy, poor sharecroppers. After the death of his mother and the outbreak of WWII, Murphy enlisted in the army after being turned down by the Navy and the Marines. Being underage at the time, his older sister and designated legal guardian Corinne provided him a letter of consent. After undergoing basic military training, he was sent first to North Africa. But the Allies drove the German army from Tunisia, their last foothold in North Africa, before Murphys' unit could be sent into battle. His first engagement with Axis forces came when his unit was sent to Europe. First landing on the island of Sicily, next mainland Italy, and finally France, he fought in seven major campaigns over three years and rose from the rank of private to a battlefield commission as a second lieutenant. Part of Murphy's appeal to many people was that he didn't fit the "image" most had of a war hero. He was a slight, almost fragile-looking, shy and soft-spoken young man, whose boyish appearance (something he never lost throughout his life; he always looked at least 15 years younger than he actually was) often shocked people when they found out that, for example, during one battle he leaped on top of a burning tank--which was loaded with fuel and ammunition and could have exploded at any second--and used its machine gun to hold off waves of attacking German troops, killing dozens of them and saving his unit from certain destruction and the entire line from being overrun. In September 1945 Murphy was released from active duty, promoted to 1st Lieutenant, and assigned to inactive status. His story caught the interest of superstar James Cagney , who invited Murphy to Hollywood.
Cagney Productions paid for acting and dancing lessons but was reluctantly forced to admit that Murphy--at least at that point in his career--didn't have what it took to become a movie star. For the next several years he struggled to make it as an actor, but jobs were few, specifically just two bit parts, in Beyond Glory and Texas, Brooklyn & Heaven . He finally got a lead role in Bad Boy , and starred in the trouble-plagued production of MGM's The Red Badge of Courage , directed by John Huston . While this film is now considered a minor classic, the politics behind the production sparked an irreparable fissure within the ranks of the studio's upper management. Murphy proved adequate as an actor, but the film, with virtually no female presence (or appeal), bombed badly at the box office. Murphy, however, had already signed with Universal-International Pictures, which was putting him in a string of modestly budgeted Westerns, a genre that suited his easygoing image and Texas drawl. He starred in the film version of his autobiography, To Hell and Back , which was a huge hit, setting a box-office record for Universal that wasn't broken for 20 years until it was finally surpassed by Jaws ). One of his better pictures was Night Passage , a Western in which he played the kid brother of James Stewart . He worked for Huston again on The Unforgiven . Meanwhile, the studio system that Murphy grew into as an actor crumbled. Universal's new owners, MCA, dumped its "International" tag in 1962 and turned the studio's focus toward the more lucrative television industry. For theatrical productions, it dropped its roster of contract players and hired actors on a per-picture basis only. That cheap Westerns on the big screen were becoming a thing of the past bode no good for Murphy, either. The Texican , his lone attempt at a new, European form of inexpensive horse opera, to be known as the Spaghetti Western, was unsuccessful. His star was falling fast.
In addition to his acting career--he made a total of 44 films--Murphy was also a successful rancher and businessman. He bred and raised thoroughbred horses and owned several ranches in Texas, Arizona and California. He was also a songwriter, and penned hits for such singers as Dean Martin , Eddy Arnold , Charley Pride and many others.
His postwar life wasn't all roses, however. He suffered from what is now called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) but was then called "combat fatigue", and was known to have a hair-trigger temper. He woke up screaming at night and slept with a loaded M1911 .45 semi-automatic pistol nearby. He was acquitted of attempted murder charges brought about by injuries he inflicted on a man in a bar fight. Director Don Siegel said in an interview that Murphy often carried a pistol on the set of The Gun Runners and many of the cast and crew were afraid of him. He had a short-lived and turbulent marriage to actress Wanda Hendrix , and in the 1960s his increasing bouts of insomnia and depression resulted in his becoming addicted to a particularly powerful sleeping pill called Placidyl, an addiction he eventually broke. He ran into a streak of bad financial luck and was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1968. Admirably, he campaigned vigorously for the government to spend more time and money on taking care of returning Vietnam War veterans, as he more than most others knew exactly what kinds of problems they were going to have.
On May 18, 1971, Murphy was aboard a private plane on his way to a business meeting when it ran into thick fog near Roanoke, VA, and crashed into the side of a mountain, killing all six aboard. He was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery. According to cemetery records, the only grave site visited by more people than Murphy's is that of assassinated President John F. Kennedy .
Ted Cassidy
Ted Cassidy was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and raised in Philippi, West Virginia. He was a well respected actor who portrayed many different characters during his film and television career. His most notable role was Lurch, the faithful butler on the television series The Addams Family . His most memorable dialogue as Lurch would be, "You rang?", whenever someone summoned him. Due to his large size, (6ft. 9in.) he portrayed larger than life characters. His deep voice, was used for narrations and for dubbing certain character's voices. His acting career spanned three decades. Ted Cassidy died in 1979 from complications following open-heart surgery. His live-in girlfriend had his remains cremated, then buried in the backyard of their Woodland Hills home.
Randolph Scott
Handsome leading man who developed into one of Hollywood's greatest and most popular western stars. Born to George and Lucy Crane Scott during a visit to Virginia, Scott was raised in Charlotte, North Carolina in a wealthy family. He attended Georgia Institute of Technology but, after being injured playing football, transferred to the University of North Carolina, from which he graduated with a degree in textile engineering and manufacturing. He discovered acting and went to California, where he met Howard Hughes , who obtained an audition for him for Cecil B. DeMille 's Dynamite , a role which went instead to Joel McCrea . He was hired to coach Gary Cooper in a Virginia dialect for The Virginian and played a bit part in the film. Paramount scouts saw him in a play and offered him a contract. He met Cary Grant , another Paramount contract player, on the set of Hot Saturday and immediately moved in together. Their on-and-off living arrangement would last until 1942. Scott married and divorced wealthy heiress Marion DuPont in the late 1930's. He moved into leading roles at Paramount, although his easy-going charm was not enough to indicate the tremendous success that would come to him later. He was a pleasant figure in comedies, dramas and the occasional adventure, but it was not until he began focusing on westerns in the late 1940s that he reached his greatest stardom. His screen persona altered into that of a stoic, craggy, and uncompromising figure, a tough, hard-bitten man seemingly unconnected to the light comedy lead he had been in the 1930s. He became one of the top box office stars of the 1950s and, in the westerns of Budd Boetticher especially, a critically important figure in the western as an art form. Following a critically acclaimed, less-heroic-than-usual role in one of the classics of the genre, Ride the High Country , Scott retired from films. A multimillionaire as a result of canny investments, Scott spent his remaining years playing golf and avoiding film industry affairs, stating that he didn't like publicity. He died in 1987 survived by his second wife, Patricia Stillman, and his two adopted children, Christopher and Sandra. He is buried in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Will Sampson
A Native American actor of the Creek Nation, Sampson's "big break" came from his memorable role in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest opposite Jack Nicholson . He was also starred opposite Clint Eastwood in the western The Outlaw Josey Wales . He had supporting roles in Orca , The White Buffalo and Fish Hawk . In 1986, he co-starred in Poltergeist II: The Other Side as a Native American shaman. He died of complications from kidney failure and malnutrition during heart and lung replacement surgery in 1987 and was buried on the reservation where he grew up.
William Frawley
William Frawley was born in Burlington, Iowa. As a boy he sang at St. Paul's Catholic Church and played at the Burlington Opera House. His first job was as a stenographer for the Union Pacific Railroad. He did vaudeville with his brother Paul, then joined pianist Franz Rath in an act they took to San Francisco in 1910. Four years later he formed a light comedy act with his new wife Edna Louise Broedt, "Frawley and Louise", touring the Orpheum and Keith circuits until they divorced in 1927. He next moved to Broadway and then, in 1932, to Hollywood with Paramount. By 1951, when he contacted Lucille Ball about a part in her TV show I Love Lucy , he had performed in over 100 films. His Fred Mertz role lasted until the show ended in 1960, after which he did a five-year stint on My Three Sons . Poor health forced his retirement. He collapsed of a heart attack on March 3, 1966, aged 79, walking along Hollywood Boulevard after seeing a movie. He is buried in San Fernando Mission Cemetery.
Todd Stashwick
Stashwick was born in Chicago and raised in the suburbs right outside of the city. As a child, he always loved making people laugh, and he aspired to one day perform at Chicago's famous The Second City. Soon after graduating from Illinois State University with a degree in Theatre, he began performing at several local improvisational theaters, and his dream came true when he was hired in 1992 to tour nationally with The Second City.
Following productions at The Second City Detroit and The Second City Northwest, he moved to New York. There, he formed a company of improvisers and began staging the underground critically acclaimed "Burn Manhattan" all over the city. Other performers included Kate Walsh, Jeremy Piven and Spencer Kayden.
Aside from his work in improvisational theatre, Stashwick worked for several years in late 1997 through Spring 2000 on "Late Night With Conan O'Brien," performing as part of their rotating stable of comedy actors.
Work in television and film ultimately drew him to Los Angeles where he soon landed roles in pilots and series and film.
Stashwick remains true to his improvisational roots, and he produces, performs and teaches at his own improvisational theatre that he co-founded in North Hollywood called "The Hothouse". In addition he performs annually with the Macabre improv cabaret The Doubtful Guests who just celebrated their ten year anniversary. He has also taught and performed his unique style of avant-garde improvisation internationally. He directed a show in Liverpool called "Hoof!," which still tours throughout Europe.
He is also the writer and co-creator of the online action/horror web comic Devil Inside. He publishes a new free episode weekly on his website www.toddstashwick.com. The comic has brought him to comic book conventions across the country with his collaborator, comic book artist Dennis Calero.
Stashwick resides in Los Angeles with his wife Charity, whom he married in 1997 in the middle of Times Square in front of twenty close family members and friends, as well as all of New York City. The couple has two children. Their household also includes two dogs, two cats and a Conure (small parrot).
In his spare time, Stashwick enjoys surfing, noodling on the ukulele, writing screenplays and pilots. He's an avid TV (his current favorites are Breaking Bad, Walking Dead and Doctor Who) and a huge Film buff (Star Wars, There Will be Blood and Hedwig and the Angry Inch are among his favorites) . A shameless geek he can be found playing video games with his son or with his nose buried in a comic book. He's been a vegetarian since 1988. He loves traveling overseas as often as his hectic schedule permits. A self-professed Anglophile, Stashwick loves English comedy, music and television.
Stephen Walters
Stephen Walters, an Royal Television Society (RTS) Best Actor nominee, was born on 22 May 1975 in Merseyside, England (UK), where he spent the remainder of his childhood. A regular both on British television and film, for many years he has played a wide range and variety of character roles in both drama and comedy. The roles with which he is most commonly associated are unpredictable, complex figures. These characters illustrate a wide range of dialect accents and backgrounds including American, RP, Scottish, Irish ,Eastern European, Cockney, Mancunian and others. Stephen has also worked alongside directors as eclectic as Matthew Vaughan, Danny Boyle, Ronny Yu, Guy Ritchie, Peter Webber, Sam Miller, Rowan Joffe, and the late Antonia Bird.
After completion of a BTEC in Performing arts at Southport Collage (1990-1992), he went on to gain a place at the prestigious Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (1994-1996). In 1994 Stephen played the lead role of Joey Jackson, a poetic soul searching for the meaning of life, in Jim Morris' "Blood on the Dole" as part of the "Alan Bleasdale Presents" series for Channel 4. This performance garnered much critical acclaim for Walters and with the personal advice of Bleasdale he decided to apply to train at drama school. Stephen has spoken about this period in his career by saying, "I owe everything to Alan Bleasdale in that, after seeing Blood on the Dole, he made me realize and see for the first time that I was an actor...Bleasdale opened the door for me...literally and metaphorically speaking".
In 1989, whilst still at Saint Wilfrids secondary school, Stephen got his first break in television through a now defunct agency run by fellow Liverpudlian actor Ricky Tomlinson, with whom he has appeared in no less than five different projects. Cast as part of ITVs "Dramarama" series on an episode entitled "Ghost Story", Stephen played the featured role of Corporal Tomkins. This was directed by future award winning Director Julian Jarrold, whom Stephen went on to work with again on an ITV drama entitled "Touching Evil". Stephen portrayed lead guest character Jack McCaffrey, a slippery cockney, in a two-part drama written by Paul Abbott.
Coincidentally, by a strange quirk of fate in the spring of 2013, Stephen played the lead role of Ricky Tomlinson in "Ragged", which was a one-off drama for the "Sky Arts Presents" series directed by comedian Johnny Vegas. The role dealt with Tomlinson's incarceration during the 1970's builders strike. For his performance, Stephen was nominated, alongside Derek Jacobi, for an RTS Award as Best Actor in a single drama.
After leaving drama school Stephen appeared as Ian Glover in Jimmy McGovern's highly acclaimed drama "Hillsborough", which went on to win a Bafta for best drama. His next performance was in the role of Jamie Spencer on ITV's ill fated drama series "Springhill" (1996), though Stephen did not return for the second series due to artistic differences.
Between 1998 and 2000, Stephen appeared in numerous eye catching episodic performances such as BBC's "Pie In the Sky", opposite the late Richard Griffiths, Mikey Sullivan in Jimmy McGovern's "Liverpool 1", Private John McGrath in "Band of Brothers" (HBO), and Scot in "Nice Guy Eddie". Stephen also played Kick Box Stevie in the feature film "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang" by Stuart Suggs.
In 2001, with three back-to-back roles, Stephen's work and range were presented to a larger much larger audience. Stephen starred in the BBC's production of writer Jim Cartwright's (Road, Little Voices) "Strumpet" opposite Christopher Eccleston. "Strumpet" was directed by Oscar winning director Danny Boyle. The role of Knockoff was, in Stephen's words, "An actor's dream". This performance was in complete contrast to Walters' more dramatic work up to this point and showed his love for comedy. Walters has gone on record as saying..."It took someone like Danny to take a chance on me...previously I had done more intense, perhaps disturbed kind of characters...then along came this script that I read for and Danny thought I could play it...working with Danny Boyle, Christopher Eccleston and Jim Cartwright was a real learning curve for me".
That same year Stephen featured in the film "Mean Machine" (2001), a remake of the 1974 Burt Reynolds film produced by Matthew Vaughn, as bomb expert Nitro opposite actor Vinny Jones. He then played the role of Nazi skinhead Blowfish in Ronny Yu's film "51st State" (AKA-"Formula 51") opposite Samuel L Jackson and Robert Carlyle. Both characters showcase the more unpredictable, dangerous type of characters that Walters seems to relish. Interestingly, Stephen also worked with Carlyle in his first ever feature film "Plunkett and McCleane", directed by Jake Scot, son of acclaimed director Ridley Scot, where he played the role of Denis. Robert Carlyle has been an important influence on Stephen's career.
These consecutive roles were the springboard to Stephen being cast in the lead role of prison Psychiatrist Nick Vaughn, alongside Lenny James, in Channel 4's eight-part drama series "Buried" (2002). The series, by award winning producer Tony Garner, was awarded the Bafta for Best Drama and Stephen was the recipient of critical acclaim for his performance.
In 2003, Stephen played a two episode lead guest as Dylan Forbes in the ITV drama "Murder City", directed by Sam Miller. The following year (2004) Stephen was directed by Matthew Vaughn in the explosive supporting role of Shanks, opposite Daniel Craig, in the feature film "Layer Cake". Vaughn, who had produced Barry Scholnick's Mean Machine, offered Stephen the role.
Continuing with his eclectic list of credits, Stephen's next project was Guy Richie's film "Revolver" (2005) where, opposite Jason Statham, he portrayed Irish Joe. That same year saw a cameo appearance, as the Arkham Lunatic, in Christopher Nolan's acclaimed feature "Batman Begins" and a turn later as master Lord Gilbert Gifford in the BBC's "Virgin Queen".
In 2007, after a self imposed year hiatus, Stephen undertook three new projects. First was the feature film "Hannibal Rising", the final installment of the Hannibal series which explored the origins of Hannibal Lecter, where he was featured alongside fellow actor Rhys Ifans. Stephen portrayed Zigmas Milko, a man of Eastern European origin and one of Hannibal's main victims. Director Peter Webber described the death of Zigmas Milko as one of his favorite scenes in the movie. Immediately following his role in Hannibal, Stephen was featured in BBC 3's six part comedy series entitled "The Visit", which was set in a prison waiting room. Stephen played the colorful character Splodge, a Manchunian rogue and a troublesome yet likable loser. Later that same year, Stephen played the frighteningly strange, oddly comedic Maddison Twatter (AKA-Mad Twatter) in a three episodes stint for E4's cult smash "Skins".
In 2008 Stephen appeared in "Franklyn", a film directed by Gerald McMorrow, which premiered at the London Film Festival. His dual role as Bill Wasnik/Wormsnakes was played opposite Bernard Hill and Ryan Philippe respectively. In another two-part drama entitled "Wire In The Blood", Stephen played serial killer on the loose James Williams. Robson Green, also featured in the series, collaborated with Stephen in ITV's 1997 drama "Touching Evil". These episodes were directed by Philip John who, coincidentally, would later direct Walters in Outlander (2014-2016).
"Splintered", a horror movie released cinematically in 2010, was demanding for Stephen since he played dual roles as brothers Vincent and Gavin. Playing opposite himself in the same scene presented unique challenges, yet garnered recognition and acclaim for Walters.
"Powder" (2011), based on Kevin Sampson's novel of the same name, featured Stephen in the lead role of Johnny Winegums, the manager of an aspiring POP music group. Some scenes in the film involved filming in front of a live audience, composed of over fifty thousand fans, at the V Festival. This was an experience Stephen thoroughly enjoyed. Later that year Stephen featured heavily in "Age of Heroes" along with Sean Bean. The WWII drama, directed by Adrian Vitoria, highlighted the story of Ian Fleming's Commandos who were assigned to infiltrate behind enemy lines in the Nazi controlled snowy mountains of Norway. Walters has commented that the role of Private Syd Brightling was both a physical and mental test of endurance. Walters would work with Sean Bean again in 2013's "The Accused", penned by Jimmy McGovern.
In 2012 Stephen played the role of gangster Callum Rose, opposite his name-sake and friend actor Stephen Graham, in the BBC's production "Good Cop". Written by Stephen Butchard, and despite only running for one series, "Good Cop" won the RTS award for Best Drama. Sam Miller acted as director. That same year Stephen played the role of Gaz in Niall Griffith's "Kelly + Victor", a film which received a Bafta for Best Debut Feature and critical acclaim for its director Kieran Evans.
2013 brought Stephen lead roles in two back to back television series, highlighting his range and versatility. First was the comedy "Great Night Out", from Jimmy Mulville's HatTrick Productions, where Walters played the lovable but simple Daz Taylor. Second was "The Village" where he played Crispin Ingram, a sadistic teacher from Derbyshire. Director Antonia Bird cast Stephen in the latter and he was devastated to hear of her sudden death not long after filming. Gillies McKinnon, another director Stephen worked with on "The Village", also directed Jimmy McGovermn's "Needle" (1990), Stephen's second professional project that told the story of the heroin epidemic in Liverpool. A second series of "The Village" was re-commissioned, though Stephen was unable to reprise his role due to a scheduling conflict with "Outlander" (2014-2016).
Stephen worked extensively with director Brian Kelly in 2014. He filmed three episodes of NBC's "Dracula", opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers, as Hungarian detective Hackett. The series was shot in Budapest, Hungary. Kelly then cast Walters as Simon the Sorcerer in NBC's series "AD the Bible" (2015). The series was shot in Morocco.
From 2014-2016, opposite Caitriona Balfe and Graham McTavish, Walters portrayed the featured role of Angus Mhor in the television adaptation of Diana Gabaldon's best selling Scottish time travel novel "Outlander". Presented by Starz/Sony and executive producer Ronald D Moore, the show has been re-commissioned for seasons three and four.
Between seasons one and two of "Outlander", Stephen was featured in two stylistically different shows back to back, both for the BBC. First, he was in two episodes of "Dickensian" (2015) opposite Stephen Rea. Second, was a lead episode of "Musketeers" (2015), shot in Prague, in the role of Borel. Walters received strong accolades for this role.
Early in 2016, Stephen completed filming on Rowan Joffe's "Tin Star" for Sky Atlantic. Filmed in Canada, the production features Tim Roth and Christina Hendricks, and has been described as a contemporary western. Stephen is featured as failed Rock Star Johnny.
During the summer of 2016 Stephen completed filming on two episodes of "Into the Badlands" where he played The Engineer, an American Warlord, opposite Daniel Wu and Nick Frost. At present Stephen is shooting "Little Boy Blue", written for ITV by Jeff Pope, with fellow actor Stephen Graham.
In addition to his acting credits, Stephen is also an accomplished writer and director, with several short films completed. The first is award winning short "Danny Boy", an intense drama where a man must come to terms with his mother's Alzheimer's. Second, a recently completed film titled "I'm not Here", is an exploration of Charles Manson wherein Stephen plays the lead role. Stephen also has numerous original scripts in various stages of development.
Lee J. Cobb
Lee J. Cobb, one of the premier character actors in American film for three decades in the post-World War II period, was born Leo Jacoby in New York City's Lower East Side on December 8, 1911. The son of a Jewish newspaper editor, young Leo was a child prodigy in music, mastering the violin and the harmonica. Any hopes of a career as a violin virtuoso were dashed when he broke his wrist, but his talent on the harmonica may have brought him his first professional success. At the age of 16 or 17 he ran away from home to Hollywood to try to break into motion pictures as an actor. He reportedly made his film debut as a member of Borrah Minevitch and His Harmonica Rascals (their first known movie appearance was in the 1929 two-reeler Boyhood Days), but that cannot be substantiated. However, it's known that after Leo was unable to find work he returned to New York City, where he attended City College of New York at night to study accounting while acting in radio dramas during the day.
An older Cobb tried his luck in California once more, making his debut as a professional stage actor at the Pasadena Playhouse in 1931. After again returning to his native New York, he made his Broadway debut as a saloonkeeper in a dramatization of Fyodor Dostoevsky 's Crime and Punishment, but it closed after 15 performances (later in his career, Dostoevsky would prove more of a charm, with Cobb's role as Father Karamazov in The Brothers Karamazov garnering him his second Oscar nomination),
Cobb joined the politically progressive Group Theater in 1935 and made a name for himself in Clifford Odets ' politically liberal dramas Waiting for Lefty and Til the Day I Die, appearing in both plays that year in casts that included Elia Kazan , who later became famous as a film director. Cobb also appeared in the 1937 Group Theater production of Odets' Golden Boy, playing the role of Mr. Carp, in a cast that also included Kazan, Julius Garfinkle (later better known under his stage name of John Garfield ), and Martin Ritt , all of whom later came under the scrutiny of the House Un-American Activities Committee during the heyday of the McCarthy Red Scare hysteria more than a decade later. Cobb took over the role of Mr. Bonaparte, the protagonist's father, in the 1939 film version of the play, despite the fact that he was not yet 30 years old. The role of a patriarch suited him, and he'd play many more in his film career.
It was as a different kind of patriarch that he scored his greatest success. Cobb achieved immortality by giving life to the character of Willy Loman in the original 1949 Broadway production of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman. His performance was a towering achievement that ranks with such performances as Edwin Booth as Richard III and John Barrymore as Hamlet in the annals of the American theater. Cobb later won an Emmy nomination as Willy when he played the role in a made-for-TV movie of the play ( Death of a Salesman ). Miller said that he wrote the role with Cobb in mind.
Before triumphing as Miller's Salesman, Cobb had appeared on Broadway only a handful of times in the 1940s, including in Ernest Hemingway 's The Fifth Column (1940), Odets' "Clash by Night" (1942) and the US Army Air Force's Winged Victory (1943-44). Later he reprised the role of Joe Bonaparte's father in the 1952 revival of Golden Boy opposite Garfield as his son, and appeared the following year in The Emperor's Clothes. His final Broadway appearance was as King Lear in the Repertory Theatre of Lincoln Center's 1968 production of Shakespeare's play.
Aside from his possible late 1920s movie debut and his 1934 appearance in the western The Vanishing Shadow , Cobb's film career proper began in 1937 with the westerns North of the Rio Grande (in which he was billed as Lee Colt) and Rustlers' Valley and spanned nearly 40 years until his death. After a hiatus while serving in the Army Air Force during World War II, Cobb's movie career resumed in 1946. He continued to play major supporting roles in prestigious A-list pictures. His movie career reached its artistic peak in the 1950s, when he was twice nominated for Best Supporting Actor Academy Awards, for his role as Johnny Friendly in On the Waterfront and as the father in The Brothers Karamazov . Other memorable supporting roles in the 1950s included the sagacious Judge Bernstein in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit , as the probing psychiatrist Dr. Luther in The Three Faces of Eve and as the volatile Juror #3 in 12 Angry Men .
It was in the 1950s that Cobb achieved the sort of fame that most artists dreaded: he was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee on charges that he was or had been a Communist. The charges were rooted in Cobb's membership in the Group Theater in the 1930s. Other Group Theater members already investigated by HUAC included Clifford Odets and Elia Kazan , both of whom provided friendly testimony before the committee, and John Garfield , who did not.
Cobb's own persecution by HUAC had already caused a nervous breakdown in his wife, and he decided to appear as a friendly witness in order to preserve her sanity and his career, by bringing the inquisition to a halt. Appearing before the committee in 1953, he named names and thus saved his career. Ironically, he would win his first Oscar nomination in On the Waterfront directed and written by fellow HUAC informers Kazan and Budd Schulberg . The film can be seen as a stalwart defense of informing, as epitomized by the character Terry Malloy's testimony before a Congressional committee investigating racketeering on the waterfront.
Fred MacMurray
Fred MacMurray was likely the most underrated actor of his generation. True, his earliest work is mostly dismissed as pedestrian, but no other actor working in the 1940s and 50s was able to score so supremely whenever cast against type.
Frederick Martin MacMurray was born in Kankakee, Illinois, to Maleta Martin and Frederick MacMurray. His father had Scottish ancestry and his mother's family was German. His father's sister was vaudeville performer and actress Fay Holderness . When MacMurray was five years old, the family moved to Beaver Dam in Wisconsin, his parents' birth state. He graduated from Beaver Dam High School (later the site of Beaver Dam Middle School), where he was a three-sport star in football, baseball, and basketball. Fred retained a special place in his heart for his small-town Wisconsin upbringing, referring at any opportunity in magazine articles or interviews to the lifelong friends and cherished memories of Beaver Dam, even including mementos of his childhood in several of his films. In "Pardon my Past", Fred and fellow GI William Demarest are moving to Beaver Dam, WI to start a mink farm.
MacMurray earned a full scholarship to attend Carroll College in Waukesha, Wisconsin and had ambitions to become a musician. In college, MacMurray participated in numerous local bands, playing the saxophone. In 1930, he played saxophone in the Gus Arnheim and his Coconut Grove Orchestra when Bing Crosby was the lead vocalist and Russ Columbo was in the violin section. MacMurray recorded a vocal with Arnheim's orchestra "All I Want Is Just One Girl" -- Victor 22384, 3/20/30. He appeared on Broadway in the 1930 hit production of "Three's a Crowd" starring Sydney Greenstreet , Clifton Webb and Libby Holman . He next worked alongside Bob Hope in the 1933 production of "Roberta" before he signed on with Paramount Pictures in 1934 for the then-standard 7-year contract (the hit show made Bob Hope a star and he was also signed by Paramount). MacMurray married Lillian Lamont (D: June 22, 1953) on June 20, 1936, and they adopted two children.
Although his early film work is largely overlooked by film historians and critics today, he rose steadily within the ranks of Paramount's contract stars, working with some of Hollywood's greatest talents, including wunderkind writer-director Preston Sturges (whom he intensely disliked) and actors Humphrey Bogart and Marlene Dietrich . Although the majority of his films of the 30's can largely be dismissed as standard fare there are exceptions: he played opposite Claudette Colbert in seven films, beginning with The Gilded Lily . He also co-starred with Katharine Hepburn in the classic, Alice Adams , and with Carole Lombard in Hands Across the Table , The Trail of the Lonesome Pine -- an ambitious early outdoor 3-strip Technicolor hit, co-starring with Henry Fonda and Sylvia Sidney directed by Henry Hathaway -- The Princess Comes Across , and True Confession . MacMurray spent the decade learning his craft and developing a reputation as a solid actor. In an interesting sidebar, artist C.C. Beck used MacMurray as the initial model for a superhero character who would become Fawcett Comics' Captain Marvel in 1939.
The 1940s gave him his chance to shine. He proved himself in melodramas such as Above Suspicion and musicals ( Where Do We Go from Here? ), somewhat ironically becoming one of Hollywood's highest-paid actors by 1943, when his salary reached $420,000. He scored a huge hit with the thoroughly entertaining The Egg and I , again teamed with Ms. Colbert and today largely remembered for launching the long-running Ma and Pa Kettle franchise. In 1941, MacMurray purchased a large parcel of land in Sonoma County, California and began a winery/cattle ranch. He raised his family on the ranch and it became the home to his second wife, June Haver after their marriage in 1954. The winery remains in operation today in the capable hands of their daughter, Kate MacMurray. Despite being habitually typecast as a "nice guy", MacMurray often said that his best roles were when he was cast against type by Billy Wilder . In 1944, he played the role of "Walter Neff", an insurance salesman (numerous other actors had turned the role down) who plots with a greedy wife Barbara Stanwyck to murder her husband in Double Indemnity -- inarguably the greatest role of his entire career. Indeed, anyone today having any doubts as to his potential depth as an actor should watch this film. He did another stellar turn in the "not so nice" category, playing the cynical, spineless "Lieutenant Thomas Keefer" in the 1954 production of The Caine Mutiny , directed by Edward Dmytryk . He gave another superb dramatic performance cast against type as a hard-boiled crooked cop in Pushover .
Despite these and other successes, his career waned considerably by the late 1950s and he finished out the decade working in a handful of non-descript westerns. MacMurray's career got its second wind beginning in 1959 when he was cast as the dog-hating father figure (well, he was a retired mailman) in the first Walt Disney live-action comedy, The Shaggy Dog . The film was an enormous hit and Uncle Walt green lighted several projects around his middle-aged star. Billy Wilder came calling again and he did a masterful turn in the role of Jeff Sheldrake, a two-timing corporate executive in Wilder's Oscar-winning comedy-drama The Apartment , with Shirley MacLaine and Jack Lemmon -- arguably his second greatest role and the last one to really challenge him as an actor. Although this role would ultimately be remembered as his last great performance, he continued with the lightweight Disney comedies while pulling double duty, thanks to an exceptionally generous contract, on TV.
MacMurray was cast in 1961 as Professor Ned Brainerd in Disney's The Absent Minded Professor and in its superior sequel, Son of Flubber . These hit Disney comedies raised his late-career profile considerably and producer Don Fedderson beckoned with My Three Sons debuting in 1960 on ABC. The gentle sitcom staple remained on the air for 12 seasons (380 episodes). Concerned about his work load and time away from his ranch and family, Fred played hardball with his series contract. In addition to his generous salary, the "Sons" contract was written so that all the scenes requiring his presence to be shot first, requiring him to work only 65 days per season on the show (the contract was reportedly used as an example by Dean Martin when negotiating the wildly generous terms contained in his later variety show contract). This requirement meant the series actors had to work with stand-ins and posed wardrobe continuity issues. The series moved without a hitch to CBS in the fall of 1965 in color after ABC, then still an also-ran network with its eyes peeled on the bottom line, refused to increase the budget required for color production (color became a U.S. industry standard in the 1968 season). This freed him to pursue his film work, family, ranch, and his principal hobby, golf.
Politically very conservative, MacMurray was a staunch supporter of the Republican Party; he joined his old friend Bob Hope and James Stewart in campaigning for Richard Nixon in 1968. He was also widely known one of the most -- to be polite -- frugal actors in the business. Stories floated around the industry in the 60s regarding famous hard-boiled egg brown bag lunches and stingy tips. After the cancellation of My Three Sons in 1972, MacMurray made only a few more film appearances before retiring to his ranch in 1978. As a result of a long battle with leukemia, MacMurray died of pneumonia at the age of eighty-three in Santa Monica on November 5, 1991. He was buried in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City.
Bela Lugosi
It's ironic that Martin Landau won an Oscar for impersonating Bela Lugosi (in Ed Wood ) when Lugosi himself never came within a mile of one, but that's just the latest of many sad ironies surrounding Lugosi's career.
Bela Lugosi was born Béla Ferenc Dezsö Blaskó on October 20, 1882, Lugos, Hungary, Austria-Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania), to Paula de Vojnich and István Blaskó, a banker. He was the youngest of four children. During WWI, he volunteered and was commissioned as an infantry lieutenant, and was wounded three times.
A distinguished stage actor in his native Hungary, Austria-Hungary, he ended up a drug-addicted pauper in Hollywood, thanks largely to typecasting brought about by his most famous role. He began his stage career in 1901 and started appearing in films during World War I, fleeing to Germany in 1919 as a result of his left-wing political activity (he organized an actors' union). In 1920 he emigrated to the US and made a living as a character actor, shooting to fame when he played Count Dracula in the legendary 1927 Broadway stage adaptation of Bram Stoker 's novel. It ran for three years, and was subsequently, and memorably, filmed by Tod Browning in 1931, establishing Lugosi as one of the screen's greatest personifications of pure evil. Also in 1931, he became a U.S. citizen. Sadly, his reputation rapidly declined, mainly because he was only too happy to accept any part (and script) handed to him, and ended up playing pathetic parodies of his greatest role, in low-grade poverty row shockers. He ended his career working for the legendary Worst Director of All Time, Edward D. Wood Jr. .
Lugosi was married Ilona Szmik (1917 - 1920), Ilona von Montagh (? - ?), and Lillian Arch (1933 - 1951). He is the father of Bela Lugosi Jr. (1938). Lugosi helped organize the Screen Actors Guild in the mid-'30s, joining as member number 28.
Bela Lugosi died of a heart attack August 16, 1956. He was buried in his full Dracula costume, including a cape.
Efrem Zimbalist Jr.
It's hardly surprising that the son of renowned Russian-born concert violinist Efrem Zimbalist Sr. (1889-1985) and Romanian-born opera singer Alma Gluck (1884-1938) would desire a performing career of some kind. Born in New York City on November 30, 1918, surrounded by people of wealth and privilege throughout his childhood, Efrem Zimbalist Jr. received a boarding school education. Acting in school plays, he later trained briefly at the Yale School of Drama but didn't apply himself enough and quit. As an NBC network radio page, he auditioned when he could and found minor TV and stock theatre parts while joining up with the Neighborhood Playhouse.
Following WWII war service with the Army infantry in which he was awarded the Purple Heart after being wounded, a director and friend of the family, Garson Kanin , gave the aspiring actor his first professional role in his Broadway production of "The Rugged Path" (1945) which starred Spencer Tracy . With his dark, friendly, clean-scrubbed good looks and a deep, rich voice that could cut butter, Zimbalist found little trouble finding work. He continued with the American Repertory Theatre performing in such classics as "Henry VIII" and "Androcles and the Lion" while appearing opposite the legendary Eva Le Gallienne in "Hedda Gabler".
Zimbalist then tried his hand as a stage producer, successfully bringing opera to Broadway audiences for the first time with memorable presentations of "The Medium" and "The Telephone". As producer of Gian Carlo Menotti 's "The Consul", he won the New York Drama Critic's Award and the Pulitzer Prize for best musical in 1950. An auspicious film debut opposite Edward G. Robinson in House of Strangers brought little career momentum due to the untimely death of his wife Emily (a onetime actress who appeared with him in "Hedda Gabler" and bore him two children, Nancy and Efrem III) to cancer in 1950. Making an abrupt decision to abandon acting, he served as assistant director/researcher at the Curtis School of Music for his father and buried himself with studies and music composition.
Howard Hughes
Billionaire businessman, film producer, film director, and aviator, born in Humble, Texas just north of Houston. He studied at two prestigious institutions of higher learning: Rice University in Houston and California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California. Inherited his father's machine tool company in 1923. In 1926 he ventured into films, producing Hell's Angels , Scarface and The Outlaw . He also founded his own aircraft company, designed, built and flew his own aircraft, and broke several world air speed records (1935-1938). His most famous aircraft, the Hercules (nicknamed "The Spruce Goose"), which was as he discovered, an under-powered wooden seaplane designed to carry 750 passengers. That plane was completed in 1947, but flew only once over a distance of one mile despite having eight Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major engines, among the most powerful radial piston engines of the day. Throughout his life he shunned publicity, eventually becoming a recluse but still controlling his vast business interests from sealed-off hotel suites, and giving rise to endless rumors and speculation. In 1971 an "authorized" biography was announced, but the authors wound up in prison for fraud, and the mystery surrounding him continued until his death in Houston. He is buried in Glenwood Cemetery, Houston
Ann Miller
Ann Miller was born Johnnie Lucille Ann Collier on April 12, 1923 in Chireno, Texas. She lived there until she was nine, when her mother left her philandering father and moved with Ann to Los Angeles, California. Even at that young age, she had to support her mother, who was hearing-impaired and unable to hold a job. After taking tap-dancing lessons, she got jobs dancing in various Hollywood nightclubs while being home-schooled. Then, in 1937, RKO asked her to sign on as a contract player, but only if she could prove she was 18. Though she was really barely 14, she managed to get hold of a fake birth certificate, and so was signed on, playing dancers and ingénues in such films as Stage Door , You Can't Take It with You , Room Service and Too Many Girls . In 1939, she appeared on Broadway in "George White's Scandals" and was a smash, staying on for two years. Eventually, RKO released her from her contract, but Columbia Pictures snapped her up to appear in such World War II morale boosters as True to the Army and Reveille with Beverly . When she decided to get married, Columbia released her from her contract. The marriage was sadly unhappy and she was divorced in two years. This time, MGM picked her up, showcasing her in such films as Easter Parade , On the Town and Kiss Me Kate . In the mid-1950s, she asked to leave to marry again, and her request was granted. This marriage didn't last long, either, nor did a third. Ann then threw herself into work, appearing on television, in nightclubs and on the stage. She was a smash as the last actress to headline the Broadway production of "Mame" in 1969 and 1970, and an even bigger smash in "Sugar Babies" in 1979, which she played for nine years, on Broadway and on tour. She has cut back in recent years, but did appear in the Paper Mill Playhouse (Millburn, New Jersey) production of Stephen Sondheim 's "Follies" in 1998, in which she sang the song "I'm Still Here", a perfect way to sum up the life and career of Ann Miller. On January 22, 2004, Ann Miller died at age 80 of lung cancer and was buried at the Holy Cross Cemetary in Culver City, California.
John Barrymore
American stage and screen actor whose rise to superstardom and subsequent decline is one of the legendary tragedies of Hollywood. A member of the most famous generation of the most famous theatrical family in America, he was also its most acclaimed star. His father was Maurice Blyth (or Blythe; family spellings vary), a stage success under the name 'Maurice Barrymore'. His mother, Georgie Drew, was the daughter of actor John Drew. Although well known in the theatre, Maurice and Georgie were eclipsed by their three children, John, Lionel Barrymore , and Ethel Barrymore , each of whom became legendary stars. John was handsome and roguish. He made his stage debut at 18 in one of his father's productions, but was much more interested in becoming an artist. Briefly educated at King's College, Wimbledon, and at New York's Art Students League, Barrymore worked as a freelance artist and for a while sketched for the New York Evening Journal. Gradually, though, the draw of his family's profession ensnared him and by 1905 he had given up professional drawing and was touring the country in plays. He survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and in 1909 became a major Broadway star in "The Fortune Hunter." In 1922, Barrymore became his generation's most acclaimed Hamlet, in New York and London. But by this time he had become a frequent player in motion pictures. His screen debut supposedly came in An American Citizen , though records of several lost films indicate he may have made appearances as far back as 1912. He became every bit the star of films that he was on stage, eclipsing his siblings in both arenas. Though his striking matinee-idol looks had garnered him the nickname "The Great Profile", he often buried them under makeup or distortion in order to create memorable characters of degradation or horror. He was a romantic leading man into the early days of sound films, but his heavy drinking (since boyhood) began to take a toll, and he degenerated quickly into a man old before his time. He made a number of memorable appearances in character roles, but these became over time more memorable for the humiliation of a once-great star than for his gifts. His last few films were broad and distasteful caricatures of himself, though in even the worst, such as Playmates , he could rouse himself to a moving soliloquy from Hamlet. He died in 1942, mourned as much for the loss of his life as for the loss of grace, wit, and brilliance which had characterized his career at its height.
Anne Haney
Anne Haney held prominent roles acting on stage, on the screen, and on TV. All these achievements came in her mid 40s, after she had raised a daughter and buried a husband. It wasn't until after she had packed her daughter off to college and "the maid quit", as she said, that she decided to try her hand at acting. She was born in Memphis, Tennessee and studied drama, radio and TV at the University of North Carolina, where she met her husband, John Haney. She did apply her schooling briefly at a Memphis television station, but soon settled down with her husband and devoted herself to family life. "I was a lovely faculty wife. We made ambrosia salad. We did good works. We played a lot of bridge", she said of those times. By the 1970s, however, Haney began seeking work in local theatre productions and television commercials. Soon, she was traveling with a touring company performing as the maid in Noël Coward 's "Fallen Angels". She toured for two years. Eventually, she joined the Screen Actors Guild and the American Federation of T.V. and Radio Artists. She and her husband had, in fact, planned to move to Southern California after his retirement. She was eager to experience and, she hoped, benefit from the variety and prestige available only in Hollywood. Those plans changed when Mr. Haney died of kidney disease in 1980; Anne Haney made the trek to California, alone. Not long after arriving, she had an agent and a part in the Walter Matthau vehicle Hopscotch . As her career took off, she also secured roles on stage, notably the role of Margaret Fielding in the Theatre West production of "Verdigris". When asked whether she ever dwelled on the prospect that had she begun her career too late, she replied that "this is gravy to me. It's a wonderful way to spend the last third of my life".
Freddie Prinze
Freddie Prinze was born Frederick Karl Pruetzel in New York City, New York, to a Puerto Rican mother, Aurea Elena Ruiz, and a German immigrant father, Edward Karl Pruetzel. Freddie grew up in the Washington Heights section of New York City. As a chubby child, he was often bullied, but was quite creative and bright in his extracurricular activities (he was known to have handmade a ham radio, which he used regularly). Early on, he aspired to become famous, and, after enrolling at Fiorella LaGuardia High School of the Performing Arts, he obtained a job at the Improv Club, in New York, where people started to take notice of his comedic talent (but the long hours he worked at night, balanced by increasing absences in school, caused him to drop out of high school to pursue comedy full-time). He changed his name to Freddie Prinze (to indicate that he was "The Prince of Comedy"). In December 1973, he was invited to perform on "The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson", which proved to be a breakthrough performance, as he was invited to chat with Johnny after his performance (only two other comedians have enjoyed that privilege). Soon afterwards, he won the role of "Chico Rodriquez" in an NBC-produced TV series called Chico and the Man (he and co-star Jack Albertson forged a great friendship while working on the show). In 1975, he released a comedy album, titled "Looking Good", and further boosted his popularity with appearances on various TV talk shows (such as the "Tony Orlando & Dawn" show). In Las Vegas in August 1975, he married Katherine Cochran, with whom he had a son, Freddie Prinze, Jr. (born on March 8, 1976 in Albuquerque, New Mexico). He loved his role as a father, and his growing popularity. But all the fame had a downside to it: Freddie developed an addiction to drugs (namely Quaaludes and cocaine), and was subsequently arrested in Nov. 1976 for DUI. Also, his marriage to Kathy was dissolving, and they separated. Things were unraveling quickly for him, and he started to mention thoughts of suicide to many of his close friends and family (including his best friends: singer 'Tony Orlando' and comedian David Brenner). In January 1977, following his final public appearance (at the Inaugural Ball for President Jimmy Carter), 22-year-old Freddie called his mother, friends and manager and announced that he was committing suicide. While his manager tried to stop him, he placed a .32 caliber pistol against his temple and pulled the trigger. Miraculously, he did not die right away, and was rushed to UCLA Medical Center with a massive head wound. He was kept on life support until January 29, 1977, when his family and friends decided to turn off the life support, to let him rest in peace. On his TV show, his death resulted in his "Chico" character being replaced by a young child; the show was canceled soon afterwards. He was buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park, and his funeral was attended by many who had known him (Jack Albertson, his co-star and friend, Tony Orlando, Sammy Davis, Jr., etc.). He left behind a wife and infant son. On a positive note, more than two decades after his death, his only son, 'Freddie Prinze, Jr.', has carried on the Prinze name and become a star in his own right.
Frank Capra
One of seven children, Frank Capra was born on May 18, 1897, in Bisacquino, Sicily. On May 10, 1903, his family left for America aboard the ship Germania, arriving in New York on May 23rd. "There's no ventilation, and it stinks like hell. They're all miserable. It's the most degrading place you could ever be," Capra said about his Atlantic passage. "Oh, it was awful, awful. It seems to always be storming, raining like hell and very windy, with these big long rolling Atlantic waves. Everybody was sick, vomiting. God, they were sick. And the poor kids were always crying."
The family boarded a train for the trip to California, where Frank's older brother Benjamin was living. On their journey, they subsisted on bread and bananas, as their lack of English made it impossible for them to ask for any other kind of foodstuffs. On June 3, the Capra family arrived at the Southern Pacific station in Los Angeles, at the time, a small city of approximately 102,000 people. The family stayed with Capra's older brother Benjamin, and on September 14, 1903, Frank began his schooling at the Castelar Elementary school.
In 1909, he entered Los Angeles' Manual Arts High School. Capra made money selling newspapers in downtown L.A. after school and on Saturdays, sometimes working with his brother Tony. When sales were slow, Tony punched Frank to attract attention, which would attract a crowd and make Frank's papers sell quicker. Frank later became part of a two-man music combo, playing at various places in the red light district of L.A., including brothels, getting paid a dollar per night, performing the popular songs. He also worked as a janitor at the high school in the early mornings. It was at high school that he became interested in the theater, typically doing back-stage work such as lighting.
Capra's family pressured him to drop out of school and go to work, but he refused, as he wanted to partake fully of the American Dream, and for that he needed an education. Capra later reminisced that his family "thought I was a bum. My mother would slap me around; she wanted me to quit school. My teachers would urge me to keep going....I was going to school because I had a fight on my hands that I wanted to win."
Capra graduated from high school on January 27, 1915, and in September of that year, he entered the Throop College of Technology (later the California Institute of Technology) to study chemical engineering. The school's annual tuition was $250, and Capra received occasional financial support from his family, who were resigned to the fact they had a scholar in their midst. Throop had a fine arts department, and Capra discovered poetry and the essays of Montaigne, which he fell in love with, while matriculating at the technical school. He then decided to write.
"It was a great discovery for me. I discovered language. I discovered poetry. I discovered poetry at Caltech, can you imagine that? That was a big turning point in my life. I didn't know anything could be so beautiful." Capra penned "The Butler's Failure," about an English butler provoked by poverty to murder his employer, then to suicide."
Capra was singled out for a cash award of $250 for having the highest grades in the school. Part of his prize was a six-week trip across the U.S. and Canada. When Capra's father, Turiddu, died in 1916, Capra started working at the campus laundry to make money.
After the U.S. Congress declared War on Germany on April 6, 1917, Capra enlisted in the Army, and while he was not a naturalized citizen yet, he was allowed to join the military as part of the Coastal Artillery. Capra became a supply officer for the student soldiers at Throop, who have been enrolled in a Reserve Officers Training Corps program. At his enlistment, Capra discovered he was not an American citizen; he became naturalized in 1920.
On September 15, 1918, Capra graduated from Throop with his bachelor's degree, and was inducted into the U.S. Army on October 18th and shipped out to the Presidio at San Francisco. An armistice ending the fighting of World War One would be declared in less than a month. While at the Presidio, Capra became ill with the Spanish influenza that claimed 20 million lives worldwide. He was discharged from the Army on December 13th and moved to his brother Ben's home in L.A. While recuperating, Capra answered a cattle call for extras for John Ford 's film "The The Outcasts of Poker Flat (Capra, cast as a laborer in the Ford picture, introduced himself to the film's star, Harry Carey . Two decades later, Capra, designated the #1 director in Hollywood by "Time" magazine, would cast Carey and his movie actress wife Olive in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington for which Carey won a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination).
While living at his mother's house, Capra took on a wide variety of manual laboring jobs, including errand boy and ditch digger, even working as an orange tree pruner at 20 cents a day. He continued to be employed as an extra at movie studios and as a prop buyer at an independent studio at Sunset Boulevard and Gower Street, which later became the home of Columbia Pictures, where Capra would make his reputation as the most successful movie director of the 1930s. Most of his time was spent unemployed and idle, which gave credence to his family's earlier opposition to him seeking higher education. Capra wrote short stories but was unable to get them published. He eventually got work as a live-in tutor for the son of "Lucky" Baldwin, a rich gambler. (He later used the Baldwin estate as a location for Dirigible ).
Smitten by the movie bug, in August of that year, Capra, former actor W. M. Plank, and financial backer Ida May Heitmann incorporated the Tri-State Motion Picture Co. in Nevada. Tri-State produced three short films in Nevada in 1920, Don't Change Your Husband , The Pulse of Life , and The Scar of Love (1920), all directed by Plank, and possibly based on story treatments written by Capra. The films were failures, and Capra returned to Los Angeles when Tri-State broke up. In March 1920, Capra was employed by CBC Film Sales Co., the corporate precursor of Columbia Films, where he also worked as an editor and director on a series called "Screen Snapshots." He quit CBC in August and moved to San Francisco, but the only jobs he could find were that of bookseller and door-to-door salesman. Once again seeming to fulfill his family's prophecy, he turned to gambling, and also learned to ride the rails with a hobo named Frank Dwyer. There was also a rumor that he became a traveling salesman specializing in worthless securities, according to a "Time" magazine story "Columbia's Gem" (August 8, 1938 issue, V.32, No. 6).
Still based in San Francisco in 1921, producer Walter Montague hired Capra for $75 per week to help direct the short movie The Ballad of Fisher's Boarding House , which was based on a poem by Rudyard Kipling . Montague, a former actor, had the dubious idea that foggy San Francisco was destined to become the capital of movies, and that he could make a fortune making movies based on poems. Capra helped Montague produced the one-reeler, which was budgeted at $1,700 and subsequently sold to the Pathe Exchange for $3,500. Capra quit Montague when he demanded that the next movie be based upon one of his own poems.
Unable to find another professional filmmaking job, Capra hired himself out as a maker of shorts for the public-at-large while working as an assistant at Walter Ball's film lab. Finally, in October 1921, the Paul Gerson Picture Corp. hired him to help make its two-reel comedies, around the time that he began dating the actress Helen Edith Howe, who would become his first wife. Capra continued to work for both Ball and Gerson, primarily as a cutter. On November 25, 1923, Capra married Helen Howell, and the couple soon moved to Hollywood.
Hal Roach hired Capra as a gag-writer for the "Our Gang" series in January, 1924. After writing the gags for five "Our Gang" comedies in seven weeks, he asked Roach to make him a director. When Roach refused (he somewhat rightly felt he had found the right man in director Bob McGowan ), Capra quit. Roach's arch rival Mack Sennett subsequently hired him as a writer, one of a six-man team that wrote for silent movie comedian Harry Langdon , the last major star of the rapidly disintegrating Mack Sennett Studios, and reigning briefly as fourth major silent comedian after Charles Chaplin , Buster Keaton , and Harold Lloyd . Capra began working with the Harry Langdon production unit as a gag writer, first credited on the short Plain Clothes .
As Harry Langdon became more popular, his production unit at Sennett had moved from two- to three-reelers before Langdon, determined to follow the example of Chaplin, Keaton, and Lloyd, went into features. After making his first feature-length comedy, His First Flame for Sennett, Langdon signed a three-year contract with Sol Lesser 's First National Pictures to annually produce two feature-length comedies at a fixed fee per film. For a multitude of reasons Mack Sennett was never able to retain top talent. On September 15, 1925, Harry Langdon left Sennett in an egotistical rage, taking many of his key production personnel with him. Sennett promoted Capra to director but fired him after three days in his new position. In addition to the Langdon comedies, Capra had also written material for other Sennett films, eventually working on twenty-five movies.
After being sacked by Sennett, Capra was hired as a gag-writer by Harry Langdon , working on Langdon's first First National feature-length film, Tramp, Tramp, Tramp . The movie was directed by Harry Edwards who had directed all of Harry Langdon 's films at Sennett. His first comedy for First National, Tramp, Tramp, Tramp did well at the box office, but it had ran over budget, which came out of Langdon's end. Harry Edwards was sacked, and for his next picture, The Strong Man , Langdon promoted Capra to director, boosting his salary to $750 per week. The movie was a hit, but trouble was brewing among members of the Harry Langdon company. Langdon was increasingly believing his own press.
His marriage with Helen began to unravel when it is discovered that she had a life-threatening ectopic pregnancy that had to be terminated. In order to cope with the tragedy, Capra became a work-a-holic while Helen turned to drink. The deterioration of his marriage was mirrored by the disintegration of his professional relationship with Harry Langdon during the making of the new feature, Long Pants .
The movie, which was released in March 1927, proved to be Capra's last with Harry Langdon , as the comedian soon sacked Capra after its release. Capra later explained the principle of Langdon comedies to James Agee , "It is the principal of the brick: If there was a rule for writing Langdon material, it was this: his only ally was God. Harry Langdon might be saved by a brick falling on a cop, but it was verboten that he in any way motivated the bricks fall."
During the production of Long Pants , Capra had a falling out with Langdon. Screenwriter Arthur Ripley 's dark sensibility did not mesh well with that of the more optimistic Capra, and Harry Langdon usually sided with Ripley. The picture fell behind schedule and went over budget, and since Langdon was paid a fixed fee for each film, this represented a financial loss to his own Harry Langdon Corp. Stung by the financial set-back, and desiring to further emulate the great Chaplin, Harry Langdon made a fateful decision: He fired Capra and decided to direct himself. (Langdon's next three movies for First National were dismal failures, the two surviving films being very dark and grim black comedies, one of which, The Chaser , touched on the subject of suicide. It was the late years of the Jazz Age, a time of unprecedented prosperity and boundless bonhomie, and the critics, and more critically, the ticket-buying public, rejected Harry. In 1928, First National did not pick up his contract. The Harry Langdon Corp. soon went bankrupt, and his career as the "fourth major silent comedian" was through, just as sound was coming in.)
In April of 1927, Capra and his wife Helen split up, and Capra went off to New York to direct For the Love of Mike for First National, his first picture with Claudette Colbert . The director and his star did not get along, and the film went over budget. Subsequently, First National refused to pay Capra, and he had to hitchhike back to Hollywood. The film proved to be Capra's only genuine flop.
By September 1927, he was back working as a writer for Mack Sennett , but in October, he was hired as a director by Columbia Pictures President and Production Chief Harry Cohn for $1,000. The event was momentous for both of them, for at Columbia Capra would soon become the #1 director in Hollywood in the 1930s, and the success of Capra's films would propel the Poverty Row studio into the major leagues. But at first, Cohn was displeased with him. When viewing the first three days of rushes of his first Columbia film, That Certain Thing , Cohn wanted to fire him as everything on the first day had been shot in long shot, on the second day in medium shot, and on the third day in close-ups.
"I did it that way for time," Capra later recalled. "It was so easy to be better than the other directors, because they were all dopes. They would shoot a long shot, then they would have to change the setup to shoot a medium shot, then they would take their close-ups. Then they would come back and start over again. You lose time, you see, moving the cameras and the big goddamn lights. I said, 'I'll get all the long shots on that first set first, then all the medium shots, and then the close-ups.' I wouldn't shoot the whole scene each way unless it was necessary. If I knew that part of it was going to play in long shot, I wouldn't shoot that part in close-up. But the trick was not to move nine times, just to move three times. This saved a day, maybe two days."
Cohn decided to stick with Capra (he was ultimately delighted at the picture and gave Capra a $1,500 bonus and upped his per-picture salary), and in 1928, Cohn raised his salary again, now to to $3,000 per picture after he made several successful pictures, including Submarine . The Younger Generation , the first of a series of films with higher budgets to be directed by Capra, would prove to be his first sound film, when scenes were reshot for dialogue. In the summer of that year, he was introduced to a young widow, Lucille Warner Reyburn (who became Capra's second wife Lou Capra ). He also met a transplanted stage actress, Barbara Stanwyck , who had been recruited for the talkie but had been in three successive unsuccessful films and wanted to return to the New York stage. Harry Cohn wanted Stanwyck to appear in Capra's planned film, Ladies of Leisure , but the interview with Capra did not go well, and Capra refused to use her.
Stanwyck went home crying after being dismissed by Capra, and her husband, a furious Frank Fay , called Capra up. In his defense, Capra said that Stanwyck didn't seem to want the part. According to Capra's 1961 autobiography, "The Name Above the Title," Fay said, "Frank, she's young, and shy, and she's been kicked around out here. Let me show you a test she made at Warner's." After viewing her Warners' test for The Noose , Capra became enthusiastic and urged Cohn to sign her. In January of 1930, Capra began shooting Ladies of Leisure with Stanwyck in the lead. The movies the two made together in the early '30s established them both on their separate journeys towards becoming movieland legends. Though Capra would admit to falling in love with his leading lady, it was Lucille Warner Reyburn who became the second Mrs. Capra.
"You're wondering why I was at that party. That's my racket. I'm a party girl. Do you know what that is?"
Stanwyck played a working-class "party girl" hired as a model by the painter Jerry, who hails from a wealthy family. Capra had written the first draft of the movie before screenwriter Jo Swerling took over. Swerling thought the treatment was dreadful. According to Capra, Swerling told Harry Cohn , when he initially had approached about adapting the play "Ladies of the Evening" into Capra's next proposed film, "I don't like Hollywood, I don't like you, and I certainly don't like this putrid piece of gorgonzola somebody gave me to read. It stunk when Belasco produced it as Ladies of Leisure , and it will stink as Ladies of Leisure, even if your little tin Jesus does direct it. The script is inane, vacuous, pompous, unreal, unbelievable - - and incredibly dull."
Capra, who favored extensive rehearsals before shooting a scene, developed his mature directorial style while collaborating with Stanwyck, a trained stage actress whose performance steadily deteriorated after rehearsals or retakes. Stanwyck's first take in a scene usually was her best. Capra started blocking out scenes in advance, and carefully preparing his other actors so that they could react to Stanwyck in the first shot, whose acting often was unpredictable, so they wouldn't foul up the continuity. In response to this semi-improvisatory style, Capra's crew had to boost its level of craftsmanship to beyond normal Hollywood standards, which were forged in more static and prosaic work conditions. Thus, the professionalism of Capra's crews became better than those of other directors. Capra's philosophy for his crew was, "You guys are working for the actors, they're not working for you."
After "Ladies of Leisure," Capra was assigned to direct Platinum Blonde starring Jean Harlow . The script had been the product of a series of writers, including Jo Swerling (who was given credit for adaptation), but was polished by Capra and Robert Riskin (who was given screen credit for the dialogue). Along with Jo Swerling , Riskin would rank as one of Capra's most important collaborators, ultimately having a hand in 13 movies. (Riskin wrote nine screenplays for Capra, and Capra based four other films on Riskin's work.)
Riskin created a hard-boiled newspaperman, Stew Smith for the film, a character his widow, the actress Fay Wray , said came closest to Riskin of any character he wrote. A comic character, the wise-cracking reporter who wants to lampoon high society but finds himself hostage to the pretensions of the rich he had previously mocked is the debut of the prototypical "Capra" hero. The dilemma faced by Stew, akin to the immigrant's desire to assimilate but being rejected by established society, was repeated in Mr. Deeds Goes to Town and in Meet John Doe .
Capra, Stanwyck, Riskin and Jo Swerling all were together to create Capra's next picture, The Miracle Woman , a story about a shady evangelist. With John Meehan , Riskin wrote the play that the movie is based on, "Bless You, Sister," and there is a possibly apocryphal story that has Riskin at a story conference at which Capra relates the treatment for the proposed film. Capra, finished, asked Riskin for his input, and Riskin replied, "I wrote that play. My brother and I were stupid enough to produce it on Broadway. It cost us almost every cent we had. If you intend to make a picture of it, it only proves one thing: You're even more stupid than we were."
Jo Swerling adapted Riskin's play, which he and his brother Everett patterned after Sinclair Lewis ' "Elmer Gantry." Like the Lewis novel, the play focuses on the relationship between a lady evangelist and a con man. The difference, though, is that the nature of the relationship is just implied in Riskin's play (and the Capra film). There is also the addition of the blind war-vet as the moral conscience of the story; he is the pivotal character, whereas in Lewis' tale, the con artist comes to have complete control over the evangelist after eventually seducing her. Like some other Capra films, The Miracle Woman is about the love between a romantic, idealizing man and a cynical, bitter woman. Riskin had based his character on lady evangelist Uldine Utley, while Stanwyck based her characterization on Aimee Semple McPherson .
Recognizing that he had something in his star director, Harry Cohn took full advantage of the lowly position his studio had in Hollywood. Both Warner Brothers and mighty MGM habitually lent Cohn their troublesome stars -- anyone rejecting scripts or demanding a pay raise was fodder for a loan out to Cohn's Poverty Row studio. Cohn himself was habitually loathe to sign long-term stars in the early 1930s (although he made rare exceptions to Peter Lorre and The Three Stooges ) and was delighted to land the talents of any top flight star and invariably assigned them to Capra's pictures. Most began their tenure in purgatory with trepidation but left eagerly wanting to work with Capra again.
In 1932, Capra decided to make a motion picture that reflected the social conditions of the day. He and Riskin wrote the screenplay for American Madness , a melodrama that is an important precursor to later Capra films, not only with It's a Wonderful Life which shares the plot device of a bank run, but also in the depiction of the irrationality of a crowd mentality and the ability of the individual to make a difference. In the movie, an idealistic banker is excoriated by his conservative board of directors for making loans to small businesses on the basis of character rather than on sounder financial criteria. Since the Great Depression is on, and many people lack collateral, it would be impossible to productively lend money on any other criteria than character, the banker argues. When there is a run on the bank due to a scandal, it appears that the board of directors are rights the bank depositors make a run on the bank to take out their money before the bank fails. The fear of a bank failure ensures that the failure will become a reality as a crowd mentality takes over among the clientèle. The board of directors refuse to pledge their capital to stave off the collapse of the bank, but the banker makes a plea to the crowd, and just like George Bailey's depositors in It's a Wonderful Life , the bank is saved as the fears of the crowd are ameliorated and businessmen grateful to the banker pledge their capital to save the bank. The board of directors, impressed by the banker's character and his belief in the character of his individual clients (as opposed to the irrationality of the crowd), pledge their capital and the bank run is staved off and the bank is saved.
In his biography, "The Name Above the Picture," Capra wrote that before American Madness , he had only made "escapist" pictures with no basis in reality. He recounts how Poverty Row studios, lacking stars and production values, had to resort to "gimmick" movies to pull the crowds in, making films on au courant controversial subjects that were equivalent to "yellow journalism."
What was more important than the subject and its handling was the maturation of Capra's directorial style with the film. Capra had become convinced that the mass-experience of watching a motion picture with an audience had the psychological effect in individual audience members of slowing down the pace of a film. A film that during shooting and then when viewed on a movieola editing device and on a small screen in a screening room among a few professionals that had seemed normally paced became sluggish when projected on the big screen. While this could have been the result of the projection process blowing up the actors to such large proportions, Capra ultimately believed it was the effect of mass psychology affecting crowds since he also noticed this "slowing down" phenomenon at ball games and at political conventions. Since American Madness dealt with crowds, he feared that the effect would be magnified.
He decided to boost the pace of the film, during the shooting. He did away with characters' entrances and exits that were a common part of cinematic "grammar" in the early 1930s, a survival of the "photoplays" days. Instead, he "jumped" characters in and out of scenes, and jettisoned the dissolves that were also part of cinematic grammar that typically ended scenes and indicated changes in time or locale so as not to make cutting between scenes seem choppy to the audience. Dialogue was deliberately overlapped, a radical innovation in the early talkies, when actors were instructed to let the other actor finish his or her lines completely before taking up their cue and beginning their own lines, in order to facilitate the editing of the sound-track. What he felt was his greatest innovation was to boost the pacing of the acting in the film by a third by making a scene that would normally play in one minute take only 40 seconds.
When all these innovations were combined in his final cut, it made the movie seem normally paced on the big screen, though while shooting individual scenes, the pacing had seemed exaggerated. It also gave the film a sense of urgency that befitted the subject of a financial panic and a run on a bank. More importantly, it "kept audience attention riveted to the screen," as he said in his autobiography. Except for "mood pieces," Capra subsequently used these techniques in all his films, and he was amused by critics who commented on the "naturalness" of his direction.
Capra was close to completely establishing his themes and style. Justly accused of indulging in sentiment which some critics labeled "Capra-corn," Capra's next film, Lady for a Day was an adaptation of Damon Runyon 's 1929 short story "Madame La Gimp" about a nearly destitute apple peddler whom the superstitious gambler Dave the Dude (portrayed by Warner Brothers star Warren William ) sets up in high style so she and her daughter, who is visiting with her finance, will not be embarrassed. Dave the Dude believes his luck at gambling comes from his ritualistically buying an apple a day from Annie, who is distraught and considering suicide to avoid the shame of her daughter seeing her reduced to living on the street. The Dude and his criminal confederates put Annie up in a luxury apartment with a faux husband in order to establish Annie in the eyes of her daughter as a dignified and respectable woman, but in typical Runyon fashion, Annie becomes more than a fake as the masquerade continues.
Robert Riskin wrote the first four drafts of Lady for a Day , and of all the scripts he worked on for Capra, the film deviates less from the script than any other. After seeing the movie, Runyon sent a telegraph to Riskin praising him for his success at elaborating on the story and fleshing out the characters while maintain his basic story. Lady for a Day was the favorite Capra film of John Ford , the great filmmaker who once directed the unknown extra. The movie cost $300,000 and was the first of Capra's oeuvre to attract the attention of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, getting a Best Director nomination for Capra, plus nods for Riskin and Best Actress. The movie received Columbia's first Best Picture nomination, the studio never having attracted any attention from the Academy before Lady for a Day . (Capra's last film was the flop remake of Lady for a Day with Bette Davis and Glenn Ford , Pocketful of Miracles )
Capra reunited with Stanwyck and produced his first universally acknowledged classic, The Bitter Tea of General Yen , a film that now seems to belong more to the oeuvre of Josef von Sternberg than it does to Frank Capra. With "General Yen," Capra had consciously set out to make a movie that would win Academy Awards. Frustrated that the innovative, timely, and critically well-received American Madness had not received any recognition at the Oscars (particularly in the director's category in recognition of his innovations in pacing), he vented his displeasure to Columbia boss Cohn.
"Forget it," Cohn told Capra, as recounted in his autobiography. "You ain't got a Chinaman's chance. They only vote for that arty junk."
Capra set out to boost his chances by making an arty film featuring a "Chinaman" that confronted that major taboo of American cinema of the first half of the century, miscegenation.
In the movie, the American missionary Megan Davis is in China to marry another missionary. Abducted by the Chinese Warlord General Yen, she is torn away from the American compound that kept her isolated from the Chinese and finds herself in a strange, dangerous culture. The two fall in love despite their different races and life-views. The film ran up against the taboo against miscegenation embedded in the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association's Production Code, and while Megan merely kisses General Yen's hand in the picture, the fact that she was undeniably in love with a man from a different race attracted the vituperation of many bigots.
Having fallen for Megan, General Yen engenders her escape back to the Americans before willingly drinking a poisoned cup of tea, his involvement with her having cost him his army, his wealth, and now his desire to live. The Bitter Tea of General Yen marks the introduction of suicide as a Capra theme that will come back repeatedly, most especially in George Bailey's breakdown on the snowy bridge in It's a Wonderful Life .
Despair often shows itself in Capra films, and although in his post-"General Yen" work, the final reel wraps things up in a happy way, until that final reel, there is tragedy, cynicism, heartless exploitation, and other grim subject matter that Capra's audiences must have known were the truth of the world, but that were too grim to face when walking out of a movie theater. When pre-Code movies were rediscovered and showcased across the United States in the 1990s, they were often accompanied by thesis about how contemporary audiences "read" the films (and post-1934 more Puritanical works), as the movies were not so frank or racy as supposed. There was a great deal of signaling going on which the audience could read into, and the same must have been true for Capra's films, giving lie to the fact that he was a sentimentalist with a saccharine view of America. There are few films as bitter as those of Frank Capra before the final reel.
Despair was what befell Frank Capra, personally, on the night of March 16, 1934, which he attended as one of the Best Director nominees for Lady for a Day . Capra had caught Oscar fever, and in his own words, "In the interim between the nominations and the final voting...my mind was on those Oscars." When Oscar host Will Rogers opened the envelope for Best Director, he commented, "Well, well, well. What do you know. I've watched this young man for a long time. Saw him come up from the bottom, and I mean the bottom. It couldn't have happened to a nicer guy. Come on up and get it, Frank!"
Capra got up to go get it, squeezing past tables and making his way to the open dance floor to accept his Oscar. "The spotlight searched around trying to find me. 'Over here!' I waved. Then it suddenly swept away from me -- and picked up a flustered man standing on the other side of the dance floor - Frank Lloyd !"
Frank Lloyd went up to the dais to accept HIS Oscar while a voice in back of Capra yelled, "Down in front!"
Capra's walk back to his table amidst shouts of "Sit down!" turned into the "Longest, saddest, most shattering walk in my life. I wished I could have crawled under the rug like a miserable worm. When I slumped in my chair I felt like one. All of my friends at the table were crying."
That night, after Lloyd's Cavalcade , beat Lady for a Day for Best Picture, Capra got drunk at his house and passed out. "Big 'stupido,'" Capra thought to himself, "running up to get an Oscar dying with excitement, only to crawl back dying with shame. Those crummy Academy voters; to hell with their lousy awards. If ever they did vote me one, I would never, never, NEVER show up to accept it."
Capra would win his first of three Best Director Oscars the next year, and would show up to accept it. More importantly, he would become the president of the Academy in 1935 and take it out of the labor relations field a time when labor strife and the formation of the talent guilds threatened to destroy it.
The International Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences had been the brainchild of Louis B. Mayer in 1927 (it dropped the "International" soon after its formation). In order to forestall unionization by the creative talent (directors, actors and screenwriters) who were not covered by the Basic Agreement signed in 1926, Mayer had the idea of forming a company union, which is how the Academy came into being. The nascent Screen Writers Union, which had been created in 1920 in Hollywood, had never succeeded in getting a contract from the studios. It went out of existence in 1927, when labor relations between writers and studios were handled by the Academy's writers' branch.
The Academy had brokered studio-mandated pay-cuts of 10% in 1927 and 1931, and massive layoffs in 1930 and 1931. With the inauguration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 4, 1933, Roosevelt took no time in attempting to tackle the Great Depression. The day after his inauguration, he declared a National Bank Holiday, which hurt the movie industry as it was heavily dependent on bank loans. Louis B. Mayer , as president of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Inc. (the co-equal arm of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association charged with handling labor relations) huddled with a group from the Academy (the organization he created and had long been criticized for dominating, in both labor relations and during the awards season) and announced a 50% across-the-board pay cut. In response, stagehands called a strike for March 13th, which shut down every studio in Hollywood.
After another caucus between Mayer and the Academy committee, a proposal for a pay-cut on a sliding-scale up to 50% for everyone making over $50 a week; which would only last for eight weeks, was inaugurated. Screen writers resigned en masse from the Academy and joined a reformed Screen Writers Guild, but most employees had little choice and went along with it. All the studios but Warner Bros. and Sam Goldwyn honored the pledge to restore full salaries after the eight weeks, and Warners production chief Darryl F. Zanuck resigned in protest over his studio's failure to honor its pledge. A time of bad feelings persisted, and much anger was directed towards the Academy in its role as company union.
The Academy, trying to position itself as an independent arbiter, hired the accounting firm of Price Waterhouse for the first time to inspect the books of the studios. The audit revealed that all the studios were solvent, but Harry Warner refused to budge and Academy President 'Conrad Nagel' resigned, although some said he was forced out after a vote of no-confidence after arguing Warner's case. The Academy announced that the studio bosses would never again try to impose a horizontal salary cut, but the usefulness of the Academy as a company union was over.
Under Roosevelt's New Deal, the self-regulation imposed by the National Industrial Relations Act (signed into law on June 16th) to bring business sectors back to economic health was predicated upon cartelization, in which the industry itself wrote its own regulatory code. With Hollywood, it meant the re-imposition of paternalistic labor relations that the Academy had been created to wallpaper over. The last nail in the company union's coffin was when it became public knowledge that the Academy appointed a committee to investigate the continued feasibility of the industry practice of giving actors and writers long-term contracts. High salaries to directors, actors, and screen writers was compensation to the creative people for producers refusing to ceded control over creative decision-making. Long-term contracts were the only stability in the Hollywood economic set-up up creative people,. Up to 20%-25% of net earnings of the movie industry went to bonuses to studio owners, production chiefs, and senior executives at the end of each year, and this created a good deal of resentment that fueled the militancy of the SWG and led to the formation of the Screen Actors Guild in July 1933 when they, too, felt that the Academy had sold them out.
The industry code instituted a cap on the salaries of actors, directors, and writers, but not of movie executives; mandated the licensing of agents by producers; and created a reserve clause similar to baseball where studios had renewal options with talent with expired contracts, who could only move to a new studio if the studio they had last been signed to did not pick up their option.
The SWG sent a telegram to FDR in October 1933 denouncing this policy, arguing that the executives had taken millions of dollars of bonuses while running their companies into receivership and bankruptcy. The SWG denounced the continued membership of executives who had led their studios into financial failure remaining on the corporate boards and in the management of the reorganized companies, and furthermore protested their use of the NIRA to write their corrupt and failed business practices into law at the expense of the workers.
There was a mass resignation of actors from the Academy in October 1933, with the actors switching their allegiance to SAG. SAG joined with the SWG to publish "The Screen Guilds Magazine," a periodical whose editorial content attacked the Academy as a company union in the producers' pocket. SAG President Eddie Cantor, a friend of Roosevelt who had bee invited to spend the Thanksgiving Day holiday with the president, informed him of the guild's grievances over the NIRA code. Roosevelt struck down many of the movie industry code's anti-labor provisions by executive order.
The labor battles between the guilds and the studios would continue until the late 1930s, and by the time Frank Capra was elected president of the Academy in 1935, the post was an unenviable one. The Screen Directors Guild was formed at King Vidor's house on January 15, 1936, and one of its first acts was to send a letter to its members urging them to boycott the Academy Awards ceremony, which was three days away. None of the guilds had been recognized as bargaining agents by the studios, and it was argued to grace the Academy Awards would give the Academy, a company union, recognition. Academy membership had declined to 40 from a high of 600, and Capra believed that the guilds wanted to punish the studios financially by depriving them of the good publicity the Oscars generated.
But the studios couldn't care less. Seeing that the Academy was worthless to help them in its attempts to enforce wage cuts, it too abandoned the Academy, which it had financed. Capra and the Board members had to pay for the Oscar statuettes for the 1936 ceremony. In order to counter the boycott threat, Capra needed a good publicity gimmick himself, and the Academy came up with one, voting D.W. Griffith an honorary Oscar, the first bestowed since one had been given to Charles Chaplin at the first Academy Awards ceremony.
The Guilds believed the boycott had worked as only 20 SAG members and 13 SWG members had showed up at the Oscars, but Capra remembered the night as a victory as all the winners had shown up. However, 'Variety' wrote that "there was not the galaxy of stars and celebs in the director and writer groups which distinguished awards banquets in recent years." "Variety" reported that to boost attendance, tickets had been given to secretaries and the like. Bette Davis and Victor McLaglen had showed up to accept their Oscars, but McLaglen's director and screenwriter, John Ford and Dudley Nichols , both winners like McLaglen for The Informer , were not there, and Nichols became the first person to refuse an Academy Award when he sent back his statuette to the Academy with a note saying he would not turn his back on his fellow writers in the SWG. Capra sent it back to him. Ford, the treasurer of the SDG, had not showed up to accept his Oscar, he explained, because he wasn't a member of the Academy. When Capra staged a ceremony where Ford accepted his award, the SDG voted him out of office.
To save the Academy and the Oscars, Capra convinced the board to get it out of the labor relations field. He also democratized the nomination process to eliminate studio politics, opened the cinematography and interior decoration awards to films made outside the U.S., and created two new acting awards for supporting performances to win over SAG.
By the 1937 awards ceremony, SAG signaled its pleasure that the Academy had mostly stayed out of labor relations by announcing it had no objection to its members attending the awards ceremony. The ceremony was a success, despite the fact that the Academy had to charge admission due to its poor finances. Frank Capra had saved the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and he even won his second Oscar that night, for directing Mr. Deeds Goes to Town . At the end of the evening, Capra announced the creation of the Irving Thalberg Memorial Award to honor "the most consistent high level of production achievement by an individual producer." It was an award he himself was not destined to win.
By the 1938 awards, the Academy and all three guilds had buried the hatchet, and the guild presidents all attended the ceremony: SWG President Dudley Nichols , who finally had accepted his Oscar, SAG President Robert Montgomery, and SDG President King Vidor . Capra also had introduced the secret ballot, the results of which were unknown to everyone but the press, who were informed just before the dinner so they could make their deadlines. The first Irving Thalberg Award was given to long-time Academy supporter and anti-Guild stalwart Darryl F. Zanuck by Cecil B. DeMille , who in his preparatory remarks, declared that the Academy was "now free of all labor struggles."
But those struggles weren't over. In 1939, Capra had been voted president of the SDG and began negotiating with AMPP President 'Joseph Schenck', the head of 20th Century-Fox, for the industry to recognize the SDG as the sole collective bargaining agent for directors. When Schenck refused, Capra mobilized the directors and threatened a strike. He also threatened to resign from the Academy and mount a boycott of the awards ceremony, which was to be held a week later. Schenck gave in, and Capra won another victory when he was named Best Director for a third time at the Academy Awards, and his movie, You Can't Take It with You , was voted Best Picture of 1938.
The 1940 awards ceremony was the last that Capra presided over, and he directed a documentary about them, which was sold to Warner Bros' for $30,000, the monies going to the Academy. He was nominated himself for Best Director and Best Picture for Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , but lost to the Gone with the Wind juggernaut. Under Capra's guidance, the Academy had left the labor relations field behind in order to concentrated on the awards (publicity for the industry), research and education.
"I believe the guilds should more or less conduct the operations and functions of this institution," he said in his farewell speech. He would be nominated for Best Director and Best Picture once more with It's a Wonderful Life in 1947, but the Academy would never again honor him, not even with an honorary award after all his service. ( Bob Hope , in contrast, received four honorary awards, including a lifetime membership in 1945, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian award in 1960 from the Academy.) The SDG (subsequently renamed the Directors Guild of America after its 1960 with the Radio and Television Directors Guild and which Capra served as its first president from 1960-61), the union he had struggled with in the mid-1930s but which he had first served as president from 1939 to 1941 and won it recognition, voted him a lifetime membership in 1941 and a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1959.
Whenever Capra convinced studio boss Harry Cohn to let him make movies with more controversial or ambitious themes, the movies typically lost money after under-performing at the box office. The Bitter Tea of General Yen and Lost Horizon were both expensive, philosophically minded pictures that sought to reposition Capra and Columbia into the prestige end of the movie market. After the former's relative failure at the box office and with critics, Capra turned to making a screwball comedy, a genre he excelled at, with It Happened One Night . Bookended with You Can't Take It with You , these two huge hits won Columbia Best Picture Oscars and Capra Best Director Academy Awards. These films, along with Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , and It's a Wonderful Life are the heart of Capra's cinematic canon. They are all classics and products of superb craftsmanship, but they gave rise to the canard of "Capra-corn." One cannot consider Capra without taking into account The Bitter Tea of General Yen , American Madness , and Meet John Doe , all three dark films tackling major issues, Imperialism, the American plutocracy, and domestic fascism. Capra was no Pollyanna, and the man who was called a "dago" by Mack Sennett and who went on to become one of the most unique, highly honored and successful directors, whose depictions of America are considered Americana themselves, did not live his cinematic life looking through a rose-colored range-finder
In his autobiography "The Name Above the Title," Capra says that at the time of American Madness , critics began commenting on his "gee-whiz" style of filmmaking. The critics attacked "gee whiz" cultural artifacts as their fabricators "wander about wide-eyed and breathless, seeing everything as larger than life." Capra's response was "Gee whiz!"
Defining Hollywood as split between two camps, "Mr. Up-beat" and "Mr. Down-beat," Capra defended the up-beat gee whiz on the grounds that, "To some of us, all that meets the eye IS larger than life, including life itself. Who ca match the wonder of it?"
Among the artists of the "Gee-Whiz:" school were Ernest Hemingway , Homer , and Paul Gauguin , a novelist who lived a heroic life larger than life itself, a poet who limned the lives of gods and heroes, and a painter who created a mythic Tahiti, the Tahiti that he wanted to find. Capra pointed to Moses and the apostles as examples of men who were larger than life. Capra was proud to be "Mr. Up-beat" rather than belong to "the 'ashcan' school" whose "films depict life as an alley of cats clawing lids off garbage cans, and man as less noble than a hyena. The 'ash-canners,' in turn, call us Pollyannas, mawkish sentimentalists, and corny happy-enders."
What really moves Capra is that in America, there was room for both schools, that there was no government interference that kept him from making a film like American Madness . (While Ambassador to the Court of St. James, Joseph P. Kennedy had asked Harry Cohn to stop exporting Mr. Smith Goes to Washington to Europe as it portrayed American democracy so negatively.) About Mr. Up-beat and Mr-Downbeat and "Mr. In-between," Capra says, "We all respect and admire each other because the great majority freely express their own individual artistry unfettered by subsidies or strictures from government, pressure groups, or ideologists."
In the period 1934 to 1941, Capra the created the core of his canon with the classics It Happened One Night , Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , You Can't Take It with You , Mr. Smith Goes to Washington and Meet John Doe , wining three Best Director Oscars in the process. Some cine-historians call Capra the great American propagandist, he was so effective in creating an indelible impression of America in the 1930s. "Maybe there never was an America in the thirties," John Cassavetes was quoted as saying. "Maybe it was all Frank Capra."
After the United States went to war in December 1941, Frank Capra rejoined the Army and became an actual propagandist. His "Why We Fight" series of propaganda films were highly lauded for their remarkable craftsmanship and were the best of the U.S. propaganda output during the war. Capra's philosophy, which has been variously described as a kind of Christian socialism (his films frequently feature a male protagonist who can be seen a Christ figure in a story about redemption emphasizing New Testament values) that is best understood as an expression of humanism, made him an ideal propagandist. He loved his adopted country with the fervor of the immigrant who had realized the American dream. One of his propaganda films, The Negro Soldier , is a milestone in race relations.
Capra, a genius in the manipulation of the first form of "mass media," was opposed to "massism." The crowd in a Capra film is invariably wrong, and he comes down on the side of the individual, who can make a difference in a society of free individuals. In an interview, Capra said he was against "mass entertainment, mass production, mass education, mass everything. Especially mass man. I was fighting for, in a sense, the preservation of the liberty of the individual person against the mass."
Capra had left Columbia after "Mr. Smith" and formed his own production company. After the war, he founded Liberty Films with John Ford and made his last masterpiece, It's a Wonderful Life . Liberty folded prior to its release (another Liberty film, William Wyler 's masterpiece, The Best Years of Our Lives was released through United Artists). Though Capra received his sixth Oscar nomination as best director, the movie flopped at the box office, which is hard to believe now that the film is considered must-see viewing each Christmas. Capra's period of greatness was over, and after making three under-whelming films from 1948 to '51 (including a remake of his earlier Broadway Bill ), Capra didn't direct another picture for eight years, instead making a series of memorable semi-comic science documentaries for television that became required viewing for most 1960's school kids. His last two movies, A Hole in the Head and Pocketful of Miracles his remake of Lady for a Day did little to enhance his reputation.
But a great reputation it was, and is. Capra's films withstood the test of time and continue to be as beloved as when they were embraced by the movie-going "masses" in the 1930s. It was the craftsmanship: Capra was undeniably a master of his medium. The great English novelist Graham Greene, who supported himself as a film critic in the 1930s, loved Capra's films due to their sense of responsibility and of common life, and due to his connection with his audience. (Capra, according to the 1938 "Time" article, believed that what he liked would be liked by moviegoers). In his review of Mr. Deeds Goes to Town , Greene elucidated the central theme of Capra
Patsy Kelly
Patsy Kelly was born Bridget Sarah Veronica Rose Kelly on January 12, 1910, in Brooklyn, New York. She began performing in vaudeville when she was just twelve years old. Patsy worked with comedian Frank Fay and starred in several Broadway shows. She was discovered by producer Hal Roach who paired her with Thelma Todd in a series of comedy shorts. They became a popular onscreen team and made thirty-five films together including Top Flat and Done In Oil. Although Patsy never became an A-list star she continued to work throughout the 1930s. She had supporting roles in Pigskin Parade, Merrily We Live, and Topper Returns. Patsy was a lesbian and she was always open with the press about her sexuality. She had a long-term relationship with actress Wilma Cox. By the early 1940s Patsy was drinking heavily and making headlines for her erratic behavior. She decided to quit show business and moved to New York City. She started dating Tallulah Bankhead and worked as her secretary. Eventually Patsy went back to acting and appeared on numerous television shows. She also had small roles in the films Rosemary's Baby and Freaky Friday. Patsy won a Tony award in 1971 for her performance in No No Nanette. After suffering a stroke she moved into a nursing home. She died from pneumonia on September 24, 1981. Patsy is buried at Calvary Cemetery in Queens, New York.
Anthony Higgins
Higgins was born May 9, 1947 in East Northamptonshire, England to parents who had emigrated from Ireland just before World War II in search of economic opportunity. His parents lived in London during the Blitz. Eventually, they left London for Northamptonshire so that his father could obtain work as a builder for American army bases. Young Anthony completed his studies at a state school and then intended to be a journalist. He worked as a butcher in Bedford and then as a "navvy," a builder's helper, in the small town of Grendon, near Northampton. At the age of 16, he obtained a job on a local paper but, by law, he had to be over 17 before he could work so he spent the time learning shorthand and typing. Then, a friend took him to a weekend drama course run by the distinguished Shavian actress, Margaretta Scott. She encouraged him to consider a career as an actor. He said, "It felt right so I decided to pursue it." Higgins won a scholarship to the Birmingham School of Speech and Dramatic Arts in 1964 and studied there for three years. He made his first professional appearance at the Birmingham Repertory Theater Company in Shakespeare's "A Winter's Tale" as a walk-on while still at school. He then joined the company full time and was assigned principal roles nearly at once. His portrayal of Romeo, opposite Anna Calder-Marshall as Juliet, received rave reviews throughout England. He also played Cassio in "Othello," and Louis Debedat in "The Doctor's Dilemma." He then worked onstage in classics and contemporary plays in Chichester and London. However, it was a theatrical portrayal of Edmund Tyrone in Eugene O'Neill's, "A Long Day's Journey Into Night" in Birmingham that led to Higgins' cinema debut for director John Huston under the name, Anthony Corlan, (his mother's maiden name), in "A Walk with Love and Death" (1969). The film takes place during Europe's 100 Years War and was shot in Vienna and the Vienna Woods. The film is notable for the debut of Huston's daughter, Angelica. Corlan plays Robert, a nobleman, wearing authentic looking armor. It was Huston who taught him how to ride horses. Higgins rides with style in many subsequent films. Later, he would own a racehorse in Ireland.
After appearing in "A Walk with Love and Death," the actor was in several television plays for the BBC, including an original drama, "The Blood of the Lamb," for "The Wednesday Play" and "Mary, Queen of Scots" for "Play of the Month." He then made two films for television, one an episode of "Journey to the Unknown" with Janice Rule, and the other, a segment of "Strange Report," with Anthony Quayle. His next feature film role was in "Something for Everyone," also known as "The Cook," (1970), after auditioning for director Hal Prince and producer John Flaxman in London. This was stage director Prince's first flirtation with film, with a script by Hugh Wheeler, author of "Sweeney Todd." Higgins plays a quiet, sheltered young German royal, Helmuth, with Angela Lansbury as his mother. Helmut is forced into an arranged marriage with Annaliese, played by German actress, Heidelinde Weis. He discovers the darker motives that lurk beneath Michael York's gleaming blonde appearance against brilliant cinematography in the shadow of King Ludwig's Castle, in Neuschwanstein, Germany. In 1972, Higgins acted in "Vampire Circus" as a circus performer who changes into a panther-vampire. The film has become a cult classic. It was banned in Britain (because of its bestiality). The actor has said that it is the last of the great vampire films produced under the Hammer banner. There is a badly edited version for sale in the United States; an uncut edition has been seen in Europe that is much clearer. "Flavia, the Moslem Nun," (1974), with Brazilian born Florinda Bolkan, gave Higgins an opportunity to work in Italy. The DVD is a great piece of cinema history rescued by high technology and enhanced by a recent interview with Ms. Bolkan, who became an international screen legend in her own time. The story is derived from actual events in the 1400s that culminated in "The Martyrdom of the 800" in Otranto. The exotic soundtrack is by Academy Award winning composer, Nicola Piovani ("Life is Beautiful"). If one can get past the explicit physical mutilation of animals and humans and the insults to the Catholic Church, the script can be seen as supportive of feminism. Director Gianfranco Mingozzi's vision is representative of the wild cinema of the sexual revolution of the 70s in which auteurs were bursting to break free from the establishment. "Flavia" has haunting performances by Bolkan, Maria Casares, (the princess in Cocteau's "Orpheus") and Higgins. He is dazzling as the Moslem commander with no name who initiates Flavia as a sexual being, encourages her to carry out a bloody revenge and then disillusions her. That Higgins does not speak much is of no consequence. He communicates some of his best acting with movements and facial expressions, particularly, with his eyes. He can say volumes with one mesmerizing gaze.
The actor flourished on stage, television and screen throughout the 70s. Notably, he starred as a Roman soldier looking for his vanished father in Caledonia, in BBC Scotland's miniseries, "Eagle of the Ninth" with Patrick Malahide in 1977. However, Higgins has said that he is most proud to have been a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company's original London cast of "Piaf," a biography of the French singer, Edith Piaf, written by Pam Gems, which starred Jane Lapotaire in 1979. The play was resurrected to rave reviews in London in 1994 but without any of the original players. Higgins won Best Actor of 1979 from Time Out magazine for his work with The Royal Shakespeare Company that year. He acted in mainly new work with the RSC but he also played Lucentio in "The Taming of the Shrew" opposite Zoe Wanamaker as his sweet Bianca. Older London stage audiences may discern that among his many stage to television appearances in the 80s was the role of Camille in "Danton's Death." The play by George Buechner ran at the National Theater in London for a year and was then produced for television by the BBC. Zoe Wanamaker played opposite him once more. As the actor matured in his thirties, his persona grew more interesting with more unusual works. Higgins' face is often recognized for his having played the artist in "The Draughtsman's Contract," (1982), opposite the brilliant Shakespearean actress, Janet Suzman. The film is suggestive of classical restoration drama with a mysterious plot, elegant landscape shots of England's County Kent and a Purcell-like soundtrack by Michael Nyman. Director Peter Greenaway has said that he cast Higgins in the lead because he best expressed a combination of arrogance and innocence. Higgins gives a subtle depiction of the outcast, the son of a tenant farmer, who turns out to be too trusting and is tragically deceived. After Draughtsman's initial release, many viewers wondered what the lead actor would do next but Higgins does not generally pursue publicity. Although he appeared at the Edinburgh Festival with the cast, he did not do many interviews. "Draughtsman" experienced resurgence in 1994 and the actor's face was plastered on larger than life posters across the high walls of London's underground tube stops. His face has often been well utilized to represent a variety of ethnic origins. It is an oval face with a long thin nose and high, almost oriental cheekbones. It is usually framed by dark, wavy hair, sometimes ending at his collar. His balanced brows can look calm but lying dormant behind his deeply inset, hazel eyes is a prospective fire. Behind the face lies great inventiveness that has not always been allowed to surface but when it does, the effect can be striking. Higgins seems to have unlocked a storeroom of intensity by taking on the role of Stephan, a hard-luck Polish immigrant to 1920s Paris in the Merchant-Ivory film, "Quartet" (1981). The film, based on the novel by Jean Rhys, is sharply directed by James Ivory and has a heart-felt script by Ruth Prawer Jhabvala ("Le Divorce"). Isabelle Adjani garnered a Cannes Film Festival award for Best Actress for her gut-wrenching performance as Stephan's defenseless wife. Stephan is an impetuous man, who takes the dishonest road to acquiring wealth, with a small amount of shiftiness and a large amount of charm. Higgins infuses the role with detailed mannerisms such as holding his cigarette by cupping the end with his fingers, as many Slavic men do.
Higgins' height (6' 2"), dark looks and air of moral strength have frequently rendered him romantic roles. He sometimes appears to be aloof but a warmth sneaks out. The tough guy who softens for a vulnerable female might be what he is all about. Thus, it seems only natural that an actor whom he greatly admires is Robert Mitchum. Indeed, in another era, Higgins himself might have fit nicely into film noir. Higgins stars in a dark mystery film, "Sweet Killing," (1993), which was filmed in Montreal and also features F. Murray Abraham. Female admiration of Higgins became universal with his winsome portrayal of Abdullah, in "Lace," (1984-5), a cleverly written television miniseries by Elliot Baker, based on the popular English novel by Shirley Conran. Angela Lansbury, Brooke Adams and Arielle Dombasle are outstanding. Most critics condemned Phoebe Cates for her unconvincing acting but unanimously praised Higgins' persuasive performance as an Arabian prince, who is the lynch pin of the plot. The film also captures glamorous scenery of the French Alps, Chamonix and other jet-set locales; it has wonderful women's fashions, particularly hats, by Barbara Lane; it is the ultimate "chick flick." Higgins, astonished to hear that it is frequently repeated on cable in the U.S., has reacted, "It was great fun to do, actually. It has no pretense to be Strindberg. It is glamorous trash. Still, we had great character actors in it like Anthony Quayle, an old friend, who is now dead; and the director, Billy Hale, and I hit it off in a big way." Far from charming in "Reilly, Ace of Spies," (1983), the actor plays a cold Communist assassin in the British miniseries with Sam Neill in the title role; Higgins' innocence seen in previous roles is totally obscured here. In 1986, he acted with Jeanne Moreau in Agatha Christie's mystery, "The Last Séance," for Granada TV. "Max, Mon Amour," a feature film for the daring director Nagisa Oshima ("Realm of the Senses") followed in 1986. It has an outrageous plot about a bored wife (Charlotte Rampling) with a chimpanzee as her lover. Higgins plays her British diplomat husband who invites the ape to live with them in Paris.
Higgins continued to work in France to play Napoleon's elder brother in "Napoleon and Josephine," with Armand Assante and Jacqueline Bisset in the title roles in 1987. It gave Higgins the opportunity to work again with Jane Lapotaire as mother Bonaparte. After Napoleon cuts up Europe for his family, Joseph satirically delivers a memorable aside, "Louis gets Holland and all I get is disease-ridden Naples." Lavishly photographed in Europe and North Africa, the television miniseries has subtle humor; it airs occasionally on cable in the U.S. A tendency of Higgins' style has been to hold something back, compelling the viewer to wonder what else he has stored up, adding mystery to his character. In "Darlings of the Gods," an Australian television film, (1991), he may have held back a bit much in the lead as Laurence Olivier, opposite Mel Martin as Vivien Leigh, to the disappointment of some critics. Still, the film aired around the world, received good ratings and repeated several times. In spin offs of the Sherlock Holmes legend, Higgins is the only actor besides Orson Welles to have played both Moriarty ("Young Sherlock Holmes" 1985) and Holmes ("Sherlock Holmes Returns" 1993). Both works display his skills in fencing and oration of long monologues; both versions proved popular in several countries, among them Germany. Higgins is fluent in German. German artist and photographer, Heide Lausen, whom he met while working on "Something for Everyone" in Germany, widows him. He has one daughter, who was born in 1974 and raised in Bavaria. He is often recognized for having played a stereotypical Nazi villain in Stephen Spielberg's, "Raiders of the Lost Ark," (1981). However, of the television film, "One Against the Wind," also known as "Mary Lindell," (1991), starring Judy Davis, Higgins has said that he enjoyed playing a non-typical German SS officer, who had been classically educated in England, because it was not a hackneyed image. "The Bridge," (1992), based on the Whitbread award winning novel by Maggie Hemingway, is an engaging film that takes place in the 19th century with actress Saskia Reeves struggling against sociological constraints. Here, his power simmers rather than explodes, as he plays a husband, who makes a shrewd move to eliminate his wife's lover. In a scene with his daughters at the breakfast table, one can sense that his character might do anything to prevent his family from breaking apart.
A family role that Higgins took on enthusiastically was that of Johann Strauss, Sr. in "The Strauss Dynasty," (1991). The award winning television miniseries, which was filmed in Austria and Hungary over eight months, contains a cast of hundreds. The scope covers the entire Strauss family and the music and politics of their time. The twelve-hour program aired successfully in Europe and Australia in the 90s. The actor shows great range in this role, growing from young adored "Waltz King" conductor of Vienna to world weary, exhausted composer. The series shines with many international stars, enlightening history and music by the Strausses. Higgins grew up in a large musical and creative family of five brothers and one sister in Northamptonshire. Before Higgins was born, his father sang with a band in Cork in the 1930s. His mother was the local church organist and would sometimes accompany him on piano. Later, his father went to New York and studied opera but he returned to Ireland after six years. Anthony plays flugelhorn; he had an instrument especially crafted for him in Germany. He has said that his mother taught him to read even before he went to school. He is a voracious reader; he writes, having used an old manual typewriter prior to the computer era. He also has a penchant for classical music, jazz and fine art; when in New York, he likes to visit the Frick Museum and the Pierpont Morgan Library. He has always had a passion for athletics, having played rugby in his youth, then cricket and now it is golf. The actor's search for cutting-edge productions led him to "Nostradamus" (1994), an eccentric version of the 16th century visionary filmed in Romania. Tcheky Karyo plays the title role and Higgins brings up the ranks as King Henry II of France. Diana Quick (Higgins' mistress in "Max, Mon Amour") plays Diane de Poitier alongside Amanda Plummer as his quirky queen, Catherine de Medici. Higgins plays Henry as extremely effective politically and a great athlete. Higgins' research found that jousting was his other great love as evidenced from the time, effort and money that went into his armor, which is embossed with exquisite scenes from classical history and still exists as an extraordinary artifact.
One of Higgins' best moments onscreen is as Korah, a Hebrew in "Moses" (1996), a television miniseries that aired internationally with Ben Kingsley in the title role. After initial skepticism, Korah silently communicates religious rapture as manna slowly falls from heaven on his ecstatic face, revealing a believer in the end. In the middle 1990s, it seems that there was a chic rush for heterosexual male stars to play roles as HIV-stricken patients, i.e., witness Jeremy Irons in "Stealing Beauty." Higgins brings an understated dignity to the role of a Cuban choreographer in the AIDS-related film, "Alive and Kicking," also known as "Indian Summer" (1996). The film stars Jason Flemyng as his student and has a hopeful conclusion by author Martin Sherman ("Bent"). Higgins returned to the stage in November 1996 with the title role in "Max Klapper - A Life in Pictures." He received excellent notices as a post WWII German film director opposite Emily Lloyd as the actress whom he regards as his creation. The event marked the reopening as a live theater of the Electric Cinema in London, where, curiously, during WWII the theater's manager was suspected of sending messages to German Zeppelins from the roof. Higgins fervently plays Marcel, a Hungarian archaeologist in the Irish feature film, "The Fifth Province," (1997), with Ian Richardson, with whom he previously appeared in "Danton's Death" on British television. Higgins has been particularly commended for the scene where he digs furiously for treasure that was buried by the high kings of Ireland. The script is by the Irish Times-Aer Lingus prize winning, hilarious novelist, Nina Fitzpatrick (Fables of the Irish Intelligentsia). The film sometimes surfaces on Sky TV. In the late 90s, Higgins continued to appear on British television in various roles and slipped into the snakeskins of seriously degenerated criminals in the television crime dramas, "The Governor I," "Supply and Demand I," and "Trial and Retribution III" (now available on DVD in Region 2). All were written by Lynda LaPlante ("Prime Suspect"), who was, coincidentally, an extra in "The Draughtsman's Contract." However, the actor becomes orderly again in 2001, as he plays a talent agent of dubious trust in "The Last Minute," directed by Stephen Norrington ("League of Extraordinary Gentlemen"). The theme is the unworthiness of fame in trendy London. The hero, labeled as "the next big thing," rebels against the agent and descends into hell before finding out how to value his life.
One key to understanding Higgins' personality might be to recognize that his true love is the horn. In 2000, he commissioned British trumpeter Guy Barker, ("Great Expectations" 1998), to write a jazz soundtrack for a short film that Higgins wrote and directed, starring himself and British actress, Frances Barber, "Blood Count." It has been playing at European Film Festivals. In March 2003, Higgins lent his deep, but mellifluous, voice to narrate "Sounds in Black and White," Barker's homage concert to film noir, with the 60 piece London Metropolitan Orchestra at the Barbican Theater in London. In 2004, American television viewers can look forward to seeing him in an "Inspector Lynley Series II" episode on PBS' "Mystery Theater." A large part of Higgins' charisma is due to his voice, mannerisms and unique style that remain unruffled as he ages. He is not on the celebrity A list, the B list or even the Z list but he is high on many viewers' lists of interesting actors to watch because of his magnetism, intensity and unpredictability. The first decade of the new millennium has presented several new interesting British actors on the screen. However, many do not seem to have a strong classical stage training, which is Higgins' rock, and they often throw their lines away. Although not all of his roles have grandeur, people invariably comment about Higgins what he has said of Robert Mitchum, "Even in terrible movies, he is always good." Higgins' light may have reached millions of viewers but he never sold out for money. Some have called him a "career actor" but he has yet to receive the recognition of which his talent is worthy. Where is he? He is building a legacy as a character actor. Film history will show that he is a noteworthy one.
Stephen Boyd
Stephen Boyd was born William Millar on July 4, 1931, at Glengormley, Northern Ireland, one of nine children of Martha Boyd and Canadian truck driver James Alexander Millar, who worked for Fleming's on Tomb Street in Belfast. He attended Glengormley & Ballyrobert primary school and then moved on to Ballyclare High School and studied bookkeeping at Hughes Commercial Academy. In Ireland he worked in an insurance office and travel agency during the day and rehearsed with a semi-professional acting company at night during the week and weekends. He would eventually manage to be on the list for professional acting companies to call him when they had a role. He joined the Ulster Theatre Group and was a leading man with that company for three years, playing all kinds of roles. He did quite a bit of radio work in between as well, but then decided it was distracting him from acting and completely surrendered to his passion. Eventually he went to London as an understudy in an Irish play that was being given there, "The Passing Day".
In England he became very ill and was in and out of work, supplementing his acting assignments with odd jobs such as waiting in a cafeteria, doorman at the Odeon Theatre and even busking on the streets of London. Even as things turned for the worst, he would always write back to his mother that all was well and things were moving along so as not to alarm her in any way or make her worry. Sir Michael Redgrave discovered him one night at the Odeon Theatre and arranged an introduction to the Windsor Repertory Company. The Arts Council of Great Britain was looking for a leading man and part-time director for the only major repertory company that was left in England, The Arts Council Midland Theatre Company, and he got the job. During his stay in England he went into television with the BBC, and for 18 months he was in every big play on TV. One of the major roles in his early career was the one in the play "Barnett's Folly", which he himself ranked as one of his favorites.
In 1956 he signed a seven-year contract with 20th Century-Fox. This led to his first film role, as an IRA member spying for the Nazis in The Man Who Never Was , a job he was offered by legendary producer Alexander Korda . William Wyler was so struck by Boyd's performance in that film that he asked Fox to loan him Boyd, resulting in his being cast in what is probably his most famous role, that of Messala in the classic Ben-Hur opposite Charlton Heston . He received a Golden Globe award for his work on that film but was surprisingly bypassed on Oscar night. Still under contract with Fox, Boyd waited around to play the role of Marc Anthony in Cleopatra opposite Elizabeth Taylor . However, Taylor became so seriously ill that the production was delayed for months, which caused Boyd and other actors to withdraw from the film and move on to other projects.
Boyd made several films under contract before going independent. One of the highlights was Fantastic Voyage , a science-fiction film about a crew of scientists miniaturized and injected into the human body as if in inner space. He also received a nomination for his role of Insp. Jongman in Lisa (aka "The Inspector") co-starring with Dolores Hart .
Boyd's Hollywood career began to fade by the late 1960s as he started to spend more time in Europe, where he seemed to find better roles more suited to his interests. When he went independent it was obvious that he took on roles that spoke to him rather than just taking on assignments for the money, and several of the projects he undertook were, at the time, quite controversial, such as Slaves and Carter's Army . Boyd chose his roles based solely on character development and the value of the story that was told to the public, and never based on monetary compensation or peer pressure.
Although at the height of his career he was considered one of Hollywood's leading men, he never forgot where he came from, and always reminded everyone that he was, first and foremost, an Irishman. When the money started coming in, one of the first things he did was to ensure that his family was taken care of. He was particularly close to his mother Martha and his brother Alex.
Boyd was married twice, the first time in 1958 to Italian-born MCA executive Mariella di Sarzana, but that only lasted (officially) during the filming of "Ben Hur". His second marriage was to Elizabeth Mills, secretary at the British Arts Council and a friend since 1955. Liz Mills followed Boyd to the US in the late 1950s and was his personal assistant and secretary for years before they married, about ten months before his death on June 2, 1977, in Northridge, California, from a massive heart attack while playing golf - one of his favorite pastimes - at the Porter Valley Country Club. He is buried at Oakwood Memorial Park in Chatsworth, California. It was a terrible loss, just as he seemed to be making a comeback with his recent roles in the series Hawaii Five-O and the English movie The Squeeze .
It is a real tragedy to see that a man who was so passionate about his work, who wanted nothing but to tell a story with character, a man who was ahead of his time in many ways ended up being overlooked by many of his peers. One fact remains about Stephen Boyd, however--his fans are still passionate about his work to this day, almost 30 years after his death, and one has to wonder if he ever realized that perhaps in some way he achieved the goal he set out for himself: to entertain the public and draw attention to the true art of acting while maintaining glamor as he defined it by remaining himself a mystery.
Bobby Driscoll
Bobby Driscoll was a natural-born actor. Discovered by chance at the age of five-and-a-half in a barber shop in Altadena, CA. and then convincing in anything he ever undertook on the movie screen and on television throughout his career spanning 17 years (1943-1960). Includes such notable movie screen appearances as The Sullivans , Song of the South , So Dear to My Heart , and The Window , which was not only the sleeper of 1949 but even earned him his Academy Award in March 1950 as the outstanding juvenile actor of 1949. For his role as Jim Hawkins in Walt Disney's Treasure Island , he eventually received his Hollywood Star on 1560 Vine Street, and in 1954 he was chosen in a nation-wide poll for a Milky Way Gold Star Award (for his work on TV and radio). But all the more tragic, then, was his fruitless struggle to find a place in a pitiless adolescent world after severe acne had stalled his acting career at 16. When his face was no longer charming and his voice not smooth enough to be used for voice-over jobs, his last big movie hit was the voice of animated Peter Pan , for which he was also the live-action model. When his contract with the Disney studios was prematurely terminated shortly after the release of Peter Pan in late March 1953, his mother additionally took him from the talent-supporting Hollywood Professional School, which he attended by then. On his new School, the public Westwood University High School, on which he graduated in 1955, all of a sudden his former stardom became more burden than advantage. He successfully continued acting on TV until 1957 and even managed to get two final screen roles; in The Scarlet Coat and opposite of Mark Damon and Connie Stevens in The Party Crashers . His life became more and more a roller coaster ride that included several encounters with the law and his eventual sentencing as a drug addict in October 1961. Released in early 1962, rehabilitated and eager to make a comeback, Bobby was ignored by the very industry that once had raised and nurtured him, because of his record as a convict and former drug addict. First famous... now infamous. Hoping to revive his career on the stage after his parole had expired in 1964, he eventually traveled to New York, only to learn that his reputation had preceded him, and no one wanted to hire him there, either. After a final appearance in 'Piero Heliczer''s Underground short _Dirt_, in 1965 and a short art-period at Andy Warhol 's so-called Factory, he disappeared into the underground, thoroughly dispirited, funds depleted. On March 30, 1968, two playing children found his dead body in an abandoned East Village tenement. Believed to be an unclaimed and homeless person, he was buried in an unmarked pauper's grave on Hart Island, where he remains.
Forrest Tucker
Forrest Tucker, best known to the Baby Boom generation as Sergeant O'Rourke on the classic TV sitcom F Troop , was born on February 12, 1919, in Plainfield, Indiana. He began his performing career at age 14 at the 1933 Chicago "Century of Progress" World's Fair, pushing big wicker tourists' chairs by day and singing at night. His family moved to Arlington, Virginia, where he attended Washington-Lee High School in 1938.
Big for his age, as a youth Tucker was hired by the Old Gayety Burlesque Theater in Washington, DC, to serve as a Master of Ceremonies for the burly-cue after consecutively winning Saturday night amateur contests. He was fired when it was found out that he was underage. When he turned 18, he was rehired by the Old Gayety.
After graduating from high school in 1938, the 6'4", 200-lb. Tucker played semi-pro football in the Washington, DC, area. He also enlisted in the National Guard and was assigned to a cavalry unit in Ft. Myers, Virginia. He started at the top when he entered the movies, in a supporting role in William Wyler 's The Westerner opposite Gary Cooper and Walter Brennan , who won his third Oscar for portraying Judge Roy Bean in the picture. He got the role during his 1939 vacation from the Old Gayety, which shut down due to the District of Columbia's horrible summers in the days before air conditioning was common.He was signed to the part in the Wyler picture, which required a big fellow with enough presence for a fight scene with the 6'3" superstar Cooper.
Tucker moved to California and began auditioning for parts in films. After "The Westerner", it was off to Poverty Row, where he appeared in William Beaudine 's Emergency Landing at rock-bottom PRC (Producers Releasing Corp.). He was soon signed by Columbia and assigned to the B-pictures unit, though he was lent to MGM for the Spencer Tracy - Katharine Hepburn vehicle Keeper of the Flame , his last film before going off to World War II.
Tucker served as an enlisted man in the Army during the war, being discharged as a second lieutenant in 1945. He returned to Columbia and resumed his acting career with an appearance in the classic film The Yearling . He signed with Republic Pictures in 1948, which brought him one of his greatest roles, that of the Marine corporal bearing a grudge against gung-ho sergeant John Wayne in Sands of Iwo Jima . At Republic Tucker was top-billed in many of the "B' pictures in the action and western genres the studio was famous for, such as Rock Island Trail , California Passage and Ride the Man Down , among many others. In 1958 he broke out of action / western pictures and played Beauregard Burnside to Rosalind Russell 's Auntie Mame , the highest grossing US film of the year. It showed that Tucker was capable of performing in light comedy.
Morton DaCosta , his director on "Auntie Mame", cast Tucker as "Professor" Harold Hill in the national touring production of The Music Man , and he was a more than credible substitute for the great Broadway star Robert Preston , who originated the role. Tucker made 2,008 appearances in The Music Man over the next five years, then starred in "Fair Game for Lovers" on Broadway in 1964.
However, it was television that provided Tucker with his most famous role: scheming cavalry sergeant Morgan O'Rourke in "F Troop", which ran from 1965 to 1967 on ABC. Ably supported by Larry Storch , Ken Berry and James Hampton , Tucker showed a flair for comedy and he and Storch had great chemistry, but the series was canceled after only two seasons. It has, however, remained in syndication ever since.
Following "F Troop", Tucker returned to films in supporting parts (having a good turn as the villain in the John Wayne western Chisum ) and character leads ( The Wild McCullochs ). On television he was a regular on three series: Dusty's Trail with Bob Denver ; The Ghost Busters , which reunited him with Larry Storch; and Filthy Rich . Tucker was also a frequent guest star on TV, with many appearances on Gunsmoke and in the recurring role of Jarvis Castleberry, Flo's estranged father, on Alice and its spin-off, Flo . He continued to be active on stage as well, starring in the national productions of Plaza Suite , Show Boat , and That Championship Season . He also toured with Roy Radin 's Vaudeville Revue, a variety show in which, as a headliner, he told Irish stories and jokes and sang Irish songs.
Tucker returned to the big screen after an absence of several years in 1986, playing hero trucker Charlie Morrison in the action film Thunder Run . His comeback to features was short-lived, however, as he died on October 25, 1986, in the Los Angeles suburb of Woodland Hills, of complications from lung cancer and emphysema. He was 67 years old. Tucker was buried in Forest Lawn-Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.
Pete Duel
Born on 24 February 1940 in Rochester, New York, Pete Duel moved to West Hollywood in 1963 following a tour with the National Road Company's "Take Her, She's Mine". After landing small guest spots on various TV series, Pete was cast in a recurring role alongside Sally Field on Gidget in 1965. The series only lasted one season but Pete was immediately cast in another Columbia Screen Gems comedy series Love on a Rooftop with Judy Carne . The series gained good reviews but was once again canceled after one season. Pete then signed a seven-year contract with Universal Studios in July 1967. Guest spots and movie roles followed and, in 1970, he was offered the part of Hannibal Heyes on a comedy Western pilot Alias Smith and Jones , loosely based on the 1969 hit movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid . The pilot was sold to the ABC network and a series was commissioned. The series was a big hit with the youth audience and Duel became subject matter for teen magazines, gaining a loyal following. When news of his sudden death by an apparent self-inflicted gunshot wound was reported on TV and radio on December 31st 1971, it came as a shock to his family and friends. Early suspicion of foul play soon gave way to evidence pointing to death by suicide with depression and serious alcohol problems seen as contributing factors. Following a memorial service at the Self-Realization Temple in California on January 2nd 1972, Pete's body was flown to Penfield, New York. He was buried in Oakwood Cemetery following a memorial service at Penfield Baptist Church.
Sara Montiel
Sara Montiel was born in the village of Campo de Criptana, province of Ciudad Real, in the region of Castille-La Mancha, Spain. Her parents were Isidoro Abad, a peasant, and Maria Vicenta Fernández, a door-to-door beautician. The future star was christened Maria Antonia Alejandra Abad Fernández. Barely in her teens, she won a beauty and talent contest held by Cifesa, the most influential Spanish film studio of that era. She was promptly signed to a movie contract and in 1944 made her debut playing a teenager in Te quiero para mí , credited in the cast as "Maria Alejandra". By the end of 1944 she was given the starring role in Empezó en boda , which introduced her with a more adult image and a new name: Sara Montiel.
In the next four years she appeared in 14 films, including her first international success Locura de amor , which led to a long term-contract in Mexico. She quickly established herself as one of the most popular film actors of the decade. starring in over a dozen films between 1950 and 1954. Hollywood came calling and she was formally introduced to American moviegoers in Vera Cruz , playing Gary Cooper 's love interest. Later she worked at Warner Bros. in Serenade with Mario Lanza , directed by Anthony Mann , who became her first husband. After starring in Samuel Fuller 's Run of the Arrow with Rod Steiger , Sarita shot The Last Torch Song ("The Last Song") in Spain, a musical production that turned out to be the biggest box-office success in Spain's film history. It played for over a year in the same theaters in which it opened. A similar reaction followed in Western Europe and Latin America. Sarita Montiel had become the most popular actress-singer of 1957 and a national treasure for Spain.
The unprecedented success of "El Último Cuplé" threw a wrench into her Hollywood career, as she was offered a multimillion-dollar contract to star in four films in Europe. Her next vehicle, La violetera ("The Violet Peddler"), confirmed Sara's popularity and broke the box-office records set by the previous movie. The theme song from "La Violetera" became Montiel's signature song. The soundtrack albums from both films reportedly outsold Elvis Presley and Frank Sinatra in the world market. From then on, Sarita would combine the making of films with the recording of highly successful albums and live concerts in four continents. By 1962 she had become a legend to millions of fans worldwide, reaching markets that had previously been uncharted territory for Spanish cinema. Among her many blockbusters of the 1960s were Mi último tango , Pecado de amor , La bella Lola , La reina del Chantecler and Esa mujer .
However, by the 1970s her interest in films diminished, due largely to the almost pornographic turn of Spanish films in the post- Francisco Franco era when censorship was abolished. Her activities turned mainly to recording and stage work, and she achieved uncontested successes with her stage shows "Sara en Persona" (1970-73), "Saritísima" (1974-75), "Increible Sara" (1977-78), "Super Sara Show"(1979-80), "Doña Sara de La Mancha" (1981-82), "Taxi Vamos Al Victoria" (1983-84), "Nostalgia" (1985-86), "Sara, Siempre Sara" (1987-88) and others.
In the 1990s Sara surprised everyone by branching out into television: Sara y punto , a mini-series of seven one-hour episodes, included a serialized biography of the star, many popular guests (including Luciano Pavarotti and Charles Aznavour , among others) and Miss Montiel singing her greatest hits in addition to new songs written especially for her. Next came Ven al Paralelo , taped in a Barcelona theater where Montiel hosted,sang and acted in comedy sketches in front of a live audience.
It is quite impossible to cover here all the awards Sara Montiel has won in her long successful career but we must mention the "Premio del Sindicato" (at that time Spain's equivalent of the Oscar) for best actress, won two years in a row for her performances in "El Último Cuplé" and "La Violetera". In 1972 she was proclaimed an honorary citizen of Los Angeles by Mayor Sam Yorty and was given the gold key to the city. Similarly she has been awarded the gold keys of New York, Miami and Chicago. In 1981 she received Israel's most prestigious honor, the Ben Guiron Award and in 1983 she was awarded France's Legion of Honor medal, after a retrospective of her career ran at the Autumn Film Festival in Paris. In 1986 "Nosotros", a Hollywood-based Hispanic actors advocacy organization founded by Ricardo Montalban , gave her its Golden Eagle Award for life achievement. The trophy was presented to Sarita by her "Vera Cruz" costar-producer Burt Lancaster in an emotional reunion that triggered a standing ovation from all their Hollywood peers witnessing the event. In 1997 she was awarded the "Gold Medal", also a life achievement recognition, given--rarely0--by Spain's Academy of Arts and Sciences. The two-hour ceremony was beamed live by national television. In 2008 Sara returned to her hometown to unveil a sculpture with her image at the new Sara Montiel Park. A nearby avenue was also named after her and there was at the same time a dedication ceremony of her newly renovated museum, located inside a 16th-century windmill. In addition, the government placed a commemorative plaque on the house where she was born.
Sara Montiel's private life has also been a large part of her legend. After divorcing Anthony Mann in 1963, she married three more times (Vicente Ramirez Olalla 1964-1978; Jose Tous 1979-1992; Antonio Hernandez 2002-2004). Before, during and after these marriages she had countless affairs, among them Nobel prize-winning scientist Severo Ochoa and Italian actor Giancarlo Del Duca . Unable to have children, she adopted two during her marriage to Jose Tous: Thais (born in 1979) and Zeus (born 1983). In 2000 she published her autobiography, which became a best seller. Undaunted by the passage of time and ignoring critics who accused her of mishandling her legendary image, Sara Montiel continued living and working at a hectic pace. She kept touring with her one woman show and making guests appearances on television. In 2009 she won a new generation of fans when she recorded "Absolutamente," an outrageous duet with Fangoria's vocalist Alaska. Both the record and the promotional video reached the top of the popularity charts and remained there for weeks.
Next Sara recorded some love duets with baritone José Antonio Román Marcos and traveled to the United States for a short tour sponsored by New York's Cervantes Institute and the universities of Chicago and Cincinnati. In every city she charmed the audiences with her charismatic presence and sense of humor. Back in Spain she continued her activities which now included supporting the singing career of her son Zeus. She appeared in his 2011 "Sex Dance" video and caused quite a stir.
In February 2013 Sara Montiel became the subject of a made-for-TV documentary titled "Sara's Dream" which aired in Spain to high ratings and great reviews. It was a fitting celebration of her fantastic life and career which came at the right time. A couple of months later, the star who had seemed eternal, passed away suddenly and quietly in her Madrid penthouse. By her family's request, funeral services were private but the funeral procession, organized by the city of Madrid, was a very moving event attended by thousands who showed up at Plaza Callao to bid farewell to their beloved Sara. She was buried in the San Justo cemetery family plot.
Ian Richardson
A classical actor (and founding member in 1960 of the Royal Shakespeare Company), Richardson earned international fame as the villainous Francis Urquart in the BBC television trilogy, "House of Cards." Uttered in a cut-glass accent, the Machiavellian Prime Minister's sly "You might well think that ... I couldn't possibly comment" became a catchphrase when the series was broadcast in the 1990s. Richardson's contributions to his art were honored in 1989 when he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE.) Fittingly, his family had his ashes buried beneath the auditorium of the new Royal Shakespeare theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon.
Born the son of John and Margaret (Drummond) Richardson on April 7, 1934, he was educated at Tynecastle School in Edinburgh, and studied for the stage at the College of Dramatic Art in Glasgow, where he was awarded the James Bridie Gold Medal in 1957. He joined the Birmingham Repertory Theatre Company a year later where he played Hamlet as well as John Worthing in "The Importance of being Earnest." In 1960 he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company (then called the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre) and drew excellent notices for his work in "The Merchant of Venice," "Twelfth Night," "The Winter's Tale," "Much Ado About Nothing," "A Midsummer Night's Dream," "The Taming of the Shrew," "The Comedy of Errors" and "King Lear", among others. In 1964 Richardson played the role of the Herald before advancing to the title role of Jean-Paul Marat in the stunning, avant-garde RSC production of "Marat-Sade". In addition, he made his Broadway debut in said role at the very end of 1965, and recreated it to critical acclaim in Peter Brooks ' film adaptation with Glenda Jackson as murderess Charlotte Corday. Richardson also went on to replay Oberon in a lukewarm film version of RSC's A Midsummer Night's Dream that nevertheless bore an elite company of Britain's finest pre-Dames -- Judi Dench , Helen Mirren and Diana Rigg . One of his lower film points during that time period, however, was appearing in the huge musical movie misfire Man of La Mancha in the role of the Padre opposite Peter O'Toole and Sophia Loren .
Richardson was never far from the Shakespearean stage after his induction into films with majestic portraits of Coriolanus, Pericles, Richard II, Richard III, Cassius ("Julius Caesar"), Malcolm ("Macbeth"), Angelo ("Measure for Measure"), Prospero ("The Tempest") and Mercutio ("Romeo and "Juliet") paving the way. Elsewhere on Broadway he received a Drama Desk Award and Tony nomination for his splendid Henry Higgins in a revival of "My Fair Lady" in 1976, and was part of the cast of the short-lived (12 performances) production of "Lolita" (1981), written by Edward Albee and starring Donald Sutherland as Humbert Humbert.
Edmund Gwenn
There are very few character actors from the 1930s, '40s or '50s who rose to the rank of stardom. Only a rare man or woman reached the level of renown and admiration, and had enough audience appeal, to be the first name in a cast's billing, a name that got marquee posting. Charles Coburn comes to mind, but there aren't many others. However, one who made it was Edmund Gwenn.
Gwenn was born Edmund Kellaway in Wandsworth, London, on September 26, 1877. He was the oldest boy in the family, which at that time meant he was the only one who really mattered. His father was a British civil servant, and he groomed Edmund to take a position of power in the Empire. However, early on, the boy had a mind of his own. For a while, his inclination was to go to sea, but that ended when one of his forebear's in the Queen's Navy was court-martialed for exceeding his "wine bill". In addition to that, Edmund had poor eyesight and perhaps most importantly, he was his mother's darling, and she kept having visions of shipwrecks and desert island strandings. As for the civil service, to the boy it seemed like a "continent of unexplored boredom".
He attended St. Olaf's College and would attend King's College in London as well. Surprisingly, he excelled at rugby and amateur boxing. Meanwhile, he developed a strong inclination to the stage, partly because of his admiration for the great English actor, Henry Irving . A major roadblock to that ambition, however, was his father, who, at that time, was stationed in Ireland. When Edmund broke the news to his father that he had chosen acting as a career, there followed "a scene without parallel in Victorian melodrama." His father called the theatre "that sink of iniquity." He predicted that, if Edmund went into theatre, he would end up in the gutter, and then literally "showed him the door." Years later his father would admit he had been wrong, but that didn't help the young man during an all-night crossing from Dublin to England during which he had time to reflect. He was penniless. His experience consisted of a few performances in amateur productions, and he knew that if he failed, there was no going back home.
However, in 1895, at the age of eighteen, he made his first appearance on the English stage with a group of amateurs just turned professional, playing two roles, "Dodo Twinkle" and "Damper", in "Rogue and Vagabond". For a long time afterward, he refused to go on stage without a false beard or some other disguise, fearing someone would recognize him and tell his father (it's a bit ironic, by the way, that Edmund's younger brother Arthur would also become an actor using the name of Arthur Chesney ). During the next few years, roles were hard to come by but, by 1899, he made his first appearance on the West End in London in "A Jealous Mistake". This was followed by ten years in the hinterlands acting with stock and touring companies, gradually working his way up from small parts to juicier roles. While with Edmund Tearle's Repertory Company, which toured the provinces, he played a different role each night. It was excellent training, in that he acted in everything from William Shakespeare to old melodrama.
About this time, he married Minnie Terry, niece of the more famous actress Ellen Terry , a marriage that evidently was short-lived. Most sources list it as beginning and ending in 1901, perhaps only for a matter of days or even hours. From that point, Gwenn would remain a bachelor for the rest of his life. He seems to have preferred not going into any details about the marriage and divorce, and Minnie Terry, who outlived Gwenn, apparently never mentioned what happened, at least not publicly. That same year, however, he went to Australia and acted there for three years, not returning to London until 1904. There, he took a small part in "In the Hospital", which led to his receiving a postcard from George Bernard Shaw , offering him a leading role as "Straker", the Cockney chauffeur, in "Man and Superman". Gwenn accepted (by this time he was Edmund Gwenn) and the play was a success. Shaw became a sort of professional godfather for him. He appeared in "John Bull's Island", "Major Barbara", "You Never Can Tell", "Captain Brassbound's Conversion" and "The Devil's Disciple", all by Shaw. He spent three years in Shaw's company, years which he called "the happiest I've ever had in the theatre".
From 1908 until 1915, he performed in new plays by noted playwrights of the time, including John Masefield 's "The Campden Wonder", 'John Galsworthy''s "Justice" and "The Skin Game", J.M. Barrie 's "What Every Woman Knows" and "The Twelve Pound Look", as well as Henrik Ibsen 's "The Wild Duck" and Harley Granville-Barker 's "The Voysey Inheritance". By this time, World War I had started and Gwenn, despite his poor eyesight, was inducted into the British Army. Most of his time during "The Great War" was spent drawing supplies up to the front lines, while under fire. He was so successful at this task that, after a year as a private, he received a steady stream of promotions until eventually becoming a captain.
After the War, he returned to the stage and, in 1921, made his first appearance in the US in "A Voice from the Minaret" and "Fedora". He would return to America in 1928 to replace his friend, Dennis Eadie , who had died while in rehearsal for "The House of Arrows", but for most of this time, he was in England doing more stage roles and two dozen British films.
His first appearance on screen was in a British short, The Real Thing at Last in 1916, while he was still in the army. His next film roles were in Shaw's How He Lied to Her Husband and J.B. Priestley 's The Good Companions . He was also in Unmarried in 1920 and a silent version of "The Skin Game" ( The Skin Game ) as "Hornblower", a role he would reprise in 1931 for a talking version ( The Skin Game ) directed by Alfred Hitchcock . From then on, Gwenn was to work steadily until the end of his life. He appeared in English stage plays and films, eventually doing more and more on Broadway and in Hollywood. For example, he played the amiable counterfeiter in "Laburnum Grove" in 1933 (later to become the film Laburnum Grove in which he would star) and then with the entire British company brought it to New York. He was also a huge success in "The Wookey" in 1942, playing a Cockney tugboat captain. That same year, he appeared as "Chebutykin" in Anton Chekhov 's "The Three Sisters", with Katharine Cornell , Ruth Gordon and Judith Anderson . In such illustrious company, Gwenn was hailed by critics as "magnificent" and "superlatively good".
Arthur Kennedy
Arthur Kennedy, one of the premier character actors in American film from the late 1940s through the early 1960s, achieved fame in the role of Biff in Elia Kazan 's historic production of Arthur Miller 's Pultizer-Prize winning play "Death of a Salesman." Although he was not selected to recreate the role on screen, he won one Best Actor and four Best Supporting Academy Award nominations between 1949 and 1959 and ranked as one of Hollywood's finest players.
Born John Arthur Kennedy to a dentist and his wife on February 17, 1914 in Worcester, Massachusetts. As a young man, known as "Johnny" to his friends, studied drama at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. By the time he was 20 years old, he was involved in local theatrical groups. Kennedy's first professional gig was was with the Globe Theatre Company, which toured the Midwest offering abbreviated versions of Shakespearian plays. Shakesperian star Maurice Evans hired Kennedy for his company, with which he appeared in the Broadway production of "Richard II" in 1937. While performing in Evans' repertory company, Kennedy also worked in the Federal Theatre project.
Arthur Kennedy made his Broadway debut in "Everywhere I Roam" in 1938, the same year that he married Mary Cheffrey, who would remain his wife until her death in 1975. He also appeared on Broadway in "Life and Death of an American" in 1939 and in "An International Incident" in 1940 at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, in support of the great American actress the theater had been named after.
Kennedy and his wife moved west to Los Angeles, California in 1938, and it was while acting on the stage in L.A. that he was discovered by fellow Irish-American actor James Cagney , who cast him as his brother in the film City for Conquest . The role brought with it a contract with Warner Bros., and the studio put him in supporting roles in some prestigious movies, including High Sierra , the film that made Humphrey Bogart a star, They Died with Their Boots On with Errol Flynn , and Howard Hawks 's Air Force alongside future Best Supporting Actor Oscar winner Gig Young and the great John Garfield . His career was interrupted by military service in World War Two.
After the war, Kennedy went back to the Broadway stage, where he gained a reputation as an actor's actor, appearing in Arthur Miller 's 1947 Tony Award-winning play "All My Sons," which was directed by Kazan. He played John Proctor in the original production of Miller's reflection on McCarthyism, "The Crucible" - which Kazan, an informer who prostrated himself before the forces of McCarthyism, refused to direct - and also appeared in Miller's last Broadway triumph, "The Price."
When Kennedy returned to film work, he quickly distinguished himself as one of the best and most talented of supporting actors & character leads, appearing in such major films as Boomerang! , Champion (for which he received his first Oscar nomination as Best Supporting Actor) and The Glass Menagerie , playing Tom in a mediocre adaptation of Tennessee Williams 's classic play. Kennedy won his first and only Best Actor nomination for Bright Victory , playing a blinded vet, a role for which he won the New York Film Critics Circle award over such competition as Marlon Brando and Humphrey Bogart . Other films included Fritz Lang 's 'Rancho Notorious (1951)', Anthony Mann 's Bend of the River , William Wyler 's The Desperate Hours , Richard Brooks ' Elmer Gantry , David Lean 's Lawrence of Arabia , and John Ford 's Cheyenne Autumn .
In 1956, Kennedy won another Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his role in Trial , plus two more Supporting nods in 1958 and 1959 for his appearances in the screen adaptations of Grace Metalious 's Peyton Place , and James Jones Some Came Running .
Kennedy returned to Broadway frequently in the 1950s, and headlined the 1952 play "See the Jaguar", a flop best remembered for giving a young actor named James Dean one of his first important parts. A decade later, Kennedy replaced his good friend Anthony Quinn in the Broadway production of "Beckett", alternating the roles of Beckett and Henry II with Laurence Olivier , who was quite fond of working with him. In the 1960s, the prestigious movie parts dried up as he matured, but he continued working in movies and on TV until he retired in the mid-1980s. He moved out of Los Angeles to live with family members in Connecticut. In the last years of his life, he was afflicted with thyroid cancer and eye disease. He died of a brain tumor at 75, survived by his two children by his wife Mary, Terence and actress Laurie Kennedy . He is buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in Lequille, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Martha Scott
Martha Ellen Scott was born in Jamesport, Missouri, to Letha (McKinley) and Walter Alva Scott, an engineer and garage owner. She entered films in the early 1940s, following an initial appearance in stock. Her first film appearance was Our Town , playing the same character as she played on the stage. She won an Academy Award nomination for her superb performance in the film. Martha Scott is remembered as a highly talented actress, however her work is often forgotten today as she was never seen as a truly bankable star by the major studios.
A recent memorable performance for Martha was as Sister Beatrice in the camp disaster movie Airport 1975 . She played a dominant experienced nun with Helen Reddy , in a cast of major stars facing disaster on the stricken Boeing 747 jetliner.
She continued to work consistently throughout the 1970s and 1980s, often appearing in television movies and on the stage. She died at the age of 90 in May 2003 and is buried with her husband Mel Powell .
Darla Hood
Darla Hood was born in a small rural Oklahoma town on Sunday, November 8th, 1931, she grew up as dark-banged cute girl, Darla Hood began her association with the motley "Our Gang" group at the tender age of 2 1/2, as she stated on the The Jack Benny Program . Her father, James Claude Hood, Jr., a banker, and especially her mother, Elizabeth (nee Davner), prodded Darla's innate musical talents with singing and dancing lessons in Oklahoma City. Little Darla made an unscheduled, impromptu singing debut at Edison Hotel in Times Square when the band-leader invited her onto the stage, and the crowd roared in appreciation. By sheerest coincidence, Joe Rivkin, (an agent of Hal Roach ) spotted the four-year-old scene-stealer, screen tested her & signed her to a long-term (7 year) contract at $75 weekly, ($27,375 was the amount of her 7 year contract, if never raised, annually).
Darla went on to perform as "leading rascal actress" in 51 of the popular short films, and her last was act was an off-screen television movie, totaling 52 Little Rascal filmings, exactly. As the solo staff member of the motley Rascals' crew, she recalled finding her off-camera times on the set as being rather lonely as the boys tended to group together and play 'boy' games, especially baseball and football. Toward the beginning of this lucrative association, she also managed to appear opposite Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy with the title character & leading role, in one of their handful of feature films The Bohemian Girl . Darla Hood 's tenure as most popular "Little Rascal" actress, began in 1935 Our Gang Follies of 1936 & her finale, Wedding Worries . Then, 37+ years later, was hers & almost all others finale, as a "Little Rascal" character with the animated off screen special, The Little Rascals' Christmas Special . She did not live to see when it was originally televised. It was filmed during the last four months, of her life-time, in late winter, or early spring of 1979.
While very few of the "Our Gang" shorts were made during World War II because of the scarcity of film (a majority of them were saved for feature-length films), by the time the series was to be finally revived in 1945, Darla had already outgrown her popular character role. Following her exit, she had trouble dealing with the inevitable transitioning into a teen actor and her career faltered badly. After returning to school (Fairfax High School in Hollywood), she graduated as an honor student. She was able to find some work with Ken Murray 's popular "Blackbirds" variety show on the Los Angeles stage as well as some behind-the-scenes work in the post-war years. With her first husband, Robert W. Decker, she married him when she was 17, she formed the vocal group "Darla Hood and the Enchanters", which provided incidental background music for such classic films as A Letter to Three Wives . She also made appearances in nightclubs and on television variety shows, The Ken Murray Show , The Paul Whiteman's Goodyear Revue , and she was also performed & or sang songs, on a few Merv Griffin 's radio programs. Another successful outlet for her was in the field of voice-over work in cartoons and commercials "Chicken of the Sea" was her longest lasting commercial tenure, as the mermaid. She also did some "Campbell's Soup" commercials, at the same time, but much fewer. In time, she became a well-oiled impressionist and trick voice artist, almost like a ventriloquist.
She divorced from her first husband of eight years, with whom she had her first two children, (one son and one daughter), Brett and Darla Jo, she was 25 when she immediately married her one-time manager, Jose Granson, a musical publisher, in 1957. (Her divorce and second marriage, both occurred in 1957). She & her second husband, Jose Granson were parents to her youngest three children, (her third, fourth & fifth). Darla remained small in show business until her untimely end. She died on Wednesday, June 13th, 1979 of acute hepatitis. She had heart failure, after heart surgery at a Hollywood hospital after contracting acute hepatitis following a relatively minor operation. Following her funeral, she was buried at Hollywood Memorial Park Cemetery. The cemetery was renamed Hollywood Forever, less than a decade after she was buried there.
Dylan Kenin
From Taos, New Mexico, Dylan began acting in the theatre at Taos High School. Encouraged by his parents and mentored by the Vaudeville trained Actor, Director, Producer, and TV Star, John Newland, Dylan attended the USC School of Theatre. Upon graduation, Dylan spent five years on stages throughout Los Angeles, becoming a member of the acclaimed Evidence Room Theatre company. During this time he invested four summers in repertoire Theatre at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in Scotland and at the Espace Pierre Cardin in Paris, under the direction of J.E. Blankenchip. Notable performances there include Bradley in Buried Child, Kip in Raised in Captivity, and Darth Vader/Chewbacca in the Star Wars Trilogy in Thirty Minutes. Since 2005 Dylan has pursued work in film and television with continued success, while maintaining his craft and passion by working live Theatre.
Frank Sutton
As the brash and bruising tough guy with wide, flaring nostrils, compact features and boorish, bullying personality, you could have placed bets that anyone who had the guts to go nose-to-nose against crew cut-wearing badger Frank Sutton had better be one tough order. Nope. Far from it. Sutton's most feared, ulcer-inducing on-camera nemesis would be none other than one of TV's gentlest souls ever--Mayberry's own lovable gas station attendant Gomer Pyle.
As the antagonistic, in-your-face Sgt. Vince Carter, whose outer bluster occasionally revealed a softer inner core, the 41-year-old Sutton finally found himself front and center co-starring in one of sitcomdom's most successful spin-offs-- Gomer Pyle: USMC , the offspring of The Andy Griffith Show . Fans really took to Sutton's volatile character whose hilarious slow burn meshed perfectly with Jim Nabors ' awkward guile. The gimmick of watching Carter's devious but ultimately failed plans to transfer Pyle out of his unit each week worked for five seasons. Off-stage Nabors and Sutton shared a mutual respect for each other. After the show's demise, in fact, Sutton went on to become a part of Jim's roster of regulars on The Jim Nabors Hour , a variety show that had a very short run.
Frank Spencer Sutton was born in Clarksville, Tennessee. Although some sources list the year of his birth as 1922, his grave marker indicates 1923. An only child, both his parents had jobs working for the local newspaper. When he was eight, the family moved to Nashville, his father dying some time later of an intestinal ailment. Belonging to the drama club and appearing in high school plays sparked his early interest in acting, and he majored in Dramatic Arts at Columbia University, graduating cum laude. Gaining experience on the local stages, he eventually found a job as a radio announcer. Following WWII military service, he returned to acting and in the 1950s segued into TV, appearing on a couple of the more popular children's adventure series -- Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Tom Corbett, Space Cadet . Based in New York, Sutton also found work on the soaps The Edge of Night and The Secret Storm .
Sutton's imposing mug and hothead countenance proved quite suitable for playing both good guys and bad guys and he became a steady, reliable fixture in rugged surroundings. With work on such series as "Gunsmoke", "Maverick", "The Fugitive", "Combat!", and "The Untouchables" he could be counted on to play everything from a crass, outspoken blue-collar buddy to a menacing henchman. Film appearances were sporadic, with only a few secondary roles offered. His best chances were in Four Boys and a Gun , Town Without Pity (a very good performance as one of a trio of American GIs accused of raping a young German girl) and The Satan Bug .
In the early 1970s, after the success of the "Gomer Pyle" series, Sutton was seen in TV guest spots while performing in small-scale stock plays all over the US. His stage work would include comedic roles in "The Odd Couple," "Anything Goes" and "No Hard Feelings." In fact, he died suddenly of a heart attack on June 28, 1974, while in rehearsals for a show at a Louisiana dinner theater. The 50-year-old actor was survived by his wife of 25 years, daytime soap writer Toby Igler, and children Joseph and Amanda. He was buried in his home town.
Sabu
Sabu Dastagir (or Selar Shaik Sabu, depending on your resource) was born on January 27, 1924, in the little town of Mysore, India, which is nestled in the jungles of Karapur. The son of an elephant driver (mahout) in service for the Maharajah of his town, the young stable boy learned responsibility early in life when, at age 9, his father died and Sabu immediately became the ward of the royal elephant stables. As with many Hollywood success stories, good timing, and dumb luck allowed the impoverished youth a chance for a better life. By sheer chance the timid 12-year-old orphan was discovered by a British location crew while searching for a youth to play the title role (an elephant driver!) in their upcoming feature Elephant Boy . Quite taken aback by his earnest looks, engaging naturalness and adaptability to wild animals and their natural habitat, the studio handed the boy a film career on a sterling silver platter and was placed under exclusive contract by the mogul Alexander Korda himself.
Sabu and his older brother (as guardian) were whisked away to England to complete the picture and became subsequent wards of the British government. They were given excellent schooling in the process and Sabu quickly learned the English language in preparation for his upcoming films. Elephant Boy was an unqualified hit and the young actor was promptly placed front and center once again in the film Drums surrounded by an impressive British cast that included Raymond Massey and Valerie Hobson . With the parallel success of the Tarzan jungle movies in America, Hollywood starting taking a keen look at this refreshingly new boy talent when he first arrived in the U.S. for a publicity tour of the film. Again, his second film was given rave reviews, proving that Sabu would not be just a one-hit wonder.
His third film for Korda is considered one of the great true classics. In the Arabian fantasy-adventure The Thief of Bagdad , Sabu plays Abu the Thief and is not only surrounded by superb actors -- notably June Duprez , John Justin , Rex Ingram (as the genie) and Conrad Veidt (as the evil Grand Vizier) -- but exceptional writing and incredible special effects. Sabu's name began stirring international ears. His last pairing with Korda was the excellent adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's classic book Jungle Book playing Mowgli, the boy raised by wolves, who must adapt to the ways of mankind after being returned to his mother. The movie was directed by Alexander's brother Zoltan Korda .
Following this triumph, Sabu officially became the exotic commodity of Universal Pictures and he settled in America. Although initially rewarding monetarily, it proved to be undoing. Unfortunately (and too often typical), a haphazard assembly-line of empty-minded features were developed that hardly compared to the quality pictures in England under Korda. Saddled alongside the unexceptional Maria Montez and Jon Hall , his vehicles Arabian Nights , White Savage and Cobra Woman were, for the most part, drivel but certainly did fit the bill as colorful, mindless entertainment.
Almost 20 years old by the time he became a citizen of the U.S. in 1944, he enlisted in the Army Air Force and earned WWII distinction in combat missions (Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal, among others) as a tail gunner. By the time Sabu returned to Universal and filming, the charm of his youth had worn off and the boyish stereotype impossible to escape.
Post-war audiences developed new tastes, but Sabu had no choice but to trudge on with retreads of his former glory. Films such as Tangier again opposite Ms. Montez, Man-Eater of Kumaon and Song of India opposite lovely princess Gail Russell did little to advance his career. While filming the last-mentioned movie, Sabu met and married actress Marilyn Cooper who temporarily filled in for an ailing Ms. Russell on the set. The couple went on to have two children.
Sabu actually fared better back in England during the late 40s, starring in the crime drama The End of the River and appearing fourth-billed as a native general in the exquisitely photographed Black Narcissus . Daring in subject matter, the film had Deborah Kerr heading up a group of Anglican nuns who battle crude traditions, unexpected passions and stark raving madness while setting up a Himalayan order. By the mid-50s Sabu's career was rapidly approaching extinction, seeking work wherever he could find it - in low-budget Europe productions, public appearances, etc. An attempt to conjure up a TV series for himself failed. His life was further aggravated by unpleasant civil and paternity suits brought about against him. His last two pictures were supporting roles in Rampage , which starred Robert Mitchum , and A Tiger Walks , a thoroughly routine Disney picture which was released posthumously.
Sabu died unexpectedly at age 39 of a heart attack on December 2, 1963, at his home in Southern California and was buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills. Son Paul Sabu developed into an accomplished songwriter and even formed a rock band called Sabu; daughter Jasmine Sabu , who died in 2001, was a noted horse trainer whose skill was utilized occasionally for films. Although he went the way of too many of our former stars, Sabu continues to enchant and excite newer generations with his unmatched athletic skills and magnetic charm in those early adventure fantasies of yesteryear.
Jane Austen
Jane Austen was born on December 16th, 1775, to the local rector, Rev. George Austen (1731-1805), and Cassandra Leigh (1739-1827). She was the seventh of eight children. She had one older sister, Cassandra. In 1783 she went to Southampton to be taught by a relative, Mrs. Cawley, but was brought home due to a local outbreak of disease. Two years later she attended the Abbey Boarding School in Reading, reportedly wanting to follow her sister Cassandra, until 1786.
Jane was mostly educated at home, where she learned how to play the piano, draw and write creatively. She read frequently and later came to enjoy social events such as parties, dances and balls. She disliked the busy life of towns and preferred the country life, where she took to taking long walks.
In 1801 Jane, her parents and sister moved to Bath, a year after her father's retirement, and the family frequented the coast. While on one of those coastal holidays she met a young man, but the resulting romantic involvement ended tragically when he died. It is believed by many astute Austen fans that her novel, "Persuasion", was inspired by this incident.
Following her father's passing in January of 1805--which left his widow and daughters with financial problems--the family moved several times until finally settling into a small house, in Chawton, Hampshire, owned by her brother Edward, which is reminiscent of "Sense and Sensibility". It was in this house that she wrote most of her works.
In March of 1817 her health began to decline and she was forced to abandon her work on "Sanditon", which she never completed. It turned out that she had Addisons disease. In April she wrote out her will and then on May 24th moved with Cassandra to Winchester, to be near her physician. It was in Winchester she died, in the arms of her sister, on Friday, 18 July 1817, at the age of only 41. She was buried the 24th of July at Winchester Cathedral. Jane never married.
During her formative years, Jane wrote plays and poems. At 14 she wrote her first novel, "Love and Freindship [sic]" and other juvenilia. Her first (unsuccessful) submission to a publisher, however, was in 1797 titled "First Impressions" (later "Pride and Prejudice"). In 1803 "Susan" (later "Northanger Abbey") was actually sold to a publisher for a mere £10 but was not published until 14 years later, posthumously. Her first accepted work was in 1811 titled "Sense and Sensibility", which was published anonymously as were all books published during her lifetime. She revised "First Impressions" and published it entitled "Pride and Prejudice" in 1813. "Mansfield Park" was published in 1814, followed by "Emma" in 1816, the same year she completed "Persuasion" and began "Sanditon", which was ultimately left unfinished. Both "Persuasion" and "Northanger Abbey" were published in 1818, after her death.
| i don't know |
Which Swiss painter who lived from 1879 to 1940 was responsible for works such as 'The Red Balloon' in 1922, 'Landscape with Yellow Birds' in 1923 and 'Around the Fish' in 1926? | Paul Klee Biography, Art, and Analysis of Works | The Art Story
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Expressionism
Expressionism
Expressionism is a broad term for a host of movements in early twentieth-century Germany and beyond, from Die Brücke (1905) and Der Blaue Reiter (1911) to the early Neue Sachlichkeit painters in the 1920s and '30s. Many Expressionists used vivid colors and abstracted forms to create spiritually or psychologically intense works, while others focused on depictions of war, alienation, and the modern city.
Bauhaus
Bauhaus
Bauhaus is a style associated with the Bauhaus school, an extremely influential art and design school in Weimar Germany that emphasized functionality and efficiency of design. Its famous faculty - including Joseph Albers and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - generally rejected distinctions between the fine and applied arts, and encouraged major advances in industrial design.
Abstract Expressionism
Abstract Expressionism
A tendency among New York painters of the late 1940s and '50s, all of whom were committed to an expressive art of profound emotion and universal themes. The movement embraced the gestural abstraction of Willem de Kooning and Jackson Pollock, and the color field painting of Mark Rothko and others. It blended elements of Surrealism and abstract art in an effort to create a new style fitted to the postwar mood of anxiety and trauma.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach is among the most celebrated and proficient classical composers and musicians in all of history. Coming of age in the early eighteenth century, Bach is credited as the finest composer of the German Baroque period, and was himself a master organist, harpsichordist, and violinist. Among his most celebrated compositions are St. John Passion, The Well-Tempered Clavier, and Cello Suites, to name just a few.
Wassily Kandinsky
Wassily Kandinsky
A member of the German Expressionist group Der Blaue Reiter, and later a teacher at the Bauhaus, Kandinsky is best known for his pioneering breakthrough into expressive abstraction in 1913. His work prefigures that of the American Abstract Expressionists.
Franz Marc
Franz Marc
Franz Marc was a German painter and printmaker, and one of the pioneers of German Expressionism. Along with August Macke and Kandinksy, Marc founded The Blue Rider artist group. A student of Futurism and Cubism, Marc was a master of color and depth, and a major influence on mid-twentieth-century abstractionists.
August Macke
August Macke
August Macke was a German painter and a leader in the Expressionist group The Blue Rider. A close friend of Franz Marc, Paul Klee and Robert Delaunay, Macke's paintings were more Post-Impressionist and Fauvist in style, but were very expressive in terms of color and mood. Macke was killed on the front lines during World War I, at the age of 27.
Robert Delaunay
Robert Delaunay
Robert Delaunay was a French avant-garde painter. Early in his career he was associated with the Expressionist group The Blue Rider along with Kandinsky and Klee. Delaunay's singular style is referred to as Orphism; an approach that combines visual elements of Cubism, Expressionism and figurative abstraction.
Pablo Picasso
Pablo Picasso
Picasso dominated European painting in the first half of the last century, and remains perhaps the century's most important, prolifically inventive, and versatile artist. Alongside Georges Braque, he pioneered Cubism. He also made significant contributions to Surrealist painting and media such as collage, welded sculpture, and ceramics.
Georges Braque
Georges Braque
Georges Braque was a modern French painter who, along with Pablo Picasso, developed analytic Cubism and Cubist collage in the early twentieth century.
Louis Moilliet
Louis Moilliet
Louis Moilliet was a Swiss painter, printer and stained-glass designer. Although he was closely associated with the German Expressionists, and was himself a member of Der Blaue Reiter, Moilliet's use of watercolors more resembled that of Orphism. A close friend of both Paul Klee and Auguste Macke, with whom he traveled throughout Tunisia in 1911 and 1914, Moilliet is also responsible for introducing Klee to Der Blaue Reiter.
Wilhelm Worringer
Wilhelm Worringer
Wilhelm Worringer was a twentieth-century German art historian, most commonly associated with the German Expressionist movement. In his most famous text, Abstraction and Empathy, Worringer justified the aesthetic properties of abstract and non-realist art, believing that such art was a new form of personal expression, hence the term "Expressionism," which Worringer coined.
Surrealism
Surrealism
Perhaps the most influential avant-garde movement of the century, Surrealism was founded in Paris in 1924 by a small group of writers and artists who sought to channel the unconscious as a means to unlock the power of the imagination. Much influenced by Freud, they believed that the conscious mind repressed the power of the imagination. Influenced also by Marx, they hoped that the psyche had the power to reveal the contradictions in the everyday world and spur on revolution.
Jean Dubuffet
Jean Dubuffet
Jean Dubuffet was a French painter and sculptor, and arguably one of the most famous French artists of the mid-to-late-twentieth century. Dubuffet's paintings employed the impasto technique, in which oil paints were thickened by materials such as sand, tar and straw. He coined the term "Art Brut," otherwise known as "raw art."
Color Field Painting
Color Field Painting
A tendency within Abstract Expressionism, distinct from gestural abstraction, Color Field painting was developed by Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko, and Clyfford Still in the late 1940s, and developed further by Helen Frankenthaler and others. It is characterized by large fields of color and an absence of any figurative motifs, and often expresses a yearning for transcendence and the infinite.
Jules Olitski
Jules Olitski
Jules Olitski was a Russian-born American painter and key figure in the mid-century movements of Color Field painting and Post-painterly abstraction. Olitski is most famous for his innovation of painting using multiple spray guns, applied to unprimed and unstretched canvases.
Helen Frankenthaler
Helen Frankenthaler
Helen Frankenthaler was an American abstract painter in mid-twentieth-century New York. Along with Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland, Frankenthaler is considered a pioneer in the practice of Color Field painting.
Ellsworth Kelly
Ellsworth Kelly
Ellsworth Kelly is an American Color Field and Hard edge painter. Kelly got his start in the late 1950s with showings at the Betty Parsons Gallery and the Whitney Museum. His work often consists of shaped canvases, simple geometric shapes, and large panels of uniform color.
Josef Albers
Josef Albers
Josef Albers was a German-born American painter and teacher. Celebrated as a geometric abstractionist and influential instructor at Black Mountain College, Albers directly influenced such artists as Robert Rauschenberg, Cy Twombly and Ray Johnson.
Herwarth Walden
Herwarth Walden
Herwarth Walden is the psuedonym of Georg Lewin, a German artist, musician, and gallery owner. He was an important supporter of the avant-garde art scene, and founded the Expressionist journal Der Sturm.
Cubism
Cubism
Cubism was developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907-1911, and it continued to be highly influential long after its decline. This classic phase has two stages: 'Analytic', in which forms seem to be 'analyzed' and fragmented; and 'Synthetic', in which pre-existing materials such as newspaper and wood veneer are collaged to the surface of the canvas.
Max Ernst
Max Ernst
Max Ernst was a German Dadaist and Surrealist whose paintings and collages combine dream-like realism, automatic techniques, and eerie subject matter.
William Baziotes
William Baziotes
| Paul Klee |
Which venue in London hosts the annual Ideal Home Show? | Paul Klee: The Bauhaus Years by Dickinson - issuu
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The Bauhaus Years Works from 1918–1931
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The Bauhaus Years Works from 1918–1931
Curated by Olivier Berggruen
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Contents 9 Foreword Hugo Nathan 10 Transparent Images Olivier Berggruen 14 Imaginary Logic RĂŠmi Labrusse 31 The Bauhaus Years: Plates 91 The Bauhaus Years: A Chronology 96 List of Plates
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Foreword
We are delighted to be presenting this survey of Paul Klee’s work from the Bauhaus years. Klee’s delicate works are not always accessible, and this is a rare opportunity to see a high-caliber group from a crucial period of his career. I must highlight our immense gratitude to our lenders; their generosity has made this possible. We would also like to thank Michael Baumgartner of the Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, and Stefan Frey of the Klee-Nachlassverwaltung. They have been central to this project from the outset, and their involvement vital to its success. Rémi Labrusse, for his insightful essay exploring, among other themes, Klee’s relationship to Oriental art, deserves special mention. As do the following: Richard Armstrong, Bettina Berggruen, Roxana Bruno Lamb, Susan Davidson, Peter Fischer, Heidi Frautschi, Carmen Giménez, Diana Howard, Sam Keller, Adriana Kertzer, Anne-Marie and Alexander Klee-Coll, Perrine Le Blan, Marco Lorenzetti, Daniel and Laetitia Malingue, Sabine Rewald, Andres Santo-Domingo, Timothy Stranding, Mebrak Tareke, Karole Vail, Michele Welsing, Pascale Willi, Aroldo Zevi, Elisabetta Zevi, Susanna Zevi, and The Clarice Lispector Estate. Finally I must thank our curator. Olivier’s pedigree in the field of Klee is well known. Indeed, this is his fourth exhibition on an artist with whom the name Berggruen is synonymous, and we are privileged that he agreed to mastermind this show. He has graciously shared his insight throughout our collaboration, and both his scholarship and his company have been extremely rewarding. Olivier was determined that this project should add something to the field of Klee scholarship. This beautiful catalogue stands as testament to that achievement. Hugo Nathan President, Dickinson Roundell Inc
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Transparent Images Olivier Berggruen
If I take too long to look at “Paysage aux oiseaux jaunes,” by Klee, I will never be able to go back to it. Courage and cowardice are a game one plays at every moment. It scares the perhaps incurable vision and that is perhaps that of freedom. The habit of looking through prison gates, the comfort of holding with both hands the bars, while I am still looking. The prison is safety, the bars support for the hands. So I recognize that freedom is only for the very few. Again courage and cowardice play at each other: courage, of which I am capable, scares me. For I know that courage is possible for me. I begin to think that among the insane there are those who are not insane. And that possibility, when truly realized, is not to be understood. And as the person tries to explain, she will be losing courage, she will be asking; “Paysage aux oiseaux jaunes” does not ask. At least I calculate what would be freedom. And that is what makes the security of the bars intolerable; the comfort of this prison hits me in the face. . . .1 We might not share the sense of dread Clarice Lispector felt when she saw Paul Klee’s painting. Instead, we might see a rather poetic and whimsical vision of a tropical forest during the full moon. The artist seems to have bestowed upon nature—the sky, plants and other living things—an enchanted character, not unlike that of a German Romantic fairy tale. Like a fairy tale, it does not seem threatening at first glance. Yet Clarice’s words evoke emotional anguish. Could Klee be presenting us with a more sinister tale than we had first imagined? After the Second World War, the Brazilian novelist was living a rather secluded life in provincial Bern, where her husband was working as a diplomat. In a letter to her sister Tania, she described Switzerland as a “cemetery of sensations.”2 For Clarice, emotional resonance was to be found in other realms— and it was presumably while living in Switzerland that she became acquainted with Klee’s work. She was struck by his ability to offer transparent images of the soul, transforming inner thoughts into visionary pictorial expressions. In Landschaft mit gelben Vögeln (Landscape with Yellow Birds), plants, flowers, living beings seem to have regained their original purity, resembling dangerous and seductive creatures. They confront the viewer with a vision of cosmic excess, akin to a psychedelic experience, both magical and terrifying.
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Paul Klee. Landschaft mit gelben VĂśgeln (Landscape with Yellow Birds). 1923 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 35.5 x 44 cm (14 x 17 Âź inches) Private collection, Switzerland
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Klee looked at the world as if he were dreaming with his eyes wide open, following Novalis’s edict that if dreams become reality, reality should also be oneiric—a fundamental tenet of early Romanticism. Just like German Romantic fairy tales, Klee’s paintings reflect the strangeness of the world, tinged with dark shadows and enigmatic forms. Unsettling, because it is an extreme version of reality, heightening our sense of wonder at that which only ends up being elusive. Despite all they reveal about alternate forms of consciousness, Klee’s dreamscapes do not give us all the answers we are looking for. Rather, they expose our unfulfilled desires by disclosing what is buried in dreams or in the unconscious. Landschaft mit gelben Vögeln was painted during a period of great creative effervescence. During his tenure at the Bauhaus, Klee devoted himself to picture theory—including a preoccupation with the interaction of colors. In his watercolors from that period, Klee devised tonal, chromatic progressions of rectangular planes, allowing them to give off a shimmering light effect. He often showed these pictures to his students, with whom he discussed color theory and composition. At the same time, he painted a series of imaginary landscapes that foreshadowed Surrealist experiments. Tightrope walkers, monstrous animals, melancholy dancers (Tanz des trauernden Kindes [Dance of the Grieving Child ], 1922, plate 12) and extraterrestrial figures inhabit these undetermined spaces, as in a hazy dream (the “interior gaze” of the Surrealists). Klee’s works are imbued with an organic spontaneity, one that affirms his kinship with nature. The artist ceaselessly proclaimed his desire to be at one with the natural world. He told his students at the Bauhaus, “The artist is a human being, himself nature and a part in the realm of nature.” For Klee, the feeling of being at one with nature was born out of the “discovery of unsuspected relations from one element to another.”3 To this end, he assembled a collection of natural specimens, such as herbs, leaves, flowers, algae, moss, butterflies, stones and crystals, carefully studying their colors, shapes and structures. He also dissected various plants and fruits to learn about their internal structure, delving beyond their external appearance. The vein of a leaf, the grooves in a piece of bark, a snail’s shell (Im Zeichen der Schnecke [Under the Sign of the Snail ], 1921, plate 6): Klee reproduces this vast dictionary of forms endlessly, providing a model for artistic creation, one that could be manipulated through growth, repetition or extension. Klee’s desire to be in tune with the realm of nature coincided with his quest for greater innocence. In this sense, he echoed the preoccupation
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of the Romantics with the question of how painting could free itself from the weight of constricting traditions. By the end of the eighteenth century, Jacques-Louis David had deplored the conventions of artistic education, holding them responsible for the decline of the arts. Joshua Reynolds proclaimed that it was necessary to relearn the craft of painting, away from all stifling rules. For his part, Philipp Otto Runge declared that in order to succeed, we had to become like children again. By turning his back on academic rules, could the artist reach a state of innocence and purity that would give us an unmediated image of the world? Was it necessary to strip a language of its conventions, so as to embrace the realm of nature, directly? According to this aesthetic stance, intuition was crucial to artistic practice, and one had to strive to communicate ideas and feelings derived from nature, using the simplest of forms, as in Die Schlange (The Snake ), 1929 (plate 28). Years later, when Klee knew death was nearing, his paintings and drawings took on a more explicitly terrifying, anguished appearance. Perverse-looking forms, neither animal nor vegetal, fantastical plants— incomplete, thirsty and impoverished—are recurring motifs in Klee’s later works. Unlike Picasso’s defacements of his mistress Dora Maar dating from the same period, there is nothing heroic about Klee’s wounded creatures. Primal images are imbued with the sadness and indifference that characterizes nature. The human presence is reduced to a primitive force that is competing with other forces of nature. The artist’s tendency to identify with nature’s dark and primitive urges is probably what Clarice sensed in Landschaft mit gelben Vögeln, although it still has remnants of an idealization that is discarded in later works. Ultimately, Klee offers us pictures of reality that probe more deeply than the ordinary gaze. His art is intent on exploring the correspondence between the interior landscape of the soul and the outer realm of nature, rendering them both immediate and transparent. Looking at his paintings, we recognize signs that stand out among an array of other more mundane, day-to-day signs. Klee’s images speak directly to our consciousness, seizing upon memories of dreams, be they fractured, sinister, charmed or even blissful. This other layer of reality casts a spell over the viewer, allowing him to survey the territory of various states of consciousness with greater clarity. Notes: 1. Clarice Lispector, Para não esquecer: Crônicas (São Paulo: Atica, 1979), pp. 14–15. Here translated from the Portuguese by Adriana Kertzer. 2. Olga Borelli, Clarice Lispector: Esboço para um possível retrato (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova Fronteira, 1981), p. 114. 3. René Crevel, Paul Klee (Paris: Gallimard, 1930), p. 10.
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Imaginary Logic Rémi Labrusse
Kairuan oder eine Geschichte vom Maler Klee und von der Kunst dieses Zeitalters (Kairouan, or the story of the painter Klee and of the art of this time), Wilhelm Hausenstein’s book published in Munich in 1921, was not the first monograph on Klee—two smaller books had been published the year before, one by Leopold Zahn, the other by Hermann von Wedderkop— but it was unquestionably the most ambitious of the three, visually and intellectually.1 The author, who was fairly influential in the leftist avantgarde circles of Munich in the 1910s, had been traumatized by the war and, as a consequence, had become a follower of Oswald Spengler’s pessimistic philosophy, which had recently been expounded in Spengler’s highly successful work Der Untergang des Abendlandes (The decline of the West). Hausenstein saw Klee’s art as the embodiment of a kind of hybrid nihilism, with an “Oriental” side that had first come to light during the artist’s stay in the Tunisian city of Kairouan (al-Qayrawan) in April 1914, and a modern “European” side that had been brought to the fore by the disaster of the Great War. According to Hausenstein’s vision, the Oriental side of Klee’s genius was of a metaphysical nature: the intuition of a sort of Buddhist nothingness allowed the artist to free himself from the world of things and to rejoice in pure subjectivity; but the shock of the war had caused his work to fall from metaphysics into history, from mystical wisdom to individual despair, and to become, for that reason, self-destructive and tragic: “Kairouan and the European War: from the higher nothingness, the painter-draughtsman was thrown into the lower nothingness,” the critic wrote in the central chapter of his monograph, titled “The Hereafter and the War.”2 Understandably, Klee was not particularly satisfied with this interpretation; soon after, he split with Hausenstein, who became increasingly conservative and embittered in his writings on contemporary art.3 What upset the artist
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was the pessimism of a dualist vision that was not overcome by a dynamic synthesis, as Klee would have wished. However, there can be no doubt that the great significance of Kairouan had been suggested to Hausenstein by Klee himself, who was busy imbuing himself with an Oriental aura and designated the city of Kairouan as the umbilical cord of his mystical Orient, where, he used to say, he had acquired his identity as a painter in April 1914. No later than May 1914, a few days after his return from Tunisia, he proudly displayed eight watercolors he had brought back at the Neue Münchner Secession exhibition, in Munich. From 1919 on, he strongly emphasized his privileged relationship to the Orient, even suggesting that his dusky complexion and dark eyes hinted at Oriental roots, via his Swiss mother, whose origins were in part Southern French (and might possibly be more exotic still).4 Around the end of 1921, he rewrote his Tunisian diary: in the final version, before leaving for Kairouan, he asks himself whether that could be his “native country”; and soon after, in 1922, he fabricated a self-portrait puppet that recalls the clichés of the Oriental magus: dark hair, gigantic eyes, threadbare robe covering the whole body [fig. 1]. Meanwhile, he had convinced his earliest commentators that the trip to Tunisia had been fundamental to him: Tunisian watercolors are reproduced at the beginning of the books by Zahn, Wedderkop and Hausenstein, and in all three of them the trip to Tunisia is described in almost the same words, as the decisive moment of discovery, by Klee, of his deepest and truest artistic being, through the revelation of color. Zahn even points out, “When I speak of Paul Klee’s art, the body of work to which I refer derives from these watercolors [from Tunisia]; the sheets made before 1914 can be considered separately as its prehistory”;5 and Hausenstein speaks of Klee’s Tunisian trip as “a journey to himself.”6 Klee’s own rewritten diary constitutes the acme of this Oriental narrative. In a letter to his wife, Lily, the short halt in Kairouan—less than two days, between April 16 and 17, 1914—is described as the “zenith” (Höhepunkt) and “final goal” of the trip and the scene of a supreme revelatory event.7 In Kairouan, what is abruptly unveiled, we are told, is a place of origin.8 There, the artist discovers and fully espouses his identity as a painter, while he had Fig. 1. Paul Klee. Self-Portrait in Oriental Dress. 1922 hand puppet, various materials, h. 38 cm (15 inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
mostly confined himself to drawing up to that point: “Here is the meaning of this magic hour. Color and I are one. I am a painter.”9 The slightly ironic tone of the diary entries before Kairouan—when Klee describes somewhat self-critically his wandering around Tunis with his two friends, August Macke and Louis Moilliet, in search of exoticism—suddenly ceases and gives way to a solitary Nietzschean exaltation of the Self. It takes on the appearance of a
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Fig. 2. Mihrab of the Mosque Sidi Oqba, Kairouan, first half of the ninth century, painted wood, lusterware, stucco and carved marble
Fig. 3. Details of the minbar of the Mosque Sidi Oqba, Kairouan, c. 853–63, carved wood
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revelation precisely because it is sudden and short—all the more violent and intense for its brevity. Forever changed by the shock, the newborn painter, once he has gone through this extreme Kairouan experience, has nothing else to do but return home: “Today, I needed to be alone; the experience I had just undergone was too strong. I had to leave, also, in order to pull myself together.”10 Something unquestionably Orientalist, in Edward Said’s sense of the word, lies in this story of the painter Klee finding himself in Kairouan. Think of Eugène Fromentin, among hundreds of other Orientalist painters of the previous century, who wrote in 1846, when he arrived in Algeria, “This is beautiful! This is beautiful! Everything is beautiful, even misery is beautiful, even the mud on the sandals! . . . God, if only this could make me a painter!”11 In both cases, displacement creates identity, but it is an imaginary displacement, motivated by prejudices and representations originally formed in the West. The “Mother Orient” is fascinating insofar as it is relegated to an original past and disconnected from the present: therefore, everything that is given to the artist in this “timeless” Orient has to be appropriated, utilized and brought back to the present within a European framework. In the meantime, the real Other is positively reduced to silence (no Tunisian speaks about Tunisia in Klee’s descriptions); and the myth itself is all the more potent to the extent that it remains vague and syncretic. This is clearly expressed in Hausenstein’s pages, where Klee’s “Arabic polarity” (as opposed to his “European” one)12 has less to do with any kind of Islamic thinking than with a superficial Westernized Buddhism, mediated by the reading of Spengler and, further back, of Schopenhauer. The grossest clichés about the Orient, land of camels, black men and limitless sands, oddly serve to introduce a Far Eastern philosophy of impermanence: “The sable camels walked now as before in the nothingness of the desert, carrying black men whose senses were filled with music and by the belief that Nothingness was everything and that everything was nothing. At home, such was the traveller now. . . . He painted . . . with a secret instinct, also celebrating the equanimity of Buddha, who, thousands of miles away, dwelt in the immutability of his images. . . . Kairouan. The name became a symbol for a manifold experience. In the East, what was to be discovered or confirmed was that in actuality things are without substance.”13 If Klee’s Orient is vague and syncretic, Kairouan, however, is not a vague location at all: it is a real city with a strong artistic identity. The site of Klee’s artistic birth at the beginning of the twentieth century seems to have lacked
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any immediate attractive power for the average Orientalist painter. One of them, Ary Renan (son of the renowned philologist Ernest Renan) described the city in 1891 as an isolated place set in “a repellent and sullen desert,” with “no Kasbah worthy of the name,” and generally lacking “picturesqueness, which thrives at every street corner in the Tunisian cities along the coast.”14 The writer Guy de Maupassant, in turn, exclaimed in 1889, “Oh, what a sad city lost in the desert!” (but immediately felt “an unexpected and shattering emotion” in the great mosque).15 Easy to reach by train from Tunis, Kairouan did not even possess an aura of remoteness. Without vast palm groves or bustling souks, the pride of the city lies elsewhere: in its ancient, rather severe religious monuments, which are among the greatest architectural realizations of Islamic art—first among them the gigantic architectural complex of the ninth-century Aghlabid Mosque of Sidi Oqba, which in Klee’s time was, paradoxically, the only Muslim temple in Tunisia whose interior was open to non-Muslim visitors.16 In the afternoon of April 16, 1914, Klee and his friends visited some of Kairouan’s old mosques, in particular Sidi Oqba. On this occasion, they appreciated this construction, with its pure and simple lines, that leads the faithful to the extraordinary ornamental flourishes of the mihrab [fig. 2] (with its luxurious lusterware tiles especially imported from Baghdad at the time of its construction) and the wooden minbar [fig. 3]. One may assume that Klee’s true revelation, free from any superficial Orientalism, occurred during this visit. The recurring motif of graceful hemispheric domes, emblematic of Kairouan’s mosques, present in the watercolors done on the spot or immediately afterward [fig. 4] and in his later paintings [fig. 11], constitutes a private sign of the durable impact of this revelation. It is also telling that, when he traveled to Egypt in 1928, Klee’s first reaction was to prefer the “pure” mosques of Kairouan (seen almost fifteen years previously) to those of Cairo, which he denounced as “kitsch” (even if, some days later, he acknowledged the magnificence of the thirteenth-to-fourteenth-century tombs of the Mamluk sultans of Cairo).17 In Kairouan, and nowhere else, Klee’s dreamlike exoticism—imbued with a fanciful, somewhat stereotypical biblical atmosphere—was transformed in a direct encounter with the deepest realizations of Islamic aesthetics, something that he saw as a profound disruption in his artistic career and a new beginning. In January 1921, when Klee arrived in Weimar and was enrolled by Walter Gropius as a teacher at the Bauhaus, he was fully committed to the elaboration and diffusion of his private Kairouan mythology. As Jenny Anger has shown, this myth is also connected to his celebration of the intrinsic
21
Fig. 4. Paul Klee. Rote und weisse Kuppeln (Red and White Cupolas). 1914 watercolor and gouache on paper, 14.6 x 13.7 cm (5 ¾ x 5 ½ inches) Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, n° 1014 (cat. Klee, vol. 2, 1154)
22
Fig. 5. Owen Jones. Moresque n째 5, pl. XLIII of The Grammar of Ornament, London, 1856
Fig. 7. Paul Klee. Diverse Entw체rfe f체r Vorsatzpapier (Diverse Sketches for Endpapers). 1909 ink and watercolor on paper, various studies on paper pasted on cardboard Paul-Klee Stiftung, Bern, Z 137 (cat. Klee, vol. 1, 401)
Fig. 6. Owen Jones. Persian n째 2, pl. XLV of The Grammar of Ornament, London, 1856
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value of the decorative in modern art.18 Certainly, Klee’s leanings toward ornamentation precede his discovery of Islamic decoration in Kairouan: as early as 1909, a series of small abstract patterns [fig. 7] irresistibly recalls the plates in the collections of ornamental models that, in the wake of Owen Jones’s famous Grammar of Ornament of 1856 [figs. 5 and 6], flourished all over Europe during the second half of the nineteenth century and were found everywhere, in studios, workshops, schools of art and museum libraries. But even more significant than the date of creation of Klee’s decorative patterns is the fact that he decided to paste them all onto a single sheet and to place it in his catalogue raisonné as an example of the early stages of his work (when he might well have excluded or even destroyed these tiny, apparently insignificant formal games). This decision was taken in the early 1910s and must have been all the more conscious and programmatic as ornament was not really welcome in the artistic circles he knew. No later than 1913, Kandinsky wrote that, in an abstract painting, “the danger of an ornamental art had become clear to [him]”19 and, in order to dispel this curse of the ornament, he forged the notion of “inner necessity” (innere Notwendigkeit), inseparable from his notion of the “spiritual in art.” That which Kandinsky rejected for spiritual reasons or Adolf Loos for political reasons was also more or less plainly cast aside by Gropius and many of his allies at the Bauhaus: it was suspected of disguising the functional “truth” of pure industrial shapes and of threatening the economic viability of new design products. Contrasting with all these anti-ornament positions, Klee’s delicate interweaving of “decorative” patterns, even in his most narrative works, did not fail to draw criticism. It even debarred him from the Fine Arts Academy in Stuttgart in 1919—although at that time the institution had been won over to the cause of the German avant-garde. Oskar Schlemmer wrote to Klee on that occasion that he had been criticized not only for his dreamlike fantasy but also for the “playful” and “feminine” quality of his work20—a customary characterization of ornament as a minor art. In Klee’s taking up the challenge of decorativeness in the historical context of the avant-garde, there can be no doubt that the Kairouan experience played a decisive role. It helped Klee to convince himself of the full historical legitimacy of ornamental aesthetics, combining the rigor of geometric laws and the unpredictability, the subtle unreliability, of human gestures. Hausenstein, for instance, commemorates the triumph of the “arabesque” in the painter’s work from 1914 onward, since, we are told, his “Arabic mind” was finally satisfied with “the multiple meanings that can only
24
invest ornamental forms” and with the “rhythm of decorations” in which, “like the Believers in the Prophet,” he found “the ultimate meaning of life.”21 We find similar, if less developed, appreciations of Klee’s love of the arabesque in Wedderkop’s and Zahn’s books—which suggests that these ideas were, to some extent, directly inspired by the artist. Consciously or not, Klee was thus following the path of major nineteenth-century reformers of ornament, who very often had a first, decisive experience of Islamic arts in situ—such as the British architect Owen Jones in the Alhambra or the Frenchman Jules Bourgoin in Cairo—and then systematically referred to Islamic art in order to free ornamentation from its subservience to the so-called higher arts of painting and sculpture. Hostile to Orientalism in all its guises, they drew on this appreciation of the scientific bias in Islamic patterns in order to reconcile science and art, objectivity and subjectivity, in the context of a modern industrial culture—a goal shared by Gropius during the first years of the Bauhaus. No wonder, therefore, that Klee’s graphic notes for his teachings closely resemble the visual experiments of these nineteenthcentury theoreticians. Like Owen Jones, for instance, who used to say that the ornamentations of the Alhambra, based on the combination of a few structuring elements, were “infinite, like the combinations of the seven notes of the musical scale,”22 Klee resorted to the musical notion of variation in order to illustrate the logical production of an infinite variety of forms from a finite set of simple geometric forms and primary colors [fig. 10]. Among the European theoreticians on ornament, Jules Bourgoin is a particularly interesting case, as he was obsessed by the need to counterbalance the scientific construction of form—by which he was also fascinated [fig. 8]—with the physical implication of the individual. Trying to keep both sides together, he forged the idea of an “aesthetic geometry,” both rigorously scientific and unpredictably creative, which he opposed to a “scholastic” one, strictly confined to the limits of practical logic and favored by modern industry.23 Hence his systematic promotion of freehand drawing and his deep interest in the patterning of knots [fig. 9], emblems of the infinite inventiveness and physical flexibility of a human gesture, as opposed to impersonal fixed patterns. A similar kind of attraction is expressed in Klee’s Wege zum Knoten (Paths to the Knot) [plate. 29], in which the loose arabesques suggest to the spectator’s mind a myriad of possible movements— an impression that the artist might have experienced for himself in front of the splendid, ever-changing patchwork of floral and geometric patterns in the venerable minbar of the Great Mosque in Kairouan [fig. 3].
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There can be no doubt that his enrollment at the Bauhaus enhanced Klee’s appreciation for the power of pure geometric forms, scientifically arranged, particularly when, at the end of 1923, the school took a more pragmatic turn and Gropius distanced himself from the ideal of a junction between material production and “spiritual” speculations. Klee’s specific ornamentalism, however, always stood apart from spiritual abstraction as well as functional materialism. Clearly, what drove him to ornamental forms was their visual and semiotic instability, the suggestion of movement, the specific power that allows a sinuous line to become (but never fixedly) a snake [plate. 28], a loose knot [plate. 29] or a reflection of the sun on water [plate. 27]—what Olivier Berggruen once described as Klee’s “ideal of the image-sign,” as embodied by his “obsessive arabesque.”24 This is also why he was so moved by textiles (in sympathy with Gunta Stölzl’s textile workshop at the Bauhaus) and based numerous works, before and after Kairouan, until the very end of his life, on what can be named a poetics of the carpet [plates. 16 and 17]. A carpet is not only a fundamentally movable object, not only a surface on which the threads of colored wool, cotton or silk blur the contours between compartments of pure color and blend them together; it is also an art of undulating geometry, which submits the technical requirements of mechanical production (through the weaving loom) to the intuitive decisions of individual craftsmanship. Both pragmatically and aesthetically, it favors movement, changeability and unpredictability within a predetermined symmetrical scheme, something echoed in Klee’s trembling lines and color patches overflowing their contours in his gridlike compositions [plate. 15]. In his teaching notes at the Bauhaus, Klee systematically warns his students against the danger of a “legalistic exhaustion” of the creative impulse and recurs to the notion of “life” to counteract this tragic impoverishment.25 “Movement” is the keyword in this context, an “initial productive movement,” he says, “a spark comes from we know not where, which smolders in a man’s mind, then kindles it, moves his hand and, from then on, transfers this movement to matter, becoming a work of art.”26 What does he mean when he speaks of life in an inanimate image, and of movement to characterize a composition of fixed forms? No doubt, for his students, he positioned himself against the dogmatic systematism of geometric abstraction as well as the processes of industrial design—a stand that made him feel increasingly isolated and ill at ease in Bauhaus circles at the end of the twenties up to the time of his resignation in 1931. Nonetheless, as intentionally inchoate as his images and formal compositions
26
Fig. 8. Jules Bourgoin. Study for plates 152 and 153 of vol. II of Etudes architectoniques et graphiques, Paris, 1901 pencil and ink on paper, 20 x 15.3 cm (8 x 6 inches) Paris, Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art, fonds Jacques Doucet
Fig. 10. Paul Klee. Mechanische Variationen (durch Drehung) (Mechanical Variations [through Rotation] ). c. 1925–30 crayon and pencil on paper, 33 x 21 cm (13 x 8 ¼ inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, PN12 M11/27
Fig. 9. Jules Bourgoin. Noeuds simple (Simple Knots). c. 1880–90 pencil on paper, 15.6 x 10 cm (6 ¼ x 4 inches) Paris, Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art, fonds Jacques Doucet
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may be, they are not, for all that, living beings. Thus, the belief that it would be possible to carry the process of genesis into its final result and to fuse together a creative impetus and a created object belongs to the utopian fantasy of merging organic life and material work. We can surmise that this kind of animism—one of the prevailing myths of the early avant-gardes—was alien to Klee, not only because he never explicitly expressed such a view but also because the fundamental structure of his work hints at a very different understanding of what life can mean in an image. It is a commonplace that Klee’s work is characterized by a continuous tension between a narrative and a formal aspect, poesis and pictura: in his paintings, the suggestion of imaginary worlds and stories, through dreamlike settings and figures, plunging the mind into another spatiotemporal environment, is insistently set against the immediate physical impression of self-sufficient visual forms, with their arabesques, geometrical patterns and interwoven color fields, redirecting the spectator’s gaze to his perception here and now. Applying racial schemes (typical of nineteenth-century anthropology) to this dualism, Hausenstein rigidly opposed, in Klee’s case, an “Arabic” side, in thrall to the arabesque, and a Nordic “barbarian” side that was responsible for the transformation of these arabesques into runes and of these formal decorative compositions into mythic fables.27 Even if Klee himself never developed such an pseudo-anthropological dualism, he nonetheless based his Bauhaus teaching on the analysis of his own works, both figurative and non-figurative, asking his students to deconstruct them (as, he used to say, a child is allowed to tear apart his toy in order to examine its components). At the Bauhaus they would have seen how their master’s formalist decorativeness was counterbalanced structurally by the literary suggestiveness of dreams, just as, in Kairouan, his Orientalist fantasies had been pervaded and internally criticized by his meditation on Islamic architecture and ornament. In all his works, from the more abstract to the more emphatically narrative, reason and dreams, geometric ornament and discursive imagery, rub against each other in a fundamentally dialectical manner: ornamental forms appear almost animated, transformed into imaginary bodies and, conversely, a rigorous ornamental grammar deconstructs this nascent fiction and substitutes for them constellations of disembodied motifs. This is particularly clear in Klee’s use of isolated letters or numbers in compositions where they play their parts as ornamental components while appearing as enigmatic remnants of some semi-erased inscription [plates. 15 and 19]. Again, a similar effect is produced by the many
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pseudo-calligraphic images (a decorative method also present in the luster tiles of the mihrab in Kairouan and pervasive in almost all periods of Islamic arts). A late work like Grenze (Frontier) [fig. 12], of 1938, provides us with a paradigmatic example of this constant shift between the realm of ornament and the realm of dream, denying the eye any univocal interpretation of these signs that are neither figurative nor semeiological, with facial features instantly lost in sequences of undecipherable hieroglyphic runes. The same can be said, from another point of view, of the splendid 1931 Überbrücktes (Bridged) [plate. 30], another emblematic title that, like Grenze, not only describes literally what is depicted in the image but also brings to mind the programmatic idea of trespassing or bridging the frontiers between heterogeneous visual regimes. Let us add that this process of “bridging” appears, not without humor, to be eminently fragile and transient, since the apparent stability of the little acrobat on the top of the painting seems to be seriously challenged by the collapse of his ledge—a strange and somewhat scary mixture of geometric elements and half-formed human figures, all on the verge of falling into a formless, inextricable mess. In short, two processes of disembodiment are systematically combating each other within Klee’s creations: the bodily subjective experience of the creative Self is simultaneously transformed into a pure music of forms and throngs of oneiric figures, playing their parts on a theatrical stage. There is no place here for the pseudo-animism of the image as a living body per se. Yet, life is involved insofar as neither of these disembodying processes ever succeeds in imposing imaginary representations or abstract patterns. Thus, neither narrative images nor ornamental configurations ever stand in for life. Life spreads from the image negatively, so to speak, because this strange combination of incompatible formal systems never reaches its full realization. It remains an unstable structure of conflicting forces, to which the spectator is unable to apply a clear visible code. These compositions do not provide any definitions on the nature of art; through their disorderly ornamental impetus, they leave the eye with unending questions about the reasons why the imaging process, as a fatal trait of human behavior, unceasingly tries to substitute dreams for life. In these fleeting, self-critical works, Western vision explores time and again its own uncertainties, as if the dialectics of image and ornament were too deeply rooted in the artist’s mind to allow a stable definition of art anymore.
29
Fig. 11. Paul Klee. Vierteiliger Palast (Palace in Four Parts). 1933 watercolor and ink on canvas 90.5 x 68 cm (35 ½ x 26 ž inches) Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, 3089 (cat. Klee, vol. 6, 6401)
30
Fig 12. Paul Klee. Grenze (Frontier). 1938 oil painting on paper laid down on cardboard 50 x 35 cm (19 ½ x 13 ž inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
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Notes: I am grateful to Olivier Berggruen, Michael Stokes and Lulu Norman for all their help and advice. 1. Wilhelm Hausenstein, Kairuan oder eine Geschichte vom Maler Klee und von der Kunst dieses Zeitalters (Munich: Kurt Wolff Verlag, 1921); Hermann von Wedderkop, Paul Klee (Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann), 1920; Leopold Zahn, Paul Klee: Leben/Werk/Geist (Potsdam: Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag, 1920). 2. Hausenstein, Kairuan, p. 91 (“Kairuan und der europäische Krieg: aus dem oberen Nichts war der Malerzeichner in das untere Nichts geschickt”). Throughout this essay, translations into English are by the author. 3. On Klee and Hausenstein, see Otto Karl Werckmeister, “Kairuan: Wilhelm Hausensteins Buch über Paul Klee,” in Die Tunisreise: Klee, Macke, Moilliet, ed. Ernst-Gerhard Güse (Stuttgart: Verlag Gerd Hatje, 1982), pp. 76–93. 4. See Michael Baumgartner, “Paul Klee et le mythe de l’Orient,” in À la Recherche de l’Orient: Paul Klee; Tapis du souvenir, ed. Michael Baumgartner, Carole Haensler, and Marianne Keller (Bern: Zentrum Paul Klee, and Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2009), pp. 130–43. 5. Zahn, Paul Klee, p. 14 (“In der Zielrichtung dieser Aquarelle liegt das nachfolgende Schaffen, auf das wir uns beziehen, wenn wir von der Kunst Paul Klees sprechen, deren Vorgeschichte wir aus den vor 1914 entstandenen Blättern entnehmen können”). 6. Hausenstein, Kairuan, p. 29 (“Es war eine Ausfahrt des Menschen zu sich selbst”). 7. Klee, letter to Lily Klee, Kairouan, April 14, 1914, in Paul Klee, Briefe an die Familie, vol. 2 (1907–1940), ed. Felix Klee (Cologne: DuMont, 1979), p. 784 (“Am letzten Ziel angelangt, zugleich dem Höhepunkt. Sonntag reise ich von Tunis ab”). 8. The idea of Kairouan as a mystical ground for Klee’s work is also expressed by Zahn, Paul Klee, p. 8: “Mystik ist hier das Wort, das die Lernbegierigen sättigt.” 9. Klee, Journal, trans. Pierre Klossowski (1959; repr. Paris: Grasset, 1986), p. 282 (entry for April 17, 1914). 10. Ibid. 11. Eugène Fromentin, letters to Paul Bataillard, March 7 and 22, 1846, in Lettres de jeunesse, ed. Pierre Blanchon (Paris: Plon, 1909), pp. 171–72. 12. First draft for the third part of Hausenstein’s monograph, written in 1920, as quoted in Werckmeister, “Kairuan,” p. 83 (“Die Polarität des ‘Arabischen’ und des ‘Europäischen’ in Klees Kunst”). 13. Hausenstein, Kairuan, p. 86 (“Die falben Kamele nach wie vor . . . in das Nichts der Wüste schritten, dunkle Männer tragend, denen der Sinn von Melodie erfüllt war und von dem Glauben, das Nichts sei alles, alles sei nichts. . . . Wie in der Heimat war nun der Reisende. . . . Er malte . . . mit einem geheimen Instinkt auch die Gelassenheit des Buddha verehrend, der Tausende von Meilen noch entfernt in der Unbeweglichkeit seiner Bilder wohnte”) and p. 125 (“Kairuan. Der Name ward Symbol für eine vielfache Erfahrung. Östlich war, zu erkennen oder bestätigt zu finden, daß in der Tat die Dinge ohne Wesen sind”). 14. Ary Renan, “L’Art arabe dans le Maghreb: Kairouan; Premier article,” Gazette des beaux-arts, Paris, May 1, 1891, pp. 371 and 382. 15. Guy de Maupassant, “Vers Kairouan,” in Œuvres complètes: La Vie errante (Paris: Louis Conard, 1909), pp. 211 and 217. Previously published in Revue des deux mondes, Paris, February 1, 1889. 16. See Alain Messaoudi, “Une patrimonialisation pas très catholique: Le touriste, le fidèle, la mosquée et l’administration coloniale en Tunisie,” in Tourisme, patrimoine et colonisation au Maghreb: Un nouveau chantier pour l’histoire?, ed. Colette Zytnicki and Habib Kazdaghli (Madrid: Casa Vélasquez, 2011). 17. Klee, letters to Lily Klee from Cairo, December 1928, in Lettres de l’époque du Bauhaus (1920–1930), trans. and ed. Anne-Sophie Petit-Emptaz (Tours, France: Farrago, 2004), pp. 164–70. 18. Jenny Anger, Paul Klee and the Decorative in Modern Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 19. Wassily Kandinsky, Regards sur le passé et autres textes 1912–1922, ed. Jean-Paul Bouillon (Paris: Hermann, 1974), p. 110 (“Le danger d’un art ornemental m’apparaissait clairement” [“Die Gefahr der ornamentalen Form”]). 20. Oskar Schlemmer, letter to Klee, July 9, 1919, quoted in Anger, Paul Klee, p. 274 (“‘Spielerisch, feminin’ sind weitere Worte des Zweifels”). 21. Hausenstein, Kairuan, p. 30 (“Von diesem arabischen Schädel behext verlangt sie alsbald nichts andres als Arabesken: Bänder aus Farbe, die durcheinander laufen; Vieldeutigkeit, die nur in Ornamenten Gestalt gewinnen kann—denn die Gläubigen des Propheten vermeiden die Abbildung der menschlichen Gestalt, ja der Dinge, und sie begnügen sich mit dem Rhythmus der Verzierungen, gewohnt, in ihnen den Tiefsinn des Lebens aufzuschreiben”). 22. Owen Jones, “Lecture XX: An Attempt to Define the Principles Which Should Regulate Colour in the Decorative Arts,” in Lectures on the Results of the Exhibition Delivered before the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce (London: David Bogue, n.d. [1853]), p. 296. 23. Jules Bourgoin, Les arts arabes: Architecture et le trait général de l’art arabe (Paris: Veuve A. Morel et Cie, 1873 [1868–73]), p. 7. 24. Olivier Berggruen, “Alla ricerca di segni naturali,” in Paul Klee: La collezione Berggruen, ed. Olivier Berggruen (Rome: Fondazione Memmo, and Milan: Skira, 2006), pp. 22–23. 25. Lesson 11, December 19, 1922, in Klee, Cours du Bauhaus, Weimar 1921–1922: Contributions à la théorie de la forme picturale (Paris: Hazan, 2004), pp. 216–17. 26. Lesson 7, February 27, 1922, in ibid., pp. 126–27. 27. Hausenstein, Kairuan, p. 30 (“Macht aber in ihm die Völkerwanderung der Vandalen . . . einen Rückweg, . . . so ist es nicht erstaunlich, daß diese Zeichnungen sich der Rune bedienen”).
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The Bauhaus Years Works from 1918–1931
34
1. Ohne Titel (Untitled). 1918 oil on cardboard, verso: paper on muslin 8 15 x 32 cm (5 77/8x 12 5/88 inches)
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36
2. Mit dem grĂźnen Quadrat (With the Green Square). 1919 watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 26 x 20 cm (10 Âź x 7 7 8 inches)
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3. Dreitakt (Triple Time). 1919
watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on a second sheet of paper, cardboard 31.2 x 22.3 cm (12 5Ÿ16 x 8 ž inches)
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4. Seelandschaft m. d. Himmelskรถrper (Lake Landscape with the Celestial Body). 1920 pen on paper laid down on cardboard 12.7 x 28.1 cm (5 x 11 inches)
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5. Frisst aus der Hand (Zweite Fassung) (Eats out of the Hand [Second Version]). 1920 oil transfer and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 30.4 x 24 cm (12 x 9 7 16 inches)
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6. Im Zeichen der Schnecke (Under the Sign of the Snail). 1921 oil transfer and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 38.8 x 27.4 cm (15 Âź x 11 13 16 inches)
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7. Das Tor der Nacht (The Gate of the Night). 1921 watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 25 x 33 cm (9 13 ½16 x 13 inches)
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8. Ohne Titel (Untitled). 1921 watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 21.6 x 16 cm (8 ½ x 6 5 16 inches)
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9. Fische in der Tiefe (Fish in the Deep). 1921 watercolor on paper laid down on a second sheet of paper, laid down on cardboard 16 x 21.7 cm (6 5½15 x 8 9½16 inches)
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10. Läufer am Ziel (Runner at the Goal). 1921 watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard with gouache border 39.4 x 30.2 cm (15 ½ x 11 7 8 inches)
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11. Zeichnung zum “Tanz des trauernden Kindes” (Drawing for “Dance of the Grieving Child”). 1921 pen on paper laid down on cardboard 19.2 x 22 cm (7 9 16 x 8 11 16 inches)
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12. Tanz des trauernden Kindes (Dance of the Grieving Child). 1922 oil transfer, watercolor and ink, partially sprayed, on paper, bordered with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 29.2 x 27.3 cm (11 ½ x 11 ž inches)
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13. Der Dampfer f채hrt am botanischen Garten vorbei (The Steamboat Passes by the Botanical Garden). 1921 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard a) 11.9 x 28.9 cm (4 11 16 x 11 3 8 inches); b) 10.4 x 28.8 cm (4 1 8 x 11 5 16 inches)
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14. Wald-Einsiedelei (Hermitage in the Woods). 1921 oil on cardboard in its original frame 19.8 x 30.2 cm (7 13 16 x 11 7 8 inches)
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15. Ouvert端re (Overture). 1922 watercolor and pencil on paper divided and newly combined, bordered with watercolor, pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 24 x 33 cm (9 7 16 x 13 inches)
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16. Scizze im Charakter eines Teppichs (Sketch in the Manner of a Carpet). 1923 pen and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard, above and beneath watercolor, and pen and ink edges 22 x 14.7 cm (8 11 16 x 5 13 16 inches)
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17. Wand Teppich (Tapestry). 1923 oil transfer and watercolor on paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink on cardboard, lower edges with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 32.5 x 24 cm (12 13 16 x 9 7 16 inches)
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18. Schlussbild einer Tragikomรถdie (Final Scene of a Tragicomedy). 1923 oil transfer and watercolor on chalk-primed paper, upper and lower edges with gouache and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 25 x 35 cm (9 13 16 x 13 3 4 inches)
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19. “217�. 1923 pen and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 28.7 x 21.7 cm (11 5 6 x 8 9 16 inches)
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20. Schwarzer Herold (Black Herald). 1924
watercolor on colored paste-primed paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink, lower edge with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 30.5 x 20.2 cm (12 x 8 inches)
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21. Die Erfinderin des Nestes (The Inventress of the Nest). 1925 watercolor on chalk-primed paper laid down on cardboard 27.6 x 22 cm (10 7 8 x 8 11 16 inches)
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22. Häuserbild mit dem Treppenweg (Picture of Houses with Flight of Steps). 1923 watercolor on chalk-primed paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink, lower edge with gouache and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 26.7 x 33.3 cm (10 ½ x 13 inches)
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23. Das andere Geisterzimmer (Neue Fassung) (The Other Ghost Chamber [New Version]). 1925 oil transfer and watercolor, partially sprayed, on paper laid down on cardboard 48 x 34 cm (19 x 13 3 8 inches)
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24. Der Luftballon (The Balloon). 1926 oil on black priming on cardboard in its original frame 32.5 x 33 cm (12 13 16 x 13 inches)
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25. Die Flut schwemmt Städte (The Flood Washes Away Towns). 1927 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 26.8 x 30.6 cm (10 ½ x 12 1 16 inches)
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26. Wohlriechende Insel (Fragrant Island). 1929 watercolor and pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 23 x 31 cm (9 x 12 3 16 inches)
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27. Sonne Ăźber d. Wasser (Sun over the Water). 1929 pen and ink and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 32.8 x 21 cm (13 x 8 Âź inches)
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28. Die Schlange (The Snake). 1929 oil pigment and watercolor on wood, nailed on wooden strips, verso: oil pigment and pen and ink on gauze; in its original frame 31.5 x 74.5 cm (12 3 8 x 30 inches)
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29. Wege zum Knoten (Paths to the Knot). 1930 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 17.5 x 27.5 cm (6 7 8 x 10 13 16 inches)
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30. 端berbr端cktes (Bridged). 1931 watercolor and pencil on cotton laid down on canvas in its original frame 60.4 x 50.5 cm (23 他 x 19 7 8 inches)
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The Bauhaus Years: A Chronology
1918 December Klee is released from the army and returns to Munich for Christmas.
1919 January Joint exhibition with Kurt Schwitters and Johannes Molzahn at Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin. February Rents a studio at Suresnes Castle in Schwabing, Munich, after being permanently discharged from the army. April Invited to join the leftist Action Committee of Revolutionary Artists (an offshoot of the Novembergruppe), led by Hans Richter. Summer Fails to succeed Adolf Hölzel at the Stuttgart Academy of Arts, despite recommendations from Oskar Schlemmer and Willi Baumeister. Signs a three-year contact with the dealer Hans Goltz in Munich, which will be renewed in 1922.
1920 May–June First exhibition of Klee’s work at Goltz’s Galerie Neue Kunst in Munich, where 362 works are shown. October Invited by Walter Gropius to teach at the Bauhaus in Weimar. Autumn First monographs on Klee, written by Leopold Zahn and Hermann von Wedderkop. Publication of Klee’s essay “Farbe als Wissenschaft” (Color as science) in Mitteilungen des deutschen Werkbundes.
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1921 Wilhelm Hausenstein publishes his monograph on Klee, Kairuan oder eine Geschichte vom Maler Klee und von der Kunst dieses Zeitalters (Kairouan, or the story of the painter Klee and of the art of this time). January Klee takes up his post at the Bauhaus but continues to live in Munich, commuting fortnightly between Weimar and home. Fellow teachers include Gropius, Lyonel Feininger, Schlemmer, Johannes Itten, Hannes Meyer and Gerhard Marcks. October Klee moves to Weimar. November Until the following May, gives his “Lectures on Visual Form.”
1922 April The bookbinding workshop at the Bauhaus, in which Klee is teaching, is dissolved. July Vasily Kandinsky joins the Bauhaus teaching staff. November Klee teaches color theory and becomes artistic advisor in the stained-glass workshop.
1923 August–September First International Exhibition of the Weimar Bauhaus. Klee’s essay “Wege des Naturstudiums” (Way of studying nature) is published in Staatliches Bauhaus-Weimar 1919–1923 to coincide with the exhibition. October Teaches basic composition until the following February.
1924 January–February First American exhibition of Klee’s work, organized by Katherine S. Dreier at the Société Anonyme (an association she founded with Marcel Duchamp in 1920 for the promotion and study of modern art), in the Heckscher Building on West 57th Street in Manhattan. January Klee delivers the lecture “Über die moderne Kunst” (On modern art) to inaugurate his exhibition at Kunstverein Jena.
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March Forms Die Blaue Vier with Kandinsky, Feininger and Alexej von Jawlensky, a group promoted chiefly on the west coast of the United States by Emmy Scheyer. December The Bauhaus at Weimar officially closes.
1925 April
The Bauhaus moves to Dessau. Klee is promoted to the title of Professor.
May–June Second one-man show at Goltz’s Galerie Neue Kunst, after which his contract ends. Alfred Flechtheim, with galleries in Berlin and Düsseldorf, becomes his new dealer. October–November First exhibition in France, at Galerie Vavin-Raspail, Paris. November Klee’s work is shown in the first Surrealist exhibition, at Galerie Pierre, Paris. Publication of Pädagogisches Skizzenbuch (Pedagogical sketchbook), an extract of a lecture course from 1921–22. Otto Ralfs founds the Klee Gesellschaft.
1926 July Klee shares a two-family house with Kandinsky. October–November Travels to Italy in the summer: Elba, Pisa, Florence, Ravenna. December Despite financial crisis, Gropius’s Bauhaus is inaugurated in Dessau. Klee teaches sculpture and painting classes as well as theoretical foundations.
1927 Summer Travels to Porquerolles and Corsica. Teaches textile composition, theory of form, and painting.
1928 March–April Gropius, Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer and László Moholy-Nagy leave the Bauhaus. Hannes Meyer becomes its new director.
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July–August Klee travels to Paris and Brittany. December Start of monthlong trip to Egypt.
1929 Joins Deutscher Künstlerbund. In honor of Klee’s fiftieth birthday, various exhibitions are staged in Dresden, Berlin and Paris. The exhibition at the Galerie Alfred Flechtheim, Berlin, is shown in New York the following year. Editions Cahiers d’art publishes Will Grohmann’s monograph on Klee.
1930 March–April Sixty-three works by Klee are shown in a retrospective at The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Spring Invited to teach at the Düsseldorf Academy. August Ludwig Mies van der Rohe replaces Meyer as director of the Bauhaus.
1931 April Klee terminates post at the Bauhaus. Continues to live in Dessau. October Joins faculty of the Düsseldorf Academy as a professor of painting.
1933 Klee is persecuted by the Nazis and returns to Switzerland.
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List of Plates
in order of appearance
1. Ohne Titel (Untitled). 1918 [cr 2062] oil on cardboard, verso: paper on muslin 15 x 32 cm (5 7½8 x 12 5½8 inches) inscribed on the verso in pencil: Haltbarkeitsprobe: umstehende Arbeit steht Aquarell u. Tempera auf gefirnisstem Ölgrund, dieser ist geleimt, was die Haltbarkeit in Frage stellt, die Temperaschicht ist mit Leinölfirnis überzogen; underneath in india ink: A. Grund: materielle Technik A: alte, sehr trockene Ölmalerei (pastose) mit Bimstein und Wasser geschliffen, dann geleimt. B Malerei: Auf diesem Grund mit Aquarell und Temperafarben gemalt, diese Temperaschicht ist zum Schluss mit Leinölfirnis überzogen (aus dem Jahr 1918). Die Haltbarkeit ist anno 1928 besser als erwartet. Klee Private collection, Switzerland, on permanent loan at the Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
2. Mit dem grünen Quadrat (With the Green Square). 1919,69 watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 26 x 20 cm (10 ¼ x 7 7½8 inches) signed on upper right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower left: 1919.69. Collection of Gretchen and John Berggruen 3. Dreitakt (Triple Time). 1919,68 watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on a second sheet of paper, cardboard 31.2 x 22.3 cm (12 5¾16 x 8 ¾ inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed lower left: 1919.68.; on the cardboard edge center: Dreitakt; lower left: SC. Private collection
4. Seelandschaft m. d Himmelskörper (Lake Landscape with the Celestial Body). 1920,166 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 12.7 x 28.1 cm (5 x 11 inches) signed upper right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard edge; lower left: 1920. /166.; lower right: Seelandschaft m. d. Himmelskörper Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
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5. Frisst aus der Hand (Zweite Fassung) (Eats out of the Hand [Second Version]). 1920,171 oil transfer and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 30.4 x 24 cm (12 x 9 7 16 inches) signed upper left: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower left: 1920/171 Frisst aus der Hand (zweite Fassung) Private collection 6. Im Zeichen der Schnecke (Under the Sign of the Snail). 1921,27 oil transfer and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 38.8 x 27.4 cm (15 ¼ x 10 13¾16 inches) signed center left: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower center: 1921/ 27 Im Zeichen der Schnecke † Private collection
7. Das Tor der Nacht (The Gate of the Night). 1921,56 watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 25 x 33 cm (9 13 16 x 13 inches) signed center right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower center: 1921/56 das Tor der Nacht Private collection, Trieste
8. Ohne Titel (Untitled). 1921 [cr 2062] watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard 21.6 x 16 cm (8 ½ x 6 5½16 inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed lower right: 21 Private collection 9. Fische in der Tiefe (Fish in the Deep). 1921,87 watercolor on paper laid down on a second sheet of paper, laid down on cardboard 16 x 21.7 cm (6 5½ 15 x 8 9½16 inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower left: 1921 / 87; lower right: Fische in der Tiefe x; verso: 1921 / 87 Fische in der Tiefe Klee Private collection, New York
10. Läufer am Ziel (Runner at the Goal). 1921,105 watercolor and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard with gouache border 39.4 x 30.2 cm (15 ½ x 11 7½8 inches) signed middle right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard on the edge lower left: 1921 105 Läufer am Ziel; in pencil lower left: S.Cl. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Estate of Karl Nierendorf, By purchase 48.1172.55
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11. Zeichnung zum “Tanz des trauernden Kindes” (Drawing for “Dance of the Grieving Child”). 1921,186 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 19.2 x 22 cm (7 9½16 x 8 11½16 inches) signed upper left: Klee inscribed upper left with pencil: 1921; on the cardboard edge lower center: 1921 / 186 Zeichnung zum ‘Tanz des trauernden; below: Kindes’ Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
12. Tanz des trauernden Kindes (Dance of the Grieving Child). 1922,11 oil transfer, watercolor and ink, partially sprayed, on paper, bordered with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 29.2 x 27.3 cm (11 ½ x 10 ¾ inches) signed lower center: Klee inscribed on the cardboard border lower center: 1922 / 11 Tanz des trauernden Kindes Collection of Michael and Judy Steinhardt, New York 13. Der Dampfer fährt am botanischen Garten vorbei (The Steamboat Passes by the Botanical Garden). 1921,199 pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 16 inches) a) 11.9 x 28.9 cm (4 11 ¾16 x 11 3¾8 inches); b) 10.4 x 28.8 cm (4 1¼8 x 11 5 ¼ signed on sheet a) upper right: Klee inscribed on sheet a) lower left: Der Dampfer fährt am botanischen Garten vorbei.; on the cardboard double border lower left: 1921 /// 199; lower right: Der Dampfer fährt am botanischen Garten vorbei Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern 14. Wald-Einsiedelei (Hermitage in the Woods). 1921,225 oil on cardboard in its original frame 19.8 x 30.2 cm (713¾16 x 11 7¾8 inches) signed lower right, faded: Klee originally inscribed on the verso on the upper frame ledge: Wald-einsiedelei 1921 225 Klee Private collection, Switzerland, on permanent loan at the Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern 15. Ouvertüre (Overture). 1922,142 watercolor and pencil on paper divided and newly combined, bordered with watercolor, pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 24 x 33 cm (9 7¾16 x 13 inches) signed lower left: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower left: 1922 / 142.; lower right: Ouvertüre Collection of Alexander Berggruen
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16. Scizze im Charakter eines Teppichs (Sketch in the Manner of a Carpet). 1923,142 pen and watercolor on paper laid down on cardboard, above and beneath watercolor, and pen and ink edges 22 x 14.7 cm (8 11¾ 16 x 5 13¾16 inches) signed upper right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard on the edge lower left: 1923 142; lower right: Scizze im Charakter eines Teppichs Denver Art Museum Collection: Gift of Katherine C. Detre, 1981.12
17. Wand Teppich (Tapestry). 1923,167 oil transfer and watercolor on paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink on cardboard, lower edges with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 7 16 inches) 32.5 x 24 cm (12 13¼16 x 9 ¼ inscribed lower left on the cardboard: 1923 167; lower right: Wand Teppich Private collection
18. Schlussbild einer Tragikomödie (Final Scene of a Tragicomedy). 1923,144 oil transfer and watercolor on chalk-primed paper, upper and lower edges with gouache and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 25 x 35 cm (9 13 ¾16 x 13 ¾ inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard lower center: 1923 144 Schlussbild einer Tragikomödie; lower left with pencil: III Collection of Laetitia Malingue 19. “217”. 1923,187 pen and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 5 6 x 8/9 16 28.7 x 21.7 cm (11 5/6 6 inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed lower right with pencil: 1923 4/12; on the cardboard edge lower center: 1923. 187. “217” Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern 20. Schwarzer Herold (Black Herald). 1924,117 watercolor on colored paste-primed paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink, lower edge with watercolor and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 30.5 x 20.2 cm (12 x 8 inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard on the edge lower left: 1924 117.; lower right: Schwarzer Herold; on the cardboard: für Walter Dexel freundnachbarlich, Klee Private collection, New York
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21. Die Erfinderin des Nestes (The Inventress of the Nest). 1925,33 (M 3) watercolor on chalk-primed paper laid down on cardboard 27.6 x 22 cm (10 77/8 11/16inches) 8 x 8 11 16 signed lower center: Klee inscribed upper left with pencil: 25 2 12; on the cardboard edge, lower center: 1925 m. 3. die Erfinderin des Nestes; lower left with pencil: Sg. K Privatbes Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
22. Häuserbild mit dem Treppenweg (Picture of Houses with Flight of Steps). 1923,31 watercolor on chalk-primed paper, bordered with gouache and pen and ink, lower edge with gouache and pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 26.7 x 33.3 cm (10 ½ x 13 inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard’s edge lower center: 1923 /// 31. Häuserbild mit dem Treppenweg Collection of Michael and Judy Steinhardt, New York
23. Das andere Geisterzimmer (Neue Fassung) (The Other Ghost Chamber [New Version]). 1925,109 (A 9) oil transfer and watercolor, partially sprayed, on paper laid down on cardboard 3 8 inches) 48 x 34 cm (19 x 13 3/8 signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard edge, lower center: 1925 A. 9. das andere Geisterzimmer; below: (neue Fassung); lower left with pencil: VIII Private collection
24. Der Luftballon (The Balloon). 1926,153 (F 3) oil on black priming on cardboard in its original frame 16 13 inches) 32.5 x 33 cm (12 1313/1x signed upper left: Klee inscribed upper left: 1926 F.3.; on the verso and frame: 1926 F. 3 Luftballon Klee Private collection, Switzerland
25. Die Flut schwemmt Städte (The Flood Washes Away Towns). 1927,50 (N 10) pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 26.8 x 30.6 cm (10 ½ x 12 11/1inches) 16 signed upper left: Klee inscribed upper left with pencil: die Flut schwemmt Städte; on the cardboard edge, lower center: 1927 N 10 die Flut schwemmt Städte Collection of Michael and Judy Steinhardt, New York
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26. Wohlriechende Insel (Fragrant Island). 1929,280 (OE 10) watercolor and pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 23 x 31 cm (9 x 12 33/1 16 inches) signed upper left: Klee Private collection, Trieste
27. Sonne über d. Wasser (Sun over the Water). 1929,295 (Omega 5) pen and ink and pencil on paper laid down on cardboard 32.8 x 21 cm (13 x 8 ¼ inches) signed lower right: Klee inscribed on the cardboard edge, lower center: 1929 Omega H5. Sonne über d. Wasser Private collection, Switzerland, on permanent loan at the Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
28. Die Schlange (The Snake). 1929,341 (3 H 41) oil pigment and watercolor on wood, nailed on wooden strips, verso: oil pigment and pen and ink on gauze; in its original frame 31.5 x 74.5 cm (12 33/8x 30 inches) 8 signed upper left: Klee inscribed upper left: 1929.3.H.41; verso on the upper wooden strip: 1929 “3.H.1.” “Die Schlange” Klee Cl.14 Private collection
29. Wege zum Knoten (Paths to the Knot). 1930,150 (Y 10) pen and ink on paper laid down on cardboard 16 17.5 x 27.5 cm (6 77/8x 10 13 13/1inches) 8 signed lower left: Klee inscribed on the cardboard edge, lower center: 1930 Y 10 Wege zum Knoten Private collection, Switzerland, on permanent loan at the Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern
30. Überbrücktes (Bridged). 1931,153 (R13) watercolor and pencil on cotton laid down on canvas in its original frame 60.4 x 50.5 cm (23 ¾ x 19 77/8inches) 8 signed lower left: Klee inscribed verso upper left on the stretcher with pen, faded: 1931 R 13; upper right: “Überbrücktes” Klee Private collection, New York
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Published by Dickinson, New York, on the occasion of the exhibition Paul Klee—The Bauhaus Years: Works from 1918–1931 May 2–June 14, 2013 Curated by Olivier Berggruen Designed by Pascale Willi Copy editing and proofreading by Rebecca Roberts Image production by Nerissa Vales Printed by Studley Press Published by Dickinson Roundell Inc. 19 East 66th Street, New York, NY 10065 USA © Dickinson Roundell Inc., New York. All rights reserved. Printed in the USA Cover: Ouvertüre (Overture). 1922 watercolor and pencil on paper divided and newly combined, bordered with watercolor, pen and ink, laid down on cardboard 24 x 33 cm (9 7 16 x 13 inches) [plate 15] p. 5: Paul Klee with his cat Fripouille, Possenhofen, before the watercolor Allerseelen-Bild (All Souls’ Picture), 1921,113 11.9 x 8.7 cm (4 ¾ x 3 ½ inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Klee Family Donation p. 8: Paul Klee in his studio at the Bauhaus, Weimar, 1924 6.4 x 8.2 cm (2 ½ x 3 ¼ inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Klee Family Donation p. 92: Paul Klee, Munich, 1911 10.3 x 8.5 cm (4 x 3 ¼ inches) Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern, Klee Family Donation Text credits “Transparent Images,” © Olivier Berggruen, 2013 “Imaginary Logic,” © Rémi Labrusse, 2013 Photograph credits © CameraArts, plates 12, 22, 25, 30 © Denver Art Museum, plate 16 © Florent Chevrot, plate 23 © Roberto Marossi, plate 6 © Zentrum Paul Klee, plates 1, 4, 11, 13, 14, 19, 21, 27, 29 © David Allison, plate 28 © Paolo Vandrasch and Romina Bettega, plates 7, 26 © Felix Klee, p. 5 © Felix Klee, p. 8 © Alexander Eliasberg, p. 90
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| i don't know |
The name of which Spanish newspaper translates as The Country? | Spanish Word for newspaper | newspaper in Spanish
Spanish Word for newspaper
Now you know how to say newspaper in Spanish. :-)
Translated sentences containing 'newspaper'
He bought a newspaper in English.
Él compró un periódico en inglés.
I read a newspaper.
They are buying the newspaper.
Están comprando el periódico.
He will be reading the newspaper.
Estará leyendo el periódico.
I'll read the newspaper when I arrive to the hotel.
Yo leeré el periódico cuando llegue al hotel.
Is the newspaper yours?
They'll read the newspaper tomorrow morning.
Ellos leerán el periódico mañana en la mañana.
I read a newspaper for the history class.
Yo leo un periódico para la clase de historia.
We need to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
Nosotros necesitamos leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
I believe that the students need to read an article in the newspaper.
Yo creo que los alumnos necesitan leer un artículo en el periódico.
The teacher says that the students need to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
El profesor dice que los alumnos necesitan leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
While I buy the tickets, you buy the newspaper.
Mientras yo compro las entradas, tú compras el periódico.
Juan is in the library because he needs to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
Juan está en la biblioteca porque él necesita leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
The newspaper that I need to read is in the library.
El periódico que yo necesito leer está en la biblioteca.
The teacher says that the newspaper I need to read for the history class is in the library.
El profesor dice que el periódico que yo necesito leer para la clase de historia está en la biblioteca.
I believe that the newspaper is in the library.
Yo creo que el periódico está en la biblioteca.
The teacher says that he believes that the newspaper is in the library.
El profesor dice que él cree que el periódico está en la biblioteca.
Thomas used to lose my grandfather's newspaper.
Tomas perdía el periódico de mi abuelo.
Luis comes to read the newspaper at the library. Luis comes to read it at the library.
Luis viene a leer el periódico a la biblioteca. Luis viene a leerlo a la biblioteca.
The newspaper reports were misleading.
Las informaciones aparecidas en la prensa eran engañosas.
An article in this morning's newspaper.
Un artículo en el periódico de esta mañana.
Usmanov bought the newspaper Kommersant.
Usmanov compró el periódico Kommersant.
The newspaper was therefore only reporting this, and that is all.
El periódico no hizo más que reproducir sus palabras; eso es todo.
Then there is the Refoundation Party, which has its own newspaper, Liberazione.
También está el partido Refundación, que también tiene su propio periódico, Liberazione.
Do you know to whom this newspaper refers?
¿Saben a quién se refiere este periódico?
I have spoken here before about the case of the newspaper Egunkaria.
Ya les conté aquí el caso del periódico Egunkaria.
No newspaper today is silent on Algeria.
Ningún periódico silencia hoy la situación de Argelia.
I know this because I have a lot to do with the editorship of this newspaper.
Lo sé exactamente pues tengo mucho que ver con esa redacción.
There is no newspaper stand nearby.
No existe cerca ningún anaquel de periódicos.
I still have not found the newspaper stand.
Todavía no he encontrado el anaquel de periódicos.
This has been the subject of various newspaper articles, including a leader in the London – which at least to be a serious newspaper.
Ha sido objeto de diferentes artículos de prensa, incluido un editorial del de Londres, que por lo menos ser un periódico serio.
Every newspaper I open has stories about the euro.
En cada periódico que abro hay artículos sobre el euro.
I have the 'Automatiseringsgids' of a famous Dutch newspaper, in front of me.
Tengo ante mí la "Guía de la Automatización" publicada por un conocido diario de los Países Bajos.
Luckily, the newspaper has produced a series of revelations.
Afortunadamente, el periódico ha hecho una serie de revelaciones.
Newspaper reports tell of a ship, coming from where?
Las noticias de los periódicos hablan de un buque que procede ¿de dónde?
In the Netherlands this was announced in a leading daily newspaper.
En los Países Bajos se difundió a través de un periódico importante.
On enquiring, we are told that the newspaper reports are accurate.
Consultas posteriores confirman que las noticias de los periódicos son ciertas.
This debate is crucial, but we do not make the newspaper headlines.
La discusión es muy importante, pero no estamos en los titulares de los periódicos.
For it is the very newspaper for which I work which is being portrayed as the object of persecution.
Pues precisamente el periódico con el que colaboro se presenta aquí como objeto de persecución.
A recent interview with a German newspaper stirred up some turmoil.
Una reciente entrevista concedida a un diario alemán ha sembrado cierta confusión.
Her epic ordeal was recorded in the Israeli newspaper Ha' aretz.
Su odisea aparece en el diario israelí Ha' aretz.
I do not want the Commission to reply to the ABC newspaper before replying to me.
No quiero que la Comisión le conteste al diario ABC antes que a este diputado.
Fundamentalists have set fire to the newspaper' s offices in Peshawar.
Los integristas han incendiado las oficinas del diario en Peshavar.
Today I spoke on the telephone with a journalist from a Bavarian newspaper in Istanbul.
Hoy he hablado por teléfono con una corresponsal de un diario bávaro en Estambul.
Mr President, at the weekend I was disastrously misquoted in a German newspaper.
Señor Presidente, en el fin de semana he sido falsamente citado de manera catastrófica en un periódico alemán.
Checks have been made, and have established that the newspaper certainly did not act out of malice.
Es cierto, y se ha comprobado, que el periódico no tuvo mala intención.
We would have preferred him to have said these things here, instead of in a newspaper, but that is what happened.
Nos habría gustado más que las hubiera hecho aquí, en vez de en un periódico, pero ése es el hecho.
We then learned from an article in a newspaper published here in Brussels, that she was not willing to do so.
Más tarde supimos por un artículo en un periódico publicado aquí en Bruselas que no estaba dispuesta a hacerlo.
In a newspaper yesterday, you said that the West must be united.
En un periódico de ayer, usted dijo que Occidente debe estar unido.
A few months ago we talked about the prohibition of the newspaper in the Basque country.
Hace unos meses hablamos de la prohibición del periódico en el País Vasco.
I quite frankly believe that that influential daily newspaper is being fanciful.
Francamente, me parece caprichoso el influyente diario.
Mr President, there is a very good Sunday newspaper in Britain called .
– Señor Presidente, en Gran Bretaña se publica un excelente dominical denominado .
Each time I open the newspaper, the world makes me sick.
Cada vez que abro el periódico, el mundo me pone enfermo.
Do newspaper articles have to appear before there is a response from Members of the European Parliament?
¿Tienen que aparecer artículos de prensa para que haya una respuesta por parte de los diputados al Parlamento Europeo?
I had to wait until Saturday to read details of her visit in a national newspaper.
Tuve que esperar hasta el sábado para leer los detalles de su visita en un periódico nacional.
Her newspaper is run by Golos, an independent electoral monitoring group.
Su periódico pertenece a Golos, un grupo independiente de observación de las elecciones.
Newspaper offices are raided to intimidate critical voices in the press.
Hay redadas en las oficinas de los periódicos para intimidar a las voces críticas de la prensa.
Mr. President, I submit to you the newspaper so that you can read about this yourself.
Señor Presidente, le entrego el periódico para que pueda leer usted mismo todo esto.
Could I ask the Commissioner to comment on British newspaper reports?
¿Puedo pedirle al Comisario que comente ciertas informaciones publicadas en los periódicos británicos?
I read an interesting line in a German newspaper this week.
Esta semana he leído unas palabras interesantes en un periódico alemán.
Mr President, I have here before me a small cutting from a Swedish newspaper.
Señor Presidente, tengo delante un recorte de un periódico sueco.
The largest newspaper in the Netherlands ran a report about it last week.
Esta fue la noticia publicada la semana pasada en el periódico neerlandés de mayor difusión.
I have here a cutting from a Finnish newspaper which came out last week.
Permítanme que les muestre el recorte de una revista finlandesa de la semana pasada.
Ladies and gentlemen, we cannot discuss here each and every newspaper article that is published.
Señoras y señores, no podemos discutir aquí todos los artículos de prensa que se publican al respecto.
For many people it is less than the cost of a cup of coffee or a newspaper.
Para muchas personas, es menos que el costo de una taza de café o de un periódico.
Thirdly, in the morning I would like to be able to get my newspaper quickly.
En tercer lugar, por las mañanas quisiera tener rápidamente mi periódico.
In January, the newspaper Frontier Post published a reader' s letter, following which the newspaper' s staff were taken into custody and accused of blasphemy.
El diario Frontier Post publicó en enero una carta de un lector y por esta razón fueron arrestados algunos empleados acusado de blasfemia.
The Russian newspaper Независимая газета (Independent Newspaper) yesterday printed an article on the Baltic Sea gas pipeline.
El periódico ruso Независимая газета (Periódico Independiente) publicó ayer un artículo sobre el gasoducto del Mar Báltico.
The newspaper reports that the honourable Member made reference to seem to me to be misleading and inaccurate.
Las informaciones aparecidas en la prensa a las que hace referencia Su Señoría son, a mi parecer, engañosas e inexactas.
| El País |
What was the name of the policewoman who was shot and killed outside the Libyan embassy in London on April 17th 1984? | Spanish Word for newspaper | newspaper in Spanish
Spanish Word for newspaper
Now you know how to say newspaper in Spanish. :-)
Translated sentences containing 'newspaper'
He bought a newspaper in English.
Él compró un periódico en inglés.
I read a newspaper.
They are buying the newspaper.
Están comprando el periódico.
He will be reading the newspaper.
Estará leyendo el periódico.
I'll read the newspaper when I arrive to the hotel.
Yo leeré el periódico cuando llegue al hotel.
Is the newspaper yours?
They'll read the newspaper tomorrow morning.
Ellos leerán el periódico mañana en la mañana.
I read a newspaper for the history class.
Yo leo un periódico para la clase de historia.
We need to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
Nosotros necesitamos leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
I believe that the students need to read an article in the newspaper.
Yo creo que los alumnos necesitan leer un artículo en el periódico.
The teacher says that the students need to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
El profesor dice que los alumnos necesitan leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
While I buy the tickets, you buy the newspaper.
Mientras yo compro las entradas, tú compras el periódico.
Juan is in the library because he needs to read an article in the newspaper for the history class.
Juan está en la biblioteca porque él necesita leer un artículo en el periódico para la clase de historia.
The newspaper that I need to read is in the library.
El periódico que yo necesito leer está en la biblioteca.
The teacher says that the newspaper I need to read for the history class is in the library.
El profesor dice que el periódico que yo necesito leer para la clase de historia está en la biblioteca.
I believe that the newspaper is in the library.
Yo creo que el periódico está en la biblioteca.
The teacher says that he believes that the newspaper is in the library.
El profesor dice que él cree que el periódico está en la biblioteca.
Thomas used to lose my grandfather's newspaper.
Tomas perdía el periódico de mi abuelo.
Luis comes to read the newspaper at the library. Luis comes to read it at the library.
Luis viene a leer el periódico a la biblioteca. Luis viene a leerlo a la biblioteca.
The newspaper reports were misleading.
Las informaciones aparecidas en la prensa eran engañosas.
An article in this morning's newspaper.
Un artículo en el periódico de esta mañana.
Usmanov bought the newspaper Kommersant.
Usmanov compró el periódico Kommersant.
The newspaper was therefore only reporting this, and that is all.
El periódico no hizo más que reproducir sus palabras; eso es todo.
Then there is the Refoundation Party, which has its own newspaper, Liberazione.
También está el partido Refundación, que también tiene su propio periódico, Liberazione.
Do you know to whom this newspaper refers?
¿Saben a quién se refiere este periódico?
I have spoken here before about the case of the newspaper Egunkaria.
Ya les conté aquí el caso del periódico Egunkaria.
No newspaper today is silent on Algeria.
Ningún periódico silencia hoy la situación de Argelia.
I know this because I have a lot to do with the editorship of this newspaper.
Lo sé exactamente pues tengo mucho que ver con esa redacción.
There is no newspaper stand nearby.
No existe cerca ningún anaquel de periódicos.
I still have not found the newspaper stand.
Todavía no he encontrado el anaquel de periódicos.
This has been the subject of various newspaper articles, including a leader in the London – which at least to be a serious newspaper.
Ha sido objeto de diferentes artículos de prensa, incluido un editorial del de Londres, que por lo menos ser un periódico serio.
Every newspaper I open has stories about the euro.
En cada periódico que abro hay artículos sobre el euro.
I have the 'Automatiseringsgids' of a famous Dutch newspaper, in front of me.
Tengo ante mí la "Guía de la Automatización" publicada por un conocido diario de los Países Bajos.
Luckily, the newspaper has produced a series of revelations.
Afortunadamente, el periódico ha hecho una serie de revelaciones.
Newspaper reports tell of a ship, coming from where?
Las noticias de los periódicos hablan de un buque que procede ¿de dónde?
In the Netherlands this was announced in a leading daily newspaper.
En los Países Bajos se difundió a través de un periódico importante.
On enquiring, we are told that the newspaper reports are accurate.
Consultas posteriores confirman que las noticias de los periódicos son ciertas.
This debate is crucial, but we do not make the newspaper headlines.
La discusión es muy importante, pero no estamos en los titulares de los periódicos.
For it is the very newspaper for which I work which is being portrayed as the object of persecution.
Pues precisamente el periódico con el que colaboro se presenta aquí como objeto de persecución.
A recent interview with a German newspaper stirred up some turmoil.
Una reciente entrevista concedida a un diario alemán ha sembrado cierta confusión.
Her epic ordeal was recorded in the Israeli newspaper Ha' aretz.
Su odisea aparece en el diario israelí Ha' aretz.
I do not want the Commission to reply to the ABC newspaper before replying to me.
No quiero que la Comisión le conteste al diario ABC antes que a este diputado.
Fundamentalists have set fire to the newspaper' s offices in Peshawar.
Los integristas han incendiado las oficinas del diario en Peshavar.
Today I spoke on the telephone with a journalist from a Bavarian newspaper in Istanbul.
Hoy he hablado por teléfono con una corresponsal de un diario bávaro en Estambul.
Mr President, at the weekend I was disastrously misquoted in a German newspaper.
Señor Presidente, en el fin de semana he sido falsamente citado de manera catastrófica en un periódico alemán.
Checks have been made, and have established that the newspaper certainly did not act out of malice.
Es cierto, y se ha comprobado, que el periódico no tuvo mala intención.
We would have preferred him to have said these things here, instead of in a newspaper, but that is what happened.
Nos habría gustado más que las hubiera hecho aquí, en vez de en un periódico, pero ése es el hecho.
We then learned from an article in a newspaper published here in Brussels, that she was not willing to do so.
Más tarde supimos por un artículo en un periódico publicado aquí en Bruselas que no estaba dispuesta a hacerlo.
In a newspaper yesterday, you said that the West must be united.
En un periódico de ayer, usted dijo que Occidente debe estar unido.
A few months ago we talked about the prohibition of the newspaper in the Basque country.
Hace unos meses hablamos de la prohibición del periódico en el País Vasco.
I quite frankly believe that that influential daily newspaper is being fanciful.
Francamente, me parece caprichoso el influyente diario.
Mr President, there is a very good Sunday newspaper in Britain called .
– Señor Presidente, en Gran Bretaña se publica un excelente dominical denominado .
Each time I open the newspaper, the world makes me sick.
Cada vez que abro el periódico, el mundo me pone enfermo.
Do newspaper articles have to appear before there is a response from Members of the European Parliament?
¿Tienen que aparecer artículos de prensa para que haya una respuesta por parte de los diputados al Parlamento Europeo?
I had to wait until Saturday to read details of her visit in a national newspaper.
Tuve que esperar hasta el sábado para leer los detalles de su visita en un periódico nacional.
Her newspaper is run by Golos, an independent electoral monitoring group.
Su periódico pertenece a Golos, un grupo independiente de observación de las elecciones.
Newspaper offices are raided to intimidate critical voices in the press.
Hay redadas en las oficinas de los periódicos para intimidar a las voces críticas de la prensa.
Mr. President, I submit to you the newspaper so that you can read about this yourself.
Señor Presidente, le entrego el periódico para que pueda leer usted mismo todo esto.
Could I ask the Commissioner to comment on British newspaper reports?
¿Puedo pedirle al Comisario que comente ciertas informaciones publicadas en los periódicos británicos?
I read an interesting line in a German newspaper this week.
Esta semana he leído unas palabras interesantes en un periódico alemán.
Mr President, I have here before me a small cutting from a Swedish newspaper.
Señor Presidente, tengo delante un recorte de un periódico sueco.
The largest newspaper in the Netherlands ran a report about it last week.
Esta fue la noticia publicada la semana pasada en el periódico neerlandés de mayor difusión.
I have here a cutting from a Finnish newspaper which came out last week.
Permítanme que les muestre el recorte de una revista finlandesa de la semana pasada.
Ladies and gentlemen, we cannot discuss here each and every newspaper article that is published.
Señoras y señores, no podemos discutir aquí todos los artículos de prensa que se publican al respecto.
For many people it is less than the cost of a cup of coffee or a newspaper.
Para muchas personas, es menos que el costo de una taza de café o de un periódico.
Thirdly, in the morning I would like to be able to get my newspaper quickly.
En tercer lugar, por las mañanas quisiera tener rápidamente mi periódico.
In January, the newspaper Frontier Post published a reader' s letter, following which the newspaper' s staff were taken into custody and accused of blasphemy.
El diario Frontier Post publicó en enero una carta de un lector y por esta razón fueron arrestados algunos empleados acusado de blasfemia.
The Russian newspaper Независимая газета (Independent Newspaper) yesterday printed an article on the Baltic Sea gas pipeline.
El periódico ruso Независимая газета (Periódico Independiente) publicó ayer un artículo sobre el gasoducto del Mar Báltico.
The newspaper reports that the honourable Member made reference to seem to me to be misleading and inaccurate.
Las informaciones aparecidas en la prensa a las que hace referencia Su Señoría son, a mi parecer, engañosas e inexactas.
| i don't know |
Which English inventor was responsible for the introduction of the multi-spool spinning frame known as the Spinning Jenny in1764? | Isaac - The Enlightenment of Science
The Enlightenment of Science
Isaac
Alexander Cummings
Alexander Cummings (1733-1814) was a mathematician, mechanic and wathchmaker. He was also the third Governer of the territory of Colorado (1865-1867). He was the first person to patent the design of the flush toilet. He was born in 1733 in Edinburgh and he also wrote books on clock and watch work. He aslo had an influence on the theory of gravity which earned him a Fellow of the Royal Society. Also because of his political power he was cast as the War Department's special purchasing agent. In February 1864 Cummings was made Superintendent of Troops of African Descent for the State of Arkansas, and for his efforts he was given the rank of Brigadier General by President Johnson. The same president soon appointed him as the Territorial Governor of Colorado on October 17, 1865.
David Bushnell
David Bushnell (1740-1824) was born in Saybrook Connecticut. He was an American inventor durning the Revolutionary war, and he invented the very first submarine. It was used to try and hide under water and blow up the British ships that were invading the New York Harbor. David grew up poor but wanted to persue a higher education. Being only self educated he got himself into Yale University when he was thirty-one years old.
While he was studying at Yale University in 1775 he created the first submarine to ever be used in combat. He called it the "Turtle" because of the way that it looked when it was in the water. His contribution was so great because we still use the same system of filling and emptying ballast tanks to raise and submerge submaries today. The screw propeller is also still used. David Bushnell also invented the first time bomb. When he tried to use the turtle to attach bombs to the hull of the British ships, the device that was operated from inside the oak-planked Turtle failed to penetrate the target vessel's hull. So the bombs didnt stay on the hull so they did not detonate.
John Harrison
John Harrison (24 March 1693 – 24 March 1776), He was a self-educated Carpenter and clockmaker. He invented the "Marine Chronometer".
This device allows sailors the ability to know the East and West postition or longitude of a ship at sea. By knowing this Sailors had a better chance of traveling long distances safely. The problem of getting lost at sea was considered so intractable that the British Parliment offered a prize of £20,000 (comparable to £2.87 million in modern currency) for the solution. He built his first Longcase Clock when he was 20 years old. This machine was completely made of wood.
The "longcase" clock or "grandfather clock" was the first invention made by John Harrison. These clocks have a pendulum and are from 6-8 feet tall. His clocks were made competly of wood, and because of this the owner of the clock didint have to worry about the pendulum changing length depended on the weather. WIth the pendulum out of sync it will slow down the clock. HIs wodden clocks would last for 8 days. The moving parts are controlled and counterbalanced by springs so that, unlike a pendulum clock, his clocks depended on the direction of gravity.
Energy
The revolution of energy was probably the most astounding to people during the enlightnment period. The introduction of the steam engine had an enormous influence on manufacturimg and transportation. Energy used to be only drawn from natural sources like manpower, horsepower, water, and wind but now steam engines were becoming the major source of power. Steam engines were used in trains and boats for mass transportation and they were also used in factories. With the advent of The Steam Engine factory production became more efficient. Production was increased, more product was created in the same amount of time thus increasing the amount going out to the consumer. This also helped to drive down the costs of common items. The Steam engine was also utilized on farms. Steam powered farm equippment took the place of domestic farm animals like cows and horses. Steam power brought along the traction engine. The traction engine is a self-propelled steam engine used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location.
Food
The preservation of food is very important. Preserving makes food last longer. Canning in glass jars or metal cans was a very important invention. Canning works because microbes and germs are killed by heat and a tight seal prevents air from going into sterilized containers. Canning became one of the main ways to perserve food, not only for households but for stores as well. Canning does not alter the taste or texture of the food, unlike drying. With new methods of food preservation canning actually helped improve people's health world wide becuase when food is not stored properly it spoils.
Medicine and Health
During the enlightenment period many people's lives were made better by inventions. Some of theses inventions are still used today. Like the first Stethoscope.
With this invention doctors were able to more accuatly listen to a patient's heart and lungs. Hearing the heart and lungs is one of the best ways to determine whether something is wrong. Another great invention was the Thermometer.
When a patient feels warm when they are sick or are not feeling well it is usually a sign of a fever. Of course doctors knew this before the thermometer was invented but now the doctors could get a more accurate reading of the body's temprature. During the enlightment period dental care was definately not as great as it was today. The mouth was a very sensitive area of the body to work with and people just ended up loosing their teeth because tools for performing things like cavity fillings and installing false teeth had not been invented. The First Dental Drill helped dentist to perform surgeries.
This Drill is foot powered, not operated using electricity.
Benjamin Banneker
Benjamin Banneker (November 9, 1731 – October 9, 1806) was a free African American astronomer, mathematician, surveyor, almanac author and farmer. Benjamin Banneker wrote the first Farmer's Almanac. The Farmers Almanac is a very important book. The 1792 almanac included the times for the rising and setting of the sun and moon. Weather forecasts and dates for yearly feasts were also included. Readers also saw a tide table for the Chesapeake Bay and some treatments for illnesses. In his 1793 almanac, Banneker included letters sent between Thomas Jefferson and himself.
Thomas L Jennings
Thomas L. Jennings (1791–1856) was an African American tradesman and abolitionist. He was a free black who operated a dry-cleaning business in New York City and was the first African American to be granted a patent. Jennings' skills along with a patent granted by the state of New York on March 3, 1821 for a dry cleaning process called "dry scouring" enabled him to build his business. He spent his early earnings on legal fees to purchase his family out of slavery, and supporting the abolitionist movement. In 1831, Jennings became assistant secretary to the First Annual Convention of the People of Color in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which met in June, 1831. Dry scouring is the process of cleaning without water, but it gets rid of stains and it sanitizes the clothing.
Spinning Jenny
The Spinning Jenny is a multi-spool spinning frame used to make yarn. This Frame was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in England. When the Spinning Jenny was first inivented it was able to accommodate 8 spools at once. As technology became more advanced this number grew to 120. This invention made working in the clothing industry alot easier and more efficiant.
James hargreeaves (1720 – 1778) was a weaver, carpenter and inventor in Lancashire, England.
The Flying Shuttle was invented in 1733 by John Kay. This invetion made looms easier to use for the weavers. The original shuttle contained a bobbin on to which the weft (weaving term for the crossways yarn) yarn was wound. It was normally pushed from one side of the warp (weaving term for the the series of yarns that extended lengthways in a loom) to the other side by hand. Large looms needed two weavers to throw the shuttle. The flying shuttle was thrown by a leaver that could be operated by one weaver.
The Spinning Mule
In 1779, Samuel Crompton invented the Spinning Mule that combined the moving carriage of the spinning jenny with the rollers of the water frame. The spinning mule gave the spinner great control over the weaving process, many different types of yarn could be produced. It was improved upon by William Horrocks, known for his invention of the variable speed batton in 1813. This invention further helped improve production in the clothing industry.
Leyden Jar
The Leydan Jar is a device that stores static electricity between two electrodes on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It was the original form of the capacitor. It was invented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) in 1745–1746. The invention was named for this city. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulated conductors of large dimensions to store a charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative.
Henry Cort
Henry Cort (1741-1800) was an english ironmaster. During the Industrial Revolution in England, Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. In 1783 he patented the puddling process for refining iron ore. The Henry Cort Community College bears his name, located in the town of Fareham, in the south of Hampshire, England, beacuse of his contributuions to society. He made it easier to make iron ore into different shapes which made iron a widely used material in manufacturing.
Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist from Berkeley, Gloucestershire, who was the pioneer of the smallpox vaccine. He is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have saved more lives than the work of any other man. Smallpox is a very dangerous and highly infectious disease unique only to humans. Smallpox targets small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth and throat. In the skin, this results in a characteristic maculopapular rash, and later, raised fluid-filled blisters
| James Hargreaves |
Which disease is also known as Pertussis? | European History/Glossary - Wikibooks, open books for an open world
European History/Glossary
A[ edit ]
Absolutism - Political theory that one person should hold all power; in some cases justified by "Divine Right of Kings."
Act of Supremacy (1534) - Act of Parliament under King Henry VIII of England declaring the king as the head of the Church of England, making official the English Reformation; (1559) reinstatement of the original act by Queen Elizabeth I.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) - Scottish economist and philosopher, author of The Wealth of Nations, thought of as the father of capitalist economics.
Age of Enlightenment - An intellectual movement in 18th century Europe marked by rational thinking, in contrast with the superstition of the Dark Ages.
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) - Physicist who proposed the theory of relativity and made advances in quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and cosmology.
Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) - The second prime minister of the Russian Provisional Government, immediately before the Bolsheviks and Lenin came to power.
Algeciras Conference - Took place in 1906 in Algeciras, Spain. The purpose of the conference was to mediate the Moroccan dispute between France and Germany, and to assure the repayment of a large loan made to the Sultan in 1904. The Entente Cordiale between France and the United Kingdom gave the British a free hand in Egypt in exchange for a French free hand in Morocco. France tried to achieve a protectorate over Morocco, but was opposed by Germany.
Allied Powers (World War I) - Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, and United States.
Anschluss (1938) - The inclusion of Austria in a "Greater Germany"; in contast with the Ausschluss, the exclusion of Austria from Imperial Germany in 1871.
Ancien Régime ("Old Order") - the social and political system established in France under the absolute monarchy; removed by the French Revolution.
Appeasement - Neville Chamberlain's policy of accepting conditions imposed by Nazi Germany.
April Theses (1917) - Lenin's writings on how Russia should be governed and the future of the Bolsheviks.
Aristotelian (Ptolemaic) Cosmology - The belief that Earth is at the center of the universe
Arms Race - A competition between two or more countries for military supremacy. This was perhaps most prominent during the Cold War, pitting the USA against the Soviet Union.
Aryans - In Nazism and neo-Nazism, a non-Jewish Caucasian, especially one of Nordic type, supposed to be part of a master race.
Autarky - An economy that does no trade with the outside world.
Avant-garde - People or actions that are novel or experimental, particularly with respect to the arts and culture.
Avignon Papacy (1305-1378) - Period during which the Papacy was moved from Rome to Avignon, France.
B[ edit ]
Babylonian Captivity - A term referring to the Avignon Papacy which implies that the Popes were captives under the French kings.
Banalities - Fees imposed by a feudal lord on serfs for the use of his facilities.
Baroque - A cultural movement in art originating around 1600 in Rome; art designed for the illiterate rather than the well-informed (Protestant Reformation).
Bastille ("Stronghold") - Generally refers to Bastille Saint-Antoine, demolished in the Storming of the Bastille at the start of the French Revolution.
Battle of Gallipoli (1915) - Failed attempt by the Allies to capture the Ottoman capital of Constantinople. (World War I)
Battle of Jutland (1916) - Largest naval battle of World War I; fought in the North Sea between British and German fleets.
Battle of the Argonne (1918) - Biggest operation and victory of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in World War I; in the Verdun Sector.
Battle of the Somme (1916) - Attempt by British and French forces to break through the German lines, to draw German forces away from Verdun.
Battle of Verdun (Feb-Dec 1916) - Longest and possibly largest battle in history; resulted in over 1 million deaths and 450,000 wounded or missing.
Battle of Lepanto (1571) - The first major victory of any European power over the Ottoman Empire; destruction of most of the Ottoman Empire's ships resulted in its loss of control over the Mediterranean Sea.
Beer Hall Putsch (1923) - An unsuccessful coup by Adolf Hitler and other leaders in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.
Belgian Congo - An area of central Africa, which was under formal control of the Belgian parliament from 1908 to 1960. The Belgian administration was one of paternalistic colonialism in which the educational and political system was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant churches.
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) - British author and Prime Minister, best known for his defense of the Corn Laws.
Berlin Crisis (1948-1949) - The Soviet blockade of West Berlin during the Cold War; abated after the Soviet Union did not act to stop American, British and French airlifts of food and other provisions to the Western-held sectors of Berlin
Bill of Rights 1689 - One of the fundamental documents of English law; agreed to by William and Mary in return for their being affirmed as co-rulers by the English Parliament after the Glorious Revolution.
Black Death - The plague which killed one third of Europe's population in the 14th century.
Bloodless Revolution - A term used to refer to the Glorious Revolution; the description is largely accurate of William's succession to the English throne, although his struggle to gain the Scottish and Irish thrones was far from bloodless.
Boer War - Two wars, one in 1880-81 and the second from October 11, 1899-1902 both between the British and the settlers of Dutch origin (called Boere, Afrikaners or Voortrekkers) in South Africa that put an end to the two independent republics that they had founded.
Bolsheviks - A faction of the Russian revolutionary movement formed 1903 by followers of Vladimir Lenin, who believed in a small party of revolutionaries with a large fringe group of supporters.
Book of Common Prayer - The prayer book of the Church of England; was first published in 1544 and has been through many revisions.
Boxer-Rebellion - Uprising against Western influence in China.
Burschenschaften - Liberal German associations of university students; helped initiate the Revolution of 1848 in Germany.
C[ edit ]
Cahier des doléances ("Statement of Grievances") - documents drawn up by electors of the French States-General, since 1484, listing complaints with the state.
Calvinism - Protestant religion founded by John Calvin, centered upon "the sovereignty of God" (Protestant Reformation).
Carbonari ("coal-burners") - groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th century Italy, and instrumental in organizing revolution in Italy in 1820 and 1848.
Carlsbad Decrees (1819) - A set of restrictions placed on Germans, under influence of Metternich of Austria; dissolved the Burschenschaften, provided for university inspectors and press censors.
Catholic monarchs - The Spanish rulers Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdidand II of Aragon whose marriage marked the start of Christian dominance in Spain.
Cavaliers - Supporters of Charles I of England in the English Civil War; also known as Royalists.
Cecil Rhodes - (1853-1902) British imperialist and the effective founder of the state of Rhodesia (since 1980 known as Zimbabwe), named after himself. He profited greatly from southern Africa's natural resources, generally at the expense of the natives; severely racist.
Central Powers (World War I) - Dual Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
Cesare Beccaria (1735-1794) - Italian philosopher and mathematician, author of On Crimes and Punishments resulting in penal code reforms.
Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - French utopian socialist thinker; supported man's right to a minimum standard of life.
Charles I (of England, Scotland) (1600-1649) - Struggled against Parliament, favoring absolutism, hostile to religious reform efforts; executed at the end of the English Civil War.
Chartism - A movement for social and political reform in England, named from the People's Charter of 1838.
Cheka (1917-1922) - The first of many Soviet secret police organizations.
Chivalry - Church-endorsed warrior code of ethics for knights, valuing bravery, loyalty, and self-sacrifice.
Cobden–Chevalier Treaty (1860) - Treaty substantially lowering duties between the Britain and France, marking increasing cooperation between the two nations.
Classical - Pertaining to the culture of ancient Greece and Rome.
Classical liberalism - A political and economic philosophy, originally founded on the Enlightenment tradition that tries to circumscribe the limits of political power and to define and support individual rights.
D[ edit ]
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) - Author of The Divine Comedy, a highly sarcastic work criticizing the Church; one of the first authors to write in vernacular.
David Hume (1711-1776) - Philosopher and historian of the Scottish Enlightenment.
Decembrists - Officers of the Russian Army that led 3,000 soldiers in the Decembrist Revolt, an attempted uprising at Senate Square in December, 1825.
Declaration of Pillnitz (1791) - A statement issued by Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia, warning French revolutionaries to allow restoration to power of Louis XVI.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) - French Revolution document defining a set of individual rights, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly as a first step toward writing a constitution.
Defenestration of Prague (Second) (1618) - Act of revolt of the Bohemian aristocracy against the election of Ferdinand II, a Catholic zealot, as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
Deism - Belief in a God as the creator, based on reason instead of faith (Enlightenment).
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) - French writer and philosopher dealing with free will, editor-in-chief of the early encyclopedia, Encyclopédie (Enlightenment).
Destalinization - Actions taken by Khruschev in the Soviet Union to allow greater dissent and to speak out against the actions of former USSR President Stalin.
Détente - The relaxation of tensions between the Soviets and Americans.
Dialectical materialism - The philosophical basis of Marxism as defined by later Communists; uses the concepts of thesis, antithesis and synthesis to explain the growth and development of human history.
Diggers - A group begun by Gerrard Winstanley in 1649 during Oliver Cromwell's England; called for a social revolution toward a communistic and agrarian lifestyle based on Christian Nationalism.
Directory - A group of five men who held the executive power in France, according to the French Revolution constitution of 1795.
Duke of Alva - Commonly refers to Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the third Duke of Alva (or Alba).
Dutch East India Company (1602-1798) - The first joint-stock company; granted a trade monopoly with Asia by the government of the Netherlands.
Dutch Revolt - Term referring to the Eighty Years' War.
E[ edit ]
Edict of Nantes (1598) - Declaration by Henry IV of France granting Huguenots substantial rights in a Catholic nation; introduction of religious tolerance (Protestant Reformation).
Edict of Worms (1521) - Declaration by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the end of the Diet of Worms that Martin Luther was an outlaw and a heretic (Protestant Reformation).
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) - Irish philosopher, Whig politician, and founder of modern conservatism; criticized the French Revolution.
Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) - A war of secession in which the Netherlands first gained independence as the Dutch Republic.
Emigration - The action and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle abroad. In particular, a large amount of emigration took place during the late 1800s in Europe.
Ems Telegram (1870) - Document edited by Otto von Bismarck to provoke the Franco-Prussian War.
Enclosure - The post-feudal process of enclosing open fields into individually owned fields; took off rapidly in 15th and 16th centuries as sheep farming became increasingly profitable.
Enlightenment - (see Age of Enlightenment).
English Civil War (1642-1649) - A civil war fought between supporters of Charles I, (king of England, Scotland, and Ireland) and the Long Parliament led by Oliver Cromwell.
Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937) - German general responsible for capturing the forts of Liège, critical to the Schlieffen Plan.
Erich Maria Remarque (1898-1970) - German soldier on the front lines of World War I, wrote All Quiet on the Western Front (1929).
Escorial - Large palace, monastery, museum, and library near Madrid, Spain; commanded by King Philip II, promoting study in aid of the Counter-Reformation.
Estates-General - An assembly of the three classes, or Estates, of France before the French Revolution.
Excommunication - Suspension of one's membership in the religious community; banning from the Church.
G[ edit ]
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - First to use the telescope in astronomy; proved Copernicus' heliocentric theory (Scientific Revolution).
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) - Author of The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories exposing the materialism of a variety of English people.
Gestapo - The official secret police force of Nazi Germany, Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police).
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) - Brief ruler of Florence known for religious anti-Renaissance preaching, book burning, and destruction of art.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1885) - Italy's most famous soldier of the Risorgimento.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) - Italian writer and politician who helped to bring about the modern, unified Italian state.
Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) - The removal of Stuart king James II from the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland; replaced by William and Mary; sometimes referred to as the Bloodless Revolution.
Great Fear (1789) - Event at the start of the French Revolution; upon rumors that nobles planned to destroy the peasants' harvest, the peasants sacked nobles' castles and burned records of feudal obligations.
Great Purges - Campaigns of repression against social groups, often seen as a desire to consolidate the authority of Joseph Stalin.
Great Schism - Term used to refer to either the Western or Eastern Schism within the Catholic Church.
Gulag - The branch of the Soviet police that operated forced labor camps and prisons.
H[ edit ]
Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945) - The commander of the German Schutzstaffel and one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany; one of the key figures in the organization of the Holocaust.
Henry Palmerston (1784-1865) - British Prime Minister and Liberal politician.
Henri-Phillippe Petain, General (1856-1951) - A French soldier and Head of State of Vichy France. He became a French hero because of his military leadership in World War I. (ed: specifically...?)
Henry V (1387-1422) - King of England (1413-1422); accepted by the English as heir to Charles VI and the French throne, thus adding conflict to the Hundred Years' War.
Hermann Goering (1893–1946) - A prominent and early member of the Nazi party, founder of the Gestapo, and one of the main architects of Nazi Germany.
Heresy - Holding of beliefs which are contrary to those of organized religion.
Huguenot - Member of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (Protestant Reformation).
Humanism - A secular ideology centered on human interests, stressing the value of the individual (Renaissance).
Humanitarianism - The belief that the sole moral obligation of humankind is the improvement of human welfare.
Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) - 116-year conflict between England and France.
I[ edit ]
Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) - Founder of the Society of Jesus, to strengthen the Church against Protestantism (Protestant Reformation).
Il duce (The Leader) - Name adopted by Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini in 1923 to position himself as the nation's supreme leader.
Impressionism - Art movement focused on creating an immediate visual impression, using primary colors and small strokes to simulate reflected light. (19th century)
Imperialism - The policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by the establishment of economic and political hegemony over other nations.
Individualism - Emphasis of the individual as opposed to a group; humanism (Renaissance).
Innocent III - Pope who organized the Fifth Crusade (1217); began the Papacy's interference in European affairs.
Irish Easter Rebellion (Easter Monday, 1916) - An unsuccessful rebellion against British rule in Ireland.
Iron Curtain - Boundary which separated Western and Eastern Europe during the Cold War.
Isaac Newton (1643-1727) - English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher; credited for universal gravitation, laws of motion, and calculus (Scientific Revolution).
J[ edit ]
James Hargreaves (1720-1778) - English inventor of the spinning jenny in 1764.
James Watt (1736-1819) - Scottish engineer who improved the steam engine, a catalyst of the Industrial Revolution.
Jan Hus (1369-1415) - Founder of the Hussites, with reform goals similar to those of John Wyclif; author of On the Church, criticizing the Church; was burned at the stake.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - Swiss-French philosopher and political theorist; "noble savage" idea that man is good by nature but corrupted by society.
Jesuits - see Society of Jesus
Joan of Arc (1412-1431) - Peasant girl who defended an English siege on Orléans during the Hundred Years' War; was captured and burned as a heretic.
Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) - Dominican priest known for selling indulgences (Protestant Reformation).
John Calvin (1509-1564) - Founder of Calvinism in Geneva, Switzerland (Protestant Reformation).
John Kay (1704-1780) - British inventor of the flying shuttle for weaving, a catalyst of the Industrial Revolution.
John Knox (1505-1572) - A Protestant reformer who founded Presbyterianism in Scotland (Protestant Reformation).
John Locke (1632-1704) - An English philosopher of the Enlightenment who wrote about "government with the consent of the governed" and man's natural rights; provided justification for the Glorious Revolution.
John Wyclif (1328-1384) - Initiator of the first English translation of the Bible, an important step toward the Protestant Reformation.
Joseph Joffre, General (1852-1931) - Catalan French general; helped counter the Schlieffen Plan through retreat and counterattack at the First Battle of the Marne.
K[ edit ]
Karl Marx (1818-1883) - An influential German political theorist, whose writing on class conflict formed the basis of the communist and socialist movements.
Khruschev - See Nikita Khrushchev
Kristallnacht (1938) - A massive nationwide pogrom in Germany, directed at Jewish citizens throughout the country.
Kulturkampf (Cultural Fight) - Attempt by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to reduce Catholic influence in the early years of the 1871 German Empire.
M[ edit ]
Machiavellian - Having the qualities seen by Niccolò Machiavelli as ideal for a ruler; using ruthless authoritarian tactics to maintain power.
Manchurian Incident (1931) - Japan's military accused Chinese dissidents of blowing up a sectin of a Japanese railroad in Manchuria, thus providing an excuse for the Japanese annexation of Manchuria.
Mannerism - Art after the High Renaissance in reaction to it, using exaggeration or distortion instead of balance and proportion.
Manor - The local jurisdiction of a lord over which he has legal and economic power (feudalism).
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) - French philosopher and mathematician, inventor of the Condorcet method, a voting system.
Marshall Plan - The primary plan of the United States for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe and repelling communism after World War II.
Martin Luther (1483-1546) - German theologian and Augustinian monk who began Lutheranism and initiated the Protestant Reformation.
Meiji Restoration (1866-1869) - Revolution in Japan; replaced the Tokugawa shogunate with imperial rule, and modernized the feudal country; provoked by the opening of Japan's ports to the West.
Mein Kampf (My Struggle) - A book written by Adolf Hitler, combining elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology of nazism.
Mensheviks - A faction of the Russian revolutionary movement formed 1903 by followers of Julius Martov, who believed in a large party of activists.
Mercantilism - The economic theory that a country's economic prosperity depends on its supply of gold and silver, and that a country should export more than it imports.
Metternich (1773-1858) - Austrian foreign minister during and after the Era of Napoleon.
Michaelangelo (1475-1564) - Renaissance painter, sculptor, poet and architect; most known for the fresco ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
Mir - In Russian, "peace," Connotes "community." (ed: relate this to the subject????)
Monasticism - Complete devotion to spiritual work.
Munich Agreement (1938) - An agreement regarding the Munich Crisis; discussed the future of Czechoslovakia and ended up surrendering much of that state to Nazi Germany, standing as a major example of appeasement.
N[ edit ]
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821) - General and politician of France who ruled as First Consul (1779-1804) and then as Emperor (1804-1814).
Napoleonic code - French code of civil law, established by Napoléon on March 21, 1804, to reform the French legal system in accordance with the principles of the French Revolution.
National Socialist German Workers' Party - The Nazi party which was led to power in Germany by Adolf Hitler in 1933.
Nationalism - Ideology which sustains the nation as a concept of common identity among groups of people.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) (1769-1821) - An international organization for collective security established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, DC, on 4 April 1949.
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939) - A non-aggression treaty between foreign ministers Ribbentrop of Germany (Third Reich) and Molotov of Russia (Soviet Union).
Neo-platonism - Philosophy based on the teachings of Plato, which resurfaced during the Renaissance.
Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) - British Prime Minister who maintained a policy of appeasement toward Nazi Germany.
New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921) - Lenin's system of economic reforms which restored private ownership to some parts of the economy.
New Model Army - An army of professional soldiers led by trained generals; formed by Roundheads upon passage of the Self-denying Ordinance in 1645; became famous for their Puritan religious zeal (English Civil War).
New Monarchies - The states whose rulers in the 15th century began authoritarian rule using Machiavellian tactics (Northern Renaissance).
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) - Florentine political philosopher; author of The Prince (Renaissance).
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - Astronomer and mathematician who developed the heliocentric theory of the solar system (Scientific Revolution).
Nietzsche's Superman (Übermensch) - Concept that the strong and gifted should dominate over the weak.
Night of the Long Knives (1934) - A purge ordered by Adolf Hitler of potential political rivals in the Sturmabteilung.
Nihilism - Philosophy viewing the world and human existence as without meaning or purpose.
Nikita Khrushchev - Leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin's death, from 1953 until 1964.
NKVD - An agency best known for its function as secret police of the Soviet Union; also handled other matters such as transport, fire guards, border troops, etc.
No man's land (World War I) - In trench warfare, land between two opposing trenches which provides no cover.
O[ edit ]
October Revolution (1917) - The second stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, led by Leon Trotsky; the first officially communist revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution.
Q[ edit ]
Queen Victoria (1819–1901) - Queen of the United Kingdom, reigning from 1837 until her death, longer than any other British monarch. As well as being queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, she was also the first monarch to use the title Empress of India. The reign of Victoria was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. The Victorian Era was at the height of the Industrial Revolution, a period of great social, economic, and technological change in the United Kingdom.
R[ edit ]
Raphael (1483-1520) - Florentine painter and architect of the Italian High Renaissance.
Rasputin, Father Grigori (1872-1916) - Russian mystic having great influence over the wife of Tsar Nicholas II's wife Alexandra, ultimately leading to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty and the Bolshevik Revolution.
Rationalism - The philosophical idea that truth is derived from reason and analysis, instead of from faith and religious dogma (Renaissance).
Realism (Renaissance) - Depiction of images which is realistic instead of idealistic.
Realism (19th century) - Artistic movement originating in France as a reaction to Romanticism; depiction of commonplace instead of idealized themes.
Realpolitick (Politics of reality) - A term coined by Otto von Bismarck which refers to foreign politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics.
Reconquista - The Spanish "reconquering" resulting in the removal of Jews and Muslims from the state, and a unification of Spain under Catholicism.
Red Guards (Russia) - The main strike force of the Bolsheviks, created in March 1917.
Reichstag (Imperial Diet) - Between 1871 and 1945, the German parliament.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) - A baroque painter and engraver of the Netherlands during the Dutch Golden Age.
Renaissance - A cultural movement started in Italy in the 14th century marked by a rebirth of classic art and scientific learning of ancient Greece and Rome.
René Descartes (1596-1650) - Mathematician (inventor of the Cartesian coordinate system) and rationalist philosopher ("I think, therefore I am").
Risorgimento (resurrection) - The gradual unification of Italy, culminating in the declaration of the Kingdom of Italy (1861) and the conquest of Rome (1870).
Rite of Spring - A ballet composed by Russian Igor Stravinsky; controversy due to its subject, pagan sacrifice.
Robert Owen (1771-1858) - Welsh social reformer, father of the cooperative movement.
Robespierre (1758-1794) - One of the best known leaders of the French Revolutions; known as "the Incorruptible"; leader of the Committee of Public Safety.
Romanticism (18th century) - Artistic and intellectual movement, after the Enlightenment period, stressing strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions.
Rotten borough - A small British parliamentary constituency which could be 'controlled' by a patron and used to exercise undue and unrepresentative influence within parliament.
Roundheads - Puritans under Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War; named after the round helmets they wore; also known as Parliamentarians.
Royal Society of London (1660) - An institution of learning committed to open content, the free availability and flow of information.
Royalists - An adherent of a monarch or royal family; sometimes refers to Cavaliers (English Civil War).
Russian Civil War (1918-1920) - Conflict between communists and monarchists, after the Russian Revolution of 1917.
S[ edit ]
Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) - A wave of Catholic mob violence against the Huguenots, lasting for several months.
Sans-culottes (without knee-breeches) - Term referring to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the French Revolutionary army.
Schleswig-Holstein - A region of northern Germany which Denmark surrendered to Otto von Bismarck in 1865.
Schutzstaffel (SS) (Protective Squadron) - A large paramilitary organization that belonged to the Nazi party.
Secularism - Concern with worldly ideas, as science and rationalism, instead of religion and superstition (Renaissance).
Self-denying Ordinance (1645) - A Bill passed by English Parliament, depriving members of Parliament from holding command in the army or navy, to promote professionalism in the armed forces; aided creation of the New Model Army (English Civil War).
Sepoy mutiny (1857–1858) - Rebellions against British colonial rule in India; caused the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - Austrian neurologist credited for psychoanalysis and the theory of unconscious motives.
Simony - The ecclesiastical crime of paying for offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church (Protestant Reformation).
Sir Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) - English inventor of the Water Frame, a water-powered cotton mill.
Sir Thomas More - Author of Utopia, a novel which extols the hypothetical ideal society, by the Northern Renaissance ideals of humanism and Christianity.
Social Darwinism - The application of Darwinism to the study of human society, specifically a theory in sociology that individuals or groups achieve advantage over others as the result of genetic or biological superiority.
Society of Jesus - A Roman Catholic Order founded in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola (Protestant Reformation).
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) - The result of the complex political and even cultural rift in Spain.
Sphere of Influence - A territorial area over which political or economic influence is wielded by one nation.
Stalin, Joseph (1879-1953) - Bolshevik revolutionary who ruled the Soviet Union after the death of Lenin; responsible for the Great Purge and five year plans.
T[ edit ]
Tabula rasa (Blank slate) - John Locke's idea that humans are born with no innate ideas, and that identity is defined by events after birth.
Taille - A direct land tax on the French peasantry in ancien régime France.
T.E. Lawrence (1888-1935) - also known as Lawrence of Arabia; a British liaison officer during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918.
Tennis Court Oath (1789) - A pledge by France's Third Estate to continue to meet until a constitution had been written; may be considered the birth of the French Revolution.
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - Conflict principally taking place in the Holy Roman Empire involving a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, fought for the self-preservation of the Hapsburg dynasty.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) - English political philosopher advocating an authoritarian version of the social contract (absolutism).
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) - English economist who, in An Essay on the Principle of Population, predicted that increasing population growth would cause a massive food shortage.
Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) - English inventor of the Newcomen engine, a steam engine for pumping water out of mines.
Tory - A member of the British Conservative party.
Totalitarianism - A form of government in which the political authority exercises absolute and centralized control over all aspects of life.
Treaties of Tilsit (1807) - Treaties ending war between Russia and France; began a powerful secret alliance between the two countries.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) - Peace treaty which marked Russia's exit from World War I.
Treaty of Versailles (1919) - Peace treaty created by the Paris Peace Conference; which officially ended World War I.
Trotsky, Leon (1879-1940) - Bolshevik revolutionary, early Soviet Union politician, and founding member of the Politburo; expelled from the Communist Party after a power struggle with Stalin.
Truman Doctrine (1947) - Harry S. Truman's statement initiating the U.S. policy of containment toward Russia.
U[ edit ]
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) - Founder of Zwinglianism in the Zürich, Switzerland; leader of the Swiss Reformation (Protestant Reformation).
Usury - Charging a fee generally in the form of interest on loans; forbidden by most religious doctrines (Protestant Reformation). Usury was forbidden in the Catholic Church, so Jews became wealthy, successful merchants
Utopian Socialism - The socialist ideals of creating a perfect communist society. Writers such as Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint-Simon and Robert Owen were prominent Utopian Socialists.
W[ edit ]
War of the Three Henrys (1584-1598) - A series of three civil wars in France, also known as the Huguenot Wars; fought between the Catholic League and the Huguenots.
Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) - Intermittent civil war fought over the throne of England between the House of Lancaster and the House of York.
Warsaw Pact (1455-1487) - An organization of Central and Eastern European Communist states. It was established in 1955 to counter the threat from the NATO alliance.
Weimar Republic (1919-1933) - The first attempt at liberal democracy in Germany; named after the city of Weimar, where the new constitution was written.
Western Schism (1378) - Split within the Catholic Church at the end of the Avignon Papacy.
Whig - A member of the British Liberal Democrat party.
White-collar - Class of labor performing less "laborious" tasks and are more highly paid than blue-collar manual workers.
White Man’s Burden - The concept of the white race's obligation to govern and impart it beliefs upon nonwhite people; often used to justify European colonialism.
William and Mary - King William III and Queen Mary II; jointly ruled England and Scotland after the Glorious Revolution of 1688; they replaced the absolutist King James II and ruled as constitutional monarchs.
William Gladstone (1809-1898) - A British Liberal politician and Prime Minister (1868-1874, 1880-1885, 1886 and 1892-1894), a notable political reformer, known for his populist speeches, and was for many years the main political rival of Benjamin Disraeli.
| i don't know |
Which Welsh vocalist who lived from 1915 to 1998 married Roger Moore in 1953, a marriage that lasted until 1961 when Moore left her and moved in with Italian actress Luisa Mattioli? | Dorothy Squires : definition of Dorothy Squires and synonyms of Dorothy Squires (English)
7 External links
Biography
Born as Edna May Squires in her parents' carnival caravan in Pontyberem (about 12 miles from Llanelli ), Carmarthenshire , Wales , to a steelworker, Archibald James Squires and his wife, Emily, she wanted a piano as a child. Her mother bought her a ukulele . While working in a tin plate factory, she began to perform professionally as a singer at the age of 16 in the working men's club of Pontyberem.[ citation needed ]
Career
Squires decided to pursue her dream in London, so while working as a nurse[ citation needed ] she would audition unsuccessfully for various jobs, during which she met agent Joe Kay, who got her night time work in various clubs. While working in the East End , Squires worked at a club which gave her the name Dorothy, which she liked and used on stage after that time. Squires did most of her work with the orchestra of Billy Reid , who was her partner for many years. After she joined his orchestra in 1936, he began to write songs for her to perform.[ citation needed ]
Billy Reid
In the immediate post- war , she worked on the BBC radio show Variety Bandbox , which subsequently made her the highest paid female singer in the UK. Squires and Reid bought a 16-bedroom house in Bexhill on Sea , and working with Reid recorded the original version of Reid's composition, " A Tree in the Meadow ", best known in the United States for the recording by Margaret Whiting , which reached No.1 on the U.S. pop chart .
Her version of another Reid-penned song, " I'm Walking Behind You " was covered by Eddie Fisher which became a No.1 hit single in the U.S., and her recording of " The Gypsy " also became a No.1 hit there after being waxed by The Ink Spots — their biggest hit. It was also a major hit for Dinah Shore .
Whilst working with Billy Reid, Dorothy Squires lived at 16 Chaucer Road, Herne Hill Brixton.
Roger Moore
Roger Moore (12 years her junior) became her second husband when they married in New Jersey in 1953. Resident in New York , Hollywood and Llanelli , the marriage lasted until 1961, when Moore left her and moved in with Luisa Mattioli . Moore was unable to marry legally until Squires granted him a divorce in 1969 - the day on which Squires was convicted of drunk driving . [2] [ citation needed ]
Returning to living in the UK, Squires had a career revival in the late 1960s at the age of 55 with a set of three singles making the UK Top 40 , including a cover of " My Way ". New albums and concerts followed included a sell out set of concerts at the London Palladium . Squires herself had hired the Palladium for a series of shows, and they exceeded expectations and sold out of tickets within hours. A double album of the event was issued.
Later life
In 1971 she undertook the first of 30 court cases over the next 15 years. In 1971 she successfully sued the News of the World over the story "When Love Turned Sour", and was awarded £4,000. In 1972 she took out a libel action against the actor Kenneth More for mistakenly referring to Mattioli as Roger Moore's 'wife' ( Michael Havers acted for Kenneth More). [3] [4] In 1973 she was charged with high kicking a taxi driver who tried to throw her out of his cab. She was also one of several artists charged with allegedly trying to bribe a BBC radio producer as part of a scheme to make him play her records - the case was dropped. [5] [6]
In 1974 her Bexley mansion burned down, from which she escaped with her dog and all her love letters from Roger Moore. She then moved into a house in Bray next to the River Thames , which flooded three weeks later.
By 1982 she had been banned from the High Court , and had spent much of her fortune on legal fees. Her litigiousness was so excessive that, on 5 March 1987, the High Court declared her to be a vexatious litigant , preventing her from commencing any further legal actions without the permission of the Court. [7] In 1988 she lost her home in Bray following bankruptcy proceedings - which she returned to the following night to recover her love letters from Moore. Her last concert was in 1990, to pay her poll tax .
Death
This section does not cite any references or sources .
(December 2011)
Squires was provided with a home in Trebanog , Rhondda , South Wales by a fan , Esme Coles. Squires retired there a recluse , and died in 1998 of lung cancer , aged 83, in Llwynypia Hospital, Rhondda. She is buried in a family plot in Streatham Park Cemetery, South London.
Hit singles
| Dorothy Squires |
Which British inventor was responsible for the introduction of the rubber band in 1845? | Dorothy Squires
Click to read in-depth article featuring archive footage
Thought you might be interested in this article from 8th May.
It says that Llanelli Community Heritage have been liaising with Roger Moore about a blue plaque for Dorothy's former home. They're organising someone who can avail it, as Roger wouldn't be available. Ruth Madoc has now agreed. The unveiling is set for tomorrow - apologies for not letting you know sooner but haven't long spotted the article. We (myself, my brother and Dad) aren't involved with Llanelli Community Heritage anymore, but I thought you would be interested to hear of this local story for Dorothy. Dad and his heritage colleagues are still hoping that the Ritz building can be granted listed status, especially considering its links with Dorothy. Once he hears further I'll let you know.
- Alec
�Say It With Flowers� - REVIEWS
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Mark Wallace travelled to Cardiff to see the new Dorothy Squires play. Here�s what Mark has to say about the production
Say it with Flowers opened at the magnificent new Sherman Theatre in Cardiff and is subsequently on tour over the country. This play focuses on singer, songwriter and Diva Dorothy Squires, situated during her attempt to settle into her new and ultimately final abode;residing with an ardent fan. Throughout the show, flashbacks from Squires� past offer the audience an accurate vision of her former triumphant talent. Ruth Madoc and Gillian Kirkpatrick play �Old Dot� and �Young Dot� respectively and deliver a tour de force through their sublime performances never resorting to impression or caricature yet leisurely morphing into the Diva herself.
Moreover, the entire cast of Say it with Flowers provide outstanding performances such as Heledd Gwynn�s characterisation of Emily, Dot�s estranged niece, Matt Nalton�s portrayal of a randy roguish Roger Moore, and Aled Pedrick doubling as Dot�s brother and a priapic Billy Reid. Furthermore, a particular plaudit must be handed to Lynn Hunter for her extraordinary performance as Maisie, Dorothy�s fan. The ensemble possesses remarkable singing skills and vocal prowess whether it is solo or in harmony, whilst Dyfan Jones�s musical direction is meticulous and inspiring. The sets and lighting are both innovative and remarkable thereby replicating a suburban living room on one side with a performance stage and pit opposite. Towards the end of the second act, the set transforms into a hospital ward with ease and allure.
Say it with Flowers is also a study of the human condition where individuals exploit others for their own gain yet ultimately regret it and re-establish positive relationships with each other. This can be a difficult thing to convey, however Authors Meic Povey and Johnny Tudor achieve it within this superbly crafted piece. Praise should also be offered to the Director, Pia Furtado whose expertise shaped this fine production, and to Georgia Lowe; the Designer, Katherine Williams, Lighting Designer, and the whole of the greatly talented Production Team. Overall, Say it with Flowers is a unique production and a splendid theatrical experience which should be highly recommended to potential audiences.
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Philip Lee-Thomas, a longtime Dorothy Squires admirer, offers this view of the Say It With Flowers stage production
'SAY IT WITH FLOWERS' Review
Last week I attended a performance of a new play about Dorothy Squires called 'Say It With Flowers', written by Meic Povey and Johnny Tudor, the latter a close friend of Dorothy's.
The play begins with the older Dorothy - played ably by Ruth Madoc - arriving bankrupt and penniless in Trebanog, South Wales, to live in a house given to her by her "biggest fan", Maisie. Dorothy, it transpires, is dying of cancer, and, like some caged animal, she stalks her sombre surroundings while looking back on her past with a mixture of regret and nostalgia. These memories are brought to life on the other side of the stage, where the younger Dorothy - played by the Scottish actress Gillian Kirkpatrick - leaves Llanelli behind with a "pocketful of dreams", and through the subsequent milestones in her life, her rise to fame, meeting and divorcing Roger Moore, and examining Dorothy's relationship with her brother and niece.
At times the split-stage presentation felt like two different playss giving the first half a disjointed feel. This is exacerbated by some of the action taking place in the Sherman Theatre's orchestra pit, which the audience - save for those in the front couple of rows - could not see clearly.
After the interval the two halves interacted more, culminating in an astonishing scene change leading to Dorothy's admission to hospital, mirroring her confusion and anxiety.
Several of Dorothy's more famous songs were performed magnificently by the aforementioned Kirkpatrick, and indeed these moments were the highlight of the evening.
Maisie is played as an enthusiastic, albeit obsessive, control freak, who provides Dorothy with a run-down and unpleasant- looking hovel. In my knowing the real-life 'Maisie' (Esme Coles), I am aware this is hardly accurate, but I am equally aware that this is a dramatic device, in illustrating how far Dorothy has fallen, and giving her a more dramatic 'foil' to play against. Lynn Hunter's performance as Maisie was funny and poignant, though the character is so well-drawn, and having so much time on stage, that at times it threatens to dominate the play.
In contrast, Dorothy is frequently shown as bitter or malicious, but these scenes are mostly played merely for laughs; there seems to be very little interest in exploring in any detail why Dorothy could be so cruel to others. There is a greater, and more tragic story here about a complex woman which is largely unexplored, and ultimately, the part feels under-written, being all surface and no depth.
In the end this was a diverting piece of theatre with some enjoyable moments and performances, and while by no means perfect, I would recommend any fan of Dorothy to see it during its tour of Wales, playing at venues in Mold, Milford Haven and Llanelli."
�Say It With Flowers� Stage Production To Open in Cardiff
Hot on the heels of Dorothy Squires � Mrs Roger Moore, the stage production which took the Edinburgh Festival by storm last summer, comes another stage play about Dorothy, Say It With Flowers, written by Johnny Tudor and Meic Povey, which opens at the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff on 15 May 2013. After two weeks at the Sherman, the production will go on tour around Wales including the Theatre Clywyd, a new theatre in Dorothy�s hometown of Llanelli called The Ffwrnes, The Torch Theatre in Milford Haven, and then Aberystwyth.
Johnny Tudor, the Welsh entertainer who supported Dorothy at her 1970 London Palladium comeback concert, says that the stage production based on Dorothy�s eventful life is �going great�. �The show goes into rehearsal on 15 April, and I�m hoping that we can get a management interested in bringing it over the Severn Bridge to England. Dorothy deserves to be back in London.�
Johnny � whose father was an old family friend of the Squires family, and who himself knew Dorothy from being an infant � was commissioned by the Sherman Theatre in Cardiff to write the play Say It With Flowers with BAFTA winning playwright, Meic Povey. Johnny says: �The really good news is that the Sherman Theatre recently received full funding from the Arts Council of Wales for a tour.�
CAST
FREDDIE SQUIRES - ALED PEDRICK
MAISIE - LYN HUNTER
Flamboyant, stubborn and always ready with a sharp one liner� Dorothy Squires was the pint sized phenomenon who rose from the Llanelli tin works to the heights of the West End and Broadway to become one of Britain's most successful performers.
Her life was as dramatic as her songs and was often the focus of media attention; her electrifying on-stage presence, her sell-out comeback concerts at the London Palladium and her tempestuous marriage to Roger Moore, were overshadowed by her predilection for litigation and battles with Rupert Murdoch, resulting in her being made a vexatious litigant.
This rags to riches story follows Dorothy's journey ending with her sad demise, back where she started, in the South Wales Valleys.
Written by Meic Povey and Johnny Tudor, Say It With Flowers features some of Dot�s best loved songs. Everyone loves a fighter and Dorothy certainly did it her way � but where did it all go wrong?
15-25 May, 7.30pm
Previews: �12-�20
�15-�22 | Concessions: �2 off
Under 25s Half Price
http://www.walesartsreview.org/say-it-with-flowers-a-conversation-about-dorothy-squires/
Star's life proves an inspiration for musician's single
THE life of tragic Pontyberem-born Hollywood star Dorothy Squires is the inspiration behind a new song by Llanelli songwriter Christopher Rees.
The 39-year-old former Bryngwyn school pupil is set to release the single Alright Squires on January 21 before his sixth album Stand Fast comes out on February 18.
The singer-songwriter said he had decided to write the song after seeing a television documentary about Ms Squires's story.
He said: "It's an amazing life story really, it's quite a rollercoaster.
"I knew very little about her until I stumbled across a documentary a few years ago.
"I was completely gobsmacked to realise there was this world- famous Hollywood singer that came from my home town.
"She was a big star, living in Hollywood with Roger Moore.
"Then her fall from grace is pretty dramatic � the things she did in the '70s, the fact she became addicted to suing the newspapers and the pretty tragic tale of her house burning down and ending up living off the charity of a kind fan in the Rhondda.
"It's a pretty rags to riches back to rags story, which I find absolutely fascinating."
Mr Rees, who is now based in Cardiff, said a theme of his new album was resilience and strength.
"I think this album is probably more in tune with where I am right now," he said.
"It's quite a resilient sounding album. It sums up the determination and resilience that I have to find each day to keep doing what I love � to make music.
"It's quite personal. It relates to the way I live my life."
He said after his last album Heart On Fire, which was heavily influenced by his love of soul music, Stand Fast had more in common with his earlier work.
Like all of his music, the album draws on the influences of the southern states, featuring the banjo, twanging guitars and harmonica.
Mr Rees said he was looking forward to appearing at the South by Southwest Festival in Texas in March � as well as playing a few dates in Wales.
With thanks to This Is South Wales
Llanelli Community Heritage's website includes the following interesting article about Dorothy's early years in South Wales, written by Lyn John.
http://www.llanellich.org.uk/Files/dorothy-squires3.html
New Kathy Kirby Biography
The late Kathy Kirby was one of the most popular female singers of the Sixties, with big-selling singles like Secret Love, Let Me Go Lover, and Dance On, and her own BBC TV series, The Kathy Kirby Show, which saw her dubbed �the golden girl of pop�. Sadly her career � and personal life � went into decline however after the death of her Svengali manager, mentor and lover, former bandleader Bert Ambrose, in 1971 and for three decades afterwards Kathy lived a very reclusive lifestyle at her home in Kensington, west London. She died in May 2011 at the age of 72.
Now Kathy�s long-time friend Mark Willerton � whose Burtey Fen Collection museum near Spalding in Lincolnshire, is a �must see� for any fans of Fifties and Sixties popular music � has written a superb biography on the life of Kathy, entitled The Real Kathy Kirby � No Secret Anymore (Matador Books). The 372-page hardback book is beautifully illustrated with glossy photographs of Kathy from her career, and also includes a complete discography of her recordings as well as every television and radio appearance she made in the UK (and during the Sixties it seemed that she was never off the air, either on radio or television).
In many ways, Kathy�s life and career mirrors that of Dorothy Squires. Both women knew the highs and lows of show business life, had troubled private lives, and were ignored by the media in later years. They also possessed powerful singing voices and delivered their songs with true emotion. Both Kathy and Dorothy have retained huge fan followings that have stuck by their respective idols through both the good and the bad times.
In fact, Dorothy is mentioned several times in Mark�s authorative biography about Kathy. He relates an amusing incident at Brighton�s Theatre Royal when Kathy was headlining a bill with Arthur Askey and Hetty King, and Dorothy and Lita Roza were together in the audience. When Kathy introduced her latest recording which just happened to be her version of My Way, Dorothy was overheard to say �She�s singing MY song� � but in much fruitier language! Kathy was also a frequent guest at Dorothy�s famous show business parties at her home in Bexley, and pays tribute to Dorothy in the Memories section of this website.
The Real Kathy Kirby is a fascinating book about a remarkable person and performer, and Mark Willerton�s research � as well as drawing on his own personal memories of Kathy � is quite astounding. It puts an earlier, flimsy biography about Kathy by another person to total shame. Mark celebrates Kathy�s life and career but has not been afraid to chronicle with total honesty the sadder years when she and career went into decline. By the end of this biography, the reader almost feels that they knew Kathy personally � even if they had never actually met her.
Mark�s book can be obtained direct from www.kathykirby.org.uk, retailing at �19.99. This book is head and shoulders above many of the other biographies that abound about show business stars and TV reality show nonentities, and is an essential read for any fans of popular music singers. I�m sure that Kathy herself would have been pleased with Mark Willerton�s literary endeavours which successfully combine genuine affection for his subject and a realistic �warts and all� approach. This is a superb book about a truly iconic singing star of the Sixties.
ORDER NOW
JOYCE GOLDING (1922-2012)
Former variety and stage performer Joyce Golding, who was married to Dorothy Squires� brother William �Freddie� Squires, and the mother of Dorothy�s niece Emily Squires, died on Christmas Eve 2012 at the age of 90. Joyce had been in failing health in recent months but died peacefully in Hove, where she and Emily shared a home.
Joyce Golding was one of Britain�s most successful variety acts during the late Forties and the Fifties. Her show business career started when Joyce was a teenager in the early Forties and with the NAAFI (Navy, Army and Air Force Institute), working as a shop assistant and helping out with the laundry. Battersea, south London, born Joyce kept her colleagues entertained with wickedly accurate and hilarious impressions of famous film stars of the day, with the result that two friends applied for her to join ENSA (the Entertainments National Service Association).
Joyce was invited to an audition at London�s Drury Lane Theatre before being sent across Europe to entertain the troops during the war years. Her act, Creating An Impression, combined jokes and sketches with musical interludes. She was billed as Joyce Golding, rather than her married name of Joyce Squires. After the war, Joyce�s talent was spotted by Joe Collins, the father of film star Joan Collins and best-selling author Jackie Collins, and was signed to his theatrical agency, based in Islington, north London. She starred in the 1948 slapstick comedy film Trouble In The Air � still regularly aired on television - alongside Jimmy Edwards, Freddie Frinton, Jon Pertwee and Bill Owen.
Joyce also undertook a six-week stint at the London Palladium in 1950 and also appeared at the famous Collins Music Hall in Islington. She also appeared on the same bill as The Andrews Sisters at the notorious Glasgow Empire in 1952 � a venue renowned as being a graveyard for English comedians. She came through the experience with flying colours.
Joyce also made a name for herself playing the traditional �dame� in panto, a role that was usually a male prerogative. The late show business mogul Lord Grade, who presented her in some of his pantos, said: �Joyce Golding was the funniest woman I ever saw on a stage. She could make an audience laugh without even opening her mouth.�
Joyce met her husband Freddie Squires when she deputized at the last minute for another actress at the Palace Theatre in Blackpool. They married in 1949 and their daughter Emily was born the following year. Joyce continued performing while pregnant, including sharing a bill with a young Petula Clark.
Joyce spent many weekends with her sister-in-law Dorothy and (Sir) Roger Moore, who were married from 1953 to 1969, at their home in Bexley, Kent. In 1952 she appeared alongside Dorothy and Roger (who was playing The King in one of his earliest and rare stage performances) at the Brixton Empress Theatre, south London, production of Jack And The Beanstalk. Their daughter Emily took her first riding lessons alongside Roger during his preparations to play the title role of Ivanhoe in the hit ATV series.
Joyce starred at the Brighton Hippodrome in the late Forties, opposite Max Bygraves, and also worked with the great comedian Max Miller. She also appeared frequently on the same theatre bill as the late musical tenor David Hughes during the Fifties.
Joyce�s husband Freddie Squires died in December 1955 at the early age of 35. Joyce was due to appear as a guest performer on a Vera Lynn TV show the following day. Whereas many a performer would have pulled out of the commitment, for Joyce it was very much a case of �the show must go on� and she appeared alongside Dame Vera for the recording. For the next few years Joyce concentrated on bringing up their young daughter Emily Jane while continuing to perform in theatres around the country, most notably on the prestigious Moss Empires circuit.
In the late Fifties Joyce worked as a successful double act with Brighton actor and singer Tony Stuart. She finally gave up the theatre in 1962, finding interest was dwindling in her style of variety. However she and Tony Stuart staged festive variety shows for six consecutive years at the 42 Club in Brighton.
In 2002, at the age of 80, Joyce became recognised as Britain�s oldest newspaper delivery �girl�, and finding her achievement written about in some of the newspapers that she delivered by scooter around the homes of Hove. In recent years she had lived quietly with Emily at their home.
Emily said: �Mum celebrated her 90th birthday on 28 July 2012 but in recent months had slowed down considerably, and the end came peacefully. She was a remarkable woman and had enjoyed a successful caree
r in show business which she loved to reminisce about, while at the same time never regretting her decision to retire from the stage during the final years of traditional variety entertainment.�
Joyce Golding�s funeral will take place at Brighton Crematorium on 14 January 2013 and her ashes will later lie alongside those of her mother who also lived in Brighton. Her late husband Freddie is buried in Streatham Vale Cemetery, sharing the same grave as his sister Dorothy.
Dorothy Squires and Helen Shapiro
Dorothy Squires and Roger Moore with Frankie and Stella Vaughan at the London premier for Frankie's film 'Let's Make Love' (in which he co-starred with Marilyn Monroe and Yves Montand)
Courtesy of the Burtey Fen Collection
LADIES OF SONG
The ever-popular Barbara Windsor and her radio producer Graham Pass did Dorothy proud in the Radio 2 series Barbara Windsor�s Ladies Of Songs, which also included similar tribute documentaries to two other iconic British female performers, Alma Cogan (which was also produced by Graham Pass) and Kathy Kirby.
The one-hour Squires programme � scripted by Radio 2 presenter Russell Davies -was the last of the three specials to be broadcast (going out on the evening of 7 November 2012) and was preceded by an announcement that it contained language that might offend some listeners (or words to that effect). Even the Radio 2 website included a warning � anyone wanting to listen to the programme again on the internet, for seven days after the actual broadcast, had to tick the appropriate box indicating that they were an adult and not under age! It could only happen with a Dorothy Squires programme. The documentary did feature a studio out-take of Dorothy recording Where Do I Begin (Love Story) in which she let rip with the F word! And there were several references to her colourful language in general during the show.
Barbara�s tribute traced Dorothy�s career from beginning to end and included contributions from Sir Roger Moore, Lionel Blair, Bobby Crush, Rosemary Squires (who humorously recalled once being mistakenly taken for Dorothy�s daughter, and when Dorothy was seated just a few chairs away!) actor and variety Peter Charlesworth, radio presenter Pete Murray, Teddie Johnson, Emily Squires (Dorothy�s niece), entertainer Johnny Tudor and Esme Coles (the lady who provided Dorothy with a home during her last years). There were also spoken extracts from Dorothy herself, recorded just a few months before her death.
Music in the programme included If I Never Sing Another Song, My Way, Till, The Gypsy, Say It With Flowers, I�ve Gotta Be Me, Tree In A Meadow, and other songs closely associated with Dorothy�s long career. There was even an airing of the controversial The Chosen One, composed and recorded by Dorothy during what was obviously a very troubled period in her personal life, and which was only released after her death in 1998. As Barbara Windsor commented, it was almost like listening to a nervous breakdown caught on record.
Incidentally, Barbara also featured Dorothy on her Sunday programme (standing in for Elaine Paige) a couple of weeks later when she featured her 1970 hit recording of Till, describing her as �magnificent but volatile�, and both Dorothy and Kathy as being �two great songstresses�. Kathy�s Secret Love was also given an airing on the same programme, and the previous week Barbara played Alma�s 1961 recording of Hello Young Lovers.
The Dorothy documentary received various mentions in the media with the Daily Mail TV magazine listing it as the �best of the rest� in its radio column. The Daily Telegraph also gave it an excellent pre-airing write-up. Barbara�s Ladies Of Song tribute to Dorothy also received plenty of advance �plugs� on Radio 2, and featured an extract from For Once In My Life and a spoken quote from Dorothy, �Either you like me, or you don�t�.
Hopefully, for those who may have missed the programme, there will be a repeat broadcast at some time in the near future.
Sir Roger Moore
Sir Roger Moore was recently the featured guest on Piers Morgan�s Friday night ITV show (subsequently repeated at the weekend), discussing his long film and TV career � and his rather eventful love life. Dorothy Squires was naturally prominent among the former wives he mentioned.
Sir Roger recalled one incident between him and Dorothy which ended with her smashing his acoustic guitar over his head! He also recalled how, after their marriage break-up, she turned up at the home he had made with Luisa Mattioli. Dorothy smashed a window, reached through the glass and grabbed Roger by his shirt. A policeman who had been summoned said: �Madame you are bleeding� to which Dorothy replied, �It�s my heart that�s bleeding!�
Questioned by Morgan, Sir Roger confirmed that he had helped pay Dorothy�s hospital bills towards the end of her life. He also recalled phoning Dorothy who asked him about his new love (and now wife) Christina Tholstrup. �You�ve finally found the one for you, haven�t you?� she asked. Sir Roger commented on the show that he was glad to have Dorothy�s approval.
Sir Roger Moore has recently been in several �An Evening With �� shows around the country, which tied in with his new book Bond On Bond. His appearance at the Rose Theatre in Kingston-upon-Thames on 14 October 2012 also marked his 85th birthday. Interestingly, at this particular event, Dorothy was the only former wife mentioned during the course of the evening. Sir Roger recalled going to the United States with Dorothy, and landing a part in a Broadway show, A Pin To See The Peepshow. �It opened on 13 September 1953 � and closed on 13 September 1953!�
Publicity about Sir Roger Moore has been in overdrive with the commemorations for the 50th anniversary of James Bond. A two-page Daily Mail spread about Sir Roger, written by Glenys Roberts and illustrated with several photographs including one with Dorothy, recalled their marriage.
�After he left Doorn van Steyn, his next wife was Dorothy Squires who was 13 years older than him. Squires, who was 37 when they met, had dragged herself up into the limelight, having been born in Wales in the back of a van from which her parents sold fish and vegetables. She began her working life in a tinplate factory earning �2 a week but it was her partnership on and off stage with songwriter Billy Reid that set her on the road to settling differences with physical blows.
Reid was pathologically jealous and used to put a ladder up to their bedroom window to check his famous wife (webmaster: they were never actually married) was alone in bed. Cue, according to one friend, the �most wonderful rows, with broken chairs and flying records � something I�d never witnessed in my life�. When Squires met Roger at a party, after she walked out on Reid, they fell for each other in an instant. They were married in New York and his career under her tutelage started to flourish.
But when they reached Hollywood the marriage started to fall apart, especially when Dorothy Provine, Roger�s younger blonde co-star in the TV series The Alaskans, caught his eye. Friends recall there were some terrible public scenes and, by the time the couple came back to Britain, the rows became even worse. Roger, now 84, recalls one row when he was plucking a guitar to avoid confrontation.
�I was sitting on the edge of the table strumming and she was ranting on about something and I wasn�t taking any notice. Next thing I knew it was like slow motion. I could feel the guitar coming out of my hands and see it up above my head and � bash, it came down. She ruined the guitar. She had a great temper.�
That marriage came to an end after Luisa Mattioli came on the scene. Moore, now a star in his own right, met Luisa in Rome where he went to make the film The Rape Of The Sabine Women. Luisa, then a luscious 28 � nearly 20 years younger than Squires � played one of the women.
Roger says, �Dorothy was not happy to find out I was having an affair�. He however remained fond of his ex-wife � who died in 1992 � despite her uncontrolled passion. �She threw a brick through my window, reached through the glass and grabbed my shirt, and cut her arms doing it. The police came and said, �Madame, you�re bleeding.� And she said, �It�s my heart�s that�s bleeding.�
She was still so much in love with Roger that she refused to give him a divorce for seven years and, as a result, his first two children with Luisa were born out of wedlock. But that was not the end of the saga. Dorothy sued Roger for restitution of her conjugal rights. The judge ordered Roger to return to her, but he didn�t. She then tried to publish her autobiography, detailing secrets about Roger. Both he and Luisa won injunctions and the book never saw the light of day.
By 1969 Roger was free to marry Luisa but he had picked another woman who was not afraid to speak her mind. He divorced Luisa in 1996 and is now married to Danish socialite Christina Tholstrup. He says their relationship is tranquil.�
Dorothy Squires... My memories by Barry Hatcher.
I think it is fair to say that Dorothy Squires made a big impact on my life in the 1970's and beyond.
I first became aquainted with the voice of Dot Squires I think in about 1971, when I was working in a family pub in Surbiton, Surrey. The landlord and his wife were already great fans of Dorothy and used to talk about her, having been to the comeback concert at the London Palladium in 1970.
I became interested and my then landlord and now lifelong friend Danny promised that the next time they went to see a Dot Squires concert they would take me along to see her. This turned out to be her concert at The Royal Albert Hall and it was the first time I had been to a live concert like this. Wow, what an incredible experience !
From that moment I was an adoring fan of Dorothy Squires ! However , I was not to know at this point what was to follow or the wonderful experiences I would go on to have with this incredible and charismatic woman.
I remember, in October 1972, the trip to New York to see Dorothy appear at the Carnegie Hall. I was just 22 years old and this was the first time I had ever been on a plane, let alone crossing the big pond to America. I boarded that plane with some trepidation and the fear of a first time flyer.
Some way into the flight my travelling companion Colin disappeared to answer the call of nature , but didn't return. I sat in my seat wondering where he had gone and eventually curiosity got the better of me. I decided to go and find out what he was up to, as I knew Colin to be a bit of a character.
I found him having a quiet drink at the back of the cabin, along with the cabin crew. To my delight it appeared that the alcohol on the flight was free and we could just indulge as much as we wanted. So , not to be a party pooper I did !! By the time we reached New York, I hardly knew whether the plane was going up or coming down! I was properly pissed and glad to be so ! I do remember the plane circling over the Hudson River and seeing the Statue of Liberty from above. What a sight !
The trip that was organised for Dorothy's fans lasted four days and it was fabulous from start to finish. I recall after the concert at Carnegie Hall there was an after-show party and in those days the word � Party � was like a magnet to me so I was straight in there. It was a great time and I will have an everlasting memory of meeting and talking to the famous Hollywood actress Hermoine Gingold, who looked every bit the Hollywood film star !
In the following few years Dorothy of course performed many more concerts and these were probably her best years, following her comeback at the London Palladium. I recall she was booked for a week at the � Double Diamond � club in Caerphilly.
I heard that she was doing this and was determined to take time out to go and see her there. I cannot recall how or where right now, but somewhere along the way I had become aquainted with her personal assistant / friend Elizabeth's daughter Jane.
I booked myself a room in the � Castle Hotel � in Caerphilly , and by pure chance my room was right across the hall from Dorothy ! I think I was there for about four days and, because of my association with Jane, I got to meet Dorothy in the hotel and was asked if I would help by acting as an escort for the girlfriend of Dorothy's pianist Kenny Brown. This simply meant making sure she was okay during the time Kenny was performing on stage, and other periods when he might be otherwise engaged. This I did with pleasure, having been given my own table in the club with all the food and drink we wanted for free! Hey, not a bad way to spend your evenings I recall !
After the shows we would return to the hotel with Dorothy and then, after collecting our sandwiches from the kitchen - yes, true! -we would all then go up to Dot's room and sit and have our sandwiches, and a drink or two, and listen to Dot recounting her days with Roger Moore and many other fascinating tales from her glorious life. These were wonderful times and I think I was completely in awe of this woman!
At the end of the week in Caerphilly it was time to return to reality! Dot's booking at the club had culminated in a wonderful and very emotional last night and raptuous applause. They even paid her a bonus, having had a really successful week singing to packed houses. It was exhausting for Dot and made more so as she had a raging tooth ache halfway through the week and had to rush off to a dentist to relieve her pain.
I had made my way to Caerphilly by train but when the week had finished and we had to check out of the hotel, Dot very kindly offered me a lift back to London in her car. Hey, this was getting better and better I thought ! Getting a ride back in Dot's big swanky American Limousine was a real treat and I recall we had a great time stopping off to eat and listening to Dorothy telling more stories about famous Hollywood stars and things they used to get up to.
We arrived back at Dot's Bexley home and Dot went next door to get a key from her neighbour as her housekeeper had her own keys, but she was not at home. It seemed we had a slight problem - here we all were, tired and wanting to get in, but... no keys!
We checked all the windows and doors of this vast house and I found a small window in the kitchen that hadn't been locked and which I managed to open. I had to climb up and just about managed to slide down inside and open the door for Dorothy and the rest of the entourage.
Once everyone was in I was given a tour of this magnificent house. I remember the thick white carpets and the lovely grand piano that stood in the split-level lounge area. What luxury ! I also remember the library and all the signed photos that adorned the walls, all these famous film and singing stars !
Dorothy cooked a meal for us all that evening and once again we had a great party and a fabulous time. I slept upstairs in one of the bedrooms in the main house.I remember opening a large wooden wardrobe in my room only to find it filled with beautiful gowns of glitter and ostrich feathers.
Dorothy would never sleep in the main part of the house because legend had it that it was haunted and there were many stories about this. Instead , Dot slept in the annexe which I remember had a galleried bedroom. There was also an attached cottage to the side of the house which was rented I seem to remember by two gay guys... obviously friends of Dorothy ! Lol.
The next day I said my goodbye to Dot and left for home. What an experience for a young 22-year-old guy ! It was such a shame when her beautiful house was so badly damaged in that awful fire. Most of the sentimental items on the house must have been lost and many of Dot's memories lost forever.
I remember a time when Dorothy put on a concert in Leicester. I travelled there on the train with Jane. The concert was of course a great night. We were all seated round a table and I have a photo from this evening in which I can see Emily, Dorothy's niece, sitting at the table with myself and Jane plus two other guys who were known to us at the time.
The party after this show was good and Larry Grayson was there , walking around with a tray handing out glasses of champagne ! What a lovely man he was and such a good host at a party. We all had a great time and far too much to drink. On the train back I was so pissed that, when the train breaked, I rolled off the seat I was lying on and fell onto the floor in a complete stupor !
When we all arrived back in London, very late, we slept at John Lloyd's flat in Grays Inn Road. I can remember my sleeping place was on the floor in the hallway but, bearing in mind the amount of alcohol I had consumed, I really didn't care !
Some years late , and I am guessing this was around 1977 or 1978 , I was travelling into west London on the M4 / A4 towards Hammersmith, in my van which was loaded up with fruit and veg for the market stall that I in Shepherds Bush. As I neared London I found there was a big queue of traffic building up on the motorway which was unusual . We were on the flyover at Chiswick and as I neared the obstruction that was causing the traffic hold up I spotted a car which had broken down on the outside lane. Could it be ?....yes there it was , that big American Limo that I had travelled back from Wales in with Dot Squires!
I pulled up behind the car, and the accompanying police car, and quickly found Dorothy who was somewhat agitated to say the least. Her car had broken down and apparently she had only just got it back from the garage after having work done. I cannot repeat what she called the garage owner, but the air was blue that morning !
A phone call had been made to the breakdown service and the police were soon on the scene to help direct the traffic that had built up. Once the breakdown truck had arrived I offered Dorothy a lift into town. She had an appointment with a solicitor that morning and needed to get into the West End. Dorothy, as you can imagine, was dressed up to the nines in high boots and fur coat . She looked a million dollars so it was quite an extraordinary sight to see her climbing up into the cab of my dirty old van full of fruit and vegetables and travelling into town in this. It was a bit of a squash as there were three of us then in the front , but we got there !
I dropped Dorothy off at Lancaster Gate that morning and I remember she nearly went arse upwards as she got out because it was so high and she was so short. I remember she promised to send me some tickets for her next concert as a � Thank You � but I don't recall if she ever did ! .
I continued to go to all of Dots concerts and attend her after-show parties. Alas they were not all great affairs and some were a bit tame in comparison to her earlier ones. I recall when she did a concert at the Lewisham Odeon she returned to the auditorium after the show to lambast the lighting engineers as some of the lighting arrangements got a bit cocked up during the show. She was absolutely livid about this and I could hear here vocalising her complaints in her own style and language to the engineers at the front of the auditorium. Unfortunately that left all her fans waiting upstairs for her to make an entrance for the after show party.
Unfortunately for Dot, and what she wouldn't have known at that time, was that she was going to be invited to open a new � Odeon � cinema later that year. However, according to a close friend of mine at that time, because of the commotion caused that evening after the show , they decided not to forward the invitation and engaged someone else to do this instead. Such a shame really but then sometimes Dot did make quite a fuss when things went wrong.
Regretfully, I never saw Dot in her later years and after she moved to Bray. I had planned to visit her there but somehow my personal life took a different direction and time moved on. I did try and keep up with whatever she was doing and attended all her concerts except the very last , which was in Brighton. I think in her latter years she was having more difficulty with her voice but her audiences were still just as adoring and supportive of her.
Having read what I have about her tendency towards litigation in her final years, I think it an awful shame that she had lost all her former wealth and felt she needed to take the route she did, eventually destroying what had been a wonderful lifestyle. I guess she just lost her way but, nevertheless, she left a lot of people with some really wonderful memories. For that alone we should always be grateful that she touched our lives in the inimitable way she did.
GOD REST HER SOUL.
Smiles for the camera from Tommy Steele, Dorothy, Liberace and Roger Moore
at a showbusiness event.
John�s book is available from Dress Circle in Monmouth Street, priced at �25.
~
Great to hear the highly respected lyricist Don Black (Born Free, Diamonds Are Forever and countless other hit songs) give Dorothy a mention on the Radio 2 Sunday show normally presented by Elaine Paige. Don mentioned that he had been a song plugger in his formative years and mentioned Denmark Street (Tin Pan Alley) and that singing stars like Dorothy often found their songs there. Dorothy of course recorded If I Never Sing Another Song, which Don penned the lyrics for, and also included an extract from another of his songs, When The World Is Ready, in her Irony Of War medley. It would be great if Don could play a Dorothy recording during his temporary tenure of the show � to my knowledge, Elaine Paige has never once, in ten years, played anything by Dorothy.
Dorothy was also mentioned by Jean Fergusson (Last Of The Summer Wine, Coronation Street) in Barbara Windsor�s Radio Two tribute show about Hylda Baker. Jean of course has written a well-received biography about Hylda, and also portrayed her in a West End stage show. She recalled that Dorothy, when talking about Hylda, and her personal problems, had once said: "I don�t think that Hylda realised just how good she was."
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Bernie Burgess, the late lamented Ruby Murray�s husband in the Fifties and Sixties (and a member of the Jones Boys) gives Dorothy a couple of mentions in his biography, Ruby � My Precious Gem. Referring to the fact that Ruby had been exploited by certain show business people in her hey-day, he writes: "Artists like Frankie Vaughan understood what was happening. He was quoted as saying: �There were artists that were not receiving their true value,� and he felt that Ruby was one of them. Another star name Dorothy Squires made it generally known that she had severe doubts about what could be happening to Ruby. The variety bills that she topped produced very high revenue, but very little of that came Ruby�s way."
Later in his book: "I always remember an old friend Dorothy Squires saying to me, �how can those four ******* (The Beatles) have so many hits with the rubbish they write. Within a few months Dorothy was recording cover versions of at least two of their song! That�s show business!"
The Wales on Sunday newspaper recently carried an item about Dorothy. The piece was also picked up by other newspapers around South Wales, and it also ran in The Daily Mail, accompanied by a small headshot picture of Dorothy.
Readers of the newspapers were informed: �Friends of the late Welsh singing star Dorothy Squires say she would be �laughing from the grave� at the very public humbling of her old nemesis, Rupert Murdoch.
The entertainer and ex-wife of Roger Moore went to the grave blaming Murdock�s media empire for her financial ruin, after she launched dozens of costly legal battles against his newspapers. From being heralded one of the brightest stars Britain ever produced, she died in 1998 aged 83, ending her life a poverty-stricken recluse.
Last night, those who knew Dorothy said the star would be revelling in the storm engulfing the Australian media mogul�s empire. The star went head to head with the Murdoch-owned News of the World in 1971 in the first of two successful legal battles. The fiery singer sued Murdoch�s organisation over an article suggesting she had sold the intimate story of her married to 007 star Moore, when she hadn�t.
She also sued over an allegation that she had bribed a BBC radio producer to play her records on air, but a series of subsequent legal actions � as many as 28, and most unsuccessful � left her penniless. By 1982 she had been banned from the High Court and had spent much of her fortune on legal fees.
She ended up bankrupt and homeless, living in a horse-drawn caravan until she was offered a home in Trebanog, Rhondda by lifelong fan Esme Coles. In a BBC documentary, filmed only weeks before her death from cancer, she said: �I hold Rupert Murdoch entirely responsible.� Last night Mrs Coles, now 74, said Murdoch�s appearance in the full glare of the public spotlight � culminating in last Tuesday�s grilling by MPs, during which he was pelted with a custard pie � would feel like justice to Dorothy. �Dorothy never forgave Rupert Murdoch for running a story about her selling tales about Roger Moore,� she said. �After that her life was never the same and she always said that the News of the World had been the start of her troubles.�
The 80-year-old mogul was forced to admit that he had been let down by people he trusted as he faced a barrage of questions about the saga which has rocked his empire and led to the closure of the News of the World a fortnight ago.
Dorothy, who had a love/hate relationship with the media, did however warm to one reporter on whose shoulder she cried. Dave Edwards, a retired Media Wales reporter, interviewed Dorothy during his time working for local radio. �Although Dorothy was known to have a hatred of the press I was lucky enough to get an interview with her in the studio of Swansea Sound radio station back in the 1980s,� he recalled. �She swore like a trooper and literally cried on my shoulder about the breakdown of her relationship with Roger Moore.
�We parted the best of pals � she even invited me to go with her to Swansea Market to feast on some faggots and peas.�
Dorothy was, of course, not living in a horse-drawn caravan towards the end of her life, but was reputed to have been born in one!
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Petula Clark was asked about Dorothy in an excellent in-depth interview that she gave to the Daeida Magazine which can be found on-line at daeida.com. Thanks to Theo Morgan for drawing this to our attention.
Petula was asked, Do you remember Dorothy Squires?
�Yes, of course I remember Dorothy Squires. We met several times. She was Welsh and I�m half Welsh so we got on well. I spent some time with her in Los Angeles when she was with Roger Moore as well. But I had known her before then and (Petula laughs) she was a very outgoing person, let�s put it that way! Very different from me but she was great fun and was an amazing singer. She was a diva before her time.
Artists like Dorothy Squires � who had a rather opposite voice and personality than you � do people like her attract you personally or professionally? You know, the more outgoing, boisterous, audacious types?
No, not really. Frankly it�s not that I don�t mix with people like that because I do mix with all kinds of people, and they�re all fine, but Dorothy was different. I got to know her well because we were in the same business and she was so famous � and so was I, and we used to meet at different parties. She was very much a �party animal�. That�s putting it mildly (Petula laughs). I wasn�t especially a party animal but I would go, you know.
How would you describe Dorothy Squires in a few words? What comes to mind immediately?
Fiery, on stage and off. Well, she was a fiery Welsh woman! She had an amazing voice, and she was so successful in the UK.
Would you say that she was larger than life?
Yes, very much so�
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The Call Boy is the official journal of the British Music Hall Society, lovingly edited by Geoff Bowden and available on subscription. The autumn 2011 issue featured a lengthy memoir by Rosalyn Wilder who worked as personal assistant to the late Robert Nesbitt.
Robert Nesbitt presented many hit West End musical shows including those staged at the legendary Talk Of The Town nightclub back in its illustrious heyday, and he was also closely involved with the annual Royal Variety Show, working alongside Lord Bernard Delfont.
Among her reminiscences, Rosalyn recalls: �The scene is the Talk Of The Town late on Monday afternoon. Dorothy Squires is opening that night as the headline cabaret. Mr Nesbitt has spent the afternoon lighting her act. He clearly is not entirely happy and he goes up to her, puts his arm around her shoulder and says, �Dorothy darling, I really don�t think that song is the right choice for the act�. �Well,� flounces Miss Squires, �I don�t care what you think, it stays in�. More persuasion from Mr. N.; more stubborn behaviour from the star. �Well, darling,� says Mr. Nesbitt.�If you really must sing it may I suggest you sing it in the taxi on the way home?�!
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Nice to hear the ever-loyal Desmond Carrington playing Dorothy�s Roses Of Picardy in one of his Radio 2 shows. More recently, he played Russ Conway�s solo interpretation of Say It With Flowers and mentioned that the song had been penned by Dorothy. Offshoremusicradio�s Rod Collins also continues to give Dorothy quite a lot of plays on the internet station, the most recent being I�ve Gotta Be Me from the first London Palladium concert. Rod says that he receives regular requests from listeners to feature recordings by Dorothy.
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Eric Hall did Dorothy and her fans proud recently, virtually devoting the whole of his Sunday afternoon two-hour show on BBC Radio Essex to play her music. Your webmaster Chris White joined Eric to chat about Dorothy�s life and career and there were, of course, quite a lot of on-air phone calls from fans and listeners. There were too many Dorothy recordings featured to list here � suffice to say, Eric did play My Way, Till, For Once In My Life, I Am What I Am, Don�t Take Your Love From Me and many more. Thanks for keeping the Dorothy memories alive, Eric!
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Kathy Kirby
You will all know the news by now of Kathy Kirby�s sad death on 19 May 2011. For many years Kathy had lived quietly at her home in Kensington, West London, turning her back completely on any proposed public appearances. She was supported emotionally by her family, including her sister Pat, and nieces, but received very few other visitors. One exception to this golden rule was Mark Willerton of the Burtey Fen Collection, who had known the reclusive Kathy for some three decades and often visited her at her home, acting as a confidante, and enjoying listening to her many show business reminiscences. It was Mark who arranged for Kathy to pay tribute to Dorothy for this website - look under the Tributes section - and he recalled an occasion when Kathy went one of Dorothy�s parties in Bexley and a fight broken out between Dorothy and her sister, Rene, and they had to be physically separated! On another occasion Dorothy and Lita Roza went to see Kathy in concert in Brighton and, when Kathy started to sing My Way, she whispered to Lita: �She�s singing my bloody song�!
There�s no need to go into the career highlights of Kathy Kirby here - they have already been well-documented - but suffice to say, the �Golden Girl of British Pop�, as she was known back in the 60s, left behind a rich legacy of recordings for her fans to enjoy, and the memories of her outstanding musical talents will live on for many years to come.
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The BBC Wales documentary Welsh Legends focused on some on some of the legendary names to emerge from the principality during the latter half of the 20th century, including Richard Burton, Sir Harry Secombe Shirley Bassey and actress Rachel Roberts (who, like Dorothy, was brought up in Llanelli). The series, first broadcast two years ago, kicked off with a special programme about Dorothy which included rare film footage as well as reminiscences from those who worked with and knew her. It also feature rare interview footage with Dorothy, recorded a few months before her death, and which never made the final edit of the Rain Rain Go Away TV documentary first broadcast in 1998. Such has been the appeal of the programme that it has since been broadcast several times by BBC Wales - most recently, in May 2011 - although sadly it has never been screened elsewhere around the country. Let�s hope that it eventually gets seen around the rest of the UK.
Tribute was also paid to Dorothy in early 2011 when BBC Radio Wales, ran a live feature about her and the plans to unveil a blue plaque in Trebanog. Presented by the popular Ray Noble, the 20-minute live segment featured both Dorothy�s niece, Emily Squires, and your webmaster Chris White, Emily reminiscing about her childhood (and adult) memories of her famous aunt, and yours truly chatting about her career. Two recordings were featured: Dorothy�s 50s recording of Edith Piaf�s If You Love Me (I Won�t Care) and 1953�s I�m Walking Behind You, her last collaboration with Billy Reid.
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Steven Warner and Tim Hutton, who are responsible for the excellent design of this website (along with similar online ventures for Twiggy and Petula Clark fans), also have their own successful record label Stage Door Records , specialising in collectors� soundtracks and theatre recordings. They recently released a previously unheard-of demo recording of Alma Cogan performing songs from Julie , a musical written by her pianist Stan Foster back in the early 60s, but which unfortunately never became a stage production.
Steven recently received an e-mail from Rupert James, who wrote: �May I say what a wonderful collection of rare gems you are providing with your releases. The clarity of the Shirley Bassey and Alma Cogan CDs are absolutely incredible. What a �find� with the Alma Cogan and Stan Foster musical.
�I wonder if there are any plans for a Dorothy Squires collection of archive/unreleased material? I have heard that some tapes exist of Dorothy�s self-penned musical Old Rowley and they would be wonderful to hear with such clarity. Any Squires recordings would be amazing and much appreciated by her still legion of fans, so please keep me posted!�
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John Lloyd
Sorry to report that the indefatigable John Lloyd, probably Dorothy�s most loyal fan, and who lovingly ran her fan club for many years, has been suffering failing health and is now permanently resident in a North London nursing home. John - a former Daily Express sports reporter - had lived in central London�s Farringdon Road for many years but his failing health has resulted in his move to the nursing home where he will receive full-time care.
No Dorothy Squires concert or event was complete without the presence of John who organised coach trips to take loyal fans wherever Dorothy was appearing around the country. His loyalties to Dorothy dated back over half a century - among his legion of memories was scrambling on his hands and knees, with other fans, looking for Dorothy�s wedding ring from Roger Moore after she took it off her finger and flung it across her dressing room at the Talk Of The Town nightclub in late 1961. The incident happened after her actor husband turned up at the club to tell her their marriage was over. John was also mentioned in song on stage at the Dominion Theatre when Dorothy added the line, �John Lloyd the name of the game� in her opening song A Lovely Way To Spend An Evening.
I have had many e-mails from Dorothy fans asking after John and, while he is unable to use the phone himself, he can be contacted at Pembroke Room 10, Lansdowne Care Home, Claremont Road, Cricklewood London NN2 1TU (tel. 020 8830 8444). We�re all thinking of you John, and wishing you well.
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Adele is the latest young British female performer to take the pop world by storm. Her second album has topped the charts for a record breaking period of time, while her debut album was simultaneously number2! It sounds unlikely but, according to a Daily Express story, she is a big fan of Dorothy Squires� music - even though Adele herself is only 21 years old! If true, it�s a great tribute to the Welsh singing diva from one of our brightest new singing and song writing talents!
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Dorothy received so little BBC radio airplay nowadays that it is always a special event when she does get a rare �plug�. However veteran presenters Desmond Carrington and David Jacobs have both played her in recent months. Desmond played Dorothy on his Armistice Day programme and David Jacobs featured It�s A Pity To Say Goodbye, after playing a version of the Billy Reid classic song by Ella Fitzgerald a couple of weeks earlier. David repeated his classic mistake of saying that Dorothy had been MARRIED to Billy Reid. They, of course, lived and worked together, for several years but because of Reid�s personal family circumstances they never actually tied the knot.
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The same song was also featured on Paul O�Grady�s Sunday Radio 2 programme, (albeit it presented by Jodie Prenger of Oliver! TV and stage success, playing the role of Nancy), that particular week. Paul also mentions Dorothy in The Devil Rides Out, the second volume of his memoirs, in the context of one of his fellow drag performers often impersonating Dorothy�s stage act during his own early years as Lily Savage, playing the gay pubs of South London.
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Dorothy was also mentioned briefly in a Radio 4 documentary to mark the centenary of the world famous London Palladium. One of the participants recalled the formidable Cissie Williams who was the Moss Empire �booker� for many years. The legendary Cissie - feared by artists and managements alike - was renowned for always getting her own way and, when asked if anyone had ever succeeded in getting one over her, replied: �Yes � Dorothy Squires�! In a TV equivalent of the Palladium�s history Dorothy was heard very briefly at the beginning of the programme (though not seen), talking of the magic of appearing onstage there.
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Dorothy was mentioned in some of the obituaries for Tito Burns, the legendary show business agent, who died in August 2010 at the venerable age of 89. Burns started his career as a musician backs in the 40s, and worked and toured with Dorothy during the early 50s. In the 60s he moved on to look after the performing careers of Dusty Springfield and Cliff Richard among others, and later became a leading light at London Weekend Television.
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Dorothy has been mentioned in several show business books recently. Former Coronation Street actor Mark Eden (who played the villain Alan Bradley and died under a Blackpool tram after pursuing Rita Fairclough!) gives her numerous mentions in his very readable memoirs A Journey - From No �Hope� Street To Coronation Street (Troubador Publishing). Alan admits to having a romantic if rather stormy relation with Dorothy, and also mentions that he wrote several songs with her and Dorothy�s musical arranger Ernie Dunstall. He also recalls that he and his son went to Dorothy�s funeral but, unfortunately, went to the wrong Streatham cemetery and so missed the entire ceremony!
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Another very readable book is David Bret�s Hurricane In Mink which chronicles the controversial life of the late Diana Dors. Diana and Dorothy were good friends for many years - Diana was staying with Dorothy and Roger Moore at their home in California when Dorothy took the phone call, and had to break the news, that Diana�s then-husband Dennis Hamilton had died suddenly, bring the curtain down on a tumultuous marriage. Dorothy also visited Diana in hospital just a couple of days before she died. David Bret�s book includes numerous references to their long and enduring friendship.
Incidentally David Bret, who is a prolific writer of show business biographies, has dedicated several of his books to Dorothy�s memory and has mentioned her in several other of his tomes, including his biographies about Mario Lanza, Edith Piaf, Morrissey and Doris Day.
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Ebay is always a good source for Squires fans who are on the look-out for unusual memorabilia and features some interesting artefacts including posters and programmes. Two programmes for her mid-50s appearance at the Chiswick Empire in west London include an up-and-coming comedian called Peter Sellers on the bill (1955) while Larry Grayson - some 15 years before he shot to �overnight� fame - features on the other (1956). Other programmes have included Nottingham Empire and a 1953 bill with Hylda Baker, and a souvenir brochure for the London Coliseum dated Sunday 17 1946.
The latter raised funds for the Newsvendors Benevolent & Provident Institution and, apart from Dorothy and Billy Reid, also features Jack Warner, Tommy Handley, Morton Fraser and His Harmonic Rascals, Issy Bonn and Norman (�Over the Garden Wall�) Evans on the impressive bill. Another item listed The Russ Conway Show, which ran for two weeks in Weston-Super-Mare for two weeks in August 1962 with �Special Guest Star Dorothy Squires�.
THE VOICE OF THE BROKEN HEARTED
Coming Home 1936 - 1949
JSP Records has released an excellent triple-CD set of early Dorothy recordings which has been compiled by Theo Morgan who has previously put together collections by Shirley Bassey and Petula Clark among other artists. If this paricular collection sells well JSP will be issuing a second set, again compiled by Theo, which means that every recording she made during the Thirties, Forties and Fifties will be available on CD. Truly a marvellous tribute to Dorothy. Many thanks for your commendable efforts, Theo, whch will be much appreciated by her many fans.
The whole set is in chronological order, dating back to When the Poppies Bloom Again in December 1936. The idea first came about four years ago, amazingly. A label I was working for, Cherry Red, were interested in doing a Dorothy series. I had originally just suggested re-issuing the Pye material, licensed from Sanctuary, but they thought I should go back to the beginning and do a whole series. So I began researching Dot's discography, and when a friend sent me CDs of all the tracks, as taped off scratchy old 78s, I realised how brilliant her early stuff was. I had previously only known the few big hits of the period, like It's a Pity to Say Goodnight and I'll Close My Eyes. However, I hit several stumbling blocks with trying to find the discs to remaster from. By this point I had also decided to take the idea elsewhere, to JSP - a company reknowned for re-issuing vintage material in good quality as boxsets - a far more appealing idea than single CDs. So I set about buying the 78s and researching Dorothy, particularly her discography. A few kind people did indeed loan me their rare 78s, to whom I am incredibly grateful. As has happened before when I've done projects like this, I discovered a few things that were hitherto unknown. A couple of alternate versions of songs will therefore appear on Volume 2. When collecting the 78s, I also realised how rare they all were. They never turn up on ebay, and you tend not to see them at fairs etc. The rarest of the lot was a Columbia from 1950: Halfway to Heaven / Just Like a Gramophone Record. This was eventually found by Peter Rynston from Tall Order Mastering, who made the tracks sound as good as they do. Not only did Dorothy record some great songs in the 1940s (mainly thanks to Billy Reid), but it's also clear how important her role as a female singer was at the time. I firmly believe she was Britain's first diva of song, paving the way for Shirley Bassey. I therefore felt it essential to pay tribute by getting all these historic recordings re-issued properly. Yes, most of them have been out before, but scattered about on different collections, many out of print, and in varying quality. Now, for the first time, every one of Dot's commercial recordings from the start in 1936, to 1960 (before she signed to EMI again) will be available in two sets, chronologically and all remastered for the best sound possible. The first set, out on March 7th, covers 1936 to 1949. The second is also a 3CD set, covering 1950-60, which will be brought out sooner, depending on sales of the first set. So please all do your best to support this! - Theo Morgan
Dorothy Memories June 2010
Ian Parsons has written a book on the history of Swansea Grand Theatre which is being launched at the South Wales venue in August 2010. Ian has been working on the book, Swansea�s Grand, for some time and has spoken to many people associated with the theatre and about its history. Dorothy Squires appeared there on 27 March 1967 and the book contains anecdotes about her. Ian�s website, which accompanies the book, has had more than 15,000 hits so far. There will be more information about Ian�s book later.
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American actress, singer and TV star Dorothy Provine - best-known to British audiences for her 60s appearances in the TV series The Roarin� Twenties, which gave her a hit single with Don�t Bring Lulu - died in May 2010. Back in the 50s Provine had a well-publicised romance (well, the United States anyway) with Roger Moore when he was filming the popular TV series The Alaskans with her and, of course, and at a time when he was still married to Dorothy (Squires). Dorothy (S) apparently guessed something was wrong in their marriage when Roger kept murmuring �Dorothy� in his sleep - because he always referred to her as �Dot�, never Dorothy! The Times� obituary on Provine noted: �Provine was a regular on TV, gaining her first TV series The Alaskans (1959-60), set during the Yukon gold rush of the 1890s. She played a saloon owner and singer, Rocky Shaw, who has attracted an adventurer, [played by] Roger Moore. The onscreen romance reflected the fact that Moore had fallen for Provine in real life, which almost caused a rift between him and his wife Dorothy Squires. Frank Sinatra then dated her for a while ��
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Some people have asked why Dorothy�s parents� final resting place, very near her own in Streatham Vale Cemetery, South London, has no headstone or plaque. Emily Squires, Dorothy�s niece, explains: �After the 1987 hurricane a lot of graves and trees were damaged, so the cemetery tried to inform my grandfather, who was the owner of the grave, to see if he wanted it refurbished. Unfortunately my grandfather had died some years earlier, and, without realising, the cemetery authorities sent the letter to him care of St. Mary�s Mount in Bexley (Dorothy�s home for many years), which had burned down in the70s. I didn�t know about this until Dorothy�s funeral, when I went to look for my grandparents� grave and was then told by the cemetery office what had happened. I used to visit the grave when I lived in London. Dorothy had not put granddad�s name on the stone when he died in the early 60s and the only name on the headstone was �Emily Squires� (my grandmother), which was a bit spooky for me to see as it was also my name!�
Streatham Vale Cemetery is the final resting place for several other notable names in entertainment, including comedy film actor Will Hay, Lupino Lane (The Lambeth Walk), American pianist Charlie Kunz. Australian music hall performer Florrie Forde, big band leader Hal Swain, Ben Warriss of the comedy duo Jewell & Warriss, and music hall comedian Gus Elen. The ashes of TV magician and presenter David Nixon, and Wilfred Brambell (Steptoe & Son) are also buried there, albeit without name markers. There is a section alongside the crematorium dedicated to members of the music hall profession. Check out www.findagrave.com and type in Streatham Vale Cemetery for more information.
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Gloria Hunniford interviewed Sir Roger Moore in her series Gloria�s Greats on the Biography Channel and he mentioned Dorothy several times - there was also a very short clip of the couple together, arriving at some function. Gloria admitted in a magazine interview to tie-in with the series: �Sir Roger talked very openly about areas of his married life we thought he would never mention. I had hoped we might get a little about this third wife Luisa but I thought I�d have to skirt over his second wife, Dorothy Squires, completely.
�In fact he revealed how his first marriage to an ice-skater was already on the rocks when he met the Welsh singer Dorothy Squires, who became wife number two. �I met Dorothy at a party at her home. She introduced me to a world that I�d never met before. � one couldn�t fail to be impressed by her success. You know, to watch her perform and to see the depth of her talent. It was quite extraordinary�, he commented in the TV interview.�
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Mark Willerton, curator of the splendid Burtey Fen Collection, the popular music memorabilia museum run from his home near Spalding in Lincolnshire, and who also runs websites for Kathy Kirby and the late Lita Roza, recently interviewed early 60s Welsh hit singer and performer Maureen Evans for the magazine Best Of British. Maureen revealed that her late father had been a big fan of Dorothy�s and he was delighted when she (Dorothy) specially wrote a song for Maureen called Acapulco Mexico. Maureen recorded the song and it was released as a single by her record label Oriole in 1963.
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The Internet reveals an article which was published by the Los Angeles Times (articles.latimes.com) about Dorothy when she died in 1998, and mentions the fact that she wrote Tammy Tell Me True for the film of the same name, which was recorded by Sandra Dee, star of the movie, and married to Bobby Darin at the time. Percy Faith, the legendary American record musical arranger, supervised the session in Los Angeles.
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Al Pillay, one of the stars of The Comic Strip and who has appeared in films and on TV, is also a very talented artist and has designed a series of cards, Demented Divas, featuring some of the most recognised divas in show business, including Dorothy Squires. When he left school at the age of 15, Al went to live in Manchester where he hooked up with Northern drag legends Bunny Lewis and Frank Foo Foo Lammar. Al became a successful drag performer himself, taking off Dorothy, Shirley Bassey, Eartha Kitt, Lena Horne and Cleo Laine in his act, performing at the Sheffield Fiesta and Manchester Golden Garter clubs among other top Northern cabaret venues.
Al met Dorothy several times during the 80s and she apparently was a fan of his, watching his Comic Strip Presents � on Channel Four. He took off Dorothy and Shirley Bassey during one of his TV appearances. The Demented Divas card series was launched late in 2009 and, according to Al, Dorothy was the most popular selling image of the pre-Christmas season, with 30 cards in selling in one shop Dress Circle in |London�s West End in just a few days, and re-orders flowed in. Other �divas� in the series include Joan Rivers, Carol Channing, Barbra Streisand, Eartha Kitt, Bette Davis (of course!), Mae West and Danny La Rue. Al says: �The series keeps the great show business personalities alive, in an age of fleeting, generic and all-too-fleeting types. Because of the popularity of the first Dorothy card image, I�m currently working on a new one inspired by her legendary Theatre Royal Drury Lane show, which will again be available at Dress Circle Records, the well-known theatrical shop in Monmouth Street, Covent Garden.�
A donation from all sales of the Demented Divas cards goes to the Kiss It Better charity at the legendary Ormond Street Children�s Hospital. The cards are available exclusively at the www.dresscircle.com website which also stocks the reissue of Al Pillay�s double CD A Life In Song, recorded at the Caf� de Paris, Piccadilly Circus, in 2007. The CD is also available on download on Itunes and Al can also be viewed on YouTube.
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Ed Moreno was a popular radio DJ in the 60s and 70s and had a brief encounter with Dorothy Squires in 1970. Ed joined the fledgling Radio Caroline in 1964 and afterwards became programme director on Radio Invicta, the early sweet music station based on Red Sands Fort. He then joined Radio City and in 1967 became joint programme director of Radio 270 and stayed with the station almost until its close-down.
Ed was later involved in the initial planning for Radio Northsea International and his first show was aired on March 1 1970. His final show featured an interview with Dorothy Squires which was advertised as �a live broadcast� although it has long been believed that it was pre-recorded. Rodney Collins, a reporter for the popular music magazine Disc & Music Echo, says: �Dorothy Squires was due out to the boat for a live interview with Ed Moreno but it had also been decided to pre-record a stand-by interview in case of travel problems or bad weather. In the event the weather forecast was poor and Dot Squires decided against the journey. However, it continued to be billed as a live interview as it attracted a fair amount of pre-publicity.�
Terry Williams, a family friend of Dorothy Squires, adds to the story. �She did go to Holland to give the interview and was intending to visit the boat. However, the couple of days she had in Holland coincided with rough sea conditions and they could not take her to the ship, so she recorded the interview on land. She knew that her music was not the style of RNI but the mere fact that she could get her record played on the station, and that it would upset the BBC, was what made her do it! She had argued with somebody at the BBC and they refused to play her latest record [probably Till], although it was nothing to do with the �payola� scandal, which was a court case that she later won after being found innocent of the charges.�
Rod Collins, who has his own very popular music show on the internet station offshoremusicradio.com, and frequently plays Dorothy on his programmes (including such overlooked gems like Someone Other Than Me and Solitude�s My Home), adds: �We�d billed Dorothy as broadcasting live and that�s what we intended to do � weather permitting. However, the forecast was dreadful (I was sick on the tender on the way out) so Ed and I travelled out to the radio ship with the stand-by tape. I don�t think anyone knew at the time it was a recording, and it was some years before rumours started to circulate about it all.
�Record Mirror was one of the music papers that gave Dorothy regular space. Peter Jones, the editor, had been a friend for years and I helped to set up the interview in the first place. It was one of two times I met Dot Squires. She was pleasant, very chatty, and very grateful for the newspaper publicity and the radio plays! For his part, Ed Moreno, who died in tragic circumstances some years ago, had one of THE best voices in radio. They are both sadly missed.�
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Obituary: Tony Osborne
Elsewhere on this website, Gary Osborne - a successful songwriter in his own right - writes of his childhood memories of Dorothy. His father was the musical arranger and composer Tony Osborne who worked with Dorothy, Shirley Bassey and Judy Garland among other musical legends. Tony had lived in retirement at his home in Australia (he emigrated there several years ago) and it is sad to report his death, albeit at the age of 87, in February 2009. Our commiserations go to Gary and his sister.
Tony Osborne played with the BBC Orchestra in the Fifties and later recorded Juke Box Jury, the original theme song for the popular BBC TV pop series. His musical arrangements for other artists included Shirley Bassey�s I (Who Have Nothing) and Gone (which he also composed), Petula Clark�s With All My Heart, Connie Francis� Mama, and Gracie Fields� Little Donkey. In 1969 Tony conducted the orchestra for Judy Garland�s final concerts which took place in Scandinavia. Tony also worked successfully with Alma Cogan, Eartha Kitt, Russ Conway, Gary Miller and Jimmy Young. He recorded with Dorothy on several occasions, including most notably Say It With Flowers and Blue Snowfall. An obituary in The Independent noted: �Tony Osborne was devoted to making music. He was a talented trumpeter and pianist, but he made his mark as a gifted arranger on many successful albums and singles during the 1950s and 60s. He was a consummate professional able to deal with prima donna antics from the likes of Shirley Bassey, Eartha Kitt and Dorothy Squires. �There�s no problem,� he remarked. �You just talk back to them in the same language�.�
Also sad to report the death of TV actor Simon Oates, perhaps best remembered for his leading role playing Dr. John Ridge in the very popular BBC TV series Doomwatch in the early 70s. Simon will also be remembered by many Dorothy fans for being the compere at her historic comeback concert at the London Palladium in December 1970 and, of course, it is Simon�s voice that we hear on the live recording of the show, with the opening line � �I don�t know what you say about this young lady�. Ironically, Simon Oates was once rumoured to be in line to take over from Roger Moore as James Bond!
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Obituary: Danny La Rue
The legendary Danny La Rue died in June 2009 at the age of 81 after suffering failing health in recent years. However he had continued to make the occasional public appearances, speaking at the former editor of The Stage magazine Peter Hepple�s memorial service at St. Paul�s, the actors church in Covent Garden, attending an 80th birthday tribute lunch for Lita Roza, and appearing on TV on the occasion of his 8oth birthday.
Danny�s long and dazzling career needs little recalling here. Suffice to say, he was Britain�s best-known - and highest-paid - female impersonator for more than three decades, with his own nightclub in London�s Hanover Square back in the 60s - which was a magnet for Royalty and celebrities - as well as starring in many West End shows.
Danny was a long-time friend of Dorothy Squires. I can recall interviewing him at Batley Variety Club in 1973 and they had already been friends for more than 20 years at that time. Danny frequently sent up Dorothy in his stage act, impersonating her singing Say It With Flowers in a hilarious segment, which he also performed in front of the late Queen Mother and Princess Margaret at the 1973 Royal Variety Show. Later. Danny recorded Dorothy�s composition for his EMI album, To Mother With Love.
Danny often attended Dorothy�s London concerts and I recall seeing him sitting in the Royal Box at the London Palladium with the late Dame Barbara Cartland, John Inman, and Norman Newell for one of her shows. Sad to think that they have all gone now. He also unveiled a plaque for Billy Reid in Southampton, again doing a gentle send-up of Dorothy, and he was one of the onscreen contributors to the BBC TV Wales documentary Rain Rain Go Away about Dorothy�s life.
Danny�s funeral took place at London�s Kensal Rise and he is buried with his late partner, Jack Hanson. Thanks for all the pleasure you gave to so many over the years, Danny - and may you rest in peace.
John Hartley, who knew Dorothy towards the close of her life, and attended Danny�s funeral, writes a regular blog at Mothership Blog. This can be accessed free by anyone. Scroll down to the Archives section on Mothership Blog and look for June 2009, where you can read his account of Danny La Rue�s Funeral; then refer to November 2009, where you can read his controversial blog, Dame Shirley Bassey In Decline?
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Dorothy continues to attract press attention some years after her death. In August 2009 she was the subject of a two-page spread in the Daily Express, headlined: �James Bond�s Wild Wife�. The article by a writer called York Membury started: �Dorothy Squires was the fiery singing star who was a big name long before the unknown actor she married called Roger Moore. And despite their bitter break-up, the 007 star�s special gesture (offering to pay for a plaque to be erected in her memory in Llanelli) shows he has never forgotten her�.
The article detailed Roger and Dorothy�s story marriage and included a large picture of the couple together in the 50s, as well as a glamorous shot of Dorothy in later life. Incidentally, Roger Moore read extensive extracts from his autobiography in a Radio 2 series, and Dorothy naturally was mentioned many times, generally in most affectionate terms. There is also a �talking book� available of My Word Is My Bond, with Sir Roger once again narrating.
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Patrick Newley
Patrick Newley was a regular editorial contributor to The Stage magazine and for several years back in the 70s he also managed the inimitable Mrs Shufflewick (aka Rex Jamieson). Patrick wrote a couple of show business anecdotal books, including one about �Shuff�, both of which mentioned Dorothy, relating humorous stories. Sadly Patrick Newley died in the summer of 2009, just several days after Danny La Rue who had been his father�s childhood friend (in fact, Patrick wrote the obituary for Danny which appeared in The Stage). A further irony was that just a year before Patrick had organised a tribute lunch for Lita Roza in Covent Garden at which Danny was a guest of honour.
In one of his Stage articles - published in the weekly Tabard column - Patrick recalled: �Lynda Lee-Potter [the noted Daily Mail columnist] ended up on the losing side of a war of words with the equally waspish and confrontational Dorothy Squires. When the singer spent �5,000 to become the first individual to hire the London Palladium, Lee-Potter wrote a typically subdued article under an equally typically subdued Daily Mail headline: �Don�t do it Dot! You can�t buy success!�.
Squires replied with a huge Get Well Soon card that read: �For once I fully agree with you! No one can buy success. |If they could, the millionaires would buy the lot - and keep it for themselves and their children and their children. I am paying for the chance to prove what I can do, having been in the charts three times in the last 18 months. Dear Lynda, you�ll have to pay black market prices to get in because my comeback sold out in a day.�
�And how right she was,� Patrick Newley noted. �Squires packed the Palladium for annual shows and earned her own season there [in July 1974]. Her only niece Emily Jane Squires sums it up: �Lynda Lee-Potter and my aunt Dot were two of a kind - colourful, controversial and top of the tree true professionals. Bless them both�.
Patrick Newley related another hilarious story about Dorothy in The Stage. �The volatile Dorothy Squires was no stranger to voicing her opinion. At the end of her concerts, faithful fans normally showered the stage with bouquets of flowers. I always thought these finales were rigged but on one occasion I saw her in the 80s and not so much as a daisy chain graced the stage. As La Squires, wearing a radio mic, angrily swept off into the wings the entire audience heard her voice over the speakers shout: �Where�s the f****** flowers?� You can�t beat that for protest.�
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Many of Dorothy�s big-selling records were back in the 40s before the official pop chart was born (New Musical Express launched the first Top 10 based on actual record sales in November 1952), so she is often, perhaps unfairly, overlooked by chart historians. Her only official chart hits were I�m Walking Behind You in 1953, Say It With Flower with Russ Conway (1961), For Once In My Life (1969), and Till and My Way (both 1970). However the Guinness Book of Hit Singles has published a definitive list of Post-War Pop Hits, which were based on sheet music sales (the criteria before the launch of the chart based on actual record sales) and Dorothy features high. The Gypsy was number 1 in the listing in September 1945, with Dorothy and the Ink Spots both credited with performing the Billy Reid song, and remained at the top until the end of October. Another big success was A Tree In The Meadow, which was number 1 sheet music from February 5 1948 through to 22 April 1948. Both Dorothy and singer/pianist Leslie �Hutch� Hutchinson are credited with the hit versions of the Reid composition.
DOROTHY SQUIRES MEETS ROSEMARY SQUIRES
Dorothy meets Rosemary - the two Squires girls met up at a showbusiness function. Picture courtesy of Mark Willerton of the Burtey Fen Collection
Pontyberem�s Famed Daughter:
Dorothy Squires
By Keith Evans
(March 12, 2008)
In 1977 Melody Maker approached Dorothy Squires for her reaction, as a fan, to the sudden death of �The King of Rock and Roll�. �Poor Elvis� she sighed �he was my greatest fan.� Elvis Presley reputedly had a full collection of her records, attended her American tours and asked her to sing her hit single �My Mother.�
From 1945 �Miss Squires� was one of Britain�s most popular singers; by 1950 its highest paid. She beguiled capacity audiences, alternately belting out songs with semaphore arm movements or gently realise subtle, poignant, even tearful, refrains. But a torrent of emotional and legal setbacks following her separation and divorce from Roger Moore preoccupied her remaining thirty years. From millionairess to pauper: a modern Biblical parable of rags to riches to rags.
Dorothy was born �Edna May� on March 25, 1915, in a fairground van on a field now home to Pontyberem Primary School. Her parents, Archibald Squires and Emily (nee Rickets) respectively sprang from Rhondda and Gwendraeth families. Dot�s paternal grandmother ran a coconut shy stall. When the show moved on the Squires stayed in Pontyberem, initially with Dorothy�s uncle Bob, aunt Lanu and maternal grandmother at �San Domingo� cottage � long since demolished.
Archibald became a steel worker and moved the family to Dafen. On leaving school �Dot� served in Woolworth�s before toiling in a Llanelli tin-plate works; she bore scars on her forearms from this time. She revealed to Vincent Kane in 1977 that her first paid performance (6d) was at 13 singing and playing the ukulele to Pontyberem miners. At 16 she sang on stage at Llanelli�s Ritz Ballroom, later joining the Denza Players. A year later she furtively left for London to live with a cousin and work as a nurse while auditioning in for showbiz.
American song writer Charlie Kunz saw her perform and arranged for her first radio broadcast in December 1936. During 1938 Billy Reid, an English composer and band-leader, left his wife and two daughters to devote himself to Dorothy and her career. In 1945 he composed her first big hit song, �Coming Home.� By the late 1940s, with an array of Reid songs, including �The Gypsy� and �Danger Ahead�, she outsold such recording artists as Judy Garland and Peggy Lee. Living together in a Bexley mansion, Dot and Billy jointly bought Llanelli�s Astoria Theatre.
Around this time of austerity and rationing, as a pre-school infant, Saundra Storch, whose parents Leonard and Donna Davies were publicans of Pontyberem�s New Inn, received an unexpected gift from the superstar; an embroidered cosmetic�s bag with a glittering compact, exquisite lipsticks and toiletries.
When Squires and Reid split up in 1951, after punching and kicking each other in the Astoria bar (her father was hit in the face), he acquired the Llanelli theatre while she took the Bexley mansion. Dot�s aunt and uncle, Lizzie and Dai Walters of Bont�s Parcymynach, looked after the Kent mansion for her.
Roger Moore, then a struggling actor and catalogue model, entered Dot�s life in 1952 when attending one of her famed parties. July 1953 found them married by a tipsy American minister in Jersey City; Moore was twelve years her junior. Dot discovered she could never have children. She now did all to promote her handsome husband�s US career, first with MGM then Warner Bros. The couple, with a Hollywood home, worked and partied with �The Stars�, including Gary Cooper, Elizabeth Taylor, Gene Kelly, Doris Day and Rock Hudson. She was complimented for her singing by the legendary French performer Edith Piaf. As the career of a future 007 heartthrob rose, with eponymous leads in TV hits Ivanhoe and Maverick, Dot�s career ebbed away.
On occasions, with Roger Moore, she stayed with another Pontyberem aunt, Mrs Clarke, of Maes Y Deri. Nearby a mutual friend and seamstress adjusted Dorothy�s chic clothes - a mink coat being the most memorable item to re-hem. Her costumes, flamboyant, gossamer, colourful, sequinned and edged in ostrich feathers, were created by Dougie Donnell; dress designer to other elite performers including Shirley Bassey and Dusty Springfield.
Despite international celebrity, locals who knew the Squires family, treated the singing star as �one of us�, but for some feigning shock at her jewelled fingers and a gold ankle chain. She revisited many times after Moore left her for an Italian actress, Latisa Mattioti, in 1961. In the company of Dot�s pianist she rehearsed in her aunt�s parlour in Maes Y Deri to the delight of Mrs Richard�s next door. An acquaintance told me, �Dot was welcoming and generous with her attention and hospitality to family and friends in Pontyberem and Dafen.�
The year she and the star of TVs Saint series parted, Dorothy re-entered the charts, with popular pianist Russ Conway, singing her own composition, �Say It With Flowers.� She cut here album �We�ll Keep A Welcome� in 1966 before a choc-a-bloc audience at Llanelli�s Regal Cinema. In 1970 she proved her worth and trounced her critics in TV and radio circles, by hiring and reaping sell out concerts at London�s Palladium and Talk of the Town with a noted show at New York�s Carnegie Hall.
But Pontyberem�s famed daughter was on a collision course with destiny. Headlines from the period tell much: �Singer Dot Quits Over Rumpus at Nightclub.� �The Saint�s wife arrested at home.� �Judge�s jail warning to Dorothy Squires � fined �100 for kicking a taxi driver.� �Squires rude and offensive court told.� �Miss Squires who is suing the News of the World claims damages for alleged libel�admitted she felt bitter at times towards Miss Mattioti �I could have murdered her if I could have caught her� Who wouldn�t?� She was the other woman� I was demented because my world had been cut from underneath me� �denied she was still bitter when Mr Moore married �at the time that Miss Squires was acquitted of a breathalyser offence.� Her wildfire notoriety knew no boundary.
She launched and paid dearly for 33 law suits, losing 30 of them. Dorothy sued in turn such as screen actor Kenneth More for libel in 1968, prosecuted in turn in 1972 for kicking Bernard Bresslaw�s brother, 1973 accused of trying to bribe an operative on BBC radio�s Two Way Family Favourites to promote her records, in 1979 suing the intended publishers of her autobiography for non-payment of serialisation in the Sunday People. She launched so many prosecutions that a judge, in exasperation, dubbed her �a vexatious litigant� and forbade her further cases without prior High Court permission.
To add to her woes, in 1974 her under-insured Bexley home, a former residence of Edward VII�s mistress, burnt down. Dot bought a mansion by a river; it flooded. She was declared bankrupt in 1988; all her possessions, including her jewels, were sold at public auction. She rented a cottage near Pontefract, living as a recluse. In 1995, ill and destitute, she left Yorkshire hours before bailiffs enacted a repossession order. Thanks to Esme Cole, a fan and friend, in Trebanog she shared a rent free home for the last three years of her life fighting cancer: A far cry from halcyon days owning race horse winners, one of whom she spoke to in Welsh, and hosting stars such as Cliff Richard, Tom Jones, Diana Dors, Tessie O�Shea and her unlikely close friend, the comedian, Hilda Baker.
At her last public concert in 1990, at the Brighton Dome, she forgot the opening lyrics of a song. At its end she laughingly declared: �I told you I�d balls it up!�
At Cardiff�s BUPA Hospital in 1996 her �6,000 bill for cancer treatment and surgery was paid for by Sir Roger Moore. In the late spring of 1998, as she lay dying of lung cancer at Llwynpia Hospital, near Pontypridd, her ex-spouse rang from UNICEF in n Sweden. Over the phone he told a niece to say �Rog is thinking of you�, asking that Dot�s hand be squeezed for him. When told Dorothy Squires said �Magic� She died hours later on April 14, aged 83. She is buried in Stretham Park cemetery, south London, in the same grave as her brother, Captain Fred Squires, who died aged 37.
A decade on, her countless fans run an exceptional internet website. Re-releases of this Welsh diva�s musical triumphs by major international studios not only safeguards her legacy but points to a Dorothy Squires revival. Perhaps the time is near when Pontyberem marks itself out as the birthplace of Elvis�s favourite female singer.
Click on image to read complete article
A plaque in Dorothy's memory was recently unveiled in Pontyberem, South Wales. Many thanks to Alec Jones for sending in the piece which appeared in the local Llanelli Star.
Dorothy Memories June 2010
Ian Parsons has written a book on the history of Swansea Grand Theatre which is being launched at the South Wales venue in August 2010. Ian has been working on the book, Swansea�s Grand, for some time and has spoken to many people associated with the theatre and about its history. Dorothy Squires appeared there on 27 March 1967 and the book contains anecdotes about her. Ian�s website, which accompanies the book, has had more than 15,000 hits so far. There will be more information about Ian�s book later.
American actress, singer and TV star Dorothy Provine - best-known to British audiences for her 60s appearances in the TV series The Roarin� Twenties, which gave her a hit single with Don�t Bring Lulu - died in May 2010. Back in the 50s Provine had a well-publicised romance (well, the United States anyway) with Roger Moore when he was filming the popular TV series The Alaskans with her and, of course, and at a time when he was still married to Dorothy (Squires). Dorothy (S) apparently guessed something was wrong in their marriage when Roger kept murmuring �Dorothy� in his sleep - because he always referred to her as �Dot�, never Dorothy! The Times� obituary on Provine noted: �Provine was a regular on TV, gaining her first TV series The Alaskans (1959-60), set during the Yukon gold rush of the 1890s. She played a saloon owner and singer, Rocky Shaw, who has attracted an adventurer, [played by] Roger Moore. The onscreen romance reflected the fact that Moore had fallen for Provine in real life, which almost caused a rift between him and his wife Dorothy Squires. Frank Sinatra then dated her for a while ��
Some people have asked why Dorothy�s parents� final resting place, very near her own in Streatham Vale Cemetery, South London, has no headstone or plaque. Emily Squires, Dorothy�s niece, explains: �After the 1987 hurricane a lot of graves and trees were damaged, so the cemetery tried to inform my grandfather, who was the owner of the grave, to see if he wanted it refurbished. Unfortunately my grandfather had died some years earlier, and, without realising, the cemetery authorities sent the letter to him care of St. Mary�s Mount in Bexley (Dorothy�s home for many years), which had burned down in the70s. I didn�t know about this until Dorothy�s funeral, when I went to look for my grandparents� grave and was then told by the cemetery office what had happened. I used to visit the grave when I lived in London. Dorothy had not put granddad�s name on the stone when he died in the early 60s and the only name on the headstone was �Emily Squires� (my grandmother), which was a bit spooky for me to see as it was also my name!�
Streatham Vale Cemetery is the final resting place for several other notable names in entertainment, including comedy film actor Will Hay, Lupino Lane (The Lambeth Walk), American pianist Charlie Kunz. Australian music hall performer Florrie Forde, big band leader Hal Swain, Ben Warriss of the comedy duo Jewell & Warriss, and music hall comedian Gus Elen. The ashes of TV magician and presenter David Nixon, and Wilfred Brambell (Steptoe & Son) are also buried there, albeit without name markers. There is a section alongside the crematorium dedicated to members of the music hall profession. Check out www.findagrave.com and type in Streatham Vale Cemetery for more information.
Gloria Hunniford interviewed Sir Roger Moore in her series Gloria�s Greats on the Biography Channel and he mentioned Dorothy several times - there was also a very short clip of the couple together, arriving at some function. Gloria admitted in a magazine interview to tie-in with the series: �Sir Roger talked very openly about areas of his married life we thought he would never mention. I had hoped we might get a little about this third wife Luisa but I thought I�d have to skirt over his second wife, Dorothy Squires, completely.
�In fact he revealed how his first marriage to an ice-skater was already on the rocks when he met the Welsh singer Dorothy Squires, who became wife number two. �I met Dorothy at a party at her home. She introduced me to a world that I�d never met before. � one couldn�t fail to be impressed by her success. You know, to watch her perform and to see the depth of her talent. It was quite extraordinary�, he commented in the TV interview.�
Mark Willerton, curator of the splendid Burtey Fen Collection, the popular music memorabilia museum run from his home near Spalding in Lincolnshire, and who also runs websites for Kathy Kirby and the late Lita Roza, recently interviewed early 60s Welsh hit singer and performer Maureen Evans for the magazine Best Of British. Maureen revealed that her late father had been a big fan of Dorothy�s and he was delighted when she (Dorothy) specially wrote a song for Maureen called Acapulco Mexico. Maureen recorded the song and it was released as a single by her record label Oriole in 1963.
The Internet reveals an article which was published by the Los Angeles Times (articles.latimes.com) about Dorothy when she died in 1988, and mentions the fact that she wrote Tammy Tell Me True for the film of the same name, which was recorded by Sandra Dee, star of the movie, and married to Bobby Darin at the time. Percy Faith, the legendary American record musical arranger, supervised the session in Los Angeles.
Al Pillay, one of the stars of The Comic Strip and who has appeared in films and on TV, is also a very talented artist and has designed a series of cards, Demented Divas, featuring some of the most recognised divas in show business, including Dorothy Squires. When he left school at the age of 15, Al went to live in Manchester where he hooked up with Northern drag legends Bunny Lewis and Frank Foo Foo Lammar. Al became a successful drag performer himself, taking off Dorothy, Shirley Bassey, Eartha Kitt, Lena Horne and Cleo Laine in his act, performing at the Sheffield Fiesta and Manchester Golden Garter clubs among other top Northern cabaret venues.
Al met Dorothy several times during the 80s and she apparently was a fan of his, watching his Comic Strip Presents � on Channel Four. He took off Dorothy and Shirley Bassey during one of his TV appearances. The Demented Divas card series was launched late in 2009 and, according to Al, Dorothy was the most popular selling image of the pre-Christmas season, with 30 cards in selling in one shop Dress Circle in |London�s West End in just a few days, and re-orders flowed in. Other �divas� in the series include Joan Rivers, Carol Channing, Barbra Streisand, Eartha Kitt, Bette Davis (of course!), Mae West and Danny La Rue. Al says: �The series keeps the great show business personalities alive, in an age of fleeting, generic and all-too-fleeting types. Because of the popularity of the first Dorothy card image, I�m currently working on a new one inspired by her legendary Theatre Royal Drury Lane show, which will again be available at Dress Circle Records, the well-known theatrical shop in Monmouth Street, Covent Garden.�
A donation from all sales of the Demented Divas cards goes to the Kiss It Better charity at the legendary Ormond Street Children�s Hospital. The cards are available exclusively at the www.dresscircle.com website which also stocks the reissue of Al Pillay�s double CD A Life In Song, recorded at the Caf� de Paris, Piccadilly Circus, in 2007. The CD is also available on download on Itunes and Al can also be viewed on YouTube.
Ed Moreno was a popular radio DJ in the 60s and 70s and had a brief encounter with Dorothy Squires in 1970. Ed joined the fledgling Radio Caroline in 1964 and afterwards became programme director on Radio Invicta, the early sweet music station based on Red Sands Fort. He then joined Radio City and in 1967 became joint programme director of Radio 270 and stayed with the station almost until its close-down.
Ed was later involved in the initial planning for Radio Northsea International and his first show was aired on March 1 1970. His final show featured an interview with Dorothy Squires which was advertised as �a live broadcast� although it has long been believed that it was pre-recorded. Rodney Collins, a reporter for the popular music magazine Disc & Music Echo, says: �Dorothy Squires was due out to the boat for a live interview with Ed Moreno but it had also been decided to pre-record a stand-by interview in case of travel problems or bad weather. In the event the weather forecast was poor and Dot Squires decided against the journey. However, it continued to be billed as a live interview as it attracted a fair amount of pre-publicity.�
Terry Williams, a family friend of Dorothy Squires, adds to the story. �She did go to Holland to give the interview and was intending to visit the boat. However, the couple of days she had in Holland coincided with rough sea conditions and they could not take her to the ship, so she recorded the interview on land. She knew that her music was not the style of RNI but the mere fact that she could get her record played on the station, and that it would upset the BBC, was what made her do it! She had argued with somebody at the BBC and they refused to play her latest record [probably Till], although it was nothing to do with the �payola� scandal, which was a court case that she later won after being found innocent of the charges.�
Rod Collins, who has his own very popular music show on the internet station offshoremusicradio.com, and frequently plays Dorothy on his programmes (including such overlooked gems like Someone Other Than Me and Solitude�s My Home), adds: �We�d billed Dorothy as broadcasting live and that�s what we intended to do � weather permitting. However, the forecast was dreadful (I was sick on the tender on the way out) so Ed and I travelled out to the radio ship with the stand-by tape. I don�t think anyone knew at the time it was a recording, and it was some years before rumours started to circulate about it all.
�Record Mirror was one of the music papers that gave Dorothy regular space. Peter Jones, the editor, had been a friend for years and I helped to set up the interview in the first place. It was one of two times I met Dot Squires. She was pleasant, very chatty, and very grateful for the newspaper publicity and the radio plays! For his part, Ed Moreno, who died in tragic circumstances some years ago, had one of THE best voices in radio. They are both sadly missed.�
Obituary: Tony Osborne
Elsewhere on this website, Gary Osborne - a successful songwriter in his own right - writes of his childhood memories of Dorothy. His father was the musical arranger and composer Tony Osborne who worked with Dorothy, Shirley Bassey and Judy Garland among other musical legends. Tony had lived in retirement at his home in Australia (he emigrated there several years ago) and it is sad to report his death, albeit at the age of 87, in February 2009. Our commiserations go to Gary and his sister.
Tony Osborne played with the BBC Orchestra in the Fifties and later recorded Juke Box Jury, the original theme song for the popular BBC TV pop series. His musical arrangements for other artists included Shirley Bassey�s I (Who Have Nothing) and Gone (which he also composed), Petula Clark�s With All My Heart, Connie Francis� Mama, and Gracie Fields� Little Donkey. In 1969 Tony conducted the orchestra for Judy Garland�s final concerts which took place in Scandinavia. Tony also worked successfully with Alma Cogan, Eartha Kitt, Russ Conway, Gary Miller and Jimmy Young. He recorded with Dorothy on several occasions, including most notably Say It With Flowers and Blue Snowfall. An obituary in The Independent noted: �Tony Osborne was devoted to making music. He was a talented trumpeter and pianist, but he made his mark as a gifted arranger on many successful albums and singles during the 1950s and 60s. He was a consummate professional able to deal with prima donna antics from the likes of Shirley Bassey, Eartha Kitt and Dorothy Squires. �There�s no problem,� he remarked. �You just talk back to them in the same language�.�
Also sad to report the death of TV actor Simon Oates, perhaps best remembered for his leading role playing Dr. John Ridge in the very popular BBC TV series Doomwatch in the early 70s. Simon will also be remembered by many Dorothy fans for being the compere at her historic comeback concert at the London Palladium in December 1970 and, of course, it is Simon�s voice that we hear on the live recording of the show, with the opening line � �I don�t know what you say about this young lady�. Ironically, Simon Oates was once rumoured to be in line to take over from Roger Moore as James Bond!
Obituary: Danny La Rue
The legendary Danny La Rue died in June 2009 at the age of 81 after suffering failing health in recent years. However he had continued to make the occasional public appearances, speaking at the former editor of The Stage magazine Peter Hepple�s memorial service at St. Paul�s, the actors church in Covent Garden, attending an 80th birthday tribute lunch for Lita Roza, and appearing on TV on the occasion of his 8oth birthday.
Danny�s long and dazzling career needs little recalling here. Suffice to say, he was Britain�s best-known - and highest-paid - female impersonator for more than three decades, with his own nightclub in London�s Hanover Square back in the 60s - which was a magnet for Royalty and celebrities - as well as starring in many West End shows.
Danny was a long-time friend of Dorothy Squires. I can recall interviewing him at Batley Variety Club in 1973 and they had already been friends for more than 20 years at that time. Danny frequently sent up Dorothy in his stage act, impersonating her singing Say It With Flowers in a hilarious segment, which he also performed in front of the late Queen Mother and Princess Margaret at the 1973 Royal Variety Show. Later. Danny recorded Dorothy�s composition for his EMI album, To Mother With Love.
Danny often attended Dorothy�s London concerts and I recall seeing him sitting in the Royal Box at the London Palladium with the late Dame Barbara Cartland, John Inman, and Norman Newell for one of her shows. Sad to think that they have all gone now. He also unveiled a plaque for Billy Reid in Southampton, again doing a gentle send-up of Dorothy, and he was one of the onscreen contributors to the BBC TV Wales documentary Rain Rain Go Away about Dorothy�s life.
Danny�s funeral took place at London�s Kensal Rise and he is buried with his late partner, Jack Hanson. Thanks for all the pleasure you gave to so many over the years, Danny - and may you rest in peace.
John Hartley, who knew Dorothy towards the close of her life, and attended Danny�s funeral, writes a regular blog at Mothership Blog. This can be accessed free by anyone. Scroll down to the Archives section on Mothership Blog and look for June 2009, where you can read his account of Danny La Rue�s Funeral; then refer to November 2009, where you can read his controversial blog, Dame Shirley Bassey In Decline?
Dorothy continues to attract press attention some years after her death. In August 2009 she was the subject of a two-page spread in the Daily Express, headlined: �James Bond�s Wild Wife�. The article by a writer called York Membury started: �Dorothy Squires was the fiery singing star who was a big name long before the unknown actor she married called Roger Moore. And despite their bitter break-up, the 007 star�s special gesture (offering to pay for a plaque to be erected in her memory in Llanelli) shows he has never forgotten her�.
The article detailed Roger and Dorothy�s story marriage and included a large picture of the couple together in the 50s, as well as a glamorous shot of Dorothy in later life. Incidentally, Roger Moore read extensive extracts from his autobiography in a Radio 2 series, and Dorothy naturally was mentioned many times, generally in most affectionate terms. There is also a �talking book� available of My Word Is My Bond, with Sir Roger once again narrating.
Patrick Newley
Patrick Newley was a regular editorial contributor to The Stage magazine and for several years back in the 70s he also managed the inimitable Mrs Shufflewick (aka Rex Jamieson). Patrick wrote a couple of show business anecdotal books, including one about �Shuff�, both of which mentioned Dorothy, relating humorous stories. Sadly Patrick Newley died in the summer of 2009, just several days after Danny La Rue who had been his father�s childhood friend (in fact, Patrick wrote the obituary for Danny which appeared in The Stage). A further irony was that just a year before Patrick had organised a tribute lunch for Lita Roza in Covent Garden at which Danny was a guest of honour.
In one of his Stage articles - published in the weekly Tabard column - Patrick recalled: �Lynda Lee-Potter [the noted Daily Mail columnist] ended up on the losing side of a war of words with the equally waspish and confrontational Dorothy Squires. When the singer spent �5,000 to become the first individual to hire the London Palladium, Lee-Potter wrote a typically subdued article under an equally typically subdued Daily Mail headline: �Don�t do it Dot! You can�t buy success!�.
Squires replied with a huge Get Well Soon card that read: �For once I fully agree with you! No one can buy success. |If they could, the millionaires would buy the lot - and keep it for themselves and their children and their children. I am paying for the chance to prove what I can do, having been in the charts three times in the last 18 months. Dear Lynda, you�ll have to pay black market prices to get in because my comeback sold out in a day.�
�And how right she was,� Patrick Newley noted. �Squires packed the Palladium for annual shows and earned her own season there [in July 1974]. Her only niece Emily Jane Squires sums it up: �Lynda Lee-Potter and my aunt Dot were two of a kind - colourful, controversial and top of the tree true professionals. Bless them both�.
Patrick Newley related another hilarious story about Dorothy in The Stage. �The volatile Dorothy Squires was no stranger to voicing her opinion. At the end of her concerts, faithful fans normally showered the stage with bouquets of flowers. I always thought these finales were rigged but on one occasion I saw her in the 80s and not so much as a daisy chain graced the stage. As La Squires, wearing a radio mic, angrily swept off into the wings the entire audience heard her voice over the speakers shout: �Where�s the f****** flowers?� You can�t beat that for protest.�
Many of Dorothy�s big-selling records were back in the 40s before the official pop chart was born (New Musical Express launched the first Top 10 based on actual record sales in November 1952), so she is often, perhaps unfairly, overlooked by chart historians. Her only official chart hits were I�m Walking Behind You in 1953, Say It With Flower with Russ Conway (1961), For Once In My Life (1969), and Till and My Way (both 1970). However the Guinness Book of Hit Singles has published a definitive list of Post-War Pop Hits, which were based on sheet music sales (the criteria before the launch of the chart based on actual record sales) and Dorothy features high. The Gypsy was number 1 in the listing in September 1945, with Dorothy and the Ink Spots both credited with performing the Billy Reid song, and remained at the top until the end of October. Another big success was A Tree In The Meadow, which was number 1 sheet music from February 5 1948 through to 22 April 1948. Both Dorothy and singer/pianist Leslie �Hutch� Hutchinson are credited with the hit versions of the Reid composition.
RARE PHOTOS / MEMORABILIA
From the Burtey Fen Collection - many thanks to Mark Willerton
Click to enlarge and read entire article
This was the first time I saw Dorothy. I had been to see Shirley Bassey in November 73 and was knocked out. I new Dorothy had a similar style and when she was at our local theatre, booked tickets. No, she wasn't as polished as Shirley, no the orchestra wasn't as professional, yes her false eyelashes came off, yes she hit wrong notes and was out of tune at times but, what a show! Became a fan at sixteen and went on to see her many more times, the last time, at Wimbledon.
- Stephen Debell
Geri Smith has added new dates for her one-woman show The Dorothy Squires Story which she first performed at the Edinburgh Festival some while back, and has since repeated several times with great success. Geri will be performing at a matinee performance in Llwyn-y-Pia, Rhonda Valley, South Wales, on 4 June. More importantly for London (and Home Counties) based Dorothy Squires fans,, she will be taking the show to the annual Henley Fringe Festival, with matinee and evening performances at the Chamber Room in Henley scheduled for July 23, 24 and 25.
Welsh Legends
Dorothy Squires was the first featured name in the second BBC TV Wales series of Welsh Greats, which aired on 23 February 2009. Produced by Dafydd O�Connor, and presented by Cerys Matthews of the best-selling Welsh band Catatonia, the programme was an excellent 30-minute overview of Dorothy�s long career and turbulent personal life, and included some footage previously unseen. Radio Times (in its Welsh edition) billed it: �Cerys Matthews presents a profile of the glittering yet tragic life of Dorothy Squires, the Welsh diva who was one of the biggest stars of the 1940s but died a virtual recluse in 1998.�
Unlike many other programmes of this nature, the Welsh Legends programmes do not have �taking heads� as such and much of the story was told by the featured subject via archive footage (other names in the series have included actress Rachel Roberts, Richard Burton, Wynford Vaughan Thomas and Sir Harry Secombe). The Dorothy programme included some interview footage originally seen in the Rain Rain Go Away documentary (broadcast in early 1999, just before Dorothy�s death), and also some not previously seen. There were also a couple of clips in colour from the Stars In Their Eyes film, as well as an extract from The Big Time (which introduced Sheena Easton to fame and fortune) and film interview footage featuring Sir Roger Moore (previously seen).
The choice of Cerys Matthews (who had a Top 10 hit with Tom Jones on the oldie Baby It�s Cold Outside a while back) was particularly inspired as Cerys, like Dorothy, is also from Llanelli and it was interesting to see a contemporary pop artist presenting the programme, as opposed to an �older� name. Overall, the programme was fair and balanced, underlining Dorothy�s climb to success and how popular she was during her heyday. Naturally there was also much emphasis on the latter years when things began to go downhill, but that made for a gripping story. Hopefully the programme will have helped to ignite further interest in Dorothy Squires, and it is only a pity that it could only be watched in Wales (although it could be viewed via the internet for a week after its transmission).
Thanks for an excellent programme, Dafydd.
Charlie Gracie
Charlie Gracie junior has been in touch with the website, with some fascinating memories of his father�s association (albeit briefly!) with Dorothy Squires.
Charlie wrote: �What a great site for Dorothy! She was indeed a great star who gave her all to her fans - whether on record, or in live performances. My father, whose hits included the number one Butterfly, Fabulous, Wandering Eyes and Nine-Nine Ways, almost got to work with her.
In 1957 Dad and Dot were supposed to have joint top billing at the London Hippodrome, but when Lew and Leslie Grade demoted Dorothy to �featured artist� (not my Dad�s doing) she walked off the show. Even though my Dad was a hot recording artist at the time, one could understand how Dorothy felt, having been a well-established artist for many a year in her homeland. However there were never any hard feelings between my Dad and Dot. In fact Dad later attended one of her concerts and Dot introduced him from the stage and gave Dad a kiss on the cheek!
Your site brings back some great memories and I shared it with my father who, although now 72, is still playing all over the world. In November 2008 he completed a UK tour at the Liverpool Empire and was back for more concerts recently.�
Charlie forwarded a recent news item about the fact that The Hippodrome (which later became The Talk Of The Town before reverting back to The Hippodrome, albeit in its latest guise as a dance club) and its need for preservation (the latest talk is that it is to become a gambling casino).
The London Hippodrome has had a temporary reprieve as it has it has now re-opened as a nightclub for a limited period. Here is an impassioned please from Charlie Gracie junior on the possible future demise of the venue.
�I was greatly distressed to hear that one of the great entertainment venues of the 20th century, the London Hippodrome might be shut down - or demolished completely. My father Charlie Gracie, the first solo rock �n� roll star (after Bill Haley�s Comets) to bring the music to the UK (1957), was the last star to appear at the venue before its conversion into a cabaret house (The Talk Of The Town) in 1958.�
The article recalled: �Charlie Gracie created quite a stir when the Grade agency booked him on an exclusive tour in the late summer and fall of 1957. Dorothy Squires, your �Bette Davis of Song�, refused to take second billing to my father at The Hippodrome. Claiming she �had never heard of him� and the fact that he was an ambassador of this �new-fangled rock �n� roll stuff), didn�t improve her opinion of him.
�However all this created a big publicity circus for my father and garnered him a wealth of press coverage. He was a smash at The Hippodrome and later in the provinces, and he returned for another extensive tour in the spring of 1958. Ms Squires later apologised and they met at some other venue. This is such fun stuff to look back upon, and it is one of the many great stories surrounding The Hippodrome, I�m sure.�
Many thanks to Charlie for sharing this with us. The late George Harrison, Cliff Richard, Van Morrison and Graham Nash have all credited Charlie senior�s singing and guitar style on their own careers, and Sir Paul McCartney covered Charlie�s Fabulous in 1999. For further information about Charlie�s career and activities, check out his website www.charliegracie.com .
In incidentally, as a footnote to Charlie junior�s story, this was when Dorothy subsequently did a �Palladium�, hiring the Edgware Road Metropolitan Theatre for a week from 26 August 1957 - and packed the place out. Her support bill included an up-and-coming Russ Conway and The Ramblers, an Irish harmony outfit whose line-up included Val Doonican, but who had to wait another eight years before he hit the big time in his own right!
Jean Campbell
Glasgow-born popular singer Jean Campbell died in 2003 after a long career as a recording artist and stage performer. Jean recorded many songs for Embassy Records, the Woolworth low-price label (aah, memories!), covering many of the current hits of the day such as Brenda Lee�s Sweet Nuthins, Connie Francis� Everybody�s Somebody�s Fool, and Helen Shapiro�s Don�t Treat Me Like A Child (Jean was 34 at the time!). Jean also sang on many still-remembered TV commercials including for Fairy Liquid (Hands that do dishes can be as soft as your face), Beanz Meanz Heinz, and Keep Going Well, Keep Going Shell. Her obituary in The Independent recalled that Jean had replaced Pearl Carr as the female vocalist with Cyril Stapleton and his Orchestra. �Encouraged by the singer Dorothy Squires, Campbell made solo recordings for Parophone, although she often found herself competing against major artists who had recorded the same songs such as Frankie Laine and Pat Boone.�
Many thanks to Mark Wallace for bringing this brief item to the website�s attention.
Mark Speight
The late children�s TV presenter Mark Speight died under tragic circumstances in April 2008. Mark Willerton came across the following news story:
�It�s nearly a year since the death of TV presenter Mark Speight, who committed suicide after not being able to cope with the death of his girlfriend Natasha Collins in January of 2008. Mark was a fan of Dorothy Squires and a friend stated in the Sunday Express soon after his death: �Mark had very eclectic tastes and he loved the Dorothy Squires song We Clowns, which had the lyric �We clowns who choose to entertain, with painted smiles that hide the pain�. He would often listen to that and it did get me thinking about why it seemed to resonate with him.�
Mark Willerton, official curator of the website for the late Lita Roza ( www.litaroza.co.uk ), who died in 2008, as well as for Kathy Kirby ( www.KathyKirby.org.uk ), with whom he is a close friend), and who also runs the fascinating Burtey Fenn Collection near Spalding in Lincolnshire, has kindly supplied these two cuttings from Lita�s own private collection. One picture shows Lita arriving with Dorothy at the High Court in London, when Dorothy was suing her former professional partner Billy Reid for permission to re-record some of the many songs that Reid had composed for her. Dorothy won the case and subsequently recorded the Dorothy Squires Sings Billy Reid album. The second picture shows Lita, Harry Secombe and Dorothy in party mood.
Avid Records has released The Unforgettable Pat Kirkwood (cat. No. Avid Easy AMSC 966, price �7.99) and it will be of interest to Dorothy Squires fans as it features several recordings that featured in the Fifties film Stars In Your Eyes in which the late Miss Kirkwood co-starred with Dorothy. The songs are I�d Pick Piccadilly, Stars In My Eyes and The Man That Wakes The Man That Blows Reveille. This excellent set has been compiled by the renowned music archivist Hugh Palmer and the extensive line notes have been notated by the highly respected author and newspaper writer Michael Thornton. Spanning 56 years, from the leading role in her first film at the age of 17, to her final stage performance in 1994 at the age of 73, this historic compilation features 66 songs, 29 of which have never been released on CD before.
Sir Roger Moore�s autobiography My Word Is My Bond has been published by Michael O�Mara Books and, as one would expect, Dorothy who was married to the former Saint and James Bond star, and was very influential in helping his career during the Fifties, features extensively. Sir Roger writes about his marriage to Dorothy with considerable affection, despite the fact that it all ended so acrimoniously, with Dorothy refusing him a divorce for several years after their much-publicised break-up in 1961. The book includes one photo of the Moores arriving back in Britain from the United States around 1960. Interestingly his third wife Louisa is also featured just once photographically while his fourth and latest wife Kristina naturally takes top honours with five photos! Dorothy aside, My Word Is My Bond is a highly enjoyable read for Sir Roger�s many admirers, and underlines his reputation for being a thoroughly decent man (although his ex-wives would probably disagree!). Sir Roger promoted the book with press and TV interviews - frequently mentioning Dorothy - and he did several booking signings in Britain, as well as in the United States and Australia.
Incidentally, Dorothy is mentioned briefly in composer Leslie Briccuse�s excellent and very entertaining 2006 memoirs The Music Man, published by Metro. Bricusse of course wrote several stage musicals with the late Anthony Newley, including Stop The World I Want To Get Off and The Roar Of The Greasepaint - The Smell Of The Crowd, as well as the music for the movie hit Doctor Doolittle and Scrooge, while his many hits include Who Can I Turn To?, What Kind Of Fool Am I?, Gonna Build A Mountain, Portrait Of My Love, Goldfinger, You And I (from Goodbye Mr. Chips) and so many more.
Recalling the first night of Stop The World In Want To Get Off at the Queen�s Theatre in London�s Shaftesbury Avenue in 1961, Bricusse recalls how nervous he was about the opening:
�The first 20 minutes of the opening night performance seemed to my cat-on-a-hot-tin-roof mind to be interminably dull and boring, and my heart stopped when four people in the middle of Row E got up and walked out, arguing volubly about what I assumed was their disgust with the show. I sank further into my seat, waiting for the rest of the audience to follow them. They didn�t, and three minutes later Newley brought the house down with Gonna Build A Mountain.�
A little later in the book, Bricusse remembers Roger Moore introducing his new Italian girlfriend Luisa Matteoli at Maxim�s restaurant. �Roger was still married to, but recently separated from, his second wife, a famous and tempestuous Welsh songstress called Dorothy Squires. Early in the evening, clearly wishing to get it off his chest, Roger confessed to me that it was one of his many contretemps with Madame Squires that had caused the precipitous departure of his party of four from Row E of the Queen�s Theatre on the first night of Stop The World for which he now wished to apologise profusely and hope that one day I would find it in my heart to forgive him profusely. I said I was glad he wasn�t a critic.�
Bricusse adds: �Luisa spoke hilarious Chico Marx English, was deliciously and paralysingly funny, and seemed likely to become a worthy successor to her Welsh forerunner in the tempestuous department.�
And later in his memoirs: �Back In Denham Roger Moore, after several arduous years of trying, had finally achieved his bitterly fought divorce with the Welsh singing star Dorothy Squires, and was now free to marry the lovely Luisa Matteoli which he promptly did, because the lovely Luisa would have killed him if he hadn�t.�
Finally the 2003 Anthony Newley biography Stop The World by Garth Bardsley (published by Oberon Books) briefly mentions Dorothy. Recalling Newley�s early years, Bardsley writes: �One evening, after a show in Newcastle, Newley was introduced to Ian Fraser who was on contract with Tony�s record label Decca. A classically trained pianist and phenomenally talented musician, Fraser had already recorded with Jess Conrad and Dorothy Squires as well as recording two albums of his own.�
Ian Fraser went on to working with Newley and Bricusse in particular for many years, and has arranged the scores for many top films and theatre shows. For the record, he arranged Dorothy�s July 1960 single This Place Called Home/Trust In Me on Decca Records
Gerri Smith reprised her excellent play-with-music The Dorothy Squires Story with two performances at the Arts Wing of Swansea Grand on February 18 2009. Once again, Gerri captured the essence of Dorothy�s dramatic lifestyle and also reprised several of the songs that Dorothy performed at her 1970 London Palladium comeback concert. Many of Dorothy�s fans were in attendance and Gerri�s rousing version of My Way brought many members of the audience to their feet. She was rewarded with armfuls of flowers including a bouquet from the ever-loyal John Lloyd who had travelled all the way from London.
Peter Jones was for many years the editor of the popular pop music magazine Record Mirror and got to know many of the big names of the Sixties and the early Seventies. Two of his particular favourites were Dorothy Squires and Dusty Springfield who he met and interviewed on many occasions. Peter first met Dorothy when she was performing in Portsmouth at the local Press Ball in the Fifties. Peter asked Dorothy if she would perform at a charity event to be held on the Clarence Pier in Southsea.
�Dorothy�s sister-in-law was of course Joyce Golding, who was also a very well known variety act, and she was married to Dorothy�s brother Fred Squires. The whole family used to stage and perform in pantomimes and variety shows, and Fred said that they were all coming down to perform at the charity event. I had to collect Dorothy on the day of the show and it was quite something to see how she got everybody organised!�
Peter recalls that Dorothy said that her boyfriend was coming down from London on the last train that same evening. �Apparently he was an up-and-coming actor. It turned out to be Roger Moore of course who was tall and extremely handsome and who ideally complemented Dorothy�s blonde and petite looks and charismatic personality. Roger had a very warm personality and when I subsequently met him at an amateur boxing tournament he invited me to one of the famous parties that he and Dorothy held at the Bexley mansion, and it was the first of many that I went to. It was amazing the famous people who would be there, not just variety artists but actors as well.
�Dorothy was always the perfect hostess and Roger was always very polite and courteous. Much later I frequently met Dorothy during my era with Record Mirror and she was always a great interview, providing good copy. When she released her first President album Say It With Flowers in 1968 I remember championing it in the magazine, and the following year of course she returned to the pop charts with For Once In My Life. It was great to see her making a professional comeback and the icing on the cake was the London Palladium concert in 1970. Dorothy remains to me one of the greatest female performers that this country has ever produced.�
Thanks for these memories Peter, who is pictured with Dorothy at the Portsmouth Press Ball.
PHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORIES OF DOROTHY
� 2005 - 2012 www.dorothysquires.co.uk
| i don't know |
What was the name of the 40 year old policeman who on October 6th 1985 was killed during a series of riots on the Broadwater Farm housing estate in London? | Cop stabbed while mob chants “black lives matter” … in London - The Unz Review
July 21, 2016 at 8:20 am GMT • 400 Words
I’ve spent plenty of time in London (am actually in London at the moment), so allow me to comment on the “poshest part of London” characterization. To lead with my conclusion: it isn’t quite.
London’s Hyde Park is a bit like New York’s Central Park. It’s vast, and all sorts of neighborhoods surround it. The short east flank of Hyde Park is a bit like Central Park South — flagship shopping (Oxford Street / Fifth Avenue), nice offices and not too avant-gard art galleries radiate away from that part. The long south and short west flanks are a bit like the Upper East and Upper West Sides through about the mid-80s. Very high end residential (Kensington Palace / The Dakota), the occasional world-famous concert venue (Royal Albert Hall / Lincoln Center) and major museums (the Natural History Museum / the American Museum of Natural History).
You see where I am going with this: The long north flank of Hyde Park is a bit like the UES/UWS past the 90s as you reach Cathedral Parkway, Morningside Heights and Harlem. That’s a bit reductionist, but the cheapest and most “colorful” park-side neighborhoods are there: Paddington, Bayswater. The corner of the park where the police had to deploy in force was Marble Arch — the very northeast corner of the park. It’s rather close to Oxford Street (the extreme proximity between “colorful” and posh shopping is very London), but it’s also the anchor of a major corridor of Muslim neighborhoods that run Northwest out of central London along the A5 road. The analogy breaks down somewhat: Muslims are not African Americans — plenty of rich oil sheiks like to spend spend spend on Oxford Street, and the A5 corridor itself is nice enough on an average day if you like “color.” Ask yourself: why is Morocco a popular enough tourist destination, when Liberia is not? But also ask yourself if you’d really want to live in Morocco, even if you’re happy to visit there.
Had the cops deployed to Hyde Park Corner / Wellington Arch (at the southwest corner of the park) I would grant you that the mini riot took place at the height of poshness — Buckingham Palace is but a stone’s throw from there. But Marble Arch is on the “diverse” side of the park so these events are not entirely surprising to me.
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@Ben Kurtz
I've spent plenty of time in London (am actually in London at the moment), so allow me to comment on the "poshest part of London" characterization. To lead with my conclusion: it isn't quite.
London's Hyde Park is a bit like New York's Central Park. It's vast, and all sorts of neighborhoods surround it. The short east flank of Hyde Park is a bit like Central Park South -- flagship shopping (Oxford Street / Fifth Avenue), nice offices and not too avant-gard art galleries radiate away from that part. The long south and short west flanks are a bit like the Upper East and Upper West Sides through about the mid-80s. Very high end residential (Kensington Palace / The Dakota), the occasional world-famous concert venue (Royal Albert Hall / Lincoln Center) and major museums (the Natural History Museum / the American Museum of Natural History).
You see where I am going with this: The long north flank of Hyde Park is a bit like the UES/UWS past the 90s as you reach Cathedral Parkway, Morningside Heights and Harlem. That's a bit reductionist, but the cheapest and most "colorful" park-side neighborhoods are there: Paddington, Bayswater. The corner of the park where the police had to deploy in force was Marble Arch -- the very northeast corner of the park. It's rather close to Oxford Street (the extreme proximity between "colorful" and posh shopping is very London), but it's also the anchor of a major corridor of Muslim neighborhoods that run Northwest out of central London along the A5 road. The analogy breaks down somewhat: Muslims are not African Americans -- plenty of rich oil sheiks like to spend spend spend on Oxford Street, and the A5 corridor itself is nice enough on an average day if you like "color." Ask yourself: why is Morocco a popular enough tourist destination, when Liberia is not? But also ask yourself if you'd really want to live in Morocco, even if you're happy to visit there.
Had the cops deployed to Hyde Park Corner / Wellington Arch (at the southwest corner of the park) I would grant you that the mini riot took place at the height of poshness -- Buckingham Palace is but a stone's throw from there. But Marble Arch is on the "diverse" side of the park so these events are not entirely surprising to me.
Not arguing about the virtues of paddington or marble arch. You could walk a mile there without seeing a female face.
But these protest affairs have little to do with the local populace. Thanks to British Rail and its bastard children, people come from far and wide to the capital.
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@Ben Kurtz
I've spent plenty of time in London (am actually in London at the moment), so allow me to comment on the "poshest part of London" characterization. To lead with my conclusion: it isn't quite.
London's Hyde Park is a bit like New York's Central Park. It's vast, and all sorts of neighborhoods surround it. The short east flank of Hyde Park is a bit like Central Park South -- flagship shopping (Oxford Street / Fifth Avenue), nice offices and not too avant-gard art galleries radiate away from that part. The long south and short west flanks are a bit like the Upper East and Upper West Sides through about the mid-80s. Very high end residential (Kensington Palace / The Dakota), the occasional world-famous concert venue (Royal Albert Hall / Lincoln Center) and major museums (the Natural History Museum / the American Museum of Natural History).
You see where I am going with this: The long north flank of Hyde Park is a bit like the UES/UWS past the 90s as you reach Cathedral Parkway, Morningside Heights and Harlem. That's a bit reductionist, but the cheapest and most "colorful" park-side neighborhoods are there: Paddington, Bayswater. The corner of the park where the police had to deploy in force was Marble Arch -- the very northeast corner of the park. It's rather close to Oxford Street (the extreme proximity between "colorful" and posh shopping is very London), but it's also the anchor of a major corridor of Muslim neighborhoods that run Northwest out of central London along the A5 road. The analogy breaks down somewhat: Muslims are not African Americans -- plenty of rich oil sheiks like to spend spend spend on Oxford Street, and the A5 corridor itself is nice enough on an average day if you like "color." Ask yourself: why is Morocco a popular enough tourist destination, when Liberia is not? But also ask yourself if you'd really want to live in Morocco, even if you're happy to visit there.
Had the cops deployed to Hyde Park Corner / Wellington Arch (at the southwest corner of the park) I would grant you that the mini riot took place at the height of poshness -- Buckingham Palace is but a stone's throw from there. But Marble Arch is on the "diverse" side of the park so these events are not entirely surprising to me.
There was already a lot of Arabic signage in the neighborhood when I lived in Bayswater more than 20 years ago.
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July 21, 2016 at 10:13 am GMT • 500 Words
The internet is a double-edged sword that cuts both ways:the foreswing of instant global communication that allows good things to happen more quickly can be cancelled out in a flash by an uncontrolled backswing that cuts to the bone.
There’s an old saying that this clip verifies: “Bad news travels fast” and ” Whatever happens in America happens here ten or twenty years later”. There’s another one here in Britain that USED to be true ” Whatever happens in America happens here ten years later”.
Makes one think, no?
Riots from the excitable diversity easily spurred to rape and murder by the BLA meme has only taken a couple of weeks.
Thought for today, especially if you are White British.
Fifty years ago, when I was 17,there were hardly any Blacks or Asians in Britain and hardly any at all in Scotland,they were less than 1% (probably less still.)
I was about 4 years old before I saw a coloured man.
I remember it well, as he stabbed me- with the needle he was stitching my hand with. No local anesthetic in those days!
The next was about 3 years later, a door-to-door Pakistani brush salesman. In the early 60s, coloured bus drivers and conductors became about 5-10% coloured. . I did my recruit training at 17 with a Black Jamaican, which was very unusual. He was pleasant, quite smart, and fitted in just like anyone else who survived the cut, and better behaved than most of us!
Many of the early immigrants were well educated and aspirational, and, being a minority among a people who were generally tolerant, they minded their “p”s and “q”s. They did, or came here in a promise to, do a useful job in those days of full employment.
They caused little trouble at all, although the Indo-Paks were doing their traditional industrial scale benefit-fiddling and other frauds, and Britons were a more masculine lot in those days, They had been not yet successfully brainwashed by “educators” and the MSM into being, in to many cases, emasculated wimps ashamed of their Whiteness with a guilt over having had an Empire , and thus an apologetic knee -jerk defence to every whim of the multi-kultists.
The Left and their corporate allies had wisely never floated their multi-kulti concept publically until the late 80s, as Britons WOULD have rioted (as White working-class dock workers and others did in the 50s when London was the hub for a flood of West Indian immigrants.
In those and we had a hugely reduced crime rate compared to our post-enrichment.
Both crony capitalists and The Left connived to infest us with what we now have, the former for cheap and docile labour, the latter to deconstruct White British culture.
I’ve lived through many General Elections. Funny thing though, it’s probably incipient Altzheimer’s, but I can’t recall any party manifesto that asked Britons to vote for race-replacement by those, who, after having been given a huge amount by the nation they or their parents came to, are so easily spurred to robbery, riot and rapine.
@G Pinfold
Not arguing about the virtues of paddington or marble arch. You could walk a mile there without seeing a female face.
But these protest affairs have little to do with the local populace. Thanks to British Rail and its bastard children, people come from far and wide to the capital.
Agreed that many of the rioters were not strictly local to Marble Arch. But it’s quite revealing which end of the park they’ll choose to riot in, where the police will allow them to riot (forming only static riot lines, not charging the crowd with mounted officers to disperse it rapidly) and who the rioters were — not your typical football hooligan, if you catch my drift.
Also, I meant to say that Wellington’s arch is on the southeast side of the park, not the southwest — a slip up.
July 21, 2016 at 11:31 am GMT • 200 Words
The irony is, of course, that if you have been watching BBC TV news bulletins regularly over the past few weeks ago, you would have been treated to the sight of some rather hysterical, over-emotional and quite frankly unprofessional, in the strictest sense of the term, BBC reporters – I won’t grace them with the term of ‘journalist’ going into quite blatantly political rants about ‘how beastly American cops are to those poor, innocent lamb-like blacks, whom those nasty big bullies of cops just love to persecute and kill for fun’.
And a general smug lecture about the horror of American society usually follows.
BBC London local news has distinguished itself lately by blaming just about everything on ‘brexit’. Apparently the Hyde Park riot was relegated to second item after a piece blaming the brexit vote on an increase in attacks on non white ethnic minorities. Interesting, as the EU has got absolutely nothing to do with them.
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July 21, 2016 at 12:07 pm GMT • 100 Words
I’m kind of torn now.
On the one hand I want Trump to get the black vote over jobs just to see the SJW brain melting.
On the other hand I am so sick of black people whining when the ***vast*** majority of victims of black-white violence are white and have been for decades.
On the other other hand I know the media are deliberately inciting this anti-white violence for their own purposes.
On balance still just about on an even keel but edging ever closer to **craving** civil war.
@Jay Igaboo
There are PLENTY of Black Muslims in London, way too many.
A nation who imports Blacks or Muslims will inevitably have the good done by a few hugely outweighed by the ills caused by the many, and given that one bad Black or Muslim can hugely upf*uck the good done by a dozen of the good ones, it;s a complete lunacy to allow them to settle in a hitherto peaceful nation that was at ease with itself.
All very true mate but this event was still little to do with Islam. Very much a black thing.
Our problem is immigration, Islam is a subset of that, not the main issue.
(You use the same name on Disqus – I’ve followed you since about 2012)
July 21, 2016 at 4:42 pm GMT • 300 Words
Of course, this kind of thing has happened before, only on a vastly larger scale:
Mark Duggan, a 29-year-old Tottenham resident, was shot and killed by police in Tottenham, North London, England, on 4 August 2011. The Metropolitan Police stated that officers were attempting to arrest Duggan on suspicion of planning an attack, and that he was in possession of a handgun. Duggan died from a gunshot wound to the chest. The circumstances of Duggan’s killing resulted in public protests in Tottenham,[1] which led to conflict with police and escalated into riots across London and other English cities.[2] This in turn is widely seen as the proximate cause of the 2011 England riots.
Duggan, needless to say, was Black
Between 6 and 11 August 2011, thousands of people rioted in several London boroughs and in cities and towns across England. The resulting chaos generated looting, arson, and mass deployment of police and resulted in the death of five people. Disturbances began on 6 August after a protest in Tottenham, London, following the death of Mark Duggan, a local man who was shot dead by police on 4 August.[12] Several violent clashes with police ensued, along with the destruction of police vehicles, a double-decker bus, and many homes and businesses, thus rapidly gaining attention from the media. Overnight, looting took place in Tottenham Hale retail park and nearby Wood Green. The following days saw similar scenes in other parts of London, with the most rioting taking place in Hackney, Brixton, Walthamstow, Peckham, Enfield, Battersea, Croydon, Ealing, Barking, Woolwich, Lewisham and East Ham.
July 21, 2016 at 4:47 pm GMT • 400 Words
And, back in 1985, there was this:
The Broadwater Farm riot occurred around the Broadwater Farm estates area of Tottenham, North London, on 6 October 1985.
The events of the day were dominated by two deaths. The first was that of Cynthia Jarrett, an African-Caribbean woman who died the previous day due to heart failure during a police search at her home. It was one of the main triggers of the riot in a context where tension between local black youth and the largely white Metropolitan Police was already high due to a combination of local issues and the aftermath of another riot which had occurred in the Brixton area of London the previous week following the shooting of a black woman (Dorothy ‘Cherry’ Groce) during another police search.[1][2][3][3][4] In July 2014 the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe, apologised “unreservedly” for the shooting and the time it had taken to say sorry” following an inquest into the death of Dorothy “Cherry” Groce, whose shooting by the Metropolitan Police triggered the riots. The jury inquest blamed the Metropolitan Police for failures that contributed to Groce’s death.[3][3][4] The second death was that of PC Keith Blakelock, the first police officer since 1833 to be killed in a riot in Britain.
The brutal murder of PC Blakelock:
Keith Henry Blakelock, a London Metropolitan Police constable, was killed on 6 October 1985 during rioting on the Broadwater Farm housing estate in Tottenham, north London. The trouble broke out after a local black woman died of heart failure during a police search of her home. It took place against a backdrop of unrest in several English cities and a breakdown of relations between the police and black communities.[1]
PC Blakelock had been assigned on the night of his death to Serial 502, a unit of 10 constables and one sergeant dispatched to protect firefighters. When the rioters forced the officers back, Blakelock stumbled and fell. Surrounded by a mob of 30 to 50 people, he received more than 40 injuries inflicted by machetes or similar, and was found with a six-inch-long knife in his neck, buried up to the hilt.[1] He was the first constable to be killed in a riot in Britain since 1833, when PC Robert Culley was stabbed to death in Clerkenwell, London.[2]
July 21, 2016 at 4:51 pm GMT • 300 Words
More details on the murder of PC Blakelock:
There were rioters at the bottom of the stairs too, wearing masks or crash helmets, and carrying knives, baseball bats, bricks and petrol bombs. As the firefighters and police ran out of the stairwell toward a car park and a patch of grass, one of the firemen, Trevor Stratford, saw that Blakelock had tripped: “He just stumbled and went down and they were upon him. It was just mob hysteria. … There were about 50 people on him.”
The rioters removed Blakelock’s protective helmet, which was never found. Rose writes that the pathologist, David Bowen, found 54 holes in Blakelock’s overalls, and 40 cutting or stabbing injuries, eight of them to his head, caused by a machete, sword or axe-type instrument. A six-inch-long knife was buried in his neck up to the hilt. His body was covered in marks from having been kicked or stamped on. His hands and arms were badly cut, and he had lost several fingers trying to defend himself. There were 14 stab wounds on his back, one on the back of his right thigh, six on his face, and his jawbone had been smashed by a blow that left a six-inch gash across the right side of his head. Bowen said the force of this blow had been “almost as if to sever his head,” which gave rise to a rumour that an attempt had been made to decapitate him (according to Rose, the autopsy photographs did not support this).
A second group surrounded PC Coombes, who sustained a five-inch-long cut to his face, and broken upper and lower jaws. In 2004 he said he was still suffering the effects of the attack, which the police regard as attempted murder, including poor hearing and eyesight, epileptic fits, and a memory so poor that he was left unable to read a book or drive.[37] A third constable, Michael Shepherd, had his protective helmet pierced by an iron spike.
@Ben Kurtz
I've spent plenty of time in London (am actually in London at the moment), so allow me to comment on the "poshest part of London" characterization. To lead with my conclusion: it isn't quite.
London's Hyde Park is a bit like New York's Central Park. It's vast, and all sorts of neighborhoods surround it. The short east flank of Hyde Park is a bit like Central Park South -- flagship shopping (Oxford Street / Fifth Avenue), nice offices and not too avant-gard art galleries radiate away from that part. The long south and short west flanks are a bit like the Upper East and Upper West Sides through about the mid-80s. Very high end residential (Kensington Palace / The Dakota), the occasional world-famous concert venue (Royal Albert Hall / Lincoln Center) and major museums (the Natural History Museum / the American Museum of Natural History).
You see where I am going with this: The long north flank of Hyde Park is a bit like the UES/UWS past the 90s as you reach Cathedral Parkway, Morningside Heights and Harlem. That's a bit reductionist, but the cheapest and most "colorful" park-side neighborhoods are there: Paddington, Bayswater. The corner of the park where the police had to deploy in force was Marble Arch -- the very northeast corner of the park. It's rather close to Oxford Street (the extreme proximity between "colorful" and posh shopping is very London), but it's also the anchor of a major corridor of Muslim neighborhoods that run Northwest out of central London along the A5 road. The analogy breaks down somewhat: Muslims are not African Americans -- plenty of rich oil sheiks like to spend spend spend on Oxford Street, and the A5 corridor itself is nice enough on an average day if you like "color." Ask yourself: why is Morocco a popular enough tourist destination, when Liberia is not? But also ask yourself if you'd really want to live in Morocco, even if you're happy to visit there.
Had the cops deployed to Hyde Park Corner / Wellington Arch (at the southwest corner of the park) I would grant you that the mini riot took place at the height of poshness -- Buckingham Palace is but a stone's throw from there. But Marble Arch is on the "diverse" side of the park so these events are not entirely surprising to me.
The poshest part of London would be Mayfair.
@Dmitri Helios
People would never get this close to police in riot gear, almost pushing them, in the U.S. It seems like British police are pushed around more than any other police force in the developed world. They are faced with these big black guys to tackle and they deploy small white females in comical riot gear, with no guns. If this was America the cops would whack their way through this crowd. Of course in America the cops would also probably be shot, so there's that.
“and they deploy small white females in comical riot gear, with no guns.”…… the greatest sin in a brainwashed society is to publicly acknowledge reality, even when it is glaringly self-evident.
Apart from the physicality being self evident, so is the fact, deeply rooted in our social biology, is that women are much more fearful of risk-taking than the male, as many more males can die and the “tribe” survives, but far lesser females.
During the London riots, I despaired watching fat little lady-bobbies safely and judicously waddling behind the male officers who were (eventually) allowed to charge the rioters. The highly politicised Chief Constables betray their oath to preserve Her Majesty’s peace, as it used to be quaintly put, and continue to lower physical standards in order to meet illegal but de facto diversity targets, (positive discrimination is illegal in Britain, but it is widely ignored by institutions as it would take an expensive civil suit to challenge it positive ACTION is legal, ie to discriminate in education or training where there is a perceived lack of a demographic under-represented in a particular field.This gives institutional apparatchiks a lot of wriggle room that they can use to employ a woman of an ethic in preference to an often abler candidate who is guilty of being White,. male and heterosexual.
People die of this idiocy, which extends into the fire service. Even 9/11, where in the greatest mass act of selfless courage I or anyone else has seen, the casualties were ALL male in an FD that has 50% female employees, and despite the post of firefighter being open to women since 1982, NONE of those who gave their lives on 9/11 were women.
Like I said, this kills people, men, women and children. Fires don’t discriminate.
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@Grumpy
There was already a lot of Arabic signage in the neighborhood when I lived in Bayswater more than 20 years ago.
I think you might find there’s actually less Arabic signage now. Bayswater is gradually turning into its neighbour to the west, Notting Hill. The fancy shops along Westbourne Grove are slowly spreading east and displacing cheaper stuff like Islamic bookstores.
There is still the heavily Arabified strip of Edgware Road between Marble Arch and the A40 where ISIS street recruiters were filmed in a recent Channel 4 documentary. I don’t see that area changing any time soon. That said, the rioters don’t look like Arabs, so this is just an aside I guess.
July 21, 2016 at 5:33 pm GMT • 200 Words
The whole area around the park has been very expensive for some years now, though the north-south divide does exist, with the neighborhoods to the south and west of the park dominated by the global uberrich. The south end of the park turns into a lounge for vacationing Arabs in the summer.
The people in the video fighting the police are types I’d expect to see locally around some of the big council estates north of Bayswater and Notting Hill, and also around White City (to the park’s northwest). There are often some number of people like this in the park, but generally in small groups and not causing any trouble.
However, some of the videos I saw on Twitter were posted by people in Croydon, so I’d guess this was some organised event that people traveled to attend.
The good news is that the trouble didn’t last long. The park was quiet and clean again last night, despite no visible police presence.
@G Pinfold
Not arguing about the virtues of paddington or marble arch. You could walk a mile there without seeing a female face.
But these protest affairs have little to do with the local populace. Thanks to British Rail and its bastard children, people come from far and wide to the capital.
No, most of these people will be “Londoners”, whether Afro-Caribbean from Harlesden, Stonebridge or Brixton, South London Somalis, or Africans from Woolwich. Trouble went on til 2 am – a bit late to get the train home to the provinces.
We’d have more of a clue if we knew exactly which two London schools’ pupils had arranged for the water fight which kicked it all off – don’t think it was Eton and Harrow.
(there was also trouble that night in North London (illegal party) and Camberwell (another stabbing at a water fight and more trouble the night after. All police leave is now cancelled until it gets cooler).
@Anonymous
The irony is, of course, that if you have been watching BBC TV news bulletins regularly over the past few weeks ago, you would have been treated to the sight of some rather hysterical, over-emotional and quite frankly unprofessional, in the strictest sense of the term, BBC reporters - I won't grace them with the term of 'journalist' going into quite blatantly political rants about 'how beastly American cops are to those poor, innocent lamb-like blacks, whom those nasty big bullies of cops just love to persecute and kill for fun'.
And a general smug lecture about the horror of American society usually follows.
BBC London local news has distinguished itself lately by blaming just about everything on 'brexit'. Apparently the Hyde Park riot was relegated to second item after a piece blaming the brexit vote on an increase in attacks on non white ethnic minorities. Interesting, as the EU has got absolutely nothing to do with them.
The broadcast MSM here love a good shooting in the US. Unlike with British news they don’t feel bound by the impartiality rules, they can let their inner Mao let rip.
July 21, 2016 at 7:17 pm GMT • 300 Words
So, essentially all over the West, a race conflict if not war is breaking out over racial and ethnic lines, with non-Whites and specifically Blacks/Africans feeling that it is both wise and consequence free to abuse and fight with White (mostly) police forces and that Whites and specifically White men must grovel and abase themselves in front of them.
This seems like the stupidity of Bismarck and the Kaiser all over again. The Iron Chancellor remarked that the Balkans were not worth “the bones of a single Prussian Grenadier” yet he entrenched the Kaiser and the Juncker class over every other group in Germany, destroying the Catholic Church’s influence in the KulturKampf to eliminate any Hapsburg remaining power in Southern Germany. Leaving no recourse when the new Kaiser tossed him out and the Kaiser and Juncker class prepared for war on behalf of … the Hapsburgs … against traditional ally Russia, while picking a fight with Britain over a useless navy. All for … Hapsburg conquest of Serbia.
The Kaiser sensed division among the British and French (who nearly came to war over Fashoda) and Russian weakness. But had an over-inflated sense of abilities and neglected German weakness (logistics and dependency on imports). Black people globally sense the Civil War Among Whites, over virtue signaling and hatred of class rivals by the White Upper Class. But don’t understand that fighting is more than just who is the best street warrior and that cities have historically been very, VERY bad places to be in civil strife.
TL:DR, just like the Kaiser’s dreams of a quick victory turned into a Western Front charnel house and eventually, total collapse in the Balkans, so too are Africans/Blacks deluding themselves that some Whites won’t fight and that Fourth or Fifth Generation Warfare won’t apply to them too. Think home-brew drones pursuing vibrants for unpunished rape/murder given that a police force half female is not good at the clampdown on Whites as well as Blacks.
@Ben Kurtz
I've spent plenty of time in London (am actually in London at the moment), so allow me to comment on the "poshest part of London" characterization. To lead with my conclusion: it isn't quite.
London's Hyde Park is a bit like New York's Central Park. It's vast, and all sorts of neighborhoods surround it. The short east flank of Hyde Park is a bit like Central Park South -- flagship shopping (Oxford Street / Fifth Avenue), nice offices and not too avant-gard art galleries radiate away from that part. The long south and short west flanks are a bit like the Upper East and Upper West Sides through about the mid-80s. Very high end residential (Kensington Palace / The Dakota), the occasional world-famous concert venue (Royal Albert Hall / Lincoln Center) and major museums (the Natural History Museum / the American Museum of Natural History).
You see where I am going with this: The long north flank of Hyde Park is a bit like the UES/UWS past the 90s as you reach Cathedral Parkway, Morningside Heights and Harlem. That's a bit reductionist, but the cheapest and most "colorful" park-side neighborhoods are there: Paddington, Bayswater. The corner of the park where the police had to deploy in force was Marble Arch -- the very northeast corner of the park. It's rather close to Oxford Street (the extreme proximity between "colorful" and posh shopping is very London), but it's also the anchor of a major corridor of Muslim neighborhoods that run Northwest out of central London along the A5 road. The analogy breaks down somewhat: Muslims are not African Americans -- plenty of rich oil sheiks like to spend spend spend on Oxford Street, and the A5 corridor itself is nice enough on an average day if you like "color." Ask yourself: why is Morocco a popular enough tourist destination, when Liberia is not? But also ask yourself if you'd really want to live in Morocco, even if you're happy to visit there.
Had the cops deployed to Hyde Park Corner / Wellington Arch (at the southwest corner of the park) I would grant you that the mini riot took place at the height of poshness -- Buckingham Palace is but a stone's throw from there. But Marble Arch is on the "diverse" side of the park so these events are not entirely surprising to me.
… this is where multi millionaire Tony Blair lives with multi millionaire wife Cheri – a “””human rights””” lawyer grown fat on the Rights of immigrants, not, never their Duties.
July 21, 2016 at 9:04 pm GMT • 100 Words
People die of this idiocy, which extends into the fire service. Even 9/11, where in the greatest mass act of selfless courage I or anyone else has seen, the casualties were ALL male in an FD that has 50% female employees, and despite the post of firefighter being open to women since 1982, NONE of those who gave their lives on 9/11 were women.
Like I said, this kills people, men, women and children. Fires don’t discriminate.
In other words, Diversity means paying for a fire department, getting 1/2 of a fire department, and then pretending whether or not that got a lot of people killed on 9/11 isn’t a valid question.
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@Jay Igaboo
"and they deploy small white females in comical riot gear, with no guns."...... the greatest sin in a brainwashed society is to publicly acknowledge reality, even when it is glaringly self-evident.
Apart from the physicality being self evident, so is the fact, deeply rooted in our social biology, is that women are much more fearful of risk-taking than the male, as many more males can die and the "tribe" survives, but far lesser females.
During the London riots, I despaired watching fat little lady-bobbies safely and judicously waddling behind the male officers who were (eventually) allowed to charge the rioters. The highly politicised Chief Constables betray their oath to preserve Her Majesty's peace, as it used to be quaintly put, and continue to lower physical standards in order to meet illegal but de facto diversity targets, (positive discrimination is illegal in Britain, but it is widely ignored by institutions as it would take an expensive civil suit to challenge it positive ACTION is legal, ie to discriminate in education or training where there is a perceived lack of a demographic under-represented in a particular field.This gives institutional apparatchiks a lot of wriggle room that they can use to employ a woman of an ethic in preference to an often abler candidate who is guilty of being White,. male and heterosexual.
People die of this idiocy, which extends into the fire service. Even 9/11, where in the greatest mass act of selfless courage I or anyone else has seen, the casualties were ALL male in an FD that has 50% female employees, and despite the post of firefighter being open to women since 1982, NONE of those who gave their lives on 9/11 were women.
Like I said, this kills people, men, women and children. Fires don't discriminate.
English TV shows about cops seem to be top-heavy with female Chief Constables and other high positions. The overt signaling is appalling, particularly in light of the on-the-street lagging performance that you note.
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July 21, 2016 at 11:57 pm GMT • 300 Words
I wonder sometimes whether the average white “westerner” has been bullied, indoctrinated and subjected to full multi-culti immersion for so long now that there is (a) no spine left and/or (b) no sense of self and community left any more sufficient to understand that they have a target on their forehead.
I think the long, slow takeover by “stealth” would have won it out for the globalists in the end if there had been enough patience to wait it out for demographic dominance, but the brazenness of the propaganda is becoming too jarring and too obvious. It’s hard not to wake up to the reality of it when the powers that be and the minority interests make it so casually blatant that it really is just “us” vs. “you” at the end of the day and all that arms-interlocked-around-the-world, melting pot stuff was just for show.
As for spine, I do still hope that the West has some left in it. Give them a hard-earned but reasonably prosperous and comfortable life, some amusements, some distractions, a firm footing for the future, a place for themselves and their grandchildren to recognise from more than nostalgia, and the average white westerner will turn soft with slumbering ease; unthreatened, unbelieving, unfearing. But take enough of these things away for long enough and set his back to the wall, and the forces that have placed him there will learn more than they wish to about the capacities of the people they have worked so hard to see cornered. The same people who built it all up, through unity, toughness, thrift, self-belief and coldblooded resolve, and who have chosen to let it run to seed in their own splendid and spectacular decadence and neglect, would make a terrifying enemy once revivified and redirected. Time will tell.
Look, I know it's scary and it should be. But these reprisals are well deserved and overdue. Ask any person of color and they will agree that whites must pay for colonialism and historical theft
You guys need to leave your echo chamber and talk to some people of color
It’s becoming increasingly difficult to do as you suggest ” Talk to people of colour” because even the ones born here can’t speak English, and I don’t speak ghetto jive-ass.
Funny thing though, many “people of colour” not born anglophones ( like orientals) are very easy to talk to.
This is because they made the effort to learn English and don’t carry an enormous chip on their shoulders, or have the same sense racist sense of entitlement that clowns like you have .
Why the f*ck should Whites pay for the actions of other Whites born generations ago?
Much of what happened in Colonial times was beneficial, a lot more beneficial than many native African leaders, who, then as now, sh/t all over their own people and sold them into slavery.
( Just like Boko Haram did to their Nigerian “sisters” two years ago)
BTW, can I have reparations for the Barbary slavers who took more than a million whites into slavery from isolated European villages?
@Svigor
People die of this idiocy, which extends into the fire service. Even 9/11, where in the greatest mass act of selfless courage I or anyone else has seen, the casualties were ALL male in an FD that has 50% female employees, and despite the post of firefighter being open to women since 1982, NONE of those who gave their lives on 9/11 were women.
Like I said, this kills people, men, women and children. Fires don’t discriminate.
In other words, Diversity means paying for a fire department, getting 1/2 of a fire department, and then pretending whether or not that got a lot of people killed on 9/11 isn't a valid question.
It’s perfectly valid, as my point extends before and beyond 9/11 and tho other areas where diversity targets are in place, such as the military and other emergency services.
I mentioned 9/11 because one of the cliches of women entering a traditionally male employment is that after they eventually pass the selection processes designed to eliminate the weak or the fearful* women tend to get out of the firing line and any physically arduous work as soon as they possibly can (usually not long after a triumphalist gloat arranged by media feminazi with photo-opps of them in working uniform juxtaposed with them in fashionable evening wear.
* from my own military experiences, and my ongoing contact with those stills erving, I’m well aware of how career conscious officers and NCOs will try to glissade female candidates through selection processes.
If you get 1/2 of a fire department or 1/2 of a rifle company instead of the full complement the taxpayer shelled out for, people will die. In the military, it’s much worse, Women get worn down much quicker and become more of a burden than if they weren’t there at all.
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@Jay Igaboo
It's perfectly valid, as my point extends before and beyond 9/11 and tho other areas where diversity targets are in place, such as the military and other emergency services.
I mentioned 9/11 because one of the cliches of women entering a traditionally male employment is that after they eventually pass the selection processes designed to eliminate the weak or the fearful* women tend to get out of the firing line and any physically arduous work as soon as they possibly can (usually not long after a triumphalist gloat arranged by media feminazi with photo-opps of them in working uniform juxtaposed with them in fashionable evening wear.
* from my own military experiences, and my ongoing contact with those stills erving, I'm well aware of how career conscious officers and NCOs will try to glissade female candidates through selection processes.
If you get 1/2 of a fire department or 1/2 of a rifle company instead of the full complement the taxpayer shelled out for, people will die. In the military, it's much worse, Women get worn down much quicker and become more of a burden than if they weren't there at all.
Agreed. Most of the push for women in combat is to allow female officers a command billet so they can get their tickets punched for flag rank. Careerism, plain and simple.
The military has been compromised for years. See Powell, Colin who let Scooter Libby get convicted even though he knew it was his buddy Richard Armitage who spilled the non-secret beans to Robert Novak.
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Look, I know it's scary and it should be. But these reprisals are well deserved and overdue. Ask any person of color and they will agree that whites must pay for colonialism and historical theft
You guys need to leave your echo chamber and talk to some people of color
Already paid for it a thousand times over. For instance, we gave up the space program, and twisted our whole society in knots just so we could have the pleasure of paying a horde of ungrateful mouth-breathers not to riot. White Americans (you heard me) could have colonies on Mars by now, but we chucked all that overboard in a futile attempt to help those who would not make the slightest effort to help themselves.
The extortion is coming to a screeching halt. Kipling was right about paying the Danegeld.
@Jay Igaboo
It's perfectly valid, as my point extends before and beyond 9/11 and tho other areas where diversity targets are in place, such as the military and other emergency services.
I mentioned 9/11 because one of the cliches of women entering a traditionally male employment is that after they eventually pass the selection processes designed to eliminate the weak or the fearful* women tend to get out of the firing line and any physically arduous work as soon as they possibly can (usually not long after a triumphalist gloat arranged by media feminazi with photo-opps of them in working uniform juxtaposed with them in fashionable evening wear.
* from my own military experiences, and my ongoing contact with those stills erving, I'm well aware of how career conscious officers and NCOs will try to glissade female candidates through selection processes.
If you get 1/2 of a fire department or 1/2 of a rifle company instead of the full complement the taxpayer shelled out for, people will die. In the military, it's much worse, Women get worn down much quicker and become more of a burden than if they weren't there at all.
These never get old:
“I said kick the door, don’t knock.”
“That was a great effort!”
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"That was a great effort!"
Cheers, Steve.
Where the male instructor informs the hapless GI-lady’s during her useless door entry attempt “I said kick, don’t knock”, Bill Shakespeare predicted my reaction to your clip ” I hasten to laugh e’re fear I’d weep. Weeping is what she’d cause a lot of, if she had to do it for real and her comrades were depending on her.
I’ve trained in house-clearing and speed is of the essence.
A grenadier “posts” a couple of grenades through the windows, the door guy “searches” the door with fire and IMMEDIATELY kicks the door in — although a special door-entry 12 bore slug was developed for blasting locks, these are not always available, and the door HAS to get kicked in immediately in order to maximise surprise whilst the defenders are still shocked,
If their are hostages inside, speed is even more essential, as only stun grenades are used and that puny chick would have been riddled through the door. Her uselessness would have made it more likely that her comrades would suffer more casualties too.
The Fort Boyard scene with the rather sturdy female firefighter completely failing whilst an untrained man aces the job shows just how dangerous this PC lunacy is.
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@Ivy
English TV shows about cops seem to be top-heavy with female Chief Constables and other high positions. The overt signaling is appalling, particularly in light of the on-the-street lagging performance that you note.
Yup, and one of those oestrogen-enriched top cop flops is basically trying to create anti-free speech case laws that will make it prison-worthy to observe how sh/t at the job most lady cops are :
Nottinghamshire Police records misogyny as a hate crime – BBC News
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-36775398
A smalll number of female cops are a necessary and often vital addition to a police force, but when a little muscle and raw courage is required, they are, literally worse than useless, as an able male cop is taken out of the equation, and he often has to protect HER instead of the public.. ( I’m not saying that all women lack courage, just most of them, and unlike men, those that do lack cannot be shamed into take action.)
I complained to Strathclyde Police about an incident following an act of vandalism when two female officers displayed rank cowardice,
I had been in a public building when I saw two drunks smash the windscreen of my car, By the time I got out they had gone,, I called the cops and went looking for them but I saw them in a near deserted shopping area ( this was after all the shops were closed. )
Knowing the way the law “works” and how a citizen making an arrest is liable to end up in court on assault charges I drove around until I saw two female cops. They claimed not to have been notified by despatch, and then feigned not to understand, after I’d explained ,declined my offer to assist them in making an arrest , and when I became more insistent( politely) they came out with “Is this your car ” and seeing where they wwere wanting to do, I backed off and left.
The minute I got home I typed out a letter of complaint to the Chief Constable and I did not pussy-foot around and accused them of rank cowardice, and questioned the wisdom of putting two female PCs (unarmed except for a 12″ truncheon”
The local Inspector visited me a few days later, and tried assorted BS to get me to withdraw my compliant. Thinking it would mollify me, he told me that he had worked with one and she was no coward. I told him that she certainly was on the evidence I had seen, and that although he may be telling me the truth, it was exactly the kind of uncheckable BS used by management the world over to justify policy, He then told me “I never put two lassies out together on a Friday night when I’m in charge, I always put them out with a man.”
I told him that the Chief Constable had publicly stated that WPCs were as capable as their male colleagues, part of my complaint covered this woefully unsafe policy, that HE knew to be deleterious to public and officer safety, a policy he manoevered around BECAUSE he knew it was founded on myth and wishful thinking (and in doing so endangered a male officer to bodyguard his “equal” female partner, but he wanted ME to be the same sort of hypocrite to defend a lie?
H eretired the field very unhappy, and HQ send down cop another three steps higher up the promotion ladder, a talking head of a Chief Superintendent.
Different day, different cop, same sh/t.
I wrote letters to the press and tried to get the MSM to do a story on WPC fails, no joy. The Chief Constable was then able to end it with anodyne letter.
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'Two female PCs unarmed (except for 12" inch truncheons).
That, just about says it all : )
Black man in Welsh: "dyn du"
Baboon in Spanish: "babuino"
You must have a modern PC-adjusted Spanish English dictionary Latin-American, I use my Spanish, French and English teaching oldest brother’s( God rest him) very old one.
“Zambo” is the translation
This is a bit more revealing if pronounced not with the Castilian “th” for “z” but with the softer “ess” of my so-so Latin American Spanish.
Interestingly, I put Zambo into Google Translate and clicked “Spanish ” as the input lingo, and up popped “baboon” but if you just leave it to “detect Language” up pops “babuino”.
Google Translate is scarily good in some languages, awful in others and all stages in between for the rest.
It’s has gotten much better in Spanish with every passing year, I have to say.
@Jim Don Bob
Agreed. Most of the push for women in combat is to allow female officers a command billet so they can get their tickets punched for flag rank. Careerism, plain and simple.
The military has been compromised for years. See Powell, Colin who let Scooter Libby get convicted even though he knew it was his buddy Richard Armitage who spilled the non-secret beans to Robert Novak.
“Most of the push for women in combat is to allow female officers a command billet so they can get their tickets punched for flag rank. Careerism, plain and simple.”
I had hoped that Norman Schwartzkopf who was himself quite seriously wounded in combat in Vietnam, had succeeded in stamping out much of the ticket- punching that he clearly understood was having such an adverse affect on the US Army. Schwartzkopf was in my opinion, which may be wrong, seems to have been a much better military commander than Powell, who seems to been, from early days, more of a politician than a soldier.
The ticket-punchers of Schwartzkopfs stayed ” in the rear with the gear” with very little time exposed to hard fighting. Apologies in advance to any present-day servicewomen who do not fit this profile, but I imagine once all the BS has been filtered out, their will be damn few who expose themselves to anything like as much danger as their male comrades.
I remember the rash of deployment-stopping pregnancies in the US forces in Gulf One, and the utter crap that the Pentagon put out and the press colluded with.
Gulf Two was the trigger for yet more outrageous lies bigging up women in combat, eg. the making of supply clerk PFC Jessica Lynch, who was ambushed whilst in convoy into the Audie Murphy MK2 (female.) PFC Lynch certainly did nor lack moral courage because after her rescue by Navy Seals she deliberately and with commendable modest, honesty and courage,especially for a 20-year old PFC, blew apart the Pentagon general’s and the MSM’s lies.
@Jay Igaboo
Cheers, Steve.
Where the male instructor informs the hapless GI-lady's during her useless door entry attempt "I said kick, don't knock", Bill Shakespeare predicted my reaction to your clip " I hasten to laugh e're fear I'd weep. Weeping is what she'd cause a lot of, if she had to do it for real and her comrades were depending on her.
I've trained in house-clearing and speed is of the essence.
A grenadier "posts" a couple of grenades through the windows, the door guy "searches" the door with fire and IMMEDIATELY kicks the door in -- although a special door-entry 12 bore slug was developed for blasting locks, these are not always available, and the door HAS to get kicked in immediately in order to maximise surprise whilst the defenders are still shocked,
If their are hostages inside, speed is even more essential, as only stun grenades are used and that puny chick would have been riddled through the door. Her uselessness would have made it more likely that her comrades would suffer more casualties too.
The Fort Boyard scene with the rather sturdy female firefighter completely failing whilst an untrained man aces the job shows just how dangerous this PC lunacy is.
It is not that easy for anybody to kick in an exterior door despite what you see on TV. A battering ram is a big help.
July 23, 2016 at 6:02 am GMT • 100 Words
I’ve kicked in doors before unless they are reinforced it’s easy enough in which case you need a battering ram.
In which case woman are mostly useless, here in Britain one WPC paid with her life for her lack of strength causing her to have to commit all her weight to swinging the am than she had the ability to correct when the dor finally gave way.
She fell through the door, and had removed her body armour, despite SOP being to wear it, despite its swing limiting effects.
“On 24 October 1997, 25-year-old WPC Nina Mackay was murdered in Stratford, East London. Elgizouli stabbed Nina to death as she entered his East London flat as as part of an armed team sent to arrest him for jumping bail.”
Yup, and one of those oestrogen-enriched top cop flops is basically trying to create anti-free speech case laws that will make it prison-worthy to observe how sh/t at the job most lady cops are :
Nottinghamshire Police records misogyny as a hate crime - BBC News
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-36775398
A smalll number of female cops are a necessary and often vital addition to a police force, but when a little muscle and raw courage is required, they are, literally worse than useless, as an able male cop is taken out of the equation, and he often has to protect HER instead of the public.. ( I'm not saying that all women lack courage, just most of them, and unlike men, those that do lack cannot be shamed into take action.)
I complained to Strathclyde Police about an incident following an act of vandalism when two female officers displayed rank cowardice,
I had been in a public building when I saw two drunks smash the windscreen of my car, By the time I got out they had gone,, I called the cops and went looking for them but I saw them in a near deserted shopping area ( this was after all the shops were closed. )
Knowing the way the law "works" and how a citizen making an arrest is liable to end up in court on assault charges I drove around until I saw two female cops. They claimed not to have been notified by despatch, and then feigned not to understand, after I'd explained ,declined my offer to assist them in making an arrest , and when I became more insistent( politely) they came out with "Is this your car " and seeing where they wwere wanting to do, I backed off and left.
The minute I got home I typed out a letter of complaint to the Chief Constable and I did not pussy-foot around and accused them of rank cowardice, and questioned the wisdom of putting two female PCs (unarmed except for a 12" truncheon"
The local Inspector visited me a few days later, and tried assorted BS to get me to withdraw my compliant. Thinking it would mollify me, he told me that he had worked with one and she was no coward. I told him that she certainly was on the evidence I had seen, and that although he may be telling me the truth, it was exactly the kind of uncheckable BS used by management the world over to justify policy, He then told me "I never put two lassies out together on a Friday night when I'm in charge, I always put them out with a man."
I told him that the Chief Constable had publicly stated that WPCs were as capable as their male colleagues, part of my complaint covered this woefully unsafe policy, that HE knew to be deleterious to public and officer safety, a policy he manoevered around BECAUSE he knew it was founded on myth and wishful thinking (and in doing so endangered a male officer to bodyguard his "equal" female partner, but he wanted ME to be the same sort of hypocrite to defend a lie?
H eretired the field very unhappy, and HQ send down cop another three steps higher up the promotion ladder, a talking head of a Chief Superintendent.
Different day, different cop, same sh/t.
I wrote letters to the press and tried to get the MSM to do a story on WPC fails, no joy. The Chief Constable was then able to end it with anodyne letter.
‘Two female PCs unarmed (except for 12″ inch truncheons).
That, just about says it all : )
• Replies:
'Two female PCs unarmed (except for 12" inch truncheons).
That, just about says it all : )
“‘Two female PCs unarmed (except for 12″ inch truncheons).
That, just about says it all : ) …………….Not quite.
Up until we became diversity enriched I had never seen a gun- armed cop in public.
Guns were only issued in very rare circumstances: In Glasgow, then a city of a million souls, once about every five tears or so, to a very small handful of selected officers.
There were a very few, but necessary, female officers in police forces throughout Britain. There were height limits in force, at the least candidates had to be above the average for their sex by at least three inches, many of the men were MUCH bigger.
No body armour was worn, or paramilitary accoutrements.
For that matter. even their batons were not displayed in public, they were concealed in a specially-deep trouser pocket, and only drawn when needed.
Policing was by consent in those days, and despite gun ownership being much easier in those days, very little gun crime.
Then the political elite, corporate interests, Cultural Marxists and the MSM stabbed Britons in the back and waited for the corpse to moulder.
• Replies:
"‘Two female PCs unarmed (except for 12″ inch truncheons).
That, just about says it all : ) ................Not quite.
Up until we became diversity enriched I had never seen a gun- armed cop in public.
Guns were only issued in very rare circumstances: In Glasgow, then a city of a million souls, once about every five tears or so, to a very small handful of selected officers.
There were a very few, but necessary, female officers in police forces throughout Britain. There were height limits in force, at the least candidates had to be above the average for their sex by at least three inches, many of the men were MUCH bigger.
No body armour was worn, or paramilitary accoutrements.
For that matter. even their batons were not displayed in public, they were concealed in a specially-deep trouser pocket, and only drawn when needed.
Policing was by consent in those days, and despite gun ownership being much easier in those days, very little gun crime.
Then the political elite, corporate interests, Cultural Marxists and the MSM stabbed Britons in the back and waited for the corpse to moulder.
Indeed, the Bobbies of old were possibly the best police force in the world. What a loss!
| Death of Keith Blakelock |
Which American film actress, born in 1947, had a 14 year relationship with Clint Eastwood, starring with him in several films before splitting up in 1989? | Death of Keith Blakelock - Wikipedia
Death of Keith Blakelock
Elizabeth Blakelock, later Johnson (wife); Mark, Kelvin Lee (son)
Awards
Police Constable , homebeat officer in Muswell Hill , north London
Keith Henry Blakelock, a London Metropolitan Police constable, was killed on 6 October 1985 in the Broadwater Farm riot at the housing estate in Tottenham , north London. The incident developed after a local black woman died of heart failure during a police search of her home. It took place against a backdrop of unrest in several English cities and a breakdown of relations between the police and black communities. [1]
PC Blakelock had been assigned on the night of his death to Serial 502, a unit of 10 constables and one sergeant dispatched to protect firefighters. When the rioters forced the officers back, Blakelock stumbled and fell. Surrounded by a mob of 30–50 people, he received over 40 injuries inflicted by machetes or similar, and was found with a six-inch-long knife in his neck, buried up to the hilt. [1] He was the first constable to be killed in a riot in Britain since 1833, when PC Robert Culley was stabbed to death in Clerkenwell , London. [2]
Detectives came under enormous pressure to find those responsible for his death, amid tabloid coverage that was sometimes openly racist. [3] Faced with a lack of forensic evidence, the police arrested 359 people, interviewed most of them without solicitors, and laid charges based on untaped confessions. Three adults and three youths were charged with the murder; the adults, Winston Silcott , Engin Raghip and Mark Braithwaite (the "Tottenham Three"), were convicted in 1987. A widely supported campaign arose to overturn the convictions, which were quashed in 1991 when forensic tests cast doubt on the authenticity of detectives' notes from an interview in which Silcott appeared to incriminate himself. [4] Two detectives were charged in 1992 with perverting the course of justice and were acquitted in 1994. [5]
Police re-opened the murder inquiry in 1992 and again in 2003. Ten men were arrested in 2010 on suspicion of murder, and in 2013 one of them, Nicholas Jacobs , became the seventh person to be charged with Blakelock's murder, based largely on evidence gathered during the 1992 inquiry. He was found not guilty in April 2014. [6]
Blakelock and the other constables of Serial 502 were awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal for bravery in 1988. Their sergeant, David Pengelly, who—armed only with a shield and truncheon —placed himself in front of the crowd in an effort to save Blakelock and another officer, received the George Medal , awarded for acts of great bravery. [7]
Contents
Keith Blakelock Edit
Keith Henry Blakelock (28 June 1945 – 6 October 1985) was born in Sunderland . He joined the Metropolitan Police on 14 November 1980, and was assigned to a response team in Hornsey before becoming a home beat officer in Muswell Hill , north London. [8] At the time of his death, he was married to Elizabeth Blakelock, with three sons, Mark, Kevin and Lee. Lee Blakelock, eight years old when his father died, became a police officer himself, joining Durham Constabulary in 2000. PC Blakelock is buried in East Finchley Cemetery . [9]
Broadwater Farm housing estate, 2007
The open parking level attracted drug dealers.
External image
Outdoor elevated walkways , now mostly demolished, made police vulnerable to attack from above.
Broadwater Farm in Tottenham, in the Borough of Haringey , north London ( N17 ), emerged from the British government's policy from the 1930s onwards of slum clearance , in which poorly maintained terraced houses were bulldozed to make way for high-rise social housing . [10] Built between 1967 and 1973, the Farm consists of 1,063 flats (apartments) in 12 blocks raised on stilts, linked by first-floor outdoor connecting walkways; no homes or shops were built at ground level for fear of flooding from the nearby River Moselle . [11] At the time of Blakelock's death, the estate housed 3,400 people, 49% white, 43% African Caribbean. [12]
British journalist David Rose writes that by 1976 the Farm was already seen as a sink estate , and by 1980 a Department of the Environment report had suggested demolition, although a regeneration project after the 1985 riots led to improvements. [13] Sir Kenneth Newman , Metropolitan Police commissioner from 1982 to 1987, regarded the estate as one of London's symbolic locations , or potential no-go areas, along with Railton Road in Brixton , All Saints Road in Notting Hill , the Notting Hill Carnival , and the Stonebridge Estate in Harlesden . [14] The 1986 Gifford Inquiry into the rioting criticised the police for having adopted this attitude. [15]
The elevated linked walkways meant the estate could be crossed without descending to street level. Combined with the ground-level parking spaces beloved of drug dealers, these had turned the estate into what commentators called a "rabbit warren" for criminals, to the point where residents were afraid to leave their homes. [16] Dutch architectural historian Wouter Vanstiphout described the estate as it was at the time of the riots:
[T]here are elevated walkways, there are little stairs that connect them, there are these huge stairwells where the different elevated walkways come together ... there is a huge underground zone that is completely unmonitored, which consists of parking places ... so it's an incredible nest ... one of these typical modernist, multi-level network city constructions that make it extremely difficult for the police to exert any control over it, and it makes the police extremely vulnerable for attacks from behind, underneath, from the top. [17]
Social unrest across England Edit
Police line up with shields by Coldharbour Lane during the 1981 Brixton riots .
The riots in which Blakelock died took place within a wave of social unrest across England. Since the 1980 St. Pauls riot in Bristol, and particularly since the 1981 Brixton riot in south London, a series of incidents had sparked violent confrontations between black youths and largely white police officers. [1]
On 9 September 1985, a month before Blakelock's murder, the Handsworth Riots occurred in Birmingham, after the arrest of a black man for a traffic offence; two people were killed. [18] On 28 September, a black woman, Dorothy "Cherry" Groce (1948–2011), was accidentally shot by police while they searched her home in Brixton looking for her son, Michael Groce , who was wanted on suspicion of robbery and firearms offences. [19]
Believing she had died in the shooting – in fact, she survived but was left paralysed from the waist down – a group of protesters gathered outside Brixton police station, and a riot in Brixton broke out which saw police lose control of the area for 48 hours. [20] A photojournalist, 29-year-old David Hodge, was killed when a breeze block was dropped on his head while he was photographing the looting. [21]
Rumours spread throughout London that more rioting was imminent, including in Bermondsey and the Wood Green shopping centre near Broadwater Farm. On 1 October, there were disturbances in Toxteth , Liverpool, and on the same day police stopped and searched all vehicles entering the Farm, finding a petrol bomb there the next day, David Rose wrote in 1992. [22]
(October 1985) Broadwater Farm riot Edit
(5 October) Death of Cynthia Jarrett Edit
Tottenham, London Borough of Haringey
On Saturday, 5 October 1985, a week after the Brixton riot, police arrested Floyd Jarrett, a 24-year-old black man from Tottenham, on suspicion of being in a stolen car. It was a suspicion that turned out to be groundless, but a decision was made several hours later to search the home of his mother, Cynthia Jarrett, for stolen goods. In the course of the search she collapsed and died of heart failure. Rose writes that the pathologist, Dr. Walter Somerville , told the inquest that Mrs. Jarrett had a heart condition that meant she probably only had months to live. [23]
According to Rose, the police let themselves into the house using Floyd's keys, without knocking or announcing themselves, while Mrs. Jarrett and her family were watching television. The family said that an officer pushed Mrs. Jarrett, causing her to fall. The officer denied this; the police said she had not been pushed but had simply collapsed. When it became clear she had stopped breathing, the same officer tried to revive her using mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, to no avail. [24] The pathologist testified at the inquest that the fall may have been a precipitating factor; the jury returned a verdict of accidental death, following the coroner's direction that such a verdict would mean Mrs. Jarrett had been pushed, but perhaps accidentally. [25]
(6 October) Rioting breaks out Edit
Another post-riot scene
Protesters began to gather outside Tottenham police station, a few hundred yards from Broadwater Farm, around 1:30 am on Sunday morning, 6 October. Four of the station's windows were smashed, but the Jarrett family asked the crowd to disperse. Later that day, two police officers were attacked with bricks and paving stones at the Farm, and a police inspector was attacked in his car. [26]
The next few hours saw some of the most violent rioting the country had experienced. By early evening a crowd of 500 mostly young black men had gathered on the estate, setting fire to cars, throwing petrol bombs and bricks, and dropping concrete blocks and paving stones from the estate's outdoor walkways, knocking several police officers unconscious, despite their NATO helmets. [27] The local council's community relations officer said there was a "shifting convoy of ambulances: as soon as one was loaded up with injured officers, another would move up to take its place." [28]
Apart from Blakelock's death, 250 police officers were injured, and two policemen and three journalists, one from the Press Association and two from the BBC, suffered gunshot wounds. [29] At least 30 shots were fired from three firearms, the first time shots had been fired by rioters in Britain. At 9:45 pm the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Kenneth Newman, authorized the deployment of specialist police armed with plastic bullets and CS gas to be used "as a last resort should all else fail"; it would have been the first use of plastic bullets during a riot in Britain. The unit arrived at 10:20 pm, but the senior officers at the scene refused to use them, to the apparent dismay of junior officers. The rioting continued until the early hours of the morning. [30]
Serial 502 Edit
External images
Tangmere block first floor , where fire broke out that night. The office with the blue door in the corner was the Broadwater Farm Youth Association. Next to it, on the right, is the south stairwell.
Tangmere first floor again , and the shop on the left where the fire started
Where Blakelock was attacked
Blakelock was assigned on the night to Serial 502, a Metropolitan police unit consisting of a sergeant and 10 constables from Hornsey and Wood Green police stations. [32] A "shield serial" was a unit equipped with shields, Nato helmets and a personnel carrier; expecting trouble, the Metropolitan police had increased the deployment of these patrols across the capital. [33] Serial 502 consisted of three Scots; three Londoners, including a Jamaican; and one each from Cumbria, Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, Sunderland and Merseyside. [34]
At 9:30 pm Sgt David Pengelly led the unit into Broadwater Farm to protect firemen who had earlier been forced out of the estate's Tangmere block (pictured), where a fire had started in the Centra Supermarket on the first floor. [35]
The firemen made their way up an enclosed staircase with Serial 502 behind them. Dozens of rioters suddenly appeared at the top of the stairs, blowing whistles and throwing bottles. Pengelly ordered the officers and firefighters to retreat. They were forced to run backwards down the unlit narrow staircase, fearful of tripping over the fire hoses, which had been flat before but were now full of water. [36] PC Richard Coombes, armed with just a short truncheon, said the noise – "Kill the pigs!" – was deafening, and he could hardly see through the scratched Perspex visor on his helmet. [37]
Attack on Blakelock Edit
Front and back of Blakelock's overalls. Each piece of tape represents a stabbing or cutting wound. [38]
There were rioters at the bottom of the stairs too, wearing masks or crash helmets, and carrying knives, baseball bats, bricks and petrol bombs. As the firefighters and police ran out of the stairwell toward a car park and a patch of grass, one of the firemen, Trevor Stratford, saw that Blakelock had tripped: "He just stumbled and went down and they were upon him. It was just mob hysteria. ... There were about 50 people on him." [39]
The rioters removed Blakelock's protective helmet, which was never found. Rose writes that the pathologist, David Bowen, found 54 holes in Blakelock's overalls, and 40 cutting or stabbing injuries, eight of them to his head, caused by a machete, sword or axe-type instrument. A six-inch-long knife was buried in his neck up to the hilt. His body was covered in marks from having been kicked or stamped on. His hands and arms were badly cut, and he had lost several fingers trying to defend himself. There were 14 stab wounds on his back, one on the back of his right thigh, six on his face, and his jawbone had been smashed by a blow that left a six-inch gash across the right side of his head. Bowen said the force of this blow had been "almost as if to sever his head," which gave rise to a rumour that an attempt had been made to decapitate him (according to Rose, the autopsy photographs did not support this). [40]
A second group surrounded PC Coombes, who sustained a five-inch-long cut to his face, and broken upper and lower jaws. In 2004 he said he was still suffering the effects of the attack, which the police regard as attempted murder, including poor hearing and eyesight, epileptic fits, and a memory so poor that he was left unable to read a book or drive. [37] A third constable, Michael Shepherd, had his protective helmet pierced by an iron spike. [41] Several of the officers and firemen turned and ran back toward the crowd to try to save Blakelock and Coombes. Trevor Stratford told a reporter in 2010: "I remember running in with another fire officer to get Dick Coombes. I literally slid into the group, like a rugby player charging into a ruck. We dragged him out, but he was in a hell of a state":
I then ran back towards Keith Blakelock. Other police officers were already there. We were all being hit and beaten, but I managed to get hold of his collar and pull his head and shoulders out of the group. One of the other officers helped me to drag him out.
Dave Pengelly kept a rearguard barrier between us and the rioters, standing in the middle of it all with just a shield and a truncheon, trying to fend them off, which is an image I'll never forget.
Between us all we managed to manhandle Keith out to the road, and safety. He was already unconscious when I'd got to him on the ground. I started mouth-to-mouth and heart massage on him, but his injuries were just horrific.
He had a knife embedded up to the handle in the back of his neck. We could see he had multiple stab wounds and some of his fingers were missing. I just kept working on him with another officer, and I think we got some response, but only very limited. [42]
Blakelock was taken by ambulance to the North Middlesex Hospital, but died on the way. [41] Pengelly said in 2010 that, when the other officers got back to the safety of their van, "We just sat there, numb with shock, and life was never the same again for any of us." [43]
Front page of The Guardian , 7 October 1985.
Rose writes that there was a racist media frenzy after the killing, placing intense external pressure on detectives to solve the case. According to Rose, the news coverage included The Sun newspaper comparing Labour's prospective candidate for Tottenham, Bernie Grant – who had emigrated from Guyana in 1963 – to an ape, writing that he had given a press conference while peeling a banana and juggling an orange. Grant had caused uproar when he was reported as saying the police had been given a "bloody good hiding," although his statement was also reported as: "The youths around here believe the police were to blame for what happened on Sunday and what they got was a bloody good hiding." [44]
The Metropolitan Police commissioner, Kenneth Newman, told reporters that groups of Trotskyists and anarchists had orchestrated the violence, a theme picked up by The Daily Telegraph and others. The Daily Express – falling for a story from media hoaxer Rocky Ryan – reported on 8 October 1985 that a "Moscow-trained hit squad gave orders as mob hacked PC Blakelock to death," alleging that "crazed left-wing extremists" trained in Moscow and Libya had coordinated the riots. [45]
There was also internal pressure on detectives from the rank and file, who saw their superior officers as sharing the blame for Blakelock's death. [46] The Police Federation 's journal, Police, argued that senior officers had pursued a policy at Broadwater Farm of avoiding confrontation at all costs, and that "community policing" had led to compromises with criminals, rather than maintaining a focus on upholding the law. As a result, the journal wrote, officers had failed to appreciate the seriousness of the situation that had developed on the estate. [47]
Detective Chief Superintendent Graham Melvin Edit
Detective Chief Superintendent Graham Melvin of the Serious Crime Squad was placed in charge of the investigation a few hours after the killing, at 2 am on 7 October. [48] The inquiry became the largest in the history of the Metropolitan Police, with 150 officers assigned full-time. Melvin was born in Halifax in 1941, joining the Metropolitan Police in 1960, then the Criminal Investigation Department . He studied at Bramshill Police College , served with the Flying Squad , and was known for having solved several notorious cases, including that of Kenneth Erskine , the Stockwell Strangler. He became a Detective Chief Superintendent in March 1985 when he joined the elite International and Organised Crime Squad (SO1). [49]
Murder charges Edit
Melvin's first problem was that there was no forensic evidence. Senior officers had not allowed the estate to be sealed off immediately after the attack, which meant that the crime scene had not been secured. Witnesses and those directly involved were able to leave without giving their names. Objects that might have held fingerprints were not collected. Police were not allowed into the estate in great numbers until 4 am, by which time much of the evidence had disappeared. Whatever remained was removed during Haringey Council 's clean-up operation. [50]
Melvin therefore resorted to arresting suspects – including juveniles, some of them regarded as vulnerable – and holding them for days without access to lawyers. [51] Of the 359 people arrested in connection with the inquiry in 1985 and 1986, just 94 were interviewed in the presence of a lawyer. Many of the confessions that resulted, whether directly about the murder, or about having taken part in the rioting, were made before the lawyer was given access to the interviewee. [52]
When people did confess to even a minor role in the rioting, such as throwing a few stones, they were charged with affray . One resident told the 1986 Gifford Inquiry into the rioting: "You would go to bed and you would just lie there and you would think, are they going to come and kick my door, what's going to happen to my children? ... It was that horrible fear that you lived with day by day, knowing they could come and kick down your door and hold you for hours." The inquiry heard that 9,165 police officers were either deployed on the estate or held in reserve between 10 and 14 October 1985. Thus, argues Rose, the police created, or at least intensified, a climate of fear in which witnesses were afraid to step forward. [53]
Melvin defended his decision to hold people without access to legal advice by arguing that lawyers, unwittingly or otherwise, might pass information they had gleaned during interviews to other suspects. He said under cross-examination during the 1987 murder trial that, in his view, "the integrity of some firms of solicitors left a lot to be desired"; he believed solicitors were being retained by people who had an interest in learning what other suspects had said. [54] The Crown prosecutor, Roy Amlot QC, told the court that the police had one effective weapon, namely that suspects did not know who else had spoken to police and what they had said, and that "the use of that weapon by the police was legitimate and effective." [55]
Mark Pennant Edit
Mark Pennant, aged 15, was arrested on 9 October 1985 and charged with murder two days later, the first person charged in connection with the killing. Born in England to West Indian parents, Pennant had been raised in the West Indies until he was nine, after which he returned to the UK; he was diagnosed with learning difficulties and was attending a special school. He was arrested and handcuffed at school, taken to Wood Green Police Station, and interviewed six times over the course of two days with a teacher in attendance. He told the police that he had cut Blakelock and kicked him twice, and named Winston Silcott as the ringleader and several others, including another juvenile, Mark Lambie. [56]
Jason Hill Edit
Jason Hill, a 13-year-old white boy who lived on Broadwater Farm, was seen looting from a store in the Tangmere block during the rioting, near where Blakelock was killed. He was arrested on 13 October and taken to Leyton Police Station, where he was held for three days without access to a lawyer. He reported being kept in a very hot cell, which he said made sleeping and even breathing difficult. His clothes and shoes were removed for forensic tests and he was interviewed wearing only underpants and a blanket, the latter of which by the third day of detention was stained with his own vomit. Hyacinth Moody of the Haringey Community Relations Council sat in as an "appropriate adult"; she was criticised by the judge for having failed to intervene. [57]
Over the course of several interviews, Hill told police that he had witnessed the attack, and named Silcott and others, including Mark Lambie. [58] He described almost a ritualistic killing and said that Silcott – whom he called "Sticks" – had forced him to make his "mark" on Blakelock with a sword. According to David Rose, Hill described injuries to Blakelock's body that did not match the autopsy report. [59]
After he had cut Blakelock, Hill said, Silcott told him he was cool and asked what he had seen. Hill said he replied, "Nothing," and that Silcott said, "Well, you can go." [60] He said the aim of the attack had been to decapitate Blakelock and put his head on a stick. [58] In 1991, he told Rose that, throughout the interview, the police were saying, "Go on, admit it, you had a stab," and "It was Sticks, wasn't it?" He said they threatened to keep him in the station for two weeks and said he would never see his family again. "They could have told me it was Prince Charles and I would have said it was him." [61]
Steve Drake Edit
Steve Drake, aged 14, was the third juvenile to be charged with the murder. He was named by Mark Pennant and Jason Hill, and was interviewed with his father and a solicitor present. [62] Drake admitted to having taken part in the rioting, but denied involvement in the murder. One witness said during the trial that he had seen Drake force his way through the crowd to reach Blakelock, although the testimony was discredited; however Drake spent several years behind bars. [63] [64]
Ran a greengrocer's shop
Criminal charge(s)
Burglary (1977), wounding (1979), murder of Lennie McIntosh (acquitted 1980), possession (1983), obstruction (1984), murder of Anthony Smith (convicted 1986), murder of Keith Blakelock (convicted 1987, overturned 1991)
David Rose writes that a former detective inspector called the Blakelock investigation a "pre-scientific inquiry, it was all about how to get Winston Silcott convicted, not discovering who killed Keith Blakelock." [65] By the time of the murder, local police saw Silcott as the "biggest mafioso in Tottenham ... running the mugging gangs, paying them with drugs," according to another former senior officer in Tottenham. [66]
Silcott was 26 years old when he was arrested, the oldest of the six charged with murder. He was born in Tottenham in 1959; his parents, both Seventh-day Adventists , had arrived in England from Montserrat two years earlier. [67] He told Rose that he had experienced racism throughout his entire upbringing, particularly from the police. After leaving school at 15, he took a series of low-paying jobs and in 1976 began breaking into houses. The following year he was convicted of nine counts of burglary and sent to borstal for a few months, and in 1979 he was sentenced to six months for wounding. [68] In September 1980 he stood trial for the murder of 19-year-old Lennie McIntosh, a postal worker, who was stabbed and killed at a party in Muswell Hill in 1979. [69] The first trial resulted in a hung jury; a second trial saw him acquitted. [70]
In 1980 Silcott and a friend began operating a mobile disco, "Galaxy Soul Shuffle," playing at festivals and private parties. [71] In 1983 he was given a government grant to open a greengrocer's on the deck of the Tangere block of Broadwater Farm. More convictions followed: in October that year he was fined for possessing a flick knife and in March 1984 for obstructing police. In 1985 he reportedly told Diana, Princess of Wales , who was on an official visit to Broadwater Farm, that she should not have come without bringing jobs, which The Sun newspaper interpreted as a threat. [72]
In December 1984, Silcott was arrested for the murder of a 22-year-old boxer, Anthony Smith, at a party in Hackney. Smith had been slashed more than once on his face, there were two wounds to his abdomen, a lung had been lacerated and his aorta cut. Silcott was charged with the murder in May 1985 and was out on bail when Blakelock was killed in October that year. At first he told police he had not known Smith and had not been at the party, although at trial he acknowledged having been there. He said Smith had started punching him, and that he had pushed Smith back but had not been carrying a knife. Silcott was convicted of Smith's murder in February 1986, while awaiting trial for the Blakelock murder, and was sentenced to life imprisonment; he was released in 2003 after serving 17 years. [73] After the conviction he told his lawyer he had indeed known Smith, that there had been bad blood between them, and that he had stabbed the man in self-defence, because one of Smith's friends had had a knife. [74]
Arrest and disputed interview Edit
Known as "Sticks" locally, Silcott was living in the Martlesham block of the Broadwater Farm estate at the time of the riots, [70] and was running his greengrocer's shop in the Tangmere block, the block near the spot where Blakelock was killed. [75] He told David Rose in 2004 that he had been in the Tangmere block on the night of the death, and had stopped someone throwing a scaffolding pole through the window of his shop. A friend of his, Pam, had then invited him to her apartment to keep him out of trouble. [76]
He told Rose: "And look, I'm on bail for a murder. I know I'm stupid, but I'm not that stupid. There's helicopters, police photographers everywhere. All I could think about was that I didn't want to lose my bail." [76] He said he had first learned of Blakelock's death when he heard cheering in the apartment he was staying in, in response to a news report about it. [77]
Silcott was arrested for Blakelock's murder on 12 October 1985, six days after the riot; he was interviewed five times over 24 hours, Det Ch Supt Melvin asking the questions and Detective Inspector Maxwell Dingle taking the notes. During the first four interviews, he stayed mostly silent and refused to sign the detectives' notes, but during the fifth interview on 13 October, when Melvin said he knew Silcott had struck Blakelock with a machete or sword, his demeanour changed, according to the notes. [78]
The notes show him asking: "Who told you that?" [78] When the detectives said they had witnesses, he reportedly said: "They are only kids. No one is going to believe them." The notes say he walked around the interview room with tears in his eyes, saying: "You cunts, you cunts," and "Jesus, Jesus," then: "You ain't got enough evidence. Those kids will never go to court. You wait and see. No one else will talk to you. You can't keep me away from them." The notes show him saying of the murder weapons: "You're too slow, man, they gone." He was at that point charged with murder, to which he reportedly responded: "They won't give evidence against me." [79]
Criminal charge(s)
Theft, burglary (c. 1984), murder of Keith Blakelock (1987, overturned 1991)
Nineteen-year-old Engin Raghip, of Turkish–Cypriot descent, was arrested on 24 October 1985 after a friend mentioned his name to police, the only time anyone had linked him to the murder. [80] During his trial, the court heard from an expert that Raghip was "in the middle of the mildly mentally handicapped range," although this testimony was withheld from the jury. [81] His mental impairment became a key issue during his successful appeal in 1991 in R v Raghip and others, when the court accepted that it rendered his confession unsafe. [82]
Raghip's parents had moved from Cyprus to England in 1956. Raghip left school at age 15, illiterate, and by the time of the murder had two convictions, one for stealing cars and one for burglary. He had a common-law wife, Sharon Daly, with whom he had a two-year-old boy, and he worked occasionally as a mechanic. He had little connection with Broadwater Farm, though he lived in nearby Wood Green and had gone to the Farm with two friends to watch the riot, he said. One of those friends, John Broomfield, gave an interview to the Daily Mirror on 23 October, boasting about his involvement. When Broomfield was arrested, he implicated Raghip. Broomfield was later convicted of an unrelated murder. [80]
At the time of Raghip's arrest he had been drinking and smoking cannabis for several days, and his common-law wife had just left him, taking their son with her. He was held for two days without representation, first speaking to a solicitor on the third day, who said he had found Raghip distressed and disoriented. [83]
He was interviewed by Det Sgt van Thal and Det Insp John Kennedy on ten occasions over a period of four days. He made several incriminating statements during the interviews, at first admitting he had thrown stones, then during the second interview saying he had seen the attack on Blakelock. During the third, he said he had spoken to Silcott about the murder, and that Silcott owned a hammer with a hook on one side. After the fifth interview he was charged with affray, and during the sixth he described the attack on Blakelock: "It was like you see in a film, a helpless man with dogs on him. It was just like that, it was really quick." He did not sign this interview, Rose writes, and after it he vomited. [84]
During a seventh interview the next day, Raghip described noises he said Blakelock had made during the attack. During the eighth interview, he said he had armed himself that night with a broom handle, and had tried to get close to what was happening to Blakelock, but there were too many people around him: "I had a weapon when I was running toward the policeman, a broom handle." He said he might have kicked or hit him had he been able to get close enough. Rose writes that Raghip also offered the order in which Blakelock's attackers had launched the assault. He was held for another two days, released on bail, then charged with murder six weeks later, in December 1985, under the doctrine of common purpose . [84]
Criminal charge(s)
Murder of Keith Blakelock (1987, overturned 1991)
Mark Braithwaite was 18 when Blakelock was killed, a rapper and disc jockey living with his parents in Islington , London, N1 . He had a girlfriend who lived on Broadwater Farm, with whom he had a child. On 16 January 1986, three months after the murder, his name was mentioned for the first time to detectives by a man they had arrested, Bernard Kinghorn. Kinghorn told them he had seen Braithwaite, whom he said he knew only by sight, stab Blakelock with a kitchen knife. Kinghorn later withdrew the allegation, telling the BBC three years later that it had been false. [85]
Braithwaite was taken to Enfield Police Station and interviewed by Det Sgt Dermot McDermott and Detective Constable Colin Biggar. He was held for three days and was at first denied access to a lawyer, on the instruction of Det Ch Supt Melvin. He was interviewed eight times over the first two days, and with a lawyer present four times on the third. [86] During the first 30 hours of his detention he had nothing to eat, and said in court – as did several other suspects – that the heat in the cells was oppressive, making it difficult to breathe. [87]
He at first denied being anywhere near the Farm, then during interview four said he had been there and had thrown stones, and during interview five said he had been at the Tangmere block, but had played no role in the murder. During interview six, he said he had hit Blakelock with an iron bar in the chest and leg. Rose writes that there were no such injuries on Blakelock's body. In a seventh interview, he said he had hit a police officer, but that it was not Blakelock. On the basis of this confession evidence, he was charged with murder. [86]
(1987) Trial: R v Silcott and others Edit
R v Silcott and others
Judge(s) sitting
Sir Derek Hodgson
Forty-nine men and youths were convicted of offences arising from the riots, out of 359 arrested and 159 charged, not counting the six murder defendants. [88] The trial of the six – Silcott, Raghip and Braithwaite, the adults; and Pennant, Hill and Lambie, the youths – began in court number two of the Old Bailey on 14 January 1987. All the men were charged with murder, riot, and affray; Lambie was also charged with throwing petrol bombs. [89]
The jury consisted of seven men and five women, including one Afro-Caribbean woman. [90] They were not told that it was Silcott's fourth murder trial, [70] that he had been out on bail for the murder of Anthony Smith when Blakelock was killed, or that he had subsequently been convicted of that murder. [91] Silcott's barrister, Barbara Mills (1940–2011), a future Director of Public Prosecutions , decided that he should not take the stand to avoid exposing him to questions about his previous convictions. [76]
The effort to avoid introducing the conviction for the murder of Anthony Smith worked against Silcott too. It meant that the jury could not be told that he had signed on for his bail at Tottenham police station at around 7 pm on the evening of Blakelock's death. This was when witnesses had placed Silcott at a Broadwater Youth Association meeting, making inflammatory speeches against the police. [92]
External images
The Sun published this image on the second day of the trial, a "most gross contempt," according to the judge speaking years later.
The Guardian , 19 March 1987, reporting the convictions
The press coverage of the trial included the publication on day two, by The Sun, of a notorious close-up of a half-smiling Silcott, one that "created a monster to stalk the nightmares of Middle England," as journalist Kurt Barling put it. [75] Silcott said he had been asleep in a police cell when it was taken; he said he was woken up, held in a corridor with his arms pinned against a wall and photographed, and that the expression on his face was one of fear. [93] Its publication constituted "the most gross contempt," according to the trial judge, Sir Derek Hodgson (1917–2002), speaking to David Rose in 1992. No action was taken against the newspaper. [94]
The judge dismissed the charges against the youths because they had been detained without access to parents or a lawyer; in the absence of the jury, the judge was highly critical of the police on that point. [95] Four armoured police vehicles waited in Tottenham as the jury deliberated for three days. They returned on 19 March 1987 with a unanimous guilty verdict against Silcott, Raghip and Braithwaite; the men were sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation that Silcott serve at least 30 years. [70] The black female juror fainted when the verdicts were read out. Rose writes that the tabloids knew no restraint, writing about the beasts of Broadwater Farm, hooded animals and packs of savages, with the old jail-cell image of Silcott published above captions such as "smile of evil." [96]
(1988) Application for leave to appeal rejected Edit
A campaign to free the "Tottenham Three" gathered pace, organized by the Broadwater Farm Defence Campaign. They published an 18-page report in 1987 by two American law professors, Margaret Burnham and Lennox Hinds, who had attended part of the trial, and who wrote that Silcott's conviction "represents a serious miscarriage of justice." [97] Rose writes that the New Statesman and Time Out wrote sympathetic pieces, and MPs and trade unionists were lobbied. In May 1989, the London School of Economics students' union elected Silcott as the college's honorary president, to the dismay of its director and governors. Silcott resigned shortly afterwards, saying he did not want the students to become scapegoats. [98]
Engin Raghip's solicitor was now Gareth Peirce – who had represented the Guildford Four and Birmingham Six , prominent cases of miscarriage of justice – and his barrister Michael Mansfield . Peirce applied for leave to appeal. She began to explore Raghip's mental state, arguing that his confession could not be relied upon, and arranged for him to be examined by Dr. Gísli Guðjónsson of the Institute of Psychiatry in London, a specialist in suggestibility; Guðjónsson concluded that Raghip was unusually suggestible, with a mental age of between 10 and 11. Silcott was again represented by Barbara Mills and Braithwaite by Steven Kamlish. Mills noted the lack of photographic or scientific evidence, and argued that Silcott would have been unlikely to stop firefighters from extinguishing a fire on the deck of the Tangmere block, given that he was renting a shop there. [99]
Lord Lane , then Lord Chief Justice of England , dismissed the applications on 13 December 1988, arguing of Raghip that the jury had had ample opportunity to form its own opinion of him. [100] Amnesty International criticised the decision, pointing to the problems with confessions made in the absence of a lawyer, and was criticized in turn by Home Secretary Douglas Hurd , who said Amnesty had abandoned its impartiality. [101]
During a BBC Newsnight discussion of the case, Lord Scarman , a former Law Lord , said the convictions ought to be overturned. Gareth Peirce obtained another psychologist's report about Raghip and, supported by Raghip's MP Michael Portillo , asked the Home Secretary to review the case. She also submitted an application to the European Court of Human Rights , arguing that the way Raghip had been interviewed breached the European Convention on Human Rights . In December 1990 Home Secretary Kenneth Baker referred Raghip's case back to the Court of Appeal. [102]
(1990) Electrostatic detection analysis Edit
In parallel with the efforts of Pierce, Silcott's lawyers had requested access in November 1990 to his original interview notes, so that the seven pages from his crucial fifth interview – the notes he said were fabricated – could be submitted for an electrostatic detection analysis (ESDA). The test can identify a small electrostatic charge left on a page when the page above it is written on; in this way, the test's developers say, the chronological integrity of interview notes can be determined. [103]
In Silcott's case, according to the scientist who conducted the ESDA test, Robert Radley, the notes from the section of the fifth interview in which Silcott appeared to incriminate himself had been inserted after the other notes were written. [76] The seventh and final page of the fifth interview, where the participants would normally sign, was missing. [103] The ESDA test suggested that, on the third to sixth pages of the interview, no impressions had been left from previous pages, although these earlier impressions appeared throughout the rest of the notes. According to Will Bennett in The Independent , the test "also revealed an imprint of a different page five from the one submitted in evidence which was clearly the same interview with Silcott but in which he made no implicit admissions." [78] In addition to this, David Baxendale, a Home Office forensic scientist who was asked to investigate by Essex police, said that the paper on which the disputed notes were written came from a different batch of paper from the rest of the interview. [104]
The disputed section of the interview had been written down by Det Insp Maxwell Dingle. It said that, when Silcott was told the police had witness statements that he had attacked Blakelock, he replied: "They are only kids. No one is going to believe them"; he reportedly said later: "Those kids will never go to court, you wait and see." [78] As a result of the ESDA test evidence, the Home Secretary added Silcott and Braithwaite to Raghip's appeal. [103]
(1991) Appeal: R v Raghip and others Edit
R v Raghip and others
Judge(s) sitting
Lord Justice Farquharson, Mr Justice Alliott, Mr Justice Cresswell
The Court of Appeal heard Silcott's appeal on 25 November 1991 and took just 90 minutes to overturn the conviction, delivering its 74-page decision on 5 December. [105] Raghip and Braithwaite's appeal was heard a few days later and was also swiftly overturned. R v Raghip and others is regarded as a landmark ruling because it recognized that "interrogative suggestibility" might make a confession unreliable. [83]
The court heard that Silcott's interview notes were contaminated, and that Raghip's suggestibility and Braithwaite's having been denied a lawyer rendered their confessions unreliable. [106] The Crown prosecutor, Roy Amlot, conceded that the apparent contamination rendered all three convictions unsafe: "[W]e would not have gone on against Braithwaite, against Raghip, against any other defendants, having learned of the apparent dishonesty of the officer in charge of the case. I say that because the Crown has to depend on the honesty and integrity of officers in a case ... The impact is obviously severe." Rose writes that the statement was "one of the more sensational speeches in English legal history." [107]
Braithwaite and Raghip were released immediately. [108] Silcott remained in jail for the 1984 murder of Anthony Smith. He received £17,000 compensation in 1991 for his conviction in the Blakelock case, and in 1995 was offered up to £200,000 in legal aid to sue the police for conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. The Metropolitan Police settled out of court in 1999, awarding him £50,000 for false imprisonment and malicious prosecution. [109] He was released on licence in October 2003 having served 17 years for Smith's murder. [110]
The Guardian reporting the detectives' acquittal , 27 July 1994
The trial of Det Ch Supt Melvin and Det Insp Dingle opened in June 1994 at the Old Bailey before Mr. Justice Jowitt . Only three people had been present during the disputed interview with Silcott – Melvin, Dingle and Silcott himself – and none of them gave evidence. [78]
David Calvert-Smith , for the prosecution, alleged that the detectives' supposedly contemporaneous notes of the fifth interview with Silcott had been altered after the fact to include the self-incriminating remarks. [78] Silcott had refused to answer questions during the first four interviews. [78] During the fifth, when told there were witness statements that he had struck Blakelock with a machete or similar, the notes show him saying: "Those kids will never go to court. You wait and see. No one else will talk to you. You can't keep me away from them." Silcott denied ever having said these words. [79]
Richard Ferguson QC, for the defence, argued that the ESDA test , which suggested that the disputed words had been added to the notes later, was not reliable. The defence also produced 14 witness statements from the two Blakelock inquiries, seven of them excerpts from Nove's 1992–1994 inquiry and seven from the original investigation in 1985, the latter read out to the jury as statements H to N. [114] One of the 1985 statements said that Silcott had been carrying a knife with a two-foot-long blade on the night of the murder, and that he had attacked Blakelock. [116]
Several of the statements originated from the juveniles who had been arrested shortly after the murder. They included Jason Hill , the 13-year-old who had been held for three days in his underpants and a blanket, without access to his parents or a lawyer. (Hill received £30,000 in damages from the police over his treatment.) Hill had not been told that his statement was going to be read out in court during the detectives' trial; he first learned that it had been used when he heard it on television. [117] Another statement was from Mark Pennant, also a juvenile who had been arrested during the first inquiry. Overall it appeared that Silcott was being retried. [118]
The detectives were acquitted on 26 July by a unanimous verdict. Both had been suspended during the case. Dingle retired immediately; Melvin returned to work but retired three months later. [119]
(2003) Detective Superintendent John Sweeney Edit
Entrance to the Broadwater Farm estate
In March 1999 the Metropolitan Police included Blakelock's killing in a review of 300 unsolved murders in London going back to 1984, when details were first recorded on computer. [120] In December 2003, weeks after Silcott was released from jail after serving 17 years for the murder of Anthony Smith, police announced that the Blakelock investigation had been re-opened, and would be led by Det Supt John Sweeney . [121]
Detectives began re-examining 10,000 witness statements, and submitting items for forensic tests not available in 1985. In September 2004 the back garden of a terraced council house in Willan Road, near the Broadwater Farm estate, was excavated after a tip-off. A female friend of Cynthia Jarrett, the woman whose death sparked the Broadwater Farm riot, lived alone at the house between 1984 and 1989, and according to the Evening Standard was one of the first on the scene when police raided Jarrett's house. [122]
Archaeologists dug up the garden, while surveyors used infra-red beams to create a three-dimensional map of the area. A machete was found and sent for forensic tests. Police also searched the garden for Blakelock's truncheon and helmet. [123] In October 2004 his overalls were retrieved from Scotland Yard 's Crime Museum for DNA tests. [124] Nothing was found that could be used as evidence. [125]
(2013) Nicholas Jacobs Edit
Criminal charge(s)
Affray (convicted 1986), murder of Keith Blakelock (acquitted 2014)
Six years later, between February and October 2010, 10 men between the ages of 42 and 52 were arrested on suspicion of Blakelock's murder. [126] The first to be arrested, in February, was Nicholas Jacobs, who had been questioned in 1985 and sentenced to six years for affray. [125] In October that year, to mark the 25th anniversary, the BBC's Crimewatch staged a reconstruction and appealed for information. [127]
In July 2013 the Crown Prosecution Service announced that, although suspicions remained about six of those arrested, no action would be taken against five of them because of insufficient evidence. [128] The remaining suspect, Nicholas "Nicky" Conrad Jacobs, sixteen years old at the time of the riot, was charged with Blakelock's murder that month and was remanded in custody. [129] He pleaded not guilty in November 2013. [130]
Jacobs was living with his mother in Manor Road, Tottenham, at the time of the riot. He had spent time in a residential school in Reading, and in 1985 joined a Tottenham gang, the Park Lane Crew. He was named shortly after the riot by two of those arrested, and was arrested himself five days later on suspicion of murder. [131] The police had a photograph of him from the night carrying a petrol bomb and a container of rocks, though he told them he had first arrived at the estate after midnight, two hours after Blakelock was killed. [132] In the end he was charged with affray, and in November 1986 was sentenced to eight years by Judge Neil Denison (the longest sentence handed out for affray during the riot, according to Rose), reduced on appeal to six years. [133] Jacobs was one of nine suspects that the Crown Prosecution Service decided not to charge with Blakelock's murder at the conclusion of Commander Perry Nove's 1992–1994 inquiry. [134]
(2014) Trial: R v Jacobs Edit
R v Jacobs
"Back to the future" , cartoon in The Independent, comparing the 2011 England riots to Broadwater Farm, 1985.
A memorial to Blakelock in Muswell Hill , London.
Because it had not been clear who was in charge of the police operation on the night of Blakelock's death, a new " gold–silver–bronze command structure " (strategic–tactical–operational) was created in 1985 that replaced ranks with roles. It is now used by all UK emergency services at every type of major incident.
In 1988 the constables of Serial 502 were awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal , Blakelock posthumously. Sgt David Pengelly, who single-handedly fought to hold the crowd away from Blakelock and Richard Coombes after they fell, received the George Medal , awarded for acts of great bravery. [7] A memorial for Blakelock, commissioned by the Police Memorial Trust , stands by the roundabout at Muswell Hill, north London, where he was a homebeat officer. [145]
Rebel MC 's 1992 single The Governments Fail focuses on the Blakelock case.
Rioting broke out in Tottenham again in August 2011, after the police shot and killed a local man, Mark Duggan (1981–2011), believing that he was armed. [146] Violence and looting spread throughout England for several days, leading to five deaths and thousands of arrests.
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Which disease is also known as Variola? | Smallpox: Types, Symptoms & Treatments
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What Is Smallpox?
Smallpox is an extremely contagious and deadly virus for which there is no known cure. The last known case occurred in the United States in 1949 and due to worldwide vaccination programs, this disease has been completely eradicated. Smallpox is also known as variola.
Since the time of ancient Egypt, smallpox has proven to be one of the most devastating diseases to humankind. Widespread smallpox epidemics and huge death tolls fill the pages of our history books.
The first smallpox vaccine was created in 1758 . However, the disease continued to infect and kill people on a widespread basis for another 200 years. The World Health Organization (WHO) implemented a strict vaccination standard in order to slow the infection rate. The last known natural case occurred in 1977 in Somalia.
By 1980 , the WHO declared that smallpox had been completely eradicated, although government and health agencies still have stashes of smallpox virus for research purposes.
People no longer receive routine smallpox vaccinations. The smallpox vaccine can have potentially fatal side effects, so only the people who are at high risk of exposure get the vaccine.
What Are the Symptoms of Smallpox?
Historical accounts show that when someone was infected with the smallpox virus, they had no symptoms for between seven and 17 days. However, once the incubation period (or virus development phase) was over, the following flu-like symptoms occurred:
high fever
abdominal pain
vomiting
These symptoms would go away within two to three days. Then the patient would feel better. However, just as the patient started to feel better, a rash would appear. The rash started on the face and then spread to the hands, forearms, and the main part of the body. The person would be highly contagious until the rash disappeared.
Within two days of appearance, the rash would develop into abscesses that filled with fluid and pus. The abscesses would break open and scab over. The scabs would eventually fall off, leaving pit mark scars. Until the scabs fell off, the person remained contagious.
Types of Smallpox
There were two common and two rare forms of smallpox. The two common forms were known as variola minor and variola major.
Variola minor was a less fatal type of smallpox. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that only 1 percent of those infected died. However, it was less common than variola major.
The CDC estimates that 90 percent of smallpox cases were variola major. Historically, this type of smallpox killed 30 percent of those infected.
The two rare forms of smallpox were known as hemorrhagic and malignant. Both of these rare forms of smallpox carried a very high fatality rate.
Hemorrhagic smallpox caused organs to leak blood into the mucous membranes and skin.
Malignant smallpox lesions did not develop into pustules or pus-filled bumps on the skin. Instead, they remained soft and flat throughout the entire illness.
How Do You Catch Smallpox?
One of the reasons smallpox was so dangerous and deadly is because it’s an airborne disease. Airborne diseases tend to spread fast.
Coughing, sneezing, or direct contact with any bodily fluids could spread the smallpox virus. In addition, sharing contaminated clothing or bedding could lead to infection.
Treatment for Smallpox
There is no cure for the smallpox virus. As a result of worldwide, repeated vaccination programs, the variola virus (smallpox) has been completely eradicated. The only people considered to be at risk for smallpox are researchers who work with it in a laboratory setting.
In the unlikely event that an exposure to the smallpox virus occurs, vaccination within one to three days can keep the illness from being so severe. In addition, antibiotics can help to reduce the bacterial infections associated with the virus.
Article Resources
Article resources
Riedel, S. (2005, January). Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination. Proceedings of Baylor University Medical Center, 18(1), 21-25. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1200696/
Smallpox. (2014, October 22). Retrieved from http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/smallpox/Pages/Default.aspx
Smallpox. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/topics/smallpox/en/
Smallpox disease overview. (2007, February 6). Retrieved from http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/overview/disease-facts.asp
Smallpox fact sheet vaccine overview. (2007, February 7). Retrieved from http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination/facts.asp
| Smallpox |
Which British pop group reached number one in the UK charts for the only time in their career on July 2nd 1977 with the song 'So You Win Again'? | Smallpox - Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment of Smallpox - NY Times Health Information
Back to Top Causes
Smallpox was once found throughout the world, causing illness and death wherever it occurred. It mainly affected children and young adults. Family members often infected each other.
Smallpox spreads easily from one person to another from saliva droplets. It may also be spread from bed sheets and clothing. It is most contagious during the first week of the infection. It may continue to be contagious until the scabs from the rash fall off.
Researchers believe that the smallpox infection might be able to stay alive (under the right conditions) for as long as 24 hours. In unfavorable conditions, the virus may only remain alive for 6 hours.
People were once vaccinated against this disease. However, the United States stopped giving the smallpox vaccine in 1972. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that all countries stop vaccinating for smallpox.
There are two forms of smallpox:
Variola major is a serious illness that can be life threatening in people who have not been vaccinated
Variola minor is a milder infection that rarely causes death
A massive program by the World Health Organization (WHO) wiped out all known smallpox viruses from the world in the 1970s, except for a few samples saved for government research. Researchers continue to debate whether or not to kill the last remaining samples of the virus, or to preserve it in case there may be some future reason to study it.
You are more likely to develop smallpox if you:
Are a laboratory worker who handles the virus (rare)
Are in a location where the virus was released as a biological weapon
It is unknown how long past vaccinations stay effective. People who received the vaccine many years ago may no longer be fully protected against the virus.
THE RISK OF TERRORISM
There is a concern that the smallpox virus could be intentionally spread through a terrorism attack. The virus could be deliberately spread in spray (aerosal) form.
Symptoms usually occur about 12 - 14 days after you have been infected with the virus. They may include:
Backache
Raised pink rash -- turns into sores that become crusty on day 8 or 9
Severe headache
Back to Top Treatment
If athe smallpox vaccine is given within 1-4 days after a person is exposed to the disease, it may prevent illness or make the illness less severe. Once symptoms have started, treatment is limited.
There is no drug specifically for treating smallpox. Sometimes antibiotics are given for infections that may occur in people who have smallpox. Taking antibodies against a disease similar to smallpox (vaccinia immune globulin) may help shorten the duration of the disease.
People who have been diagnosed with smallpox and everyone they have come into close contact with need to be isolated immediately. They need to receive the vaccine and be monitored.
Emergency measures would need to be taken immediately to protect the general population. Health officials would follow the recommended guidelines from the CDC and other federal and local health agencies.
Back to Top When to Contact a Medical Professional
If you think you may have been exposed to smallpox, contact your health care provider immediately. Because smallpox has been wiped out this would be very unlikely, unless you have worked with the virus in a laboratory or there has been an act of bioterrorism.
Back to Top Prevention
Many people were vaccinated against smallpox in the past. The vaccine is no longer given to the general public because the virus has been wiped out. The possible complications and costs of the vaccine outweigh the benefits of taking it.
If the vaccine needs to be given to control an outbreak, it can have a small risk of complications. Some complications are mild, such as rashes. Others are more serious.
Only military personnel, health care workers, and emergency responders may receive the vaccine today. Smallpox vaccination policies and practices are currently being reviewed.
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Review Date: 6/23/2011
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Which actress played the jilted Baroness Elsa Schraeder in the film The Sound Of Music? | Eleanor Parker - as the Baroness in The Sound of Music
Eleanor Parker
The Cool, Sophisticated Baroness
Who did she play in The Sound of Music?
Eleanor Parker was the glamorous Baroness (Elsa Schraeder) in The Sound of Music movie. She (The Baroness) lived in Vienna, was
a widow, affluent, and loved the high society life. The Captain used to take trips to Vienna to meet up with her.
However she did not fit in with the family, and the children made it very obvious that they disapproved of her, and definitely didn’t want her as a stepmother when the Captain announced their wedding intentions. She came across as a cold person, and wanted to send the children to boarding school.
She was the one responsible for deviously making Maria leave the house unannounced, to return to the convent. No wonder participants at The Sound of Music Singalong are encouraged to make catty meeoowing noises every time she appears on the screen.
Surrounded by a musical family, she very much stands out as being the only non-musical person there, and is excluded from the musical bond that there is with the others in the von Trapp household. She has no singing part, and shows obvious jealousy towards Maria for being united in the family's music.
Eleanor Parker was perhaps the biggest “name” to join the cast. Director Robert Wise wanted her in The Sound of Music to add credibility to the movie, as most of the other actors were relatively unknown.
During filming in Salzburg, Parker would enjoy the evenings unwinding in the Bristol Hotel, where many of the actors were staying, singing along with other members of the cast and crew to Christopher Plummer in full flow on the piano.
She said:
The Baroness: "Why didn't you tell me?"
Max: 'What?'
The Baroness: 'To bring along my harmonica.'
"Somewhere out there is a lady who I think will never be a nun. Auf Wiedersehen, darling."
"There's nothing more irresistible to a man than a woman who's in love with him."
Eleanor Parker before The Sound of Music
She was born Eleanor Jean Parker in Cedarville, Ohio, USA on June 26th 1922. Her Dad was a mathematics teacher. She always wanted to be an actress, loved performing in school plays, and went on to act in shows in Cleveland, where the family had moved to. She traveled down to California to study at the Pasadena Playhouse, was spotted by a Warner Brothers scout, and at the age of 18 was signed by them. Her movie career started with a role in Soldiers in White in 1942. The previous year she had a false start, as her scenes in They Died With Their Boots On were cut.
She appeared in several 'B' Grade movies in the early 1940’s before graduating up to ‘A’s permanently. She had roles in films like Mission To Moscow (1943), Between Two Worlds (1944), and Of Human Bondage (1946).
Most of her success came in the early 1950’s with three Oscar nominations – Caged (1950) (she won the best actress award at the Venice Film Festival), Detective Story (1951), and Interrupted Melody (1955). She also put in a strong performance in The Man with the Golden Arm (1955) in which she played opposite Frank Sinatra. Parker had to have all her hair shaved off for her role as a convict in ‘Caged’!
However, she is best remembered for her relatively small role as
The Baroness in The Sound of Music, no doubt due in large part to the huge success of the film.
The variety of her roles showed what a highly talented and versatile actress Eleanor Parker was.
If you would like to see Eleanor in any of her movies, visit our store for a great selection.
These attributes led to her being dubbed Woman of a Thousand Faces, the title of her biography, written by Doug McClelland in 1989.
Eleanor Parker After The Sound of Music
Eleanor appeared in several unsuccessful movies after playing The Baroness, but appeared in many TV series throughout the 60’s, 70’s and 80’s. Her last appearance was in Dead on the Money (1991). In 1963 she won an Emmy Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress for appearing in an episode of the TV series The Eleventh Hour, and a Golden Globe Nomination in 1970 for Best Lead Actress in the TV series Bracken’s World.
She lived in quiet retirement in Palm Springs, California until December 9th 2013, when she died of complications to pneumonia.
Eleanor was married to Raymond Hirsch (since 1966), her fourth husband. She had four children from previous marriages – Susan, Sharon, Richard and Paul.
You can find her star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6340 Hollywood Boulevard.
| Eleanor Parker |
What type of bird is a 'Silver Trumpeter'? | Eleanor Parker: The Baroness in 'The Sound of Music' who specialised in playing characters who were sad, flawed or despicable | The Independent
Eleanor Parker: The Baroness in 'The Sound of Music' who specialised in playing characters who were sad, flawed or despicable
Wednesday 11 December 2013 00:00 BST
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The Independent Online
Parker in 'Caged', in which she plays a woman who becomes hardened to prison life; the role won her her first Oscar nomination Rex
Eleanor Parker was an actress of patrician beauty nicknamed "the woman of a thousand faces" for the range of parts she played, from a terrified prisoner in Caged to the lovelorn, scheming baroness in The Sound of Music. She was nominated three times for an Academy Award, but if she is not remembered with the instant recall of a Bette Davis or Joan Crawford, it may be because she was not entirely comfortable with film-star stereotyping.
"I'm primarily a character actress," she said in 1988. "I've portrayed so many diverse individuals on the screen that my own personality never emerged." In more than 45 films, she often used wigs, make-up and convincing accents to play characters who were sad, flawed or downright despicable. In his New Biogaphical Dictionary of Film, David Thomson described her as "an actress most celebrated for her wound-red hair and the ability to bring a rueful, shrewish feeling to 'the other woman'."
A ravishing brunette, then a blonde and later a redhead with a husky, sultry voice, she exuded sex appeal in such films as Pride of the Marines (1945) with John Garfield, Scaramouche (1952) with Stewart Granger and Escape From Fort Bravo (1953) with William Holden. In The Naked Jungle (1954), she is the mail-order bride who intimidates a virginal South American plantation owner played by Charlton Heston with her sex-charged repartee. "The piano you're sitting at was never played before you came here," Heston says at one point. "If you knew more about music," she replies, "you'd know that a piano is better when it's played."
She was the sluttish waitress Mildred Rogers in Of Human Bondage (1946), winning rave reviews though the film bombed. In The Man With the Golden Arm (1955) she played the needy and deceitful wife of Frank Sinatra's former drug addict struggling to stay clean.
One of her most heralded but least seen performances was in Lizzie (1957), a film about a woman with multiple personalities. The film had the misfortune of being released the same year as The Three Faces of Eve, which was heavily promoted to advance the career of newcomer Joanne Woodward. Still, Lizzie remained a powerful and convincing portrayal of three separate identities in one body, a pathologically shy museum worker, a lusty barfly and a well-adjusted woman. Instead of relying on film-editing tricks, Parker showed subtle but convincing shifts in character in view of the camera. The critic Judith Crist called Lizzie a "neglected but fascinating" film that "boasts a stunning performance" by Parker.
To play the polio-stricken opera singer Marjorie Lawrence in Interrupted Melody (1955), Parker had to memorise 22 arias in 10 days, locking herself inside a mountain cabin to do it. Although Eileen Farrell dubbed the vocals Parker needed to mimic convincingly in a foreign tongue. She said later she had no idea what she was singing.
She was born in 1922 in Cedarville, Ohio, and raised in Cleveland Heights. She was a veteran stage actress by her late teens and turned down early screen test offers, once to finish high school, another time to study at the Pasadena Playhouse in California. She then signed with Warner Bros and served her apprenticeship in low-budget crime and suspense films.
Gradually, she won ingenue parts in major productions, including Michael Curtiz's Mission to Moscow (1943) starring Walter Huston. She became a leading lady as the wife of a crippled concert pianist (Paul Henreid) in Between Two Worlds (1944) and Pride of the Marines as the wife of a blinded Second World War hero (John Garfield).
In 1950 she starred in Caged, for which she received her first Oscar nomination, as best actress. She played a woman unjustly sent to prison, where she is abused by a prison matron and hardens to the environment. Her second came the following year for Detective Story, in which she harbours a secret that may destroy her husband, a crusading policeman (Kirk Douglas). Her final nomination came for Interrupted Melody.
Parker's career was in the doldrums when director Robert Wise, who had worked with her on Three Secrets (1950) and admired her portrayal of cool reserve, cast her in The Sound of Music (1965) as Baroness Elsa Schraeder, who competes, unsuccessfully, with Maria for the heart of Captain von Trapp.
She also worked in television, winning the 1963 Emmy Award for outstanding single performance by an actress on the medical drama The Eleventh Hour. She played a woman whose fear of men leads her to drink and have hallucinations. Onstage she replaced Lauren Bacall as Margo Channing in the touring company of Applause, based on All About Eve. A 1972 Washington Post review wrote that her intelligence and discipline proved "a deeper revelation than Miss Bacall's original achieved."
Perhaps the greatest notice of all had come years earlier, when a gossip columnist did not even recognise the versatile actress when she dined out. "Who was that attractive girl with Eleanor Parker's husband last night?" the columnist wrote. Her marriages to Fred Losee, producer Bert Friedlob and portrait painter Paul Lewis Clemens ended in divorce. Her fourth husband, the businessman Raymond Hirsch, died in 2001.
Eleanor Jean Parker, actress: born Cedarville, Ohio 26 June 1922; married 1943 Fred Losee (divorced 1944), 1946 Bert Friedlob (divorced 1953; two daughters, one son), 1954 Paul Lewis Clemens (divorced 1965; one son), 1966 Raymond Hirsch (died 2001; one stepdaughter); died Palm Springs, California 9 December 2013.
© The Washington Post
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What nationality was Marie Tussaud who founded the famous wax museum? | Marie Tussaud | Deskarati
Marie Tussaud
Posted on February 21, 2011 by Deskarati
Anna Maria “Marie” Tussaud (1 December 1761 – 16 April 1850) was a Swiss artist known for her wax sculptures and Madame Tussaud’s, the wax museum she founded in London. She was born in Strasbourg; her father, a soldier named Joseph Grosholtz, was killed in the Seven Years’ War just two months before Marie was born. Her mother, Anne-Marie Walder, took her to Bern where she moved to work as a housekeeper for Dr. Philippe Curtius (1741–1794). There she took Swiss nationality. Curtius was a physician, and was skilled in wax modelling, which he used to illustrate anatomy. Later, he started to do portraits. Tussaud called him uncle. Curtius moved to Paris in 1765, starting work to set up a cabinet de cire (wax exhibition).In that year he made a waxwork of Louis XV’s last mistress, Madame du Barry, a cast of which is the oldest work currently on display. In 1767, Tussaud and her mother joined Curtius and also moved to Paris. The first exhibition of Curtius’ waxworks was shown in 1770, and attracted a big crowd. In 1776, the exhibition moved to the Palais Royal and, in 1782, Curtius opened a second exhibit, the Caverne des Grands Voleurs, a precursor to the later chamber of horrors, on Boulevard du Temple.
Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling; she showed a lot of talent and started to work for him. In 1778, she created her first wax figure, that of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. She later modelled other famous personages, such as Voltaire and Benjamin Franklin.
From 1780 to the Revolution in 1789, she taught art to the sister of Louis XVI. Members of the royal family were so pleased with her work that, on their invitation, she lived at Versailles. In Paris, Tussaud became involved in the French Revolution and met many of its important figures, including Napoleon Bonaparte and Robespierre. On 12 July 1789, wax heads of Jacques Necker and the duc d’Orléans made by Curtius were carried in a protest march two days before the attack on the Bastille.
Tussaud was arrested during the Reign of Terror together with Joséphine de Beauharnais; her head was shaved in preparation for execution by guillotine. But thanks to Collot d’Herbois’s support for Curtius and his household, she was released. Tussaud was employed to make death masks of the victims of the guillotine. When the mob stormed the Bastille, Madame Tussaud was forced to make death masks of the revolution’s most infamous dead such as Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Marat, and Robespierre. Her death masks were held up as revolutionary flags and paraded through the streets of Paris. Soon, Madame Tussaud was searching through sanitaries collecting the most illustrious heads she could find.
When Curtius died in 1794, he left his collection of waxworks to Marie. In 1795, she married François Tussaud. They had two children, Joseph and François.
In 1802, Marie went to London together with Joseph, then four years old, her other son staying behind. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, she was unable to return to France, so she travelled with her collection throughout Great Britain and Ireland. In 1821 or 1822, her other son, François, joined her. In 1835, she established her first permanent exhibition in Baker Street, on the “Baker Street Bazaar”. In 1838, she wrote her memoirs. In 1842, she made a self-portrait which is now on display at the entrance of her museum. Some of the sculptures done by Tussaud herself still exist.
She died in her sleep in London on 16 April 1850. She was 88 years old. There is a memorial tablet to Madame Marie Tussaud on the right side of the nave of St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, Cadogan Street, London.
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Marie Tussaud
German wax modeler Marie Tussaud (1761-1850) founded the famous London museum that bears her name early in the 1830s, and it remains one of the city's most popular tourist attractions nearly two centuries later.
Tussaud learned the art of creating lifelike figures out of wax during the French Revolution, claiming to have made her first ones directly from the heads of the recently guillotined. “Tussaud experienced sweeping social changes,” noted Marianne Brace, a writer for London's Independent on Sunday. “She saw the sacramental nature of kingship in the fated Louis XVI give way to the domestic primness of Queen Victoria; the mob transformed into the mass market. Moreover, her blend of entertainment and information was a precursor of a cultural phenomenon existing today,” that of the celebrity icon.
The woman known throughout Britain as Madame Tussaud was born Anna Marie Gresholtz (or Grosholtz) on December 7, 1761, in Strasbourg, a city located in the Alsace region between Germany and France. Little is known of her family background, save for information culled from her 1838 volume of memoirs, which later biographers deemed to be riddled with deliberate falsehoods. She claimed, for example, that her father Joseph was a soldier during the Seven Years' War and died in that conflict before she was born; more reliable sources determined that he was descended from a long line of public executioners in the city. Her mother Anne raised her and took her to Bern, Switzerland, when she became housekeeper to a prominent physician in the city, Dr. Philippe Curtius (1741–1794). Sources note that Tussaud was close to Curtius, called him “uncle,” and may have actually been his biological daughter.
Moved to Paris
Tussaud became a Swiss citizen, and learned the art of wax sculpting from Curtius, who had become quite skilled in the art from making anatomical models used in medical-school classes but also had a secret sideline creating erotic tableaux, or staged scenes, for private clients. Wax modeling of human figures dates back to 3000 BC, and became widespread in medieval Europe; wax effigies of kings were used for funeral processions, and those of saints were made for churches when costlier materials were unavailable. Tussaud and her mother apparently followed Curtius to Paris around 1767, where he opened a wax cabinet, or exhibition space, in 1770. His business grew to be quite successful, and over the years divided into two venues: the Palais Royal, which featured tableaux of the French royal family, and the Caverne des Grands Voleurs, or Cavern of the Grand Thieves, which opened on the Boulevard du Temple in 1782. The latter exhibit showcased famous villains throughout history, and was equally as successful as the royal family exhibit.
The first wax figure that Tussaud did on her own was in 1778 to commemorate the passing of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). She also completed a likeness of Rousseau's fellow luminary of the age of Enlightenment, the philosopher Voltaire (1697–1778), who also died that year. She claimed to have come to know several prominent figures in pre-Revolutionary France, and asserted she had even given art lessons to the Princess Elizabeth, the sister of Louis XVI, at the Palace of Versailles, but no records survive that support this claim. The French Revolution began in 1789, and at some point Tussaud was apparently targeted as a royalist sympathizer and sentenced to die by guillotine. Before the execution took place, however, it was learned that she was a skilled wax modeler, and she was spared the blade and instead recruited to make death masks of the most famous guillotine victims, among them the king, Louis XVI (1754–1793) and his wife, Marie Antoinette (1755–1793). This was her version of events; later biographers cast doubt on the story. The “gruesome replicas soon drew appreciative crowds to Curtius's waxworks,” asserted Sunday Times writer John Carey, “but it seems probable that he and Marie procured the originals by the simple expedient of hiring them from the executioner, rather than via the serial traumas Marie lays claim to.”
Left Husband Behind
The turmoil of the Revolution lasted for a decade, and in the meantime Curtius died, leaving all of his property to Tussaud, including the collection of wax figures. A year later, in 1795, she wed Franc¸ois Tussaud, an engineer. Their first child, a daughter, died, but two sons were born, Joseph and Franc¸ois, who would follow their mother into the waxworks business. Tussaud took her collection to England for exhibition in 1802, along with her four-year-old son Joseph, but when the Napoleonic Wars erupted she was prevented from returning to France and forced to remain in London. She negotiated a deal with the operator of a magic lantern show, Philipstal and his Phantasmagoria, to exhibit the wax collection on the lower floor of the Lyceum Theater. “Once in Great Britain, the shrewd businesswoman sniffed which way the wind was blowing,” noted Brace in the Independent on Sunday. “Curtius's exhibitions may have delighted the sans culottes [the working-class radicals of the French Revolution], but Marie set her sights on the burgeoning middle class who wanted respectable family entertainment.”
Many of the figures that Tussaud displayed were French luminaries who had died on the guillotine, and this was a subject of intense fascination for the English middle classes. “Exhibitions illustrating the iniquities of the Revolution were popular in Britain,” explained Pamela Pilbeam, the author of a Tussaud biography, in an article that appeared in Business History. “What made Marie's unique was that she and Curtius had made the figures from the living, or dead, bodies of their subjects. For the first time, English audiences could really see the features of the guillotined king and queen, whose deaths they had mourned.” Tussaud's career in England advanced significantly when she won an important commission from the Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (1767–1820), the Duchess of York. This daughterin-law of England's king asked Tussaud to create a figure of a little boy, a rather heartbreaking request because Frederica's husband had recently left her for his mistress, and the couple was childless.
In the first decade of the nineteenth century, Tussaud traveled extensively with her collection, still using Curtius's name until 1808. She spent time in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, and across the English countryside she often staged her exhibits in newly built town exhibition halls, a fashionable civic fad in the era. “Her odyssey was amazing at the time, when almost no married women worked, and when travelling even a short distance was arduous,” wrote Pilbeam in Business History. “Marie remained on the road for nearly 33 years in total, visiting 75 main towns and some smaller places. The packing and unpacking alone, without the travelling, and model and costume making, would have been herculean tasks for a young person, but Marie set out when she was already middle-aged, with a tiny child, knowing noone and speaking not a word of English when she began.”
Opened London Wax Museum
In the early 1820s Tussaud was finally reunited with her son Franc¸ois, who joined the business of the traveling exhibit; her husband apparently remained in France permanently after squandering their investments there. In 1835, Tussaud set up her first permanent exhibition space on Baker Street in London, between Dorset and King streets. The museum featured tableaux of famous historical events, such as coronations and peace treaties, and Tussaud staffed the cash table personally until her death. She published an 1838 volume of memoirs that made much of her supposed connections to the French royals and other well-known personas of the era. None other than one of the most famed authors of the era, Charles Dickens (1812–1870), ridiculed “her cultural pretensions and her flexible approach to the truth in the character of Mrs Jarley in The Old Curiosity Shop, ” noted Carey in the Sunday Times article.
Tussaud died on April 15, 1850, in London, at the age of 88. Her museum became one of London's most visited tourist attractions, and remained so well into the twenty-first century. Outposts of the original London museum were opened in Las Vegas, New York City, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, and Copenhagen, Denmark. The exhibits at Madame Tussaud's, still located on Baker Street, are regularly updated to reflect current events and entertainers who have attained celebrity status, and members of England's royal family permit museum personnel to take photographs and measurements to update the likenesses that are on permanent display at Tussaud's in London. “The enduring success of Madame Tussaud's proves what every smart marketing person knows: Ordinary people get a tingle from being in the presence of celebrities, even if the presence is simulated, and even if the celebrities are those of bygone eras,” noted John Marcom, a writer for Forbes magazine. “Madame Tussaud's is a sort of three-dimensional version of People Weekly or Entertainment Tonight.”
Periodicals
The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.
Copyright The Columbia University Press
Marie Tussaud (tŏŏsō´, tüsō´), 1760–1850, Anglo-French modeler in wax, b. Strasbourg, France, as Marie Grosholtz or Grosholz. She learned her art from her uncle, Philippe Curtius, a proprietor of wax museums in Paris. Tussaud was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, and many heads of famous persons were brought to her for modeling. She inherited Curtius's collections in 1794. In 1802 she immigrated to England, where in London in 1835 she established a museum that remains a principal tourist attraction, now known as Madame Tussauds.
See J. T. Tussaud, The Romance of Madame Tussaud's (1920); S. P. Martin, I, Madame Tussaud (1957), a fictionalized account.
Cite this article
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Kampala is the capital of which country? | Kampala | national capital, Uganda | Britannica.com
national capital, Uganda
Moroto
Kampala, capital and largest city of Uganda . It occupies a series of hills at an elevation of about 3,900 feet (1,190 metres) and is situated in the southern part of the country, just north of Lake Victoria . Kampala lies just north of Mengo, the capital of the kingdom of Buganda in the 19th century. It was selected in 1890 by Capt. Frederick (later Lord) Lugard as the headquarters of the Imperial British East Africa Company. Lugard’s fort on Old Kampala Hill remained the Ugandan colonial administrative headquarters until 1905, when it was moved to Entebbe . In 1962 Kampala (a municipality since 1949) became the capital of independent Uganda. Parliamentary and commercial buildings, industry, and residential areas are separated into sectors.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Rubaga Cathedral in Kampala, Uganda.
Picturepoint, London
Situated in the country’s most prosperous agricultural section, Kampala exports coffee, cotton, tea, tobacco, and sugar. Although second industrially to Jinja (40 miles [64 km] east-northeast), the city has numerous food, metal-products, and furniture enterprises and a tractor-assembly plant. It is the headquarters for most of Uganda’s large firms and the chief market for the Lake Victoria region. Kampala has a technical institute and is the seat of Makerere University , which was founded in 1922 and became a university college in 1949 and a university in 1970; for many years it was the only such educational institution in East Africa . Kampala also has the Uganda Museum. The city is home to several mosques (including the white Kibuli Mosque), Hindu temples, and Christian churches (notably Namirembe Anglican Cathedral and Rubaga and St. Peter’s Roman Catholic cathedrals).
Kampala is the hub of the nation’s road network and lies on the railway from Kasese to Mombasa, Kenya . It is also served by Port Bell (6 miles [10 km] east) on Lake Victoria and by Uganda’s international airport at Entebbe (21 miles [34 km] south-southwest). Pop. (2008 est.) 1,480,200.
Learn More in these related articles:
in Uganda
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Who was the only non-English person to win the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award during the 1980's, he was an Irishman and achieved the feat in 1985? | Uganda: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities
Getting Closer to Capturing Kony
Geography
Uganda, twice the size of Pennsylvania, is in East Africa. It is bordered on the west by Congo, on the north by the Sudan, on the east by Kenya, and on the south by Tanzania and Rwanda. The country, which lies across the equator, is divided into three main areas—swampy lowlands, a fertile plateau with wooded hills, and a desert region. Lake Victoria forms part of the southern border.
Government
Multiparty democractic republic.
History
About 500 B.C. Bantu-speaking peoples migrated to the area now called Uganda. By the 14th century, three kingdoms dominated, Buganda (meaning "state of the Gandas"), Bunyoro, and Ankole. Uganda was first explored by Europeans as well as Arab traders in 1844. An Anglo-German agreement of 1890 declared it to be in the British sphere of influence in Africa, and the Imperial British East Africa Company was chartered to develop the area. The company did not prosper financially, and in 1894 a British protectorate was proclaimed. Few Europeans permanently settled in Uganda, but it attracted many Indians, who became important players in Ugandan commerce.
Uganda became independent on Oct. 9, 1962. Sir Edward Mutesa, the king of Buganda (Mutesa II), was elected the first president, and Milton Obote the first prime minister, of the newly independent country. With the help of a young army officer, Col. Idi Amin, Prime Minister Obote seized control of the government from President Mutesa four years later.
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Who won the Oscar for Best Film Director in 1986 for the film 'Out of Africa'? | OSCARS GO TO 'OUT OF AFRICA' AND ITS DIRECTOR, SYDNEY POLLACK - NYTimes.com
OSCARS GO TO 'OUT OF AFRICA' AND ITS DIRECTOR, SYDNEY POLLACK
By ALJEAN HARMETZ, Special to the New York Times
Published: March 25, 1986
HOLLYWOOD, March 24— ''Out of Africa,'' a stately epic about the Danish novelist Isak Dinesen's years on a coffee plantation in Kenya, swept its way to seven Oscars tonight at the 58th annual Academy Awards ceremonies - including best picture, director, and adapted screenplay. Sydney Pollack was the surprise winner as director of the movie. He won a second award as its producer.
The other major awards presented at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion of the Los Angeles Music Center were scattered among half a dozen movies. William Hurt took an Oscar as best actor for his performance as a jailed homosexual who spins lavish cinematic fantasies in ''The Kiss of the Spider Woman.'' Geraldine Page, a sentimental favorite who had been nominated seven times without winning, took home the golden statuette as best actress for her role as an elderly woman who wants to go home again, in ''The Trip to Bountiful.''
Steven Spielberg's ''Color Purple,'' which had been tied with ''Out of Africa'' for the most nominations - 11 - did not win a single award.
For her role as a Mafia princess in John Huston's black comedy ''Prizzi's Honor,'' Anjelica Huston won the evening's first Oscar. Thirty-eight years ago, John Huston directed his father, Walter Huston, in a performance that won an Oscar as best supporting actor. The Oscar to his daughter was a bookend for the 79-year-old director's career.
After stopping to hug Jack Nicholson, her long-time housemate and her co-star in ''Prizzi's Honor,'' Miss Huston said, ''This means a lot to me since it comes from a role in which I was directed by my father. And I know it means a lot to him.'' A 50-Year Career Rewarded
In addition to Miss Page, sentiment ran strongly for Don Ameche, who won the supporting-actor Oscar for his performance as an elderly man who is rejuvenated by aliens, in ''Cocoon.'' For a long 30 seconds, Mr. Ameche stared down bemusedly at the thousands of Academy members who were giving him a standing ovation. It was his first nomination in a career that began 50 years ago. ''You have given me, and I hope I have earned, your respect,'' he said.
When Miss Page's name was announced, she was unable to get out of her seat for a long moment because of people crowding around her. She moved slowly to the stage amid a standing ovation that wouldn't stop, even when she tried to speak.
''Thank Horton Foote for all this,'' she said of the film's author. ''Mainly it's Horton!''
Earl W. Wallace, William Kelley and Pamela Wallace shared the award for best original screenplay for ''Witness.'' Kurt Luedtke was honored for his adaptation of ''Out of Africa.''
The award for best foreign-language film went to ''The Official Story'' (Argentina), a drama about an upper-middle-class woman who begins to fear that her beloved adopted daughter is a child of someone murdered by the state. The award was presented by Norma Aleandro, the movie's star, who wept as she read the name of the winner.
''Say You, Say Me'' from ''White Nights,'' with music and lyrics by Lionel Richie, won the prize as best song. The award for original score was presented to John Barry for ''Out of Africa.'' Technical Awards to 'Africa'
Among the technical awards, ''Cocoon'' won for visual effects, and ''Out of Africa'' received three statuettes: for sound, art direction and for David Watkins's cinematography, which re-created the dazzling vistas of Kenya in 1914. The sound effects editing award went to ''Back to the Future,'' the biggest commercial success of 1985. Akira Kurosawa's ''Ran,'' with its stylized Japanese battle costumes, won for costume design. Audrey Hepburn, who gave the award to ''Ran's'' designer, Emi Wada, also got a standing ovation.
The award for makeup went to ''Mask,'' for its creation of the lion face of a boy born with an incurable bone disease.
The animated short film ''Anna and Bella,'' about two sisters who spend a boozy evening looking back at their lives through an old album of photographs, received its Oscar from Kermit the Frog and Scooter, two of Jim Henson's Muppets. The documentary feature award was won by ''Broken Rainbow,'' in which a federal relocation program pits Hopi and Navajo Indians against energy development. ''Witness to War: Dr. Charlie Clements,'' about an Air Force officer who became a medical missionary in El Salvador, was named best documentary short subject.
The Oscar for live-action short subject went to ''Molly's Pilgrim,'' about an immigrant Russian girl's experiences in a New York City school.
Honorary awards were given to the actor Paul Newman and the composer Alex North.
Charles ''Buddy'' Rogers, who co-starred in the first film to win an Academy Award as best picture of the year - ''Wings,'' in 1927 - was given the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for his ''philanthropic commitment.'' 'Dedication to His Craft'
Mr. Newman, who had been nominated six times as an actor - for his performances in ''Cat on a Hot Tin Roof,'' ''The Hustler,'' ''Hud,'' ''Cool Hand Luke,'' ''Absence of Malice'' and ''The Verdict'' - and once as a producer, for ''Rachel, Rachel,'' which was a 1968 best-picture nominee - was honored ''in recognition of his many memorable and compelling screen performances and for his personal integrity and dedication to his craft.''
Obviously referring to the academy's penchant for giving honorary awards to elderly and often seriously ill artists, Mr. Newman said, ''I'm especially grateful that this did not come wrapped as a gift certificate to Forest Lawn.'' Speaking via a television hookup in Chicago, where he is making a movie, Mr. Newman added that he hoped ''My best work is down the pike in front of me.''
Mr. North had racked up 15 nominations without getting his hands on the statuette, The 74-year-old composer got his first two nominations in 1951, for ''Death of a Salesman'' and ''A Streetcar Named Desire,'' and his 15th nomination in 1984 for ''Under the Volcano.'' His score for ''Prizzi's Honor'' was not nominated. Mr. North's citation reads: ''In recognition of his brilliant artistry in the creation of memorable music for motion pictures.''
The academy is divided into 14 branches, and each branch nominates for achievements in its own field. The 4,244 voting members of the academy also include 1,207 actors, 247 art directors-costume designers, 305 executives, 173 film editors, 243 musicians, 326 producers, 255 public-relations executives, 199 makers of short films, 284 sound editors, 367 writers and 300 members-at-large.
All 4,244 are eligible to vote for the winners in most categories. In the documentary, short film and foreign-language categories, no member is allowed to vote unless he certifies that he has seen all five nominees.
Excluding foreign-language and documentary films, 222 feature-length films were eligible for nomination. To be eligible, a movie had to play at theaters in the Los Angeles area for seven consecutive days starting no later than Dec. 31, 1985.
Photo of Charles Rogers, recepient of Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (UPI); Photos of actor Don Ameche, and costume designer Emi Wada (AP;Agence France-Presse)
| Sydney Pollack |
What is the name of the National Lottery draw where players pick five numbers from a range of 1 to 39 and one number from a range of 1 to 14? | Simply Streep - Career - Films - Out of Africa
Out of Africa
Original Release: December 18, 1985 (USA)
Directed by: Sydney Pollack
Written by: Isak Dinesen (novel), Kurt Luedtke (screenplay)
Produced by: Anna Cataldi, Sydney Pollack, Judith Thurman
Running Time: 160 minutes
Box Office: $87,071,205 (USA)
Karen Blixen (Meryl Streep), a Danish woman, marries her friend Bror (Klaus Maria Brandauer) for the title of Baroness. They move to Africa and start a coffee plantation. But things unfold when her husband begins cheating on her and is away on business often, so she's at home alone, working on the farm and bonding with a hunter, Deniys Finch-Hatton (Robert Redford) she met in her first day in Africa. Later, she begins to want more from him than the simple friendship and relationship they have and pushes marriage, but Denys still wants his freedom. Winner of 7 Academy Awards, including Best Picture.
Cast & Characters
Meryl Streep (Karen Blixen-Finecke), Robert Redford (Denys Finch Hatton), Klaus Maria Brandauer (Baron Bror Blixen-Finecke), Michael Kitchen (Berkeley), Malick Bowens (Farah), Joseph Thiaka (Kamate), Stephen Kinyanjui (Kinanjui), Michael Gough (Delamere), Suzanna Hamilton (Felicity), Rachel Kempson (Lady Belfield), Graham Crowden (Lord Belfield), Leslie Phillips (Sir Joseph), Mohammed Umar (Ismail), Job Seda (Kanuthia), Annabel Maule (Lady Byrne), Mike Burgara (Juma), Donal McCann (Doctor), Iman (Mariammo)
Photo Gallery
Production Notes
Out of Africa (1985) is based on the 1937 book by Danish writer Isak Dinesen. The film tells the autobiographical tale of Baroness Karen Blixen (Dinesen's true name), portrayed by Streep, and her time spent on a coffee plantation in East Africa in the early twentieth century. Blixen, in the film, marries Baron Bror Blixen-Finecke (Klaus Maria Brandauer) and moves with him to Africa. The marriage is most unsatisfactory as he is a womanizer who eventually leaves her to take care of the plantation on her own. The Baroness meets a hunter named Denys (Redford), and the two begin an idyllic love affair.
Right after 'Plenty', I dyed my hair dark, and we flew from England to Africa. For six months we lived there. It was fantastic. My son spent the second half of first grade there. You know there are different styles in motion pictures. There was a time when nobody ever wanted to have narration over anything. I remember Sydney saying, 'Oh, my God, we can't seem to find any other way! I hate voice-overs, they're horrible, pedestrian, the worst kind of filmmaking!' Well, now most of the cutting-edge movies all have voice-over narration. But in the 70's and early 80's, it wasn't considered 'pure'. I'd say, Gee, Orson Welles did well with it, you know? My father said, 'You're going to take these children to Africa? What an irresponsible thing to do.' I told him it was going to be a great adventure. Three weeks later, a sore appeared on my five-year-old son and nobody knew what it was. It turned out to be some horrible worm. Years later we found out the doctors thought he might have had Aids. (Meryl Streep, Entertainment Weekly, March 2000)
The idea of adapting the Dinesen's memoirs to the screen had been thrown around for decades before the project was finally picked up by Universal Studios. Orson Welles and David Lean had both considered making the film, and Nicholas Roeg thought about making the film with Julie Christie starring as Karen. Sydney Pollack was the one to produce the film in the 1980s, along with directing it. Out of Africa was shot on location in Africa; the city of Nairobi was recreated by local workers as it had appeared in the early 1900s. The production was not without its share of problems. The country was in the middle of a drought during filming, and the crew had to consider moving to a different location; the rains came just as they were attempting to decide where to relocate. Many crew members contracted malaria, and filming animals in the bush posed its own special problems. It is illegal to touch or maneuver wild animals, so the crew had to camp out for hours while they waited for the animals to come into just the right spot for each shot. Despite the difficulties encountered, many would say it was well worth it, because the film was nominated for a total of eleven Academy Awards, winning seven of them.
She's a great actress because of her intuitiveness, her powers of observation and her sense of being in touch with herself quickly - all that, along with talent. She has a vast imagination; she has incredible intuitive powers; she understands instantly things about human behavior that people who aren't observant don't understand and people who are narcissistic don't understand. You have to be paying attention to the outside world, and most people are not. Most people are wondering how they're doing; they're looking in your eyes, thinking, "I wonder what she thinks of me?" You're not going to learn about human behavior like that. She's in the world, interested in the world. She lives a full life, (and) she's experienced what she needs to experience: motherhood, love, frustration. (Sydney Pollack, The Hollywood Reporter, June 2004)
"Out of Africa" took home the statues for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Best Sound, and Best Original Score. Streep's nomination for Best Actress marked her sixth nomination, and though she did not win (the Oscar went to Geraldine Page for The Trip to Bountiful), her role in this film is still considered to be one of her best.
Simply Streep's Review
"Out of Africa" is Sydney Pollack's love letter to Karen Blixen and to the continent that has influenced and changed the author's life. There is more to the story than expected at first sight. Blixen is bored with her life in Denmark and marries for social reasons to flee from her past to Africa. Soon she finds herself alone, since her husband isn't interested in her friendship nor in her person. The heart of the film, personally, is not so much the relationship to Denys, but Blixen's effort to make a difference in the country she learns to love so passionate, and for the people who she shares ground with. The romance with Robert Redford's character just adds to that, mostly because their characters stay different and difficult. But the star of the film remains Africa - shown in astonishing images captured by cinematographer David Watkin and supported by John Barry's brilliant score - both received the Academy Award for their work. Their contribution makes the film's magic. Regarding the acting, Karen Blixen is yet another compelling performance during Streep's successful 1980s career. The film proves to be her most successful of the decade as well, in regard of its box-office success as well as its seven Oscar wins. It's been a classic already back then and has lived up to its standard ever since.
Awards & Nominations
1985 Winner - David DiDonatello Award - Best Actress
1985 Winner - Kansas City Film Critics Award - Best Actress
1986 Nomination - Academy Award - Best Actress
1986 Nomination - Golden Globe Award - Best Actress
1985 Nomination - Los Angeles Film Critics Award - Best Actress
1987 Nomination - British Academy Award - Best Actress
| i don't know |
A skillet is an alternative name for which cooking item? | Cookware Guide Types and Uses | Williams Sonoma
Our Essentials list is comprised of the eight pieces of cookware that will allow you to cook
just about anything you want—your kitchen workhorses, if you will. Some exceptional recipes
might require you to repurpose certain pieces, if all you have are these eight (e.g. you may have
to use your Dutch oven as a tagine), but, in general, these guys will get the job done.
Fry Pan
A flat-bottomed pan with a long stick handle and low sides that flare out at an angle to encourage air circulation and allow for easy flipping or turning of food.
Best For:
Fast cooking: frying, searing, browning.
Consider This:
8-, 10- and 12-inch-diameter pans are the most useful. It's a good idea to have at least one fry pan with a nonstick surface for making eggs and one with a regular surface for higher-temperature cooking.
Saucepan
A heavy pan with a flat base, tall vertical sides that are roughly the same measurement as the pan’s diameter, and a long stick handle. Larger sizes should have a “helper handle” on the far side of the pan.
Best For:
Cooking with a fair amount of liquid: simmering, boiling, cooking grains, poaching eggs and making sauces.
Consider This:
1–1.5 qt., 2–2.5 qt., 3 qt. and 4 qt. are the most useful sizes, but if you have to choose just one, select a 3 or 4 qt.
Sauté Pan
A pan with a wide, flat bottom; vertical, moderate sides; and a long stick handle. Larger sizes should have a "helper handle" opposite the stick handle.
Best For:
Fast cooking while shaking, tossing or stirring food: sautéing (“sauter” is a French word that means “to jump”).
Consider This:
A 4-qt. pan is the most versatile. It's a good idea to select a sauté pan with a cooking surface other than nonstick so that you can achieve the best browning and caramelization.
Multipot
A tall pot similar to a soup or stockpot with a large perforated insert for cooking food in water and a smaller perforated insert for steaming food above water.
Best For:
Use the large insert for boiling and easy straining of large quantities of foods like pasta or corn. Use the smaller insert for steaming vegetables and other foods.
Consider This:
Multipots are available in 6-qt., 8-qt. and 12-qt. They can be used to make small batches of stock, soup or stew.
Dutch Oven
A large pot with vertical sides slightly shorter than the pot’s diameter, two sturdy loop handles and a heavy, tight-fitting lid. (aka French Oven or Cocotte)
Best For:
Long, slow cooking, often with some liquid that’s allowed to circulate inside the vessel: stews, braises, roasts, casseroles.
Consider This:
5-qt. and 7-qt. ovens are the most popular and most useful sizes. For a quick calculation, count one quart of capacity for each serving.
Roaster
A large rectangular pan with low sides to allow the oven's heat to reach as much of the food as possible. Often used in concert with a roasting rack, which elevates food above the cooking surface.
Best For:
Cooking in the dry heat of the oven at relatively high temperatures.
Consider This:
While roasters with a nonstick finish make for easy cleanup, a roaster with a regular cooking surface will yield better gravy.
Griddle
A broad, flat pan often with a nonstick or stick-resistant finish that sits flat on a stovetop over one or two burners.
Best For:
Fast-cooking foods that benefit from a large, smooth cooking surface: pancakes, thin steaks, grilled cheese, bacon, eggs.
Consider This:
If you plan on cooking meat on your griddle, look for a pan with a depression around the rim to catch grease.
Grill Pan
A pan with a ridged cooking surface designed to resemble the grates of an outdoor grill, and low sides for increased air circulation.
Best For:
Higher-temperature cooking: grilling, searing.
Consider This:
To attain the best grill marks on your food, select a cast-iron or enameled cast-iron grill pan.
Many of the pieces on our Beyond the Basics list are relatives of the eight pans
on our Essentials list. They have slight variations that make them a better fit for certain
tasks or types of food, but you can still cook a wide range of things in them. They can
often be used in place of their counterpart on the Essentials list and vice versa.
Braiser
A pan resembling a Dutch oven with lower sides and a heavy, domed lid that provides extra headroom for larger roasts.
Best For:
Gently cooking small pieces of meat, poultry or other ingredients in a relatively small amount of liquid: braising, slow cooking, making small stews.
Consider This:
Trying to decide between a Dutch oven and a braiser? If you make more stews, choose the Dutch oven. If you make more braises or like to pan roast, choose the braiser.
Chef’s Pan / Saucier
A variation on a saucepan that has short, outwardly sloping sides that promote rapid evaporation and facilitate the incorporation of air or butter with a whisk.
Best For:
Cooking liquids and sauces and making reductions.
Consider This:
If you use your saucier to make a roux, select one with rounded sides, which prevent a roux from being trapped in the pan’s corners.
Stockpot
A large pot with a flat base and vertical sides taller than the pot’s diameter to reduce evaporation, and two sturdy loop handles.
Best For:
Cooking with a large amount of liquid: simmering, boiling and making soups, lobster, corn, pasta.
Consider This:
Stockpots with a capacity of 8 qt. or larger are the most useful.
Soup Pot
A variation on a stockpot with lower sides and a capacity more similar to a Dutch oven.
Best For:
Cooking with liquids, boiling, making soup.
Consider This:
Since a soup pot, a stockpot and a Dutch oven can often fill in for oTne another, select a soup pot with a capacity different from that of your stockpot and Dutch oven.
Wok
A versatile pan that traditionally has a rounded bottom and high, gradually sloping sides. It may have a long stick handle or two loop handles. (aka stir-fry Pan)
Best For:
Rapidly tossing and stirring small pieces of food: stir-frying. Can also be used with a lid for steaming.
Consider This:
If you have an electric cooktop, select a wok with a flat bottom for better heat distribution. If you’re cooking on a gas burner, a round-bottom wok is fine, but you may want to purchase a metal ring so that the wok can rest on your burner.
Pressure Cooker
A large pot with an interlocking lid that seals tightly with a gasket to allow pressure to build in the vessel.
Best For:
Accelerating long and slow cooking processes like braising, stewing and simmering by cooking food in a sealed container with liquid, which creates high pressure and raises the boiling point of the liquids from 212°F to 240°F or 250°F.
Consider This:
Pressue cookers can only be filled to 2/3 of their capacity, so it’s a good idea to go a size larger than you think you’ll need.
Essential Pan
This pan combines the best qualities of a French skillet and a deep sauté to create a versatile piece you'll use every day.
Best For:
Everything from stir-frying and sautéing to simmering and braising.
Consider This:
Because this pan is so versatile, you might want to have more than one. Ideal for preparing pasta sauces and then tossing in the pasta before serving, it's also perfect for cooking family-sized stir-fries and risottos as well as one-pan meals like stews, chilies and oven-baked casseroles.
French Skillet
A relative of a fry pan with slightly higher sides that curve gently to the base of the pan to allow for easy tossing and flipping and to help contain splatters.
Best For:
Frying, sautéing, pan roasting.
Consider This:
French skillets are a second fry pan, so get a size that is different from the rest of your fry pan lineup.
Our list of Specialized Pieces includes cooking vessels that are designed to do or make just one thing.
They absolutely excel at that one thing, but it's a good idea to make sure that your kitchen is properly stocked
with versatile items from the Essentials list before delving too far into specialized cookware.
Double Boiler
A set of two pans, one nested atop the other, with a lid that fits both pans. The bottom pan is about the size and shape of a small saucepan. The top pan is slightly shorter.
Best For:
Water is simmered in the lower pan, while delicate sauces, custards, chocolate desserts and other foods that require indirect heat are cooked in the upper pan.
Consider This:
A double boiler should be made of materials that quickly react to changes in temperature. Copper is ideal.
Tagine
A cooking vessel that consists of a shallow circular pan and a conical lid designed to trap moisture and allow it to drip back onto the food inside. A small hole on top allows some steam to escape.
Best For:
Slow cooking, stewing or braising either on the stovetop or in the oven.
Consider This:
Tagines are traditionally made of earthenware or ceramic and should be used with a diffuser when cooking on a stovetop.
Asparagus Pot
An interior basket holds asparagus upright, so the thick stalks simmer while the tender tips steam.
Best For:
Boiling, steaming and easy straining of asparagus.
Consider This:
This tall pot can be used to boil or steam any foods that fit, from broccoli to artichokes.
Egg Poacher
This set includes a sauté-like pan and removable cups with handles, so poached eggs maintain their round shape and can be cooked to each person's liking.
Best For:
Poaching, or boiling eggs in water. Poaching is a healthful way to prepare eggs because it doesn't require any fat or oil in the preparation.
Consider This:
While the pan itself doesn’t need to be nonstick, it's helpful to have a nonstick finish on the cups for easy removal and cleanup.
Crepe Pan
A shallow pan with low, gently flared sides and a long, flat handle that allows for easy rotation to spread butter and batter.
Best For:
Quick cooking of thin batters, often with a flip technique employed midway in the cooking process.
Consider This:
A 9- to 10-inch diameter pan is the most practical size for traditional crepes.
Frittata Pan
A set of two fry pans that interlock using their helper handles for easy flipping of food.
Best For:
Both pans in the set are heated and eggs and other ingredients are cooked in one pan. Then the second pan is interlocked on top and rotated to flip the frittata over to cook on the other side.
Consider This:
Select a nonstick set for easy transfer from one pan to the other.
Paella Pan
A round, shallow pan with a large diameter that usually has two loop handles.
Best For:
Used to cook the eponymous rice dish from Spain's Valencia region. Oil is heated, meat is sautéed, vegetables are sautéed, seasoning is added and then a broth is made in which rice is cooked.
Consider This:
Be aware of the size pan that you're purchasing because paella pans can run quite large. A 13- to 14-inch-diameter pan will fit just fine on your stovetop.
Fondue Pot
A fondue pot warms classic cheese as well as meat fondues; a porcelain insert melts chocolate.
Best For:
Keeping melted cheese or chocolate warm for dipping food, or oil or broth hot for cooking meat.
Consider This:
If you're just going to be warming chocolate, a small pot will work fine for you. If you're going to be cooking meat in your fondue pot, it will need to be a little bigger and made out of materials that can withstand higher heat.
| Frying pan |
In mythology, what was the name of the Greek Goddess of Wisdom? | Lodge : Frequently Asked Questions
Home >
Frequently Asked Questions
Below are our most frequently asked questions click on the question to collapse or expand answers. If you still need information, please call our customer service department at 423-837-7181.
How do I reseason my cookware?
While maintaining the seasoning should keep your Cast Iron in good condition, at some point you may need to repeat the seasoning process.If food sticks to the surface, or you notice a dull, gray color, or rust, repeat the seasoning process:
Wash the cookware with hot, soapy water and a stiff brush. (It is okay to use soap this time because you are preparing to re-season the cookware).
Rinse and dry completely.
Apply a very thin, even coating of MELTED solid vegetable shortening (or cooking oil of your choice) to the cookware (inside and out).
Place aluminum foil on the bottom rack of the oven to catch any dripping, and set temperature to 350 – 400 degrees F.
Place cookware upside down on the top rack of the oven.
Bake the cookware for at least one hour. After the hour, turn the oven off and let the cookware cool in the oven.
Repeat the process as needed to achieve the classic black patina.
Store the cookware uncovered, in a dry place when cooled.
How do I remove rust from my cookware?
Rust on Lodge Cast Iron Cookware indicates the seasoning needs to be replenished, or in some instances completely replaced. Three types of rusting can occur:
Flash Rusting: Usually, rust on a new piece of cookware is flash rusting. Rubbing vegetable oil briskly with a cloth on the affected area can remedy this type rust.
Profile Rusting: This rust is seen and felt on the cookware. To remove this type rust use a very fine grade of steel wool or an abrasive soap pad, such as SOS, Brillo, etc. to scrub the affected area. When the piece is scrubbed down to raw cast iron it should be re-seasoned immediately (video) .
Severe Rust: If rust is covering the majority of the cast iron is considered severe. Perhaps the item has been in a state of neglect. No amount of hand scrubbing will remove this rust. To salvage the cookware take it to a local machine shop or auto/body shop and have it sandblasted, returning to its raw form. The cookware should then be seasoned immediately.
What is Seasoning?
Seasoning is simply oil baked into the pores of the iron that prevents rust and provides a natural, easy-release finish that continues to improve with use. Seasoning can refer to both the finish of the cookware as well as the ongoing process of maintaining that finish.
Lodge uses a soy-based vegetable oil to season our cookware. The oil is highly refined, and all proteins that cause soy-related allergies are eliminated. The oil contains no animal fat, peanut oil, or paints. Some cookware may have slight variations in the seasoning finish. These variations do not affect cooking performance, and typically even out with use.
It is very important to maintain the seasoning of your cast iron and seasoned steel cookware by applying a very thin layer of oil after each cleaning. This will help keep you cooking for decades.
My new pan feels rough in some areas. Is this normal?
Yes. This is a result of the sand casting process. With use and replenishment of the seasoning, the pan will become smoother. Unlike other types of cookware, Lodge Cast Iron only gets better with use. For concerns about roughness, it is OK to use a fine grade of sandpaper to smooth out the rough areas. Make sure to re-season the item before using..
What heat sources can Lodge products utilize?
Lodge products may be used on various heat sources including gas, electric, induction and ceramic/glass top stoves and ovens. Seasoned Cast Iron can also be used on the grill or for camp cooking. Some induction tops may not be compatible with our double-burner griddles. Microwaves should never be used.
Do not to drop cookware on the stovetop or slide across the surface. Begin heating cookware on low and slowly bring heat up to medium or medium/high. Always remove cookware from the stovetop after cooking. We recommend that you refer to your stove/range manufacturer’s owner manual for more information regarding ceramic/glass top stovetop requirements.
Are there foods that I shouldn't cook in Cast Iron?
Foods which are very acidic (i.e. beans, tomatoes, citrus juices, etc.) should not be cooked in Seasoned Cast Iron until the cookware is highly seasoned. The high acidity of these foods will strip the seasoning and result in discoloration and metallic tasting food. Wait until cast iron is better seasoned to cook these types of foods. Lodge Enameled Cast Iron is not affected by acidity and can be used with all foods.
Is Lodge cookware guaranteed?
There is not a written warranty for Lodge Cast Iron cookware; however, we do stand behind every product manufactured. For product problems, please contact Lodge Customer Service and we will solve the problem to your satisfaction. Lodge Enamel Cookware is covered by a Limited Lifetime Warranty .
Are Lodge Enamel products tested for lead safety?
Lodge utilizes the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Test Procedure 7.5.1.4a Leachability of Lead and Cadmium for Glazed Ceramic Surfaces. The FDA Division of Compliance Programs uses ASTM-C738 as the Standard Method of Test for glazed ceramic. In addition to information provided by vendors, Lodge Manufacturing Company uses third-party testing to ensure that products with the Lodge name comply with standards set forth by the United States Food & Drug Administration. All our domestic as well as imported cookware complies with the FDA Standards. We are also in compliance with California Proposal 65, the world’s most rigid standard for lead and cadmium content.
Are Lodge products made in the USA?
All of our foundry Seasoned Cast Iron and our Seasoned Carbon Steel products are manufactured in the USA and always will be. All Enameled Cast Iron products are made in China to our strict quality standards and overseen by an American owned 3rd party inspection company. Our accessories come from multiple sources, some of which are American, and some overseas. Our in-house Quality Assurance Department constantly inspects all items we produce and sell.
What type utensils can I use with Lodge products?
To avoid scratching, we recommend using wood, silicone, or nylon utensils with our Porcelain Enameled products. Any utensils, including metal, are o.k. on Cast Iron and Seasoned Steel cookware.
How is the diameter of Lodge cookware determined?
We measure from outside rim to outside rim across the top of the cookware, not the bottom. Please note that the item number may differ from the actual size. For example the L10SK3 is not a 10", but a 12" skillet. The 10 in the item number comes the days from when cast iron pots and pans were sized to fit on the numbered eyes of a wood stove. The L10SK3 was for a #10 stove eye.
How do I clean tough stains on Lodge Enamel?
For persistent stains, soak the interior of the cookware for 2 to 3 hours with a solution of bleach, consisting of one teaspoon of bleach per pint of water. To remove baked on food residue, boil a mixture of 1 cup of water and 2 tablespoons of baking soda in the cookware.
What is the maximum temperature for Lodge Enamel?
If you own Lodge Enameled Cast Iron with a black phenolic plastic knob, your cookware is oven-safe up to 400ºF. If you have cookware with a stainless steel knob, it is oven-safe up to 500ºF.
What is the difference between Seasoned Steel and Seasoned Cast Iron?
Lodge Seasoned Steel products are made out of 100% carbon steel. While the iron pans are cast in molds, the steel pans are formed by spinning and stamping, allowing them to be lighter and thinner than cast iron. Seasoned Steel will heat up and cool down faster than cast iron. The Iron products typically have integrated handles, while the Steel pans have riveted handles. Both Seasoned Steel and Cast Iron products are pre-seasoned at our foundry with the same soybean oil, and as always, they are both made in the USA.
Are Lodge silicone products BPA free?
Yes. All Lodge silicone products are certified by suppliers to be both BPA(Bisphenol A) and Phthalate free.
Where can I purchase Lodge products?
Lodge products are available in numerous retail stores, catalogs and e-stores. Lodge does not control our retail pricing at these locations, so check with your favorite housewares, gourmet, mass merchant, sporting goods, hardware, catalog and e-stores for the best prices and selection.
What is Heat-Treated Iron?
Lodge's line of Heat-Treated Iron is made just like our traditional cast iron, then put through a patented heat treating process that inhibits rust. Yes, you read correctly, this cast iron is resistant to rust! The iron is heated in a special oven at high temperatures, changing the molecular structure of the iron. This is not a coating of any kind. The process is very similar to blued or case-hardened steel, like you would find on certain gun barrels or tools. The superior heat retention and other benefits of cooking in cast iron are all the same. All of these Heat-Treated products are pre-seasoned as well.
While we still recommend cleaning these pieces in the usual way (see video here) , there is much less worry involved if proper care is not followed. These pieces have even survived hundreds of cycles in a commercial 2-minute dishwasher without showing any signs of rust. Keep in mind that your seasoning will have to be maintained and periodically restored as usual.
Why is Lodge Enamel Made in China?
Enameled cast iron cookware has exploded in popularity since the advent of celebrity cooking shows. As the maker of the world’s best cast iron, Lodge customers turned to us for an affordable and dependable alternative to expensive European brands.
After exhausting efforts to find any plant who would enamel bright colors in the United States, Lodge had to search overseas for a partner that could meet our quality standards. We happened to find those partners in China, and have worked directly and constantly with them. We work with U.S. owned third-party inspection teams to ensure that quality is up to Lodge standards, and that all partner companies comply with all applicable employment laws and regulations.
We are proud of our Enamel products and stand behind them like we do our traditional Cast Iron. The profits from our Enamel sales still go to support over 250 families at our American company. As an American manufacturer for over 100 years, Lodge takes pride in making over 80% of our products in the U.S. and providing jobs for our community.
How do I Assemble my L410 Sportsman's Grill?
Click Here for printable directions. Happy grilling!
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What type of fruit or vegetable is a Howgate Wonder? | Malus domestica Howgate Wonder - Apple Howgate Wonder - Dobbies Garden Centres
Malus domestica Howgate Wonder
Apple Howgate Wonder
A great cooking apple which can be enjoyed all winter
A cooking apple that you can store which means that you don't need to fill the freezer or use them in a hurry. The apples have red skins and a sharp flavour which is also great for juice.
Where?
Happiest in full sun and moist, rich soil. Give this tree plenty of room so that it can spread its branches.
How?
Dig organic matter into the soil before planting - homemade garden compost or well rotted manure is fine. Water your tree occasionally in dry weather until it has established. To get a crop of apples there needs to be another apple tree nearby which flowers around the same time, to act as a pollinator. This variety is in flowering group 3, so will need a neighbour from flowering group 2, 3 or 4.
Apple 'Howgate Wonder' was introduced in 1915 by Mr George Wratten. It originated in his garden in Howgate Lane, on the Isle of Wight.
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In jazz music, what instrument was Dizzie Gillespie famous for playing? | Howgate Wonder - Page 2
Howgate Wonder
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4,176
Kind of bumping this thread, as I am now pretty likely to get one, but wondered if FB (although I havent seen him around since the update!!
)could advice on a suitable pollinator for them, pref a russett or dual purpose? Thanks for your help
4,471
Howgate Wonder is very fertile (officially part-self-fertile), often producing seedless fruits.
With other apple trees or crab apples in nearby gardens, I don't think that you need to worry about a pollinator.
Howgate Wonder flowers around mid-season, so most other apple varieties should have some flowering overlap.
I'm not sure whether Howgate Wonder has enough scab or canker resistance to cope with the wetter coastal or Western areas. The scab spots on my apples are in the dry-ish East of the UK. It will be much worse the further West you are, due to heavier and more prolonged rainfall.
In wetter areas, I would favour Annie Elizabeth as a slightly more scab and canker resistant substitute for Howgate Wonder, although Annie's fruit is easily blown off in windy autumn weather.
4,176
ok thanks for that advice.
We have just got a new allotment, which the council have opened up, and its literally in a very woody and wild area, not alot of houses nearby. The tree would be situated infront of the wooded, wildlife area, so well protected from rain/wind etc, although the allotment does slightly slope and it would be at the bottom. The ground itself is very rich and crumbly, not at all stoney and fairly neutral, although somewhat compacted through lack of use at the moment. Of course we would revise our plans should the area seem waterlogged for example. Thought its hard to judge as there has been very little rainfall lately.
Therefore I suppose I could say ideally I would like a Howgate Wonder, however on your advice will look closely at the situation as the summer progresses.
Looking around the area, (about a mile square) I cannot see any apple or crab apple trees at all. However we have a big plot and another apple tree would be nice.
Thanks again
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What type of fruit or vegetable is a Pentland Javelin? | Independent assessment of the Pentland Javelin potato variety
The parents of Pentland Javelin are both unnamed varieties
APPEARANCE, TASTE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PENTLAND JAVELIN
The Pentland Javelin Potato
An average looking first early potato but Pentland Javelin comes tops for taste. Best used as boiled in salads or as new potatoes this is a waxy variety which keeps its shape well. The skin is light brown with very few eyes, the flesh is light cream which stays that colour when cooked. The plants are of medium height so can be grown in most conditions. Disease resistance is above average and this variety suffers very little slug damage.
POSITIVE POINTS FOR PENTLAND JAVELIN
Top tasting new potato, can be left in the ground to mature further.
NEGATIVE POINTS FOR PENTLAND JAVELIN
No significant negative points, although this variety takes a week or two longer to bulk up compared to other first earlies.
BUYING PENTLAND JAVELIN SEED POTATOES
Pentland Javelin is not a common variety of potato but is readily available online and sometimes in garden centres.
Suttons Seeds (a GardenFocused approved supplier) sell Pentland Javelin seed potatoes (and many other varieties) which are not only correctly certified but they are graded by size to avoid unduly small seed potatoes being sold. Click here for more information and to buy Pentland Javelin online. A 1kg bag will contain about 11 good sized seed potatoes.
We recommend buying your seed potatoes from certified suppliers because those sold in supermarkets for consumption can be a source of disease and pest. We would avoid buying them from online general retailers such as as Amazon or E-bay unless you know exactly who is supplying the seed potatoes.
Buying seed potatoes from the discount store can be a good deal but it can also result in a sub-standard crop. The discount stores take the second quality seed potatoes whereas the more specialist suppliers take the best quality. Unfortunately you will only find this out after you have carefully tended your crop for several months.
ALTERNATIVES TO PENTLAND JAVELIN POTATOES
The key qualities of this variety are flavour and their ability to remain in the ground to be harvested when required. On that basis the International Kidney potato must be a good alternative as is Orla .
For other potato varieties which we have fully reviewed, click the drop down box below, select a variety and then click the More Information Button.
The planting and harvest dates used below are correct for the UK average. If you want them to be even more accurate and adjusted for your area of the UK click here . It only takes a minute and the adjustment affects every date in this site and lasts for six months.
WHEN TO CHIT / SPROUT PENTLAND JAVELIN POTATOES
We recommend that you start chitting / sprouting Pentland Javelin potatoes in the third week of February 2017. This will give them four to five weeks to develop healthy sprouts just at the time when they are ready to be planted out. Keep the potatoes in cool but light conditions to ensure they grow short, green sprouts. Click here for our page dedicated to chitting / sprouting potatoes in the UK and Ireland.
WHEN TO PLANT PENTLAND JAVELIN POTATOES
Pentland Javelin potatoes are first earlies potatoes and they are ready for harvest, if conditions are correct, 15 weeks after the seed potatoes are planted. The key factor governing the time for planting all potatoes is the date of the last frost in your area. Even a touch of frost can damage potato plants if their foliage is above ground, an unexpected severe frost can kill them completely.
The date for planting Pentland Javelin potato seed can be calculated on the basis that seed potatoes will take four weeks before they appear above ground. Given also that you want them to appear above ground only when the danger of frost has passed (the last week of April is the UK average) the last week of March 2017 is about right time to plant them.
WHEN TO HARVEST PENTLAND JAVELIN POTATOES
The harvest date for all potatoes is not only dependent on when you plant your seed potatoes, it also depends on the weather conditions throughout the growing season. But on average you can expect your potatoes to be ready for harvest some time around the second week of July 2017 in your area of the UK.
PEST AND DISEASE RESISTANCE OF PENTLAND JAVELLIN POTATO
The table below sets out how good or bad Pentland Javelin potato plants are at resisting common pests and diseases in the UK. The 0 point is average with minus (red) values showing lower than average resistance and plus values (green) showing higher than average resistance.
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In mythology, what was the name of the Greek Goddess of Marriage and Birth? | Seed Potatoes - Pentland Javelin 1kg
Seed Potatoes
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Seed Potatoes - Pentland Javelin 1kg
Colour - white. Shape - oval. Easy to grow; eelworm resistance RO1. A popular early variety that is favoured for its tasty, white, waxy-fleshed tubers. New, boil, steam or saute - it does not discolour when cold. First Early.
Quality Control - following inspection our seed potatoes receive a certification number (see bag label). They are size graded within riddle size 35mm x 60mm to achieve the ideal size, although shape will vary due to season and variety. A final visual examination takes place prior to packing. Note: a 1kg pack of a typical variety should contain over 10 tubers.
Order Despatch - Potatoes are sent separately, in specially secure cartons, and will be despatched from December onwards, weather permitting. Please note that we monitor weather conditions daily during critical periods and do not despatch when frosty periods are forecast.
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Popular early potato
Colour - white. Shape - oval. Easy to grow; eelworm resistance RO1. A popular early variety that is favoured for its tasty, white, waxy-fleshed tubers. New, boil, steam or saute - it does not discolour when cold. First Early.
Quality Control - following inspection our seed potatoes receive a certification number (see bag label). They are size graded within riddle size 35mm x 60mm to achieve the ideal size, although shape will vary due to season and variety. A final visual examination takes place prior to packing. Note: a 1kg pack of a typical variety should contain over 10 tubers.
Order Despatch - Potatoes are sent separately, in specially secure cartons, and will be despatched from December onwards, weather permitting. Please note that we monitor weather conditions daily during critical periods and do not despatch when frosty periods are forecast.
Hardiness:5 degrees
RHS Award of Garden Merit:False
Vegetables recommended by the NIAB:False
Award Winners in Fleuroselect Trials:False
Likes Acidic Soil:False
Greenhouse, Glass House or Home:False
Prefers Full Sun:True
Grows in Sun or Partial Shade:False
Grows in Sun or Shade:False
Partial or Full Shade:False
Bees:False
Plant mid February-April; harvest June-July.
Immediately upon arrival unpack your seed potatoes and keep them in trays in a light, airy, cool but frost free place for planting March/April. Plant into warm soil after the risk of frost has passed. Root development is best between 15 and 20ºC. Test by pushing your hand into loosened soil – if you can keep it there comfortably it is warm enough!
Chitting - If growing conditions are not suitable, seed potatoes which have started to sprout can be kept in good condition by placing them in a seed tray with the bud end uppermost to chit. Give maximum available exposure to light but protect from frost. A good chit is firm and green and will not knock off easily. Chitting speeds up growth and is particularly useful for encouraging the earliest possible crop but it does shorten the natural growing cycle at the end of the season.
Planting Potatoes are easy! They will yield a worthwhile crop under a wide range of conditions. Traditional winter digging incorporating well-rotted farmyard manure and trenching in more manure or fertiliser in spring undoubtedly produces the best crop but is very hard work! Why not try for reasonable yields with less effort? Loams and light soils don’t need digging. Natural organic manures or composts can be placed in contact with the seed potatoes in a shallow trench. High potash chemical fertiliser can be placed on the surface after the tubers have been buried using a trowel or a bulb planter. A potato fertiliser can be raked into the soil during seed bed preparations. Plant early varieties 7–10cm (3–4") deep, 30cm (12") apart, and about 45cm (18") between rows. Second earlies generally need a little more space while main crop varieties are traditionally planted 37cm (15") apart with 67cm (27") between rows. Large varieties like King Edward benefit from even more room, up to 45cm (18") apart. Lightly fork between the rows to loosen the soil. If planting salads and you like a lot of smaller potatoes then plant closer together, only 25cm (10") apart. For high yielding maincrop potatoes a wider drill of approximately 75cm (30") will ensure minimal exposure to light and consequential greening.
Growing - Earth up the rows 2 or 3 times using a rake or draw hoe before the foliage gets too extensive. This provides enough soil cover to prevent tuber greening and is very effective in controlling weeds. Water well in long dry spells this is especially important when the tubers are swelling. If you water 10 days after emergence when the tubers are forming you minimise the risk of blight. It is important not to over water.
Harvesting - Earlies are ready 9–12 weeks from planting. Open flowers, if present, indicate that the first tubers are present underneath. Main crops take 14 weeks or more to mature. After natural die-back (or the removal of the foliage if blight has taken hold) leave the potatoes for 2–3 weeks in the ground to set firm skin ready for storage. As soon as skin is set lift the crop because the underground slugs are usually at their most active at the end of the season. The best test for size is to scrape away some soil. Start using when small for the delicious early potato flavour. Kids love small potatoes!
TIP: You don't have enough space to grow potatoes? Did you know it's so easy to grow them on the patio?
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What type of kitchen utensil is a ladle? | The 19 Best Cooking Utensils to Buy in 2017
The 19 Best Cooking Utensils to Buy in 2017
Shop for the best cooking utensils and tools to stock in your kitchen
By Donna Currie
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Updated December 28, 2016.
If you’re stocking a new kitchen or you’re upgrading to better equipment, it’s wise to choose quality products that will do a good job and last a long time. And if they look good while you’re using them, that’s an added bonus.
While not everyone cooks the same foods, and not everyone has the same cooking skills, there are some tools that just about everyone needs in the kitchen, no matter what’s being served. Whether you’re looking for something that stirs, preps, measures, or serves, there are tools that are just right for you.
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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A rubber spatula is a simple thing, but it still benefits from good design. This one has an angled head that’s great for stirring, and it’s made from silicone so it holds up to high heat. The price is high compared to many spatulas, but it’s the one you’ll grab first every time. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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While all-metal turners are still being sold, flexible silicone turners are becoming more popular since they can be used in nonstick pans without worrying about scratching. This large turner can handle a big burger or a pancake with ease and is flexible enough to sneak under cookies, even if they’re a little close together. The handle has the standard OXO soft grip that’s easy to hang onto. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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Wooden spoons are a long-time kitchen staple, and for good reason, they’re even gentle enough for modern nonstick pans. The spoons in this three-piece set have a slightly larger handle for a more comfortable grip than many inexpensive spoons on the market. One big plus for wooden spoons is that the handles don’t get hot. The downside is that you shouldn’t wash them in the dishwasher or let them soak too long. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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A can opener might be one of those tools that you won’t think much about until you need one, but in the end you’ll definitely need one. This can opener cuts the can lid without leaving a sharp edge, and the lid gripper hangs onto the lid for safe disposal. The opener can be used either right- or left-handed and it has a soft-grip handle that is designed to be less tiring to hold. It’s mostly white with your choice of three different accent colors. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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Having a good peeler makes cooking easier, faster, and much more enjoyable, and this one checks all those boxes. If you do a lot of cooking and peeling, you might want to have two or more of these peelers, so you’ve got an extra when there’s one in the dishwasher or when you have guests who want to help in the kitchen. Some cooks also prefer a y-shaped peeler, which is one of our best slicing tools to buy . Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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If you serve your meals family style, you need something to get the potatoes from bowl to dinner plate. This three-piece set could be just what you’re looking for. It has three spoons, two solid ones, plus a slotted spoon for serving foods that might be sitting in sauce. The design is classic enough to look good with almost any flatware you might already own. Check Amazon rating »
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Soup is the ultimate comfort food, but to get it from pot to bowl, you need a ladle. This one has a long enough handle to make it useful in your largest pot. Not just for soup, it’s also great for chili, spaghetti sauce, or any similar food that you need to remove from a pot. It might be a bit on the pricey side, but it’s heavy duty and will last a lifetime. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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There’s really no good way to handle long strands of spaghetti or similar noodles unless you’ve got a pasta fork. Shaped like a cupped hand with the fingers pointing up, it grabs the strands and hangs onto them. This has a nylon head so it can be used in nonstick cookware and is attractive enough to use for serving at the table. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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Even if you have an electric hand mixer, there are a times when a hand whisk is more convenient. This one has a sturdy handle that’s easy to hold, and enough wires to make it efficient. There are larger whisks in the same design, if you work in large bowls often. Check Amazon rating »
Courtesy of Amazon.com.
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What is the name of the National Lottery draw where players pick five main numbers which can be any number between 1 and 50, then the players selects two different lucky star numbers from a pool of eleven balls? | Kitchen Essentials | Made in the USA Kitchen Products - RadaCutlery.com
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Not Just A Knife Company
Here at Rada Cutlery we not only sell knives but kitchen utensils as well. Our made in the USA kitchen utensils range from spatulas to Handi-Stirs to pizza cutters. We have four new non-scratch cooking utensils that are safe for non-stick pans. They include: the Non-Scratch Soup Ladle, the Non-Scratch Spatula, the Non-scratch Spoon and the Non-Scratch Spoon with Holes.
Made in the USA Kitchen Products
Shopping for kitchen products that are made in the United States is easy with Rada Cutlery. We offer 30 products that you will love--all manufactured in the US. Some of our more popular kitchen utensils are the Quick Edge Knife Sharpener, Serverspoon, Pizza Cutter and many more.
Customers love the Quick Edge Knife Sharpener because it is a quick, easy, hassle-free way to sharpen your knives. You simply run your knife through the two specially hardened wheels. This motion leaves your knives as sharp as the first day you bought them.
The Serverspoon is a versatile, stainless steel spatula. This little spatula does more than just serve foods, like desserts, it also works great for preparing food. You can easily mix and scrape foods with this kitchen utensil.
The Pizza Cutter is a favorite because it easily slices through all types of pizza. It does not matter if you are a deep-dish, thin crust, or homemade pizza lover, you will get a clean slice with the Rada Cutlery Pizza Cutter.
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What was the surname of the East London gangsters, whose christian names were Charles and Eddie, who in the 1960's ran their own scrapyard business and were seen as the main rivals to the Kray twins? | Frank Sinatra | Des Nnochiri's Write to Speak
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August 21, 2013
Twin brothers Ronald “Ronnie” Kray (24 October 1933 – 17 March 1995) and Reginald “Reggie” Kray (24 October 1933 – 1 October 2000) were English gangsters who were the kingpins of organized crime in the East End of London during the 1950s and 1960s.
With their gang, “The Firm”, the Krays were involved in armed robberies, arson, protection rackets, assaults, and the murders of Jack “The Hat” McVitie and George Cornell.
As West End nightclub owners, they mixed with prominent entertainers including Diana Dors, Frank Sinatra, and Judy Garland, and with politicians.
During the 1960s, the Krays became celebrities in their own right, interviewed on television, and captured on film by iconic photographer David Bailey.
Brothers Gary and Martin Kemp (not twins) of the ’80s British pop band Spandau Ballet played the duo in the 1990 movie “The Krays”.
Video comes courtesy of YouTube:
That’s the way it played out, on film.
Here’s what history has to tell us:
Early Life
Ronnie and Reggie Kray were born on 24 October 1933 in Hoxton, East London, to Charles David “Charlie” Kray, Sr., (10 March 1907 – 8 March 1983), a scrap gold dealer, and Violet Lee (5 August 1909 – 7 August 1982). Reggie was born about 10 minutes before his twin Ronnie.
Their parents already had a six-year old son, Charles Jr, (9 July 1926 – 4 April 2000). A sister, Violet, born 1929, died in infancy.
When the twins were three years old, they contracted diphtheria but recovered. Ronnie Kray almost died in 1942 from a head injury suffered in a fight with his twin brother.
In 1938, the Kray family moved from Stean Street, Hoxton, to 178 Vallance Road, Bethnal Green.
At the beginning of World War II, 32-year-old Charles Kray was conscripted into the army, but went into hiding rather than serve.
The twins first attended Wood Close School in Brick Lane and then went Daniel Street School.
The influence of their maternal grandfather, Jimmy “Cannonball” Lee, caused the twins to take up amateur boxing, at that time a popular pastime for working class boys in the East End. Both are said to have never lost a match before turning professional at age 19.
National Service – or Not
The Kray twins narrowly avoided being sent to prison several times, and in 1952 both were called up for national service with the Royal Fusiliers. They reported, but deserted several times, always being recaptured.
While absent without leave, the brothers assaulted a police constable who tried to arrest them. They were held at the Tower of London (among the very last prisoners ever to be kept there) before being transferred to Shepton Mallet military prison in Somerset for a month, to await court-martial.
They were convicted and sent to the Home Counties Brigade Depot jail in Canterbury, Kent. Their behavior in prison was so bad that they both received dishonorable discharges from the army.
Before their conviction, when they were moved from a one man cell to a communal cell, they assaulted their guard with a china vase and escaped.
Quickly recaptured, and awaiting transfer to civilian authority for crimes committed while at large, they spent their last night in Canterbury drinking cider, eating crisps (potato chips), and smoking cigarillos courtesy of the young national servicemen acting as their guards.
Burgeoning Criminal Careers
Their criminal records and dishonorable discharges ended the twins’ boxing careers, and they turned to crime. They bought a run down local snooker club in Bethnal Green, where they started several protection rackets.
By the end of the 1950s, the Krays were involved in hijacking, armed robbery and arson, through which they acquired a few clubs and other properties.
In 1960 Ronnie Kray was imprisoned for 18 months for running a protection racket and related threats. While he was in prison, Peter Rachman, head of a violent landlord operation, gave Reggie a nightclub called Esmeralda’s Barn on the Knightsbridge end of Wilton Place next to Joan’s Kitchen bistro. The location is where the Berkeley Hotel now stands.
This venue increased the Krays’ influence in the West End of London. They were assisted by a banker named Alan Cooper, who wanted protection from the Krays’ rivals, the Richardsons, who were based in South London.
Celebrity Status
In the 1960s, the Krays were widely seen as prosperous and charming celebrity nightclub owners, and were part of the Swinging London scene.
A large part of their fame was due to their non-criminal activities: being photographed by David Bailey on more than one occasion, and socializing with lords, MPs, socialites and show business characters such as the actors George Raft, Judy Garland, Diana Dors, Barbara Windsor and singer Frank Sinatra.
Lord Boothby and Tom Driberg
The Krays also came into the public eye when an exposé in the tabloid newspaper Sunday Mirror alleged that Ron (who was openly bisexual) had had a sexual relationship with Lord Boothby, a UK Conservative Party politician.
Although no names were printed, when the twins threatened the journalists involved in the story and Boothby threatened to sue, the newspaper backed down, sacked its editor, printed an apology, and paid Boothby £40,000 in an out-of-court settlement.
As a result, other newspapers became unwilling to uncover the Krays’ connections and criminal activities.
The police investigated the Krays on several occasions, but the twins’ reputation for violence meant witnesses were afraid to come forward to testify.
There was also a political problem for both main parties. It was in the interests of neither the Conservative Party to press the police to end the Krays’ power (lest the Boothby connection was publicized again), nor the Labor Party as their MP Tom Driberg was also rumored to have had a relationship with Ron.
Frank Mitchell
On 12 December 1966 the Krays helped Frank Mitchell, “The Mad Axeman”, to escape from Dartmoor Prison. Ronnie had befriended Mitchell when they served time together in Wandsworth prison.
Mitchell felt the authorities should review his case for parole, and Ronnie felt he would be doing him a favor by getting him out of Dartmoor, highlighting his case in the media, and forcing the authorities to act.
Once Mitchell was out of Dartmoor, the Krays held him at a friend’s apartment in Barking Road. However, as a large man with a mental disorder, he was difficult to deal with.
Mitchell disappeared, and his body has never been found. The Krays were acquitted of his murder.
Freddie Foreman, a former member of The Firm, in his autobiography “Respect”, claimed that Mitchell was shot and the body disposed of at sea.
George Cornell
Ronnie Kray shot and killed George Cornell in the Blind Beggar pub in Whitechapel on 9 March 1966.
There had been a confrontation at Christmas 1965 between the Krays and the Richardsons at the Astor Club, when Cornell, an associate of the Richardsons, referred to Ronnie as a “fat poof”. However, Ronnie denied this and said that the reason for the killing was because he was threatening him and Reggie.
The result was a gang war, and Kray associate Richard Hart was murdered at Mr. Smith’s Club in Catford on 8 March 1966.
“Mad” Frankie Fraser was taken to court for Hart’s murder, but was found not guilty. A member of the Richardsons gang claimed that he saw him kicking Hart. Cornell was the only one to escape from the brawl in reasonable health, so it is likely that Ronnie thought that he was involved in the murder.
On the 9th of March 1966, Ronnie was drinking in another pub when he heard that Cornell was in the Blind Beggar. Taking Reggie’s driver John “Scotch Jack” Dickson and Ian Barrie, his right-hand man, he then killed Cornell, avenging Hart’s death.
Jack “the Hat” McVitie
In October 1967 (four months after the suicide of his wife Frances), Ronnie allegedly encouraged Reggie to kill Jack “the Hat” McVitie, a minor member of the Kray gang who had failed to fulfil a £1,500 contract paid to him in advance by the Krays to kill Leslie Payne.
McVitie was lured to a basement flat in Evering Road, Stoke Newington on the pretence of a party.
As he entered, Reggie Kray pointed a handgun at McVitie’s head and pulled the trigger twice, but the gun failed to discharge. Ronnie Kray then held McVitie in a bearhug and Reggie Kray was handed a carving knife. He stabbed McVitie in the face and stomach, driving it deep into his neck, twisting the blade, and continuing as McVitie lay on the floor dying.
Several other members of The Firm including the Lambrianou brothers (Tony and Chris), were convicted of this act.
McVitie’s body has never been recovered.
Arrest and Trial
When Inspector Leonard “Nipper” Read of Scotland Yard was promoted to the Murder Squad, his first assignment was to bring down the Kray twins. It was not his first involvement with Reg and Ron; during the first half of 1964 Read had been investigating their activities, but publicity and official denials surrounding allegations of Ron’s relationship with Boothby had made the evidence he collected useless.
Read tackled the problem with renewed activity in 1967, but frequently came up against the East End “wall of silence”, which discouraged anyone from providing information to the police.
Early in 1968, the twins used a man named Alan Bruce Cooper, who hired and sent radio engineer Paul Elvey to Glasgow to buy explosives for rigging a car bomb.
Police detained Elvey in Scotland and he confessed to having been involved in three botched murder attempts. However, this evidence was weakened by Cooper, who claimed to be an agent for the United States Treasury Department investigating links between the American Mafia and the Kray gang. The botched murders were claimed to be his attempt to pin something on the Krays.
Read tried using Cooper (who was also being employed as a source by one of Read’s superior officers), as a trap for Ron and Reg – but they stayed away from him.
Conviction
Eventually, a Scotland Yard conference decided to arrest the Krays on the evidence already collected, in the hope that other witnesses would be forthcoming once the Krays were in custody.
On 8 May 1968, the Krays and 15 other members of their “firm” were arrested.
Many witnesses came forward now that the Krays’ reign of intimidation was over, and it was relatively easy to gain a conviction.
Of the 17 official Firm members, the Krays and 14 others were convicted.
Sentencing
The twins’ defense, under their counsel John Platts-Mills, QC, consisted of flat denials of all charges and the discrediting of witnesses by pointing out their criminal past.
The judge, Mr Justice Melford Stevenson said: “In my view, society has earned a rest from your activities.”
The Krays were sentenced to life imprisonment, with a non-parole period of 30 years for the murders of Cornell and McVitie – the longest sentences ever passed at the Old Bailey (Central Criminal Court, London) for murder. Their brother Charlie was jailed for 10 years for his part in the murders.
Imprisonment
On 11 August 1982, under tight security, Ronnie and Reggie Kray were allowed to attend the funeral of their mother Violet, who had died of cancer the week before – but they were not allowed to attend the graveside service at Chingford Mount Cemetery in East London, where their mother was interred in the Kray family plot. The service was attended by celebrities including Diana Dors, and underworld figures known to the Krays.
The twins did not ask to attend their father’s funeral when he died seven months later in March 1983, to avoid the publicity that had surrounded their mother’s funeral.
In 1985, officials at Broadmoor Hospital discovered a business card of Ron’s, which prompted an investigation that revealed the twins – incarcerated at separate institutions – along with their older brother, Charlie, and another accomplice who was not in prison, were operating a “lucrative bodyguard and ‘protection’ business for Hollywood stars”.
Documents released under Freedom of Information laws revealed that officials were concerned about this operation, called Krayleigh Enterprises, but believed there was no legal basis to shut it down. Documentation of the investigation revealed that Frank Sinatra hired 18 bodyguards from Krayleigh Enterprises in 1985.
Reggie Kray was a Category A prisoner, denied almost all liberties and not allowed to mix with other prisoners. However, in his later years, he was downgraded to Category C and transferred to Wayland Prison in Norfolk.
Deaths
Ronnie was eventually certified insane, and lived the remainder of his life in Broadmoor Hospital, Crowthorne, dying on 17 March 1995 of a heart attack, aged 61.
During incarceration, Reggie became a born again Christian. After serving more than the recommended 30 years he was sentenced to in March 1969, he was finally freed from Wayland on 26 August 2000, at almost 67 years old. He was released on compassionate grounds due to having inoperable bladder cancer.
The final weeks of his life were spent with his wife Roberta (whom he had married while in Maidstone Prison in July 1997), in a suite at the Townhouse Hotel at Norwich, having left Norwich hospital on 22 September 2000.
On 1 October 2000, Reggie Kray died in his sleep. Ten days later, he was buried alongside his brother Ronnie, in Chingford Mount Cemetery.
Like peas, in a pod? More like bullets, in a gun.
I’ll be shooting your way soon, with another story.
Till then.
Peace.
| Richardson |
Ex Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher now holds the position of Baroness of where? | film | Obituaries | JezzWarren.com
Obituaries
Date of Birth: 2 August 1939, Cleveland, Ohio, US
Birth Name: Wesley Earl Craven
Nicknames: Wes Craven
Wes Craven, the film director, who made his living out of scaring the wits out of people in such films as A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) and The Hills Have Eyes (1977), earning the nickname “Sultan of Slash”; later, as audiences became cynical about the franchise-driven genre, he served up horror with an ironic tongue in cheek.
Craven’s work left the critics divided. Some reviewers denounced him as a purveyor of gore with a dazzling technique and nothing to say; others compared him to Ingmar Bergman.
Craven himself recalled, during his early career, that guests would leave dinner parties upon realising who he was. But he always had fans among younger directors who appreciated the intelligence and psychological insight he brought to low-budget film making.
He created some of the most memorable bogeymen in film, culminating, in A Nightmare on Elm Street, in the blade-taloned Freddy Krueger, a murdered child molester in a moth-eaten sweater and filthy fedora who is brought back to life via the dreams of the teenage descendants of his killers.
Made at a time when Aids was coming to public attention and the prospect of environmental Armageddon had become a topic in classrooms, the film seemed to tap into deep-seated fears.
Craven, who had a master’s degree in philosophy, became a prominent defender of the horror genre which, he argued, gives people the mental equipment to deal with a frightening world. “You’re talking about the beasts in the forest that come after you during the daytime or during the night but in a way that’s under control. So in a sense, you can own the beast,” he explained.
His films were often inspired by true stories. Nightmare was inspired by reports in the Los Angeles Times about a group of refugees who had fled the Khmer Rouge, healthy young men in their twenties, who, after fleeing to the United States, were suffering disturbing nightmares, after which they refused to sleep. “They would try to stay awake, and they would describe the nightmares to their families,” Craven recalled. “Finally there would be a scream and the guy would be dead. Death by nightmare.”
The resulting film established Craven as a leading director . His producers established a franchise and went on to make several more Freddy Krueger films of varying quality, without Craven’s input, until 1995 when he released Wes Craven’s New Nightmare.
By this time, as he recalled, “horror had reached one of its sort of classical, cyclical stages of ennui on the part of the audience”. So Craven decided to poke fun at the genre. New Nightmare had the actors, studio head and Craven himself being stalked by Freddy Krueger as they worked on a new instalment of the series.
Craven subverted the horror genre again with Scream (1996), the tale of a high-school student who becomes the target of a mysterious killer known as Ghostface. Full of ironic self-reference (“This is like something out of a Wes Carpenter film,” one character observes), the film was a box office hit, taking $173 million worldwide, spawning a lucrative franchise and inspiring the “Scary Movie” parodies.
Wesley Earl Craven was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 2 1939 to strict Baptist parents. Even though he was forbidden from going to the cinema, he claimed that his religious upbringing had shaped his talent as a film maker, encouraging him to “ask big questions about life and death”.
The character of Freddy Krueger, however, drew on an event in his own childhood when, one night, he heard a shuffling sound outside his bedroom window: “I crept over there and looked down. It was a man wearing a fedora.
“He stopped and looked up directly into my face. I backed into the shadows, listening and waiting for him to go away. But I didn’t hear anything. I went back to the window. He looked up at me again and then turned away. He walked into the door of our apartment building. I’ve never, ever been that scared in my life. I was terrified.”
Craven studied English and Psychology at Wheaton College, Illinois . He later earned a master’s in Philosophy and Writing from Johns Hopkins University, but it was while he was working as a humanities professor at Clarkson University in Potsdam, New York state, that he first went to the cinema and fell in love. In 1971 he left his teaching job to work as a film editor at a post-production house in Manhattan.
After writing and directing pornographic films under pseudonyms, Craven made his debut under his own name in 1972 with the ultra-low-budget ($90,000) shocker The Last House on the Left, about a gang of psychotic killers who rape, torture and murder two teenage girls, only to meet a more horrific fate at the hands of the girls’ parents.
Marketed under the slogan, “To avoid fainting, keep repeating: It’s only a movie . . . only a movie . . .” the film was a grisly remake of Ingmar Bergman’s Oscar-winning Virgin Spring (1959) featuring sickeningly real scenes of sadism and violence. Released mostly on drive-in screens in America, the film was banned by the censors in Britain, though it has come to be seen as a classic .
His follow-up, The Hills Have Eyes, about cannibalistic mutants stalking a suburban family who have become stranded in the desert, established his reputation as a cult director, but it was A Nightmare on Elm Street that propelled him into the mainstream.
Craven’s other films included Deadly Friend (1986); The Serpent and the Rainbow (1988); Shocker (1990); The People Under the Stairs (1991); Vampire in Brooklyn (1995) and Red Eye (2005). In 1999 he made a rare foray outside the horror genre with Music of the Heart, starring Meryl Streep, who was nominated for an Oscar. His last film, in 2011, was the fourth in the Scream franchise. People were sometimes surprised to learn that Craven was not, in his words, “a Mansonite crazoid”, but a charming, humorous man whose hobby was bird-watching. When asked by an interviewer to name the thing that most terrified him, he replied “my ex-wife’s divorce lawyer”.
Date of Birth: 10 April 1932, Alexandria, Egypt
Birth Name: Michel Demitri Chalhoub
Nicknames: Omar Sharif
Omar was introduced to the international screen in one of the most dramatic star entrances of film history. This was the scene in Lawrence of Arabia (1962) in which Lawrence (Peter O’Toole) first makes contact with the Arab chieftain Sherif Ali (Sharif), who will become his key ally in the desert fighting, and the latter, in a daringly protracted sequence, develops from a speck on the horizon into a towering, huge horseman, rifle at the ready.
Sharif was instantly elevated by this debut into a major box-office figure, and went on to star in a succession of big-budget films during the 1960s, most notably the contrasting blockbuster hits Doctor Zhivago (1965) and Funny Girl (1968), as perhaps the last of the “exotic” Hollywood heartthrobs in line of descent from Rudolph Valentino.
This situation, however, proved comparatively short-lived. Almost like the protagonist of a Victorian novel, Sharif was overtaken by his own success, to the extent that in order to service the debts incurred by gambling and a playboy lifestyle, he was thrown back on accepting any work that came his way, and entered a downward spiral into trivial and meretricious movies.
He was born Michel Chalhoub in Alexandria, the son of well-to-do Lebanese-Syrian Christians, Claire (nee Saada) and Joseph Chalhoub, and educated at a private school and at Cairo University. He worked briefly and reluctantly in his father’s lumber business but fell for the lure of acting, and was delighted when a friend, the director Youssef Chahine, offered him a role in the film Struggle in the Valley (1954). The female star was Faten Hamama, who was greatly taken by her leading man and in the same year became his wife, Sharif converting to Islam in the process. The marriage lasted for 20 years and the couple had a son, Tarek, who was to make a brief appearance in Doctor Zhivago in the guise of Yuri Zhivago’s childhood self.
Sharif became established as a principal figure in Egyptian cinema and also starred in the French-backed Goha (1958), which afforded him wider recognition, if only in the arthouses.
But it was his selection by the producer Sam Spiegel and the director David Leanto play Sherif Ali in Lawrence of Arabia that proved the turning point in his career. As he later observed: “Maybe if I hadn’t made Lawrence, I would have gone on living in Cairo and had five children and lots of grandchildren.” He blamed the eventual failure of his marriage on the simple fact of his constant absences in Europe and the US.
The role of Sherif Ali was pivotal in the film’s dramatic scheme, and Sharif’s swarthy, romantic aura was played off to great effect against the blue-eyed blondness of O’Toole’s Lawrence. The two became close friends while making the film. Sharif’s performance won him Golden Globe awards as best supporting actor and most promising newcomer, as well as an Academy Award nomination, though he ruefully recalled that he had signed a contract with the studio that netted him only £8,000 for this and several subsequent appearances.
Fluent in English and French, he worked steadily for the next few years, though as an all-purpose “foreigner”, mainstream cinema never having been especially concerned about precise ethnicity. Thus he played a Spanish priest in Behold a Pale Horse (1964), the title role in a comic-strip historical extravaganza, Genghis Khan (1965), a Yugoslav partisan in The Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964), and even, a little later, a Nazi officer, complete with blond-streaked hair, in The Night of the Generals (1967).
But it was as the Russian hero of Lean’s Doctor Zhivago that he achieved his best-remembered screen role, a brooding, magnetic presence, even if some critics felt that the performance, like the whole film, manifested a degree of shallowness.
There was no doubt about his box-office stature, though, and it was revealing that the film version of the musical Funny Girl, which in the theatre had been an unabashed vehicle for Barbra Streisand, was marketed on the basis of her co-starring with Sharif. As the shady gambler Nicky Arnstein, by whom Fanny Brice (Streisand) was enslaved, Sharif was the essence of the homme fatal, and even weighed in with a couple of song numbers. There were rumours at the time that the stars’ relationship had blossomed off-screen too, a notion that was ill received in Sharif’s native land in the light of Streisand’s pro-Israeli sympathies.
Sharif later admitted that he had briefly imagined himself in love with Streisand, and also recalled being smitten by Ava Gardner, his co-star in Mayerling (1968), in which he brought a suitable intensity to the doomed Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, and Gardner, with some incongruity, played his mother.
Mayerling was hardly a distinguished film, but was considerably superior to some others in which Sharif went on to appear, not least Che! (1969), a dully temporising Hollywood account of the life of Che Guevara, in which at one point Sharif’s Guevara is confronted by Jack Palance’s Fidel Castro with the mumbled expostulation: “Che, sometimes I just don’t understand you.”
The Last Valley (1971) and The Horsemen (1971) were poorly rated would-be spectacles. It seems significant that in the French-made thriller The Burglars (1971), Sharif was cast opposite a contemporary European box-office favourite, Jean-Paul Belmondo, but in the guise of a stereotypical scheming villain, who ends up smothered by Belmondo in a deserted silo under tons of grain, an intimation of the fate that was to befall him professionally as he appeared in increasingly obscure productions.
But there were still one or two brighter spots to come. In 1975 he reprised the role of Arnstein in the Funny Girl sequel, Funny Lady, and the previous year gave one of his most effective, because downplayed, performances, as the captain of a stricken cruise liner in Juggernaut. Of his playing in this film, the American critic Pauline Kael percipiently remarked: “He is not allowed to smile the famous smile, or even to look soulfully lovesick. He is kept rather grim.”
At this time, Sharif was perhaps more readily associated with the game of bridge than with acting. Though he took it up in adult life, he developed into a world-class player. In addition to competing in international tournaments, he wrote a syndicated column on the subject for several years for the Chicago Tribune, was the author of several books on bridge, and licensed his name to a bridge computer game.
He was also an inveterate high-stakes gambler, a regular at the casinos of Paris and elsewhere, and at the racetrack in Deauville. He maintained that claims of his philandering were ill-founded, but his lifestyle certainly encompassed heavy drinking and smoking more than 50 cigarettes a day, at least until he underwent heart bypass surgery in 1993. And the cost was high in financial terms as well.
Professionally, he drifted from one minor role to the next in a run of TV movies and mini-series, often costume dramas of one kind or another, and mostly of the sort only liable to be found at off-peak hours on the more obscure channels. He candidly told a journalist in 2003 that “for 25 years I have been making rubbish movies”.
There were, moreover, some unedifying moments in his private life. In 2003, he headbutted a policeman in a Paris casino rumpus and was subsequently fined and given a suspended jail term, tactlessly telling the press that to assault a cop was “the dream of every Frenchman”. Two years later, he slugged a parking attendant at a Beverly Hills restaurant. He was placed on probation and ordered to pay restitution.
But at least he had returned into the realms of serious acting by taking the leading role in the 2003 French movie Monsieur Ibrahim, in which his characterisation of an elderly Turkish Muslim shopkeeper secured him a best actor César award, the French equivalent of an Oscar.
In 2006 he declared that he had abandoned gambling and even bridge in favour of family life, and described himself as semi-retired from the screen.
In the previous year he had been the recipient of a Unesco medal for contributions to world cinema and cultural diversity. Lawrence and Zhivago might by then have seemed a long way in the past, but despite or possibly even because of the intervening vicissitudes of his life, Sharif’s reputation remained undimmed.
Date of Birth: 6 February 1922, Paddington, London, UK
Birth Name: Daniel Patrick Macnee
Nicknames: Patrick Macnee
Patrick Macnee was cast to perfection as the imperturbable secret agent John Steed in the 1960s television series The Avengers, he brought etonian nonchalance and jaunty eccentricity to the part.
The programme began as unremarkable detective fare, with the raincoated Macnee playing second fiddle to Ian Hendry’s forensic surgeon. When Hendry left after the first season, Steed was pushed to the fore and Macnee threatened with the sack unless he breathed life into the character. Steed re-emerged as a lethal dandy, sporting boutonnière, sword-cane and curly-brimmed bowler. He was indubitably a gentleman and Macnee imbued the part with plenty of his own Etonian nonchalance and jaunty eccentricity.The Avengers became an unlikely farrago of Aleister Crowley and P G Wodehouse, a mix of the surreal and the camp set in an England of village greens and stately homes that concealed murderous marriage bureaus, sinister vicars and scientists over-boiling the white heat of technology. Produced with considerable visual flair, it became synonymous with the “Swinging Sixties” and was one of the first British programmes to do well in America.
Much of its success and enduring appeal lay in its ironic subversion of the conventions of the spy genre. Steed was not averse to fisticuffs, but he had none of Bond’s sadism and he eschewed guns Macnee had experienced too much real violence during the Second World War. The programme was also novel in the status given to Steed’s female partners notably Honor Blackman as the steely Cathy Gale and Diana Rigg as the coolly kittenish Emma Peel. Brought up by women, Macnee was willing to let Steed’s leather-clad partners demonstrate their mental and physical equality. He also thrived on the playful sexual tension between the characters.
The Avengers ran between 1960 and 1969; a lame sequel made in the mid-1970s, The New Avengers, also featured Macnee, but only served to show how charming and how definitive had been his performance the first time round.
Daniel Patrick Macnee was born in London on February 6 1922. His mother, a niece of the 13th Earl of Huntingdon and a rather giddy socialite, went into labour at a party and Macnee never discovered from her whether she reached hospital or if he was born in a carriage half-way down the Bayswater Road.
The rest of his childhood was no less confused. His father was a racehorse trainer, a diminutive man known as “Shrimp” Macnee whose dapper wardrobe his son later recreated for Steed. He had a taste for gin and enlivened his dinner parties by levelling a shotgun at those guests he suspected of pacifist tendencies.
Macnee’s mother took refuge in a circle of friends that included Tallulah Bankhead and the madam Mrs Meyrick, before absconding with a wealthy lesbian, Evelyn. Young Patrick was brought up by the pair and was instructed to call Evelyn “Uncle”. He managed to resist their efforts to dress him as a girl, wearing a kilt as a compromise. His father fled to India, from where he was later expelled for urinating off a balcony on to the heads of the Raj’s elite, gathered below for a race-meeting.
Evelyn financed Macnee’s education, at Summer Fields where he first acted, playing opposite Christopher Lee and then Eton. His corruption began when he was introduced to whisky by the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cardiff, who had escaped into the garden with a bottle when brought in to consecrate Evelyn’s private chapel. Macnee was then expelled from Eton for running a pornography and bookmaking empire.
He trained as an actor at the Webber-Douglas school and began to get some repertory work. Cast more for his looks than talent, he was due to play his first West End lead opposite Vivien Leigh when he received his call-up papers in 1942. He served in Motor Torpedo Boats until 1946, rising to lieutenant. He caught bronchitis shortly before D-Day; while in hospital his boat and crew were destroyed in action.
Macnee made his film debut in The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp in 1943, and after the war landed several other small parts, appearing as a courtier in Olivier’s Hamlet and The Elusive Pimpernel. The latter starred David Niven, whom he mistakenly claimed as a cousin and who consequently found him work. Yet by now he had a family to support, and when promised better roles by the embryonic Canadian Broadcasting Corporation moved to Toronto, while his wife and children remained behind. It was a decision he later bitterly regretted.
For the next eight years Macnee drifted across North America. His breezily crisp accent brought him regular stage and television work, though he also played a sheriff in the Western series Rawhide. He continued to attract the bizarre. Once he rescued some chimpanzees from a fire at an animal trainer’s ranch; while driving them to safety, one monkey clamped its hands over his eyes, almost causing his car to plunge into a ravine. In Toronto itself for The Importance of Being Earnest, he was forced by Dame Edith Evans to strap her to a stretcher and drag her through snow 10 feet deep to her hotel.
In 1960 he returned to England, his marriage over. He decided he was too old not to have a proper job, a conclusion reached when he came home to find he had been replaced in the affections of a much younger girlfriend by a French thief and his team of huskies.
He was producing a television documentary series based on Churchill’s history of the war, The Valiant Years, when he was cast in The Avengers, having literally bumped into the producer in Piccadilly. Although he was a more competent actor than he gave himself credit for, he was content in later years to stroll through a series of unmemorable roles. He believed he might have been offered better parts had he not rejected the lead in Anthony Shaffer’s play Sleuth when offered it in 1970. He later played the part on Broadway.
Among his less forgettable film appearances were as a record producer in the seminal rock spoof This Is Spinal Tap (1984) and as Bond’s chauffeur in A View To A Kill (1985). He retired to Palm Springs, California, and cheerfully took well-paid cameo roles in American television series, among them the sublimely dreadful Thunder In Paradise, a vehicle for the wrestler Hulk Hogan. In 1996 he appeared in a video for the rock group Oasis.
Macnee made considerable efforts to escape the constraints of his own character and Establishment image. He felt strongly that he had been socially and sexually confused by his upbringing and schooling and found America a less repressed environment; he became an active member of a nudist colony in the mid-1970s.
Although he remained outwardly chirpy and chivalrous, he was prone to depression and guilt, particularly over his infidelities and the severe asthmatic illness of his daughter, which he saw as a punishment for deserting his family for Canada. He also fought lengthy, and ultimately successful, battles against alcohol and mounting weight.
He published a candid autobiography, Blind In One Ear, in 1988.
Date of Birth: 27 May 1922, Belgravia, London, UK
Birth Name: Christopher Frank Carandini Lee
Nicknames: Christopher Lee
Sir Christopher Lee defined the macabre for a generation of horror film enthusiasts with his chilling portrayals of Count Dracula; in a career that spanned more than half a century Lee played the sinister vampire no fewer than nine times in productions including Dracula (1958), Dracula: Prince of Darkness (1966) and The Satanic Rites of Dracula (1973).
With his saturnine glamour and striking physique at a gaunt 6ft 4in he was a dominating physical presence with an aristocratic bearing, dark, penetrating eyes and a distinctive sepulchral voice Lee was an ideal candidate to play the bloodsucking Count. “Dracula is a very attractive character,” he insisted, “he’s so heroic erotic too. Women find him irresistible. We’d all like to be him.”
After almost 20 years of playing Dracula, Lee eventually tired of the role. He moved to the United States where he enjoyed a lucrative career in both films and made-for-television mini-series such as The Far Pavilions and Shaka Zulu. While in America, Lee resisted all offers of parts in soap operas including Dallas and Dynasty.
After decades in the film industry, Lee remained as eager as ever to take on new roles. At one point in his early seventies he appeared in 12 different films within 14 months. “I get restless and frustrated if I don’t work,” he explained. “I like a continual challenge.” In his eighties he gained a new audience, bringing sulphurous intensity to the role of Saruman in Peter Jackson’s epic Lord of the Rings films.
Lee’s one regret, he maintained, was his decision not to become an opera singer. “I was born with the gift of a very good voice,” he said, “and I have been asked to sing in various concerts but I’m too old now.” Late in life, however, he was persuaded to lend his rich bass tones as a narrator to various heavy metal records including those of the symphonic power metal group Rhapsody of Fire. In 2010 he released an album of his own, Charlemagne: By the Sword and the Cross, followed two years later by Charlemagne: The Omens of Death.
Christopher Frank Carandini Lee was born on May 27 1922 in Belgravia, London, the son of Lieutenant-Colonel Geoffrey Trollope-Lee of the 60th King’s Royal Rifle Corps. Lee’s father had fought in both the Boer and Great Wars and had later married an Italian contessa, Estelle Maria Carandini, a descendant of the Borgias whose parents had founded the first Australian opera company. Among Lee’s stories of his early life he claimed that his father was descended from a band of gypsies in Hampshire and that his mother was descended from Charlemagne.
Christopher’s parents were divorced when he was four and his mother remarried. Lee grew up in his stepfather’s house, where he was waited on by a staff of five (a butler, two footmen, a chauffeur and a cook). He attended Wagner’s in Queensgate and Summerfields, and sat for a scholarship to Eton before being sent to the more affordable Wellington College where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar.
Fluent in Italian and French, in later life Lee added Spanish, German, Russian, Swedish, Danish and Greek to his repertoire. When his alcoholic stepfather was bankrupted in 1938 Christopher was forced to leave school at 17 in order to find work. For the next 12 months he worked as a city messenger, licking stamps and making tea for a wage of £1 a week.
When the Second World War broke out, Lee joined the RAF and was promoted to flight lieutenant. He won six campaign medals, was mentioned in despatches and received decorations from Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. He also worked for British Intelligence. “Serving in the Armed Forces was the best thing that ever happened to me,” he insisted. “I did not know how other people lived.”
After the war, Lee served with the Central Registry of War Crimes, work that took him to concentration camps including Dachau, but when he was demobbed at the age of 24, he remained undecided about which career to pursue. He toyed with the idea of becoming a ballet dancer, opera singer and diplomat before his cousin (at that time the Italian ambassador to the Court of St James) suggested he try acting.
Greatly against his mother’s wishes (“Just think of all the appalling people you’ll meet!” she warned him) Lee met the Italian head of Two Cities Films, part of the J Arthur Rank Organisation, signed a seven-year contract, and joined the Rank Company of Youth (otherwise known as the Rank Charm School) in 1946. He made his film debut with a bit part in Corridor of Mirrors (1948).
A succession of “walk-on” parts ensued until, in 1951, he appeared in a speaking part as a swarthy Spanish sea captain in Captain Horatio Hornblower RN. It was one of Lee’s last films for Two Cities and when his contract ran out neither he nor the Rank Organisation were eager to renew it. Instead Lee accepted roles in a television series made in Britain but shown first in America Douglas Fairbanks Presents, appearing in some 40 half-hour productions.
After a series of military film roles in the mid-1950s, including a lieutenant in Innocents in Paris (1953), a submarine commander in The Cockleshell Heroes and a captain in That Lady (both 1955), Lee landed his first horror role for Hammer Films. He played the Creature in The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), a part which required him to be coated in artificial gangrene and which left him looking, in his opinion, “like a road accident”.
Described as “the first gothic horror film made by Hammer”, The Curse of Frankenstein was graphic in its depiction of large quantities of gore. The film was extremely popular and Lee, playing opposite the studio’s resident star Peter Cushing, was enormously successful as the monster. Realising that a film about Bram Stoker’s vampiric Transylvanian nobleman might prove equally successful, a Hammer executive, James Carreras, offered Lee the role of the Count in their next production, Dracula.
The film proved to be one of the seminal horror movies of the 1950s. Lee looked the part (tall and thin, as in Stoker’s novel) and imbued the character with a dynamic, feral quality that had been lacking in earlier portrayals. With his bloody fangs and bright red eyes ablaze, Lee made a frighteningly believable vampire. In contrast with Bela Lugosi’s eerie, somnambulistic count of the 1930s, Lee spoke his lines with crisp assurance and tried to portray what he described as “the essence of nobility, ferocity and sadness”.
With Cushing cast this time as the vampire hunter, Dracula (retitled Horror of Dracula in America) was a box-office success for Hammer and horror aficionados at the time labelled it “the greatest horror movie ever made”. Lee also regarded it as the best of the series of Dracula films which he made with Hammer. “It’s the only one I’ve done that’s any good,” he recalled. “It’s the only one that remotely resembles the book.”
With the success of his portrayal of the Count, Lee treated himself to a grey, second-hand Mercedes and became established as a horror star for the first time. He was swamped with offers of film roles and took leading parts in several films throughout the late 1950s.
In productions such as The Man Who Could Cheat Death, The Hound of the Baskervilles and The Mummy (all 1959), Lee played characters ranging from Sir Henry Baskerville to a 2,000-year-old corpse. He later claimed that the make-up for The Mummy was so uncomfortable that he swore never to submit to special effects again. The exceptions were the essential red contact lenses for his appearances as Dracula. Lee found the lenses excruciatingly painful but, as he had worn them in the first film, continuity demanded that he wear them in all subsequent productions.
Lee continued to be in demand throughout the 1950s and 1960s, starring in more than 20 films in only six years. Although he accepted some unlikely projects (including The Terror of the Tongs and The Devil’s Daffodil, both in 1961), he was also able to make films in which he had a personal interest. He had long wanted to play the Chinese arch-villain Fu Manchu and in 1965 he was offered the title role in The Face of Fu Manchu. The film was so popular that a series of four more were filmed, including Brides of Fu Manchu (1966), The Blood of Fu Manchu (1968) and Vengeance of Fu Manchu (1968). After roles in horror films such as Doctor Terror’s House of Horrors and The Skull (both 1965), Lee returned to his earlier incarnation in Dracula: Prince of Darkness (1966).
He was less happy with this second film. He had become too expensive a star for the Hammer studios, and in a cost-cutting measure his scenes were kept to a minimum and remained devoid of dialogue. Lee was reduced to making a soft hissing noise which drew laughter from audiences when the film was screened. He enjoyed more success with the lead in Rasputin, The Mad Monk (1966). Although the film was badly flawed, Lee was convincing in the title role.
After The Devil Rides Out (1968), a suspenseful adaptation of a Dennis Wheatley novel with Lee as an aristocrat in pursuit of devil-worshippers, he returned to the role of Dracula in Dracula has Risen from the Grave, on the understanding that he would have well-scripted dialogue. The film made more money than previous Hammer productions and Lee was persuaded to appear in the 1970 project, Scars of Dracula. But he had by this time become disenchanted with the role. He feared he was being typecast and that the quality of scriptwriting had deteriorated to an unacceptable level.
Nevertheless Hammer were eager to continue with Lee as their horror star and persuaded him to make two more Dracula films that year. After rapidly completing Taste the Blood of Dracula and The Magic Christian, Lee devoted himself to non-vampire roles for a period.
Later in 1970 he played Sherlock Holmes’s brother Mycroft in The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes (“so commandingly good,” reported The Sunday Telegraph, “that this must surely be the end of shabby Draculas for him”) and followed it with a tiny appearance as Artemidorus in Julius Caesar in 1971. After four more Dracula films, including a modern interpretation titled Dracula AD 1972 and The Satanic Rites of Dracula the year after, Lee was increasingly unhappy with the manner in which the character was being portrayed. “It’s ridiculous,” he complained, “you can’t have Dracula in a modern office block, it completely undermines the original idea.”
Taking another break from the Count, Lee appeared in one of his favourite films, The Wicker Man (1973), playing a Scots laird who practises human sacrifice in the 20th century. He then went on to play the evil one-eyed Comte de Rochefort in both The Three Musketeers (1973) and The Four Musketeers (1974) before appearing in his first Bond film as the assassin Scaramanga in The Man with the Golden Gun (also 1974). Lee was finally persuaded to make one more Dracula-style film in the 1970s, Dracula Père et Fils (1976), before giving up the role for good.
Despite his physical likeness to the Count, Lee’s affinity with his baleful character stopped there. Throughout his career he had a reputation for being a long-winded raconteur whose reminiscences tended to focus on himself. In 1976, when Lee left Britain for the US, the move prompted an acquaintance to joke that “the population of Los Angeles were dusting out their bomb shelters in anticipation of a barrage of anecdotes”. According to another account, on one occasion an actress got off an aircraft looking ashen and exhausted. Questioned about her health by airport staff, she explained that she had been seated next to Lee and that he had not stopped talking about himself during the 10-hour flight.
Through the late 1970s, Lee continued to make films at a prodigious rate, appearing in 10 in two years. He accepted roles as diverse as Captain Rameses in the science fiction film Starship Invasions (1977) and that of the head gypsy in the Second World War drama The Passage (1979).
In the 1980s, Lee combined his film career with a return to television, appearing in mini-series including Charles and Diana: A Royal Love Story (1982) and The Far Pavilions (1984). In 1985 he suffered a heart attack, returned to London and underwent heart surgery. Instead of seeing this as a signal to retire, Lee was back at work within a year and had returned to the horror genre for the dreadful The Howling II (1986), subtitled Your Sister is a Werewolf in America.
Although Lee continued to work prolifically throughout his life, he never again enjoyed the same success as when playing Dracula. He made some fatuous comedies in the mid-1980s such as Rosebud Beach Hotel (1985) and Jocks (1986), and continued into the 1990s with a starring role in the spoof horror film Gremlins II The New Batch.
He starred in the title role of Jinnah soon after the 50th anniversary of the founding of Pakistan in 1997, and was Count Dooku in Star Wars: Episode II Attack of the Clones (2002). He returned to the same role in Star Wars: Episode III Revenge of the Sith in 2005, and was the wizard Saruman in two of Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings films (2001-2002), in two of his Hobbit series (2012-14) and in various video games.
With Uma Thurman, Lee was due to appear as a retired surgeon in The 11th, a film about the lead-up to the September 11 terrorist attacks, to be shot this autumn.
Reflecting near the end of his life about the role of Dracula, Lee said: “There is a lot of misunderstanding about me in that role. It had never been played properly before that. With me it was all about the power of suggestion to make the unbelievable believable.”
He published two volumes of autobiography Tall, Dark and Gruesome (1977) reissued as Lord of Misrule (1997) and was appointed CBE in 2001. He was knighted in 2009 and made a fellow of Bafta in 2011.
Date of Birth: 26 March 1931, Boston, Massachusetts, US
Birth Name: Leonard Simon Nimoy
Nicknames: Leonard Nimoy
Few actors outside soap opera become defined by a single role to the exclusion of all else in their career. But that was the case for Leonard Nimoy, who has died aged 83. He did not simply play Mr Spock, first officer of the USS Enterprise in Star Trek he was synonymous with him, even after taking on other parts and branching out into directing and photography.
Star Trek began life on television, running for three series between 1966 and 1969, and later spawned numerous spin-offs, including a run of films of varying quality, two of which (Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, from 1984, and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, from 1986) Nimoy directed. “I’m very proud of having been connected with the show,” he wrote in 1975. “I felt that it dealt with morality and philosophical questions in a way that many of us would wish were part of the reality of our lives.”
In front of the camera, as the half-human, half-Vulcan Spock, he captured with delicious wit the tensions in the character. Spock’s logical, detached perspective could be infuriating to his more demonstrative colleagues; it also caused him to be amused or bewildered by the workings of humans. This could play out humorously or poignantly. He was uniquely placed, for example, to analyse coolly our emotional shortcomings: “It is curious how often you humans manage to obtain that which you do not want,” he mused in the first series. His dry rapport with the more passionate, full-blooded Captain James T Kirk (William Shatner) was a pleasure that endured long after the Star Trek brand itself showed signs of having been around the galaxy a few too many times.
Once seen, Spock was never forgotten. The hair, boot-polish black, was snipped short with a severe, straight fringe; it looked more like headgear than a haircut, more painted on than grown. An inch of forehead separated that fringe from a pair of sabre-like eyebrows that arched extravagantly upwards. These came in handy for conveying what the reserved Spock could not always express verbally. “The first thing I learned was that a raised eyebrow can be very effective,” said Nimoy.
Spock’s defining physical feature, though, was his pointed ears. The actor’s first reaction upon seeing them was: “If this doesn’t work, it could be a bad joke.” Sharply tapered but in no way pixieish, the ears somehow never undermined his gravitas. Or rather, Nimoy’s sober disposition precluded laughter. Besides, in a show suffused with messages of inclusivity and tolerance, it would never do for audiences to laugh at someone just because he came from Vulcan.
Nimoy contributed key details to the character, including the traditional Vulcan greeting: a hand held up and the four fingers parted to create a V. This was inspired by prayer gestures witnessed by the young Nimoy at synagogue.
He would later title his 1975 memoir I Am Not Spock. “I was trying to illuminate the actor’s process in creating a character. I talked about the fact that I grew up in Boston and Spock did not. My parents were Russian immigrants; Spock’s were not. I’m an actor who portrays this character.” He conceded, though, that the title had been a mistake and had given the erroneous impression that he was trying to shrug off his best-known role. He made amends by calling the 1995 follow-up I Am Spock.
Nimoy was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Max, a barber, and Dora, and showed an interest in acting from a young age (though his father tried to persuade him to take up the accordion instead). He studied drama at Boston College and began to get small parts in theatre, film and television. At 20 he was cast in the lead role of a young boxer in the 1952 film Kid Monk Baroni, and discovered a kind of sanctuary in the prosthetics he was required to wear. “I found a home behind that makeup,” he wrote in I Am Not Spock. “I was much more confident and comfortable than I would have been, had I been told I was to play ‘a handsome young man’.”
Nimoy did military service from 1953 to 1955, during which time one of his duties was producing army talent shows. He continued acting after leaving the army and in the early 1960s began teaching acting classes, while also starring in guest roles on television series including Bonanza, Rawhide and The Twilight Zone. He established his own acting studio where he taught for three years.
Nimoy auditioned for an earlier Gene Roddenberry project, and when Roddenberry created Star Trek he thought of him for the role of Spock. “I thought it would be a challenge,” Nimoy said. “As an actor, my training had been in how to use my emotions, and here was a character who had them all locked up.”
After 79 episodes across three series, the NBC network cancelled the show because of its low ratings. Nimoy went straight into another regular gig a role on the light-hearted spy series Mission: Impossible and then began studying photography at the University of California, Los Angeles. He would later publish photographic studies including Shekhina (2002), a celebration of spirituality and sexuality in Judaism, and The Full Body Project (2007), focused on unorthodox female body sizes.
His acting work in the 1970s included a chilling performance in Philip Kaufman’s intelligent 1978 remake of Invasion of the Body Snatchers. In 1979, he returned to play Spock in the rather leaden Star Trek: The Motion Picture. He would do so in a further seven Star Trek films. Among them were Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982), Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989) and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991). He was the only original cast member to appear in JJ Abrams’s instalments of the revived or “rebooted” franchise, Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). His appearance in the first of those Abrams films, as the older Spock coming face to face with his younger self (Zachary Quinto), was deeply affecting and played with characteristic restraint. He also revived Spock in two 1991 episodes (“Unification I” and “Unification II”) of the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, and in animated and computer-game incarnations of Star Trek.
If Nimoy never escaped association with Spock, it was not for want of trying. He wrote seven poetry collections, released several albums and established himself as a successful and varied director. Alongside his two Star Trek movies, he directed himself in a TV movie version of the one-man play Vincent (1981), about the life of Van Gogh. He scored an international box-office hit with 3 Men and a Baby (1987). He also made the drama The Good Mother (1988), starring Diane Keaton and Liam Neeson, as well as two disappointing comedies, Funny About Love (1990) and Holy Matrimony (1994).
Date of Birth: 19 June 1921, Marseille, France
Birth Name: Louis Robert Gendre
Nicknames: Louis Jourdan
For audiences in the 1940s and 50s, Louis Jourdan’s incredible good looks and mellifluous Gallic purr seemed to sum up everything that was sexy and enticing about Frenchmen. As a result, he became the most sought-after French actor since Charles Boyer. Though perhaps this hampered him, stymying opportunities to extend his dramatic range, any actor who was constantly in demand by both French studios and Hollywood producers had a lot to be grateful for.
When Jourdan played the consummate bon vivant in Vincente Minnelli’s Gigi (1958), he became an international celebrity. The film, which co-starred Maurice Chevalier and Leslie Caron, won nine Oscars, including best picture. Though the best-known of its Lerner and Loewe numbers was Chevalier’s Thank Heaven for Little Girls, the title song went to Jourdan. He later widened the breadth of his work, and in old age was still one of the most handsome men on the screen, even if the films themselves seldom matched the fineness of his looks.
He was born in Marseilles, one of the three sons of Henri Gendre, a hotelier who organised the Cannes film festival after the second world war, and Yvonne, from whose maiden name, Jourdan, Louis took his stage name. The family followed Henri’s work, which accounted for the ease with which he was later able to perform overseas. He was educated in France, Turkey and Britain, where he learned to speak perfect English with an accent that he was clever enough to realise he should keep superbly French.
Jourdan, who knew from early on that he was going to be an actor, studied under René Simon in Paris. Admired for his dramatic talent and a certain polish that no one could readily explain, he was cast in his film debut, Le Corsaire (1939), which starred Boyer, though the outbreak of the second world war prevented its completion. He went on to appear in L’Arlésienne (1942) before his career was interrupted by the Nazi occupation of France.
His father was arrested by the Gestapo, and Louis and his two brothers were active members of the resistance, whose work for the underground meant that he had to stay away from the studios. But it also resulted in his becoming a favourite of the resurgent French postwar film industry. At a time when many had worked on films that had served to help Marshal Pétain’s propaganda campaign and stars such as Chevalier were being accused of collaboration – it was easy to promote a star who had actively worked against the Nazis.
In 1946, Jourdan married Berthe Frédérique (known as Quique) and went to Los Angeles, having been persuaded by the movie mogul David O Selznick that he would be able to make more of himself in Hollywood than he ever could in Paris. He shone in his first American film, The Paradine Case (1947), directed by Alfred Hitchcock and starring Gregory Peck. This was followed by Max Ophüls’s masterly Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948), based on the story by Stefan Zweig. Jourdan played the debonair, womanising pianist with whom Joan Fontaine falls hopelessly and tragically in love. He invested the performance with a vulnerability that saved his character from being simply caddish.
In Minnelli’s 1949 film of Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, he starred as the lover of the adulterous anti-heroine, played by Jennifer Jones. He returned to France for Rue de l’Estrapade (1953) and La Mariée Est Trop Belle (The Bride Is Too Beautiful, released with the title Her Bridal Night, 1956), the latter with Brigitte Bardot, while in Italy he appeared in Three Coins in the Fountain (1954), its title referring to the Trevi fountain in Rome. His image as the light romantic lead was burnished in that film, and his status as such was sealed by Gigi, which made him the No 1 pin-up of sophisticated American women.
He had a similar role in Can-Can (1960), which starred Frank Sinatra, Shirley MacLaine and Chevalier. There followed continental roles in Hollywood productions: as a playboy in The VIPs (1963) and a fashion designer in Made in Paris (1966).
He had made his Broadway debut, playing a repressed gay man embarking on marriage, in an adaptation of André Gide’s The Immoralist, in 1954. The production co-starred Geraldine Page and James Dean, before Dean’s movie breakthrough. The following year, Jourdan returned to the New York stage in Tonight in Samarkand. He soon let it be known that he wanted more serious film roles and was not getting enough of them. In 1961 he took the lead in Claude Autant-Lara’s Le Comte de Monte Cristo and, in 1975, he appeared in a British TV movie production of Alexandre Dumas’s novel, this time playing De Villefort to Richard Chamberlain’s Count. Two years later, he was D’Artagnan in The Man in the Iron Mask on TV, again opposite Chamberlain.
He played Dracula in a 1977 BBC TV adaptation and an Afghan prince in the James Bond adventure Octopussy (1983), but few of his later roles showed the range of his talents. Certainly, Swamp Thing (1982) and The Return of Swamp Thing (1989) were not the sort of movies that the Gigi star would want to be remembered for. In the mid-80s he returned to Gigi, this time in Chevalier’s role, for a touring show; he replied to the criticism that he lip-synched songs by saying: “If I sang them live, the fragile little voice I have would go.”
Jourdan’s final film appearance came as a suave villain in Peter Yates’s caper about a rare bottle of wine, Year of the Comet (1992). In 2010 he was appointed to the Légion d’Honneur.
Date of Birth: 9 May 1932, Old Windsor, Berkshire, UK
Birth Name: Geraldine McKeown
Nicknames: Geraldine McEwan
Geraldine McEwan, could purr like a kitten, snap like a viper and, like Shakespeare’s Bottom, roar you as gently as any sucking dove. She was a brilliant, distinctive and decisive performer with a particular expertise in high comedy whose career incorporated West End comedy, Shakespeare at Stratford-upon-Avon, Laurence Olivier’s National Theatre, and a cult television following in EF Benson’s Mapp and Lucia.
She was also notable on television as a controversial Miss Marple in a series of edgy, incongruously outspoken Agatha Christie adaptations (2004-09). Inheriting a role that had already been inhabited at least three times “definitively” by Margaret Rutherford, Angela Lansbury and Joan Hickson she made of the deceptively cosy detective a character both steely and skittish, with a hint of lust about her, too.
This new Miss Marple was an open-minded woman of the world, with a back story that touched on a thwarted love affair with a married man who had been killed in the first world war. Familiar thrillers were given new plot twists, and there was even the odd sapphic embrace. For all her ingenuity and faun-like fluttering, McEwan was really no more successful in the part than was Julia McKenzie, her very different successor.
Although she was not easily confused with Maggie Smith, she often tracked her stylish contemporary, succeeding her in Peter Shaffer roles (in The Private Ear and The Public Eye in 1963, and in Lettice and Lovage in 1988) and rivalling Smith as both Millamant and Lady Wishfort in Congreve’s masterpiece The Way of the World in 1969 and 1995.
And a decade after Smith won her Oscar for The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, McEwan scored a great success in the same role on television in 1978; Muriel Spark said that McEwan was her favourite Miss Brodie in a cluster that also included Vanessa Redgrave and Anna Massey.
McEwan was born in Old Windsor, where her father, Donald McKeown, was a printers’ compositor who ran the local branch of the Labour party in a Tory stronghold; her mother, Nora (nee Burns), was working-class Irish. Geraldine was always a shy and private girl who found her voice, she said, when she stood up in school and read a poem.
She had won a scholarship to Windsor county school, but she felt out of place until she found refuge in the Windsor Rep at the Theatre Royal, where she played an attendant fairy in A Midsummer Night’s Dream in 1946. Leaving school, she joined the Windsor company for two years in 1949, meeting there her life-long companion, Hugh Cruttwell, a former teacher turned stage manager, 14 years her senior, whom she married in 1953, and who became a much-loved and influential principal of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1965.
Without any formal training, McEwan went straight from Windsor to the West End, making her debut at the Vaudeville theatre in 1951 in Who Goes There? by John Deighton, followed by an 18-month run in For Better, For Worse… at the Comedy in 1952 and with Dirk Bogarde in Summertime, a light comedy by Ugo Betti, at the Apollo in 1955.
Summertime was directed by Peter Hall and had a chaotic pre-West End tour, Bogarde’s fans mobbing the stage door every night and in effect driving him away from the theatre for good; McEwan told Bogarde’s biographer, John Coldstream, how he was both deeply encouraging to her and deeply conflicted over his heartthrob star status.
Within a year she made her Stratford debut as the Princess of France in Love’s Labour’s Lost and played opposite Olivier in John Osborne’s The Entertainer, replacing Joan Plowright as Jean Rice when the play moved from the Royal Court to the Palace. Like Ian Holm and Diana Rigg, she was a key agent of change in the transition from the summer Stratford festival playing Olivia, Marina and Hero in the 1958 season to Peter Hall’s new Royal Shakespeare Company; at Stratford in 1961, she played Beatrice to Christopher Plummer’s Benedick and Ophelia to Ian Bannen’s Hamlet.
Kittenish and playful, with a wonderful gift for suggesting hurt innocence with an air of enchanted distraction, she was a superb Lady Teazle in a 1962 Haymarket production of The School for Scandal, also starring John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson, that went to Broadway in early 1963, her New York debut.
She returned to tour in the first, disastrous, production of Joe Orton’s Loot, with Kenneth Williams, in 1965, and then joined Olivier’s National at the Old Vic, where parts over the next five years included Raymonde Chandebise in Jacques Charon’s landmark production of Feydeau’s A Flea in Her Ear, Alice in Strindberg’s Dance of Death (with Olivier and Robert Stephens), Queen Anne in Brecht’s Edward II, Victoria (“a needle-sharp gold digger” said one reviewer) in Somerset Maugham’s Home and Beauty, Millamant and Vittoria Corombona in The White Devil.
Back in the West End, she formed a classy quartet, alongside Pat Heywood, Albert Finney and Denholm Elliott, in Peter Nichols’s Chez Nous at the Globe (1974), and gave a delightful impression of a well-trained, coquettish poodle as the leisured whore in Noël Coward’s broken-backed adaptation of Feydeau, Look After Lulu, at Chichester and the Haymarket.
In the 1980s, she made sporadic appearances at the National, now on the South Bank, winning two Evening Standard awards for her fresh and youthful Mrs Malaprop in The Rivals (“Men are all Bavarians,” she exclaimed on exiting, creating a brand new malapropism for “barbarians”) and her hilariously acidulous Lady Wishfort; and was a founder member of Ray Cooney’s Theatre of Comedy at the Shaftesbury theatre.
In the latter part of her stage career, she seemed to cut loose in ever more adventurous directions, perhaps through her friendship with Kenneth Branagh, who had become very close to Cruttwell while studying at Rada. She was a surprise casting as the mother of a lycanthropic psychotic, played by Will Patton, in Sam Shepard’s merciless domestic drama, A Lie of the Mind, at the Royal Court in 1987. And in 1988 she directed As You Like It for Branagh’s Renaissance Theatre Company, Branagh playing Touchstone as an Edwardian music hall comedian.
She then directed Christopher Hampton’s underrated Treats at the Hampstead theatre and, in 1998, formed a fantastical nonagenarian double act with Richard Briers in a Royal Court revival, directed by Simon McBurney, of Ionesco’s tragic farce, The Chairs, her grey hair bunched on one side like superannuated candy floss.
The following year, she was a brilliant but controversial Judith Bliss in Noel Coward’s Hay Fever, directed as a piece of Gothic absurdism at the Savoy by Declan Donnellan; McEwan tiptoed through the thunderclaps and lightning like a glinting harridan, a tipsy bacchanalian with a waspish lust and highly cultivated lack of concern (“My husband’s not dead; he’s upstairs.”)
Other television successes included playing Jeanette Winterson’s mother in Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit (1990) and Carrie’s War (2004), while her occasional movie appearances included Tony Richardson’s The Adventures of Tom Jones (1975), two of Branagh’s Shakespeare adaptations – Henry V (1989) and Love’s Labour’s Lost (2000) – as well as Robin, Prince of Thieves (1991), Peter Mullan’s devastating critique of an Irish Catholic education, The Magdalene Sisters (2002), in which she played cruel, cold-hearted Sister Bridget, and Vanity Fair (2005).
She was rumoured to have turned down both the OBE and a damehood, but never confirmed this.
Date of Birth: 6 June 1032, Coventry, UK
Birth Name: Billie Honor Whitelaw
Nicknames: Billie Whitelaw
“I could have easily have become a nun, or a prostitute, or both,” said Billie Whitelaw, who has died aged 82. Instead, she claimed that acting had allowed her to use both these sides of herself in a career that included theatre, films, television and a special place in the affection and inspiration of Samuel Beckett.
By the time the playwright died in 1989, Whitelaw had established herself not only as one of his favourite interpreters, if not the favourite, but also as one of his trusted confidantes.
Her voice had as big an effect on Beckett as that of the Irish actor Patrick Magee. When he saw her in his work Play in a National Theatre production at the Old Vic in 1964 occupying one of three urns alongside Rosemary Harris and Robert Stephens he determined to write especially for her.
The result was Not I, a 16-minute monologue for a jabbering mouth picked out in a dark void. Although Jessica Tandy played the first performances in New York in 1972, Whitelaw’s pell-mell, pent-up words of a lifetime were a sensation at the Royal Court theatre in London the following year. She called the experience “the most telling event of my professional life”.
Beckett then directed her in the premiere of Footfalls (1976), a rapt dialogue for a woman and her unseen mother; also in a revival of Happy Days (1979) in which the post-nuclear Winnie is seen buried up to her waist, then her neck both at the Royal Court. When Winnie sang her love song to the waltz of The Merry Widow, she did so just as Beckett had sung it to her, in a frail and quavering voice.
Rockaby, which Whitelaw first performed in New York in 1981, and in the following year at the National in London, was an entirely submerged Winnie, a gaunt human relic in a black dress covered in jet sequins, rocking herself to oblivion while listening to a recording of her own voice.
One of the attractions of Whitelaw for Beckett was her intellectual innocence. There was no attempt to justify the work. She performed what he wrote and became, much to her own surprise, a lecturer on the American college circuit, though she only ever talked about the plays she knew and had appeared in. “Like many men,” she said, “the older he got the more attractive he became at least as seen through a woman’s eyes.”
Billie Whitelaw was born in Coventry, on a housing estate owned by the General Electric Company, to Perceval, an electrician, and Frances (nee Williams). A shadowy “Uncle Len” lived in the same house, with Billie’s mother and her elder sister, Constance. In her autobiography, Billie Whitelaw...Who He? (1995), Whitelaw said that she always had two men in her life: two fathers, then husband and lover, later husband and son.
Her parents came from Liverpool, where Billie lived at the start of the second world war before the family moved to Bradford in 1941. There she went to Thornton grammar school and the Grange grammar school for girls.
In 1943 she was sent to the Bradford Civic Playhouse, then run by JB Priestley and the formidable Esme Church, in an attempt to rectify her stutter. She was soon playing children’s roles on the radio, and met Joan Littlewood and Ewan MacColl at the BBC in Manchester.
When Billie was 16, Littlewood asked her to join her acting group, but her parents would not let her. Instead, she joined Harry Hanson’s company in Leeds in 1948 and played in repertory theatres in Dewsbury, New Brighton and Oxford, where she worked with Peter Hall and Maggie Smith. She became one of the most familiar faces on television drama in the next two decades, usually cast as a battling working-class figure in either kitchen-sink dramas or what she called “trouble up at t’mill” plays.
Through John Dexter, who directed her in England, Our England (1962), a West End revue by Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall, she came to the attention of Laurence Olivier, and she joined his illustrious first company at the National in 1963, sharing a dressing room with Joan Plowright, Maggie Smith and Geraldine McEwan. Her time there included playing Desdemona to Olivier’s Othello.
Kenneth Tynan dubbed her “a female version of Albert Finney” (with whom she had a brief affair and longer friendship), and she had all those qualities of freshness, vitality and sensuality typical of the new postwar, beyond-London generation of actors on stage and screen. An unforced, gritty realism was complemented, in her case, with a natural voluptuousness.
For the Royal Shakespeare Company she appeared in John Barton’s 1980 epic ten-play cycle The Greeks as a grieving Andromache and the goddess Athene, sliding down on a cloud of dry ice, and in Peter Nichols’s mordantly brilliant Passion Play (1981) a favourite project in which her adulterous alter ego was Eileen Atkins. In 1983, she returned to the National as Hetty Mann, dipsomaniac wife of the novelist Heinrich Mann, in Christopher Hampton’s brilliant account of wartime European literary émigrés in Tinsel Town, Tales from Hollywood; the cast list included the movie stars Johnny Weissmuller, Chico and Harpo Marx, Greta Garbo, and dramatists Ödön von Horváth and Bertolt Brecht, but Whitelaw upstaged them all by entering a party bearing a birthday cake and wearing just a white mini-pinny.
Her last stage appearance apart from her unceasing cycle of Beckett solo shows and readings came in Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? at the Young Vic (1986), where she was a full-on slatternly Martha opposite Patrick Stewart’s intimidated, bespectacled George. In her autobiography she recounts how she was mysteriously struck by stage fright and struggled to complete the run.
She married the actor Peter Vaughan, nine years her senior, in 1952, and started a relationship with the writer and critic Robert Muller as the marriage failed; it ended in divorce in 1966. The following year she married Muller, and they had a son, Matthew.
Whitelaw’s film career was patchy; she made a more consistent mark on television, starting as a maid in an adaptation of Frances Hodgson Burnett’s The Secret Garden (1952) and as Mary Dixon, daughter of the police constable played by Jack Warner in the first series of Dixon of Dock Green (1955). She took the role of Countess Ilona in two episodes of Supernatural (1977), written by Muller, and her TV work continued until the start of the new century.
Film appearances included Alfred Hitchcock’s Frenzy (1972); The Omen (1976), as the chilling nanny Mrs Baylock; The Krays (1990), as Violet, the mother of the East End gangster brothers; and the police comedy Hot Fuzz (2007). She was at her vibrant, blowzy best in two early films with Finney, Charlie Bubbles (1967) and Gumshoe (1971). In 1991 she was appointed CBE.
Whitelaw divided her time between a flat in Hampstead and a cottage in Suffolk, and never quite believed her luck: “When I wake up at dawn, and that grey cloud of work anxiety is there, I only have to get up and open the window to feel so free and happy that I think I’m going to go off pop.”
Date of Birth: 26 April 1947, Oldham, Lancashire, UK
Birth Name: Alan Clarke
Nicknames: Warren Clarke
Warren Clarke was one of Britain’s most recognisable and versatile actors, but was best known for his role as the splenetic Detective Superintendent Andy Dalziel in Dalziel and Pascoe, the BBC television series based on the books by Reginald Hill.
Clarke may have been no casting director’s idea of a dreamboat, but his pugnacious features were perfectly suited to the part of the relentlessly insensitive, politically incorrect Yorkshire copper who made life difficult not only for the criminal fraternity but also for his young sidekick, the liberal, university-educated policeman Peter Pascoe (played by Colin Buchanan).
Dalziel’s abrasiveness and contempt for the pieties of the modern age made him one of the most distinctive fictional detectives on the small screen. Yet after he had played the part for five years during which he became a household name Clarke considered giving up the role, partly because he felt that the BBC was uneasy about the character: “You can’t have a series about policemen without showing them swearing occasionally,” he reflected, “but there was actually some bureaucrat at the BBC who wouldn’t allow me to say 'pillock’, even though I pointed out that Shakespeare used the word in King Lear.”
In the event, he decided to stay on, making a total of 61 episodes between 1996 and 2007.
Clarke’s own views, one suspects, were not that far removed from those of his alter ego: “I remember my parents telling me that the local bobby would give me a clip round the earhole if I didn’t behave. But nobody can smack anybody round the head now. What’s wrong with a quick clip round the earhole? In my day the local bobby was someone to be respected, but not any more.”
He was born Alan Clarke at Oldham, Lancashire, on April 26 1947, the son of a stained-glass maker and a secretary. His parents were keen filmgoers, and regularly took him to the cinema. “Saturday evenings we’d go and see a double feature,” he recalled. “I remember it being so amazing looking up at the big screen and I was totally seduced by it.”
His early ambition to become an actor did not impress the headmaster of his secondary modern school in Manchester, who told Alan to choose a more sensible career, such as plumbing; Alan, in magnificent anticipation of his role as Dalziel, told his headmaster to “sod off”. With the support of his parents, he left school at 15 and became a runner at the Manchester Evening News, where he was known as Nobby. Meanwhile he gained experience in amateur dramatics, and decided to change his first name to Warren (because a girlfriend had a crush on Warren Beatty).
Late in life he would recall: “I thought about being a star, very briefly, when I was 16, but after about a year of being in weekly rep, I lost interest in the idea of stardom and just got on with being a jobbing actor.”
He got his first break in a radio play for BBC Manchester, and his first significant television roles came in Coronation Street (first as Kenny Pickup, then as Gary Bailey). Then, in 1971, he secured a film part, as the vicious thug Dim, wearing red lipstick and a bowler hat, in Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange, starring Malcolm McDowell. Some 40 years later Clarke was in a Birmingham pub when he was approached by several young men who had just watched the film: “They tried to get a bit tough with me. I said, 'Look lads, 40 years ago I would have given you a bit of what you’re trying to give me, but at my age I can’t be arsed.’ ”
During the 1970s Clarke honed his skills on the stage, appearing in a multitude of plays including works by Shakespeare, Anthony Shaffer, Molière, Ibsen and Robert Bolt. After a gap of some 30 years, he would return to the boards playing Winston Churchill in Three Days in May (2011), about Britain facing the prospect of a Nazi invasion.
At the same time he was making his reputation on the small screen, in shows such as Softly Softly: Task Force (1973); Jennie: Lady Randolph Churchill (1974), a miniseries in which he played the young Winston Churchill; Our Mutual Friend (1976), as Bradley Headstone; The Onedin Line (1978); Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (1979); and Shelley (1980-82). In 1984, in one of television’s most successful ventures, The Jewel in the Crown, Clarke appeared very much against character as the openly gay Corporal “Sophie” Dixon, and played the role superbly.
His television work continued (Bergerac, Blackadder, Wish Me Luck among many others), but in the late 1980s Clarke considered abandoning his profession because he felt he was not making enough money even though he was then filming opposite Haydn Gwynne in the television drama Nice Work. “In those days,” he later explained in an interview, “the BBC didn’t pay you until you had done the first studio recording, so I had been working on the show for two months without any money. I went to the cashpoint, put my card in the machine and it spat it out.”
His bank refused to extend his overdraft, and the BBC advanced him £350; but he was forced to scrounge money from the rest of the cast: “ A few months later, I noticed that my wife wasn’t wearing her engagement ring. I asked her where it was and she explained it was being repaired.” It was only later that he discovered she had sold it to pay bills.
Thereafter, however, Clarke was rarely out of work. His television credits included The Manageress (1989-90); Gone to the Dogs (1991); Sleepers (1991); Gone to Seed (1992); The Secret Agent (1992); The House of Windsor (1994); The Locksmith (1997); Down to Earth (2000-1), with Pauline Quirke, about a couple faced with bankruptcy who decide to move out of London to run a smallholding in Devon; and Bleak House (2005), in which he played Lawrence Boythorn. He made a number of appearances on the big screen; Clint Eastwood cast him as a Russian spy in Firefox (1982).
More recently Clarke had appeared in the BBC drama The Invisibles (2008) and the Channel 4 trilogy Red Riding (2009). The last role he completed before his death was as Charles Poldark in the BBC’s revival of the 1970s television drama Poldark.
Warren Clarke died in his sleep after a short illness.
Date of Birth: 1 August, 1930, Port of Spain in Trinidad and Tobago
Birth Name: Geoffrey Richard Holder
Nicknames: Geoffrey Holder
Geoffrey Holder, the Tony-winning actor, dancer and choreographer known to millions as Baron Samedi in Bond movie Live and Let Die.
Born in Port of Spain in Trinidad and Tobago, Holder was also a composer, a designer and a celebrated painter.
He will be best remembered to many as the cackling Voodoo villain who dogged Roger Moore's footsteps in his first outing as secret agent James Bond.
His other films included 1982 musical Annie, in which he played Punjab.
Often cast in exotic roles, he played a tribal chieftain in 1967 film Doctor Dolittle and a sorceror in Woody Allen's Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask).
More recently, his distinctive bass voice was heard narrating Tim Burton's 2005 film version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
Holder, one of four children, was taught to dance by his older brother Boscoe, joining his dance company at the age of seven.
He became director of the company in the late 1940s after Boscoe moved to London, before moving to the US in 1954.
Holder made his Broadway debut that same year in House of Flowers, a Caribbean-themed musical in which he first played Baron Samedi.
A top-hatted spirit of death in Haitian Voodoo culture, the character made full use of the actor's imposing physique and physical dexterity.
Holder went on to appear in an all-black production of Waiting for Godot and in the Tony Award-winning production of The Wiz, an all-black version of The Wizard of Oz.
Date of Birth: 9 October 1923, St. Budeaux, Plymouth, UK
Birth Name: Donald Alfred Sinden
Nicknames: Donald Sinden
Sir Donald Sinden was variously described as “orotund and declamatory”, “magnificently resonant” and “a complete ham”; his talents, admittedly, owed little to method acting, but made him one of the best and most recognisable comedy actors on the circuit.
In a career which spanned 50 years of film and theatre Sinden, to his lasting irritation, became best-known for his work in television, a medium he deplored. But his establishment English demeanour provided perfect casting for comedies exploiting cultural or class differences.
He became a household name when he starred with Elaine Stritch in the LWT sitcom Two’s Company (1975-79), in which he played the feisty American grande dame’s inept English butler. He later repeated his success in the Thames Television sitcom Never the Twain (1981-91), in which he played an upper-crust antique dealer forced into business with a downmarket rival (played by Windsor Davies).
His success on television meant that Sinden’s other achievements, in the film and theatre world, were often overlooked.
During the 1950s, he immersed himself in cinema work, appearing in more than 20 films, including The Cruel Sea (1953), in which he shared top-billing with Jack Hawkins, and Mogambo (1954), a huge safari epic in which Sinden received fourth billing after Clark Gable, Ava Gardner and Grace Kelly, as Kelly’s cuckolded gorilla-hunting husband.
When the British film industry stalled in the 1960s, Sinden’s film career stalled with it. By the end of that decade, however, he had secured a place for himself at the Royal Shakespeare Company, where he gave critically acclaimed performances in leading roles including as the Duke of York in The Wars of the Roses (1963), opposite Peggy Ashcroft as Queen Margaret; Lord Foppington in The Relapse (1967); and as King Lear (for which he won the 1977 Evening Standard Award for Best Actor). In 1979 he played the title role in Othello, directed by Ronald Eyre, becoming the last “blacked-up” white actor to play the role for the RSC.
The theatre was always Sinden’s true home, and in the 1980s his passionate interest in its history led to the establishment of the Theatre Museum in Covent Garden. Another great passion was English church architecture, his encyclopedic knowledge of which led to both a television series, The English Country Church, in 1988, and a book on the subject. “My grandfather was an architect,” Sinden explained, “and it was he who told me always to look up. That’s where all the best things are in churches.”
By the 1980s Sinden was firmly established as a television celebrity, a position consolidated by the regular appearances of a Sinden puppet on ITV’s satirical Spitting Image. The puppet represented Sinden as a grotesque parody of “the actor’s actor” posturing theatrically and endlessly pleading for a knighthood.
Sinden was not amused by the caricature. “When have I ever suggested I wanted a knighthood?” he asked. “I don’t watch the programme because I don’t find it in the least funny.” He would accept a well-deserved knighthood in 1997.
Donald Sinden was born in Plymouth on October 9 1923. He suffered constantly from asthma as a child and as a result missed most of his schooling. “I not only did not pass an examination,” he recalled, “I never took one.” At 16 he became an apprentice joiner to a Hove firm which manufactured revolving doors. “I earned 6s 6d a week,” he said, “and enjoyed it enormously.”
Sinden claimed that he had no aspirations towards acting until he was 18. “My cousin Frank was called up for the RAF,” he remembered. “He asked me if I’d do his part in an amateur production at Brighton Little Theatre.” Donald was talent-spotted by Charles Smith, who organised the Mobile Entertainments Southern Area company (known as MESA), a local version of the wartime entertainments service Ensa. “Of course I thought he wanted me because I was miraculous,” Sinden remembered, “but I know now it was because it was wartime and he couldn’t get anyone else.”
Rejected by the Navy because of his poor health, Sinden joined Charles Smith’s company in 1941. “I stayed an actor because I was awfully interested in girls,” Sinden explained. “Actresses were a lot better looking than joiners.” After four years with MESA he spent six months in Leicester with a repertory company and two terms at the Webber Douglas School of Dramatic Art.
Donald Sinden joined the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre at Stratford-on-Avon for the 1946-47 season. In October 1947 he made his West End debut as Aumerle in Richard II, and in 1948 joined the Bristol Old Vic. He left Bristol to appear as Arthur Townsend in The Heiress, an adaptation of Henry James’s Washington Square. Sinden had nine lines and appeared in all 644 performances of the show.
In 1952 he was noticed by the film director Charles Frend while playing the Brazilian Manuel Del Vega in Red Letter Day. “Charles Frend spotted me,” Sinden remembered. “He said he’d always wanted to meet a blue-eyed Brazilian.”
The following year Sinden joined the Rank Organisation and was offered the part of Lieutenant Lockhart in The Cruel Sea, for which he had to spend an uncomfortable 12 weeks filming at sea.
He recalled his time in Africa filming Mogambo as the least enjoyable of his career, largely because of its director, John Ford, whom Sinden described as “the most dislikable man I ever met”. He was particularly irritated by Ford’s peremptory direction techniques: “On one occasion he had Clark Gable backing towards a cliff. Ford kept shouting 'Further back!’ and Gable just disappeared over the edge. We found him stuck in a tree 15ft below.”
After playing Tony Benskin, a womanising medical student in Doctor in the House (1954), Sinden began to find himself being typecast in comic roles. He played Benskin and characters like him for the next eight years.
When the British film industry began to falter in the early Sixties, Sinden’s film career ended. “It was a bad time for me,” he said. “I was 40, married with two children and no work at all.” His first attempts at a return to the theatre were unsuccessful. He was turned down after Peter Hall had made him audition for the RSC. Sinden later described Hall as a “pipsqueak”.
However, after their initial differences Sinden joined the company and appeared in The Wars of the Roses, an epic amalgam of the relevant Shakespeare history plays, put together by Hall and John Barton, which lasted more than 10 hours and won ecstatic reviews.
Sinden went on to make a name for himself as a comedian and farceur. He appeared as Robert Danvers in There’s a Girl in My Soup at the Aldwych in 1966, and won Best Actor awards for his appearances in the Ray Cooney farces Not Now, Darling (1967), Two into One (1984) and Out of Order (1990). In 1976 he was nominated for a Best Actor Tony Award for his performance on Broadway as Arthur Wicksteed in Alan Bennett’s Habeas Corpus.
In 1989 Sinden was offered the opportunity to play his long-time hero Oscar Wilde, whose work had always fascinated him, in John Gay’s one-man show Diversions and Delights. In 1942, at a poetry club reading, Sinden had met Lord Alfred Douglas and had been one of the few mourners at his funeral. Thirty years later, when Wilde’s London home was being demolished, Sinden bought the fireplace for his own house in Hampstead.
Sinden continued to perform well into his eighties. From 2001 to 2007 he played Sir Joseph Channing in BBC Television’s legal drama Judge John Deed (starring Martin Shaw and Jenny Seagrove), and he recently appeared in the Gideon Fell mysteries on Radio 4.
Donald Sinden published two volumes of autobiography, A Touch of the Memoirs (1982) and Laughter in the Second Act (1985).
He was appointed CBE in 1979.
Date of Birth: 13 September 1939, Detroit, Michigan, US
Birth Name: Richard Dawson Kiel
Nicknames: Richard Kiel
Richard Kiel, the actor, who was the orthodontically-challenged Jaws, the indestructible Bond villain who terrorised audiences in The Spy Who Loved Me (1977) and Moonraker (1979).
Standing at a shade under 7ft 2in, Kiel’s natural presence was further enhanced by the set of stainless steel teeth which gave the character his nickname. “The character we have in mind is going to have teeth like tools, maybe like a shark. They’ll be made out of steel and he’ll kill people with them,” the Bond producer Cubby Broccoli told him. Several enemies and, in the final scene of The Spy Who Loved Me, a shark, met their ends at the hands of Jaws, who usually managed a sinister smile before biting his victims to death.
Originally Broccoli contemplated having Jaws bumped off by the shark; and until the film was test-screened, even Kiel did not know whether his character had survived. “They had shot the ending both ways and I didn’t know what version they were going to use,” he recalled.
When the film was finished, the two versions were tested on people who worked in the studio, and there was little doubt which ending they preferred: “At the end there was such a long time after I went into the shark-tank that I thought, 'I guess that’s the end of me’,” Kiel said. “Then, all of a sudden they cut to the surface of the ocean and Jaws popped up the audience just screamed and hollered and laughed and applauded. That was the defining moment, the moment that I finally made it big in the movies.”
The character proved such a hit that Broccoli gave him a reprieve and, unusually for a Bond baddie, Jaws was brought back for a second outing.
In the follow-up picture, Moonraker, however, Jaws became something approaching a comedy figure, and developed an implausible ability to survive any event unscathed. Audiences saw him fall several thousand feet from an aeroplane without a parachute, only to land safely on a trapeze net in a circus tent. Another time he crashed through a building on top of a runaway cable car but survived without a scratch. He also gained a girlfriend roughly half his size and eventually abandoned the villain, Sir Hugo Drax, to become Bond’s ally.
The metal-mouthed monster was last seen waving weedily at Bond from the bridge of a doomed space station as he and his tiny, bespectacled girlfriend set off on a happy, but presumably short, future together. The scene furnished Kiel with the only words he uttered in either movie: “Well, here’s to us.”
Richard Dawson Kiel was born in Detroit, Michigan, on September 13 1939. He took a variety of jobs in his youth, working as a cemetery plot salesman and nightclub bouncer, before being offered minor parts on American television in the late 1950s. His towering height and distinctive features were the result of the condition acromegaly, when the pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone, and ensured that he was rarely out of work playing a variety of freaks and aliens in programmes including The Twilight Zone and The Monkees. He also featured in the prehistoric B-Movie Eegah (1962) and showed some depth with a sensitive turn in The Human Duplicators (1964). Other credits included bit parts in the Jerry Lewis comedy The Nutty Professor and alongside Elvis Presley in Roustabout.
When he was first approached by Cubby Broccoli for the part of Jaws, he was initially hesitant about toothing up. He wanted to break away from rent-a-monster parts and play as he put it “regular henchman or villain roles”. It was Kiel who seems to have persuaded Broccoli to make Jaws a more sympathetic character in Moonraker: “If I was to play this role, I told him I’d want to give this character who kills people with his teeth a human side to make him more interesting, maybe have him be persevering and frustrated, so he wouldn’t become boring. A guy killing people with his teeth could easily become over the top.” But it was, of course, his over-the-top quality that made Jaws such a hit.
Kiel complained that the teeth he had to wear for the part were so uncomfortable they made him feel sick, and he could tolerate them only for short periods of time. “They were made out of chromium steel and they went up in the roof of my mouth and caused a little bit of gagging, so it was kind of difficult,” he admitted. “But it gave me a stoic expression, trying to keep from throwing up.”
After Moonraker Kiel’s career nosedived to the extent that on one occasion friends took out a full-page advertisement in Variety magazine, to let the film world know he was still alive.
But he went on to appear in a number of other films, among them Pale Rider (1985), Happy Gilmore (1996) and Inspector Gadget (1999), and appeared regularly on television. In between the Bond films, in 1978, he had been offered the role of the Incredible Hulk on television, but was dropped after two days in the studio for not being bulky enough in favour of the body builder Lou Ferrigno.
For some time Kiel struggled with alcoholism and, following a serious car accident in 1992, was forced to use a buggy or walking sticks to manoeuvre himself. In later years he set up a production company, became a born-again Christian, and wrote books, including an autobiography, Making It Big In The Movies (2002).
But he remained most popular for playing Jaws, and as acting work dried up he supplemented his income with appearances at comic book and film conventions, signing autographs for Bond fans.
Date of Birth: 21 July 1951, Chicago, Illinois, US
Birth Name: Robin McLaurin Williams
Nicknames: Robin Williams
Robin Williams, who has died aged 63, was one of America’s most versatile and successful comedy actors; brilliant at improvisation and mimicry, he made his name on the stand-up comedy circuit, while on screen he was able to portray anyone from a post-menopausal grande dame (Mrs Doubtfire) to a psychopathic killer (One Hour Photo).
Stardom came in the early 1970s after he had taken a cameo role as Mork, an extraterrestrial in the television sitcom Happy Days. Williams’s eccentric, largely improvised performance was a huge hit and spawned a spin-off sitcom, Mork & Mindy, in which Mork lands on Earth and ends up sharing an apartment with the quintessential girl next door. The series which ran on ABC from 1978 to 1982, and arrived in Britain in 1979 showcased the frenzied energy and amazing facility with voices and faces which he would later use in his films. Mork & Mindy eventually reached an audience of 60 million.
After making his screen debut in Robert Altman’s ill-fated 1980 version of Popeye, Williams’s breakthrough came in 1987, when he played Adrian Cronauer, a motormouth DJ who gets up the noses of the top brass in Good Morning, Vietnam (1987).
He delivered an Academy Award-winning performance as a psychologist battling his own emotional demons in Good Will Hunting (1997), and won several Oscar nominations including one for his performance in 1993 as Mrs Doubtfire, the ex-husband who infiltrates himself back into the bosom of the family by disguising himself as a middle-aged Scottish nanny.
Hollywood directors sometimes found it difficult to harness Williams’s talents to a script and a storyline strong enough to take him. There were memorable flops, among them The Survivors (1983), Club Paradise (1986), Toys (1992), Patch Adams (1998), Jakob The Liar (1999) and Bicentennial Man (1999). But he won Oscar nominations for his roles as the mildly anarchic teacher in Dead Poets Society (1989) and as the deranged tramp who leads Jeff Bridges towards personal redemption in The Fisher King (1991).
His critics often complained that Williams’s characters were all the same: cuddly, waifish innocents with a mawkish need to ingratiate themselves with their audience. And there was, admittedly, something curiously sexless about his performances. One American columnist described his appearance as the owner of a gay club in The Birdcage (1996) as akin to “a hirsute construction worker halfway through a sex change operation who can’t afford to finish the job”. Of his performance as a psychologist in Awakenings (1990), one critic observed: “This is another of Robin Williams’s benevolent eunuch roles.” He certainly never got anywhere near a screen clinch.
Yet Williams proved he could play it straight; and he could play it nasty, too. In later life he revealed a darker, more interesting side to his acting. In Insomnia (2002) he put in a masterly performance as a sociopathic killer on the run from Al Pacino’s LAPD cop in the frozen wastes of Alaska. In One Hour Photo (2002) he was chilling as a photo lab technician who becomes obsessed with a family whose films he develops. And in The Night Listener (2006) he played a radio show host who realises that he has developed a friendship with a child who may not exist.
Williams first made his name on the stand-up comedy circuit, and the versatility which was so evident in his later career would have come as no surprise to those familiar with the virtuoso free-fall improvisation of his stage routines. One critic wondered whether the star of such sickly-sweet offerings as Jack (1996) or What Dreams May Come (1998) could be “the same Robin Williams who used to spend two hours on stage pretending to be a penis”.
An only child, Robin McLaurin Williams was born on July 21 1951 in Chicago. His mother was a former model, his father an executive with Ford. The family moved several times during his childhood, at one point living in a house with 40 rooms.
Williams was often portrayed as a lonely child who tried to use humour to build friendships and avoid being picked on. Perhaps, he once joked, it was “because my mother was a Christian Dior Scientist... I was not only picked on physically but intellectually people used to kick copies of George Sand in my face.” But he denied being the class clown, and claimed that he got into acting in his final year at Redwood High School simply “to get laid”.
After leaving school, and a brief spell studying political science, Williams won a place at the Juilliard Academy in New York to study drama. There he demonstrated such extraordinary gifts for improvisation and mimicry that his tutors advised him to concentrate on comedy. He became good friends with his fellow student Christopher Reeve, and the two remained close until Reeve’s death in 2004, nine years after the riding accident that had left him paralysed from the neck down. Their relationship demonstrated the loyal, decent side of Williams’s character. When Reeve’s medical insurance ran out, Williams picked up the tab for many of the bills; then, after Reeve’s widow, Dana, died in 2006, he provided practical and financial support for their 14-year-old son.
After two years at the Juilliard, Williams moved to San Francisco, where he worked in restaurants by day and on the comedy circuit by night until his lucky break on Happy Days. The live stand-up comedy circuit remained a consistent thread throughout his career, and he sometimes turned up unannounced at San Francisco clubs just to get up on stage and start “riffing” — a great way to “peel off any pretence”, as he put it.
In his films and television performances, Williams often ad-libbed his own dialogue. The story goes that his television scriptwriters on Mork & Mindy got so fed up that they took to sending blank pages down to the set, inscribed “Robin Williams does his thing”.
For some reason his stand-up routine did not go down so well on the other side of the Atlantic. “I went to a club in Windsor and I just died,” he recalled. “It was the worst night of my life. A friend was watching and laughing his ass off because all you could hear was the clink of glasses.”
In 1978 Williams married his first wife, Valerie Velardi, a former dancer; but as a result of life in the fast lane he had become addicted to cocaine (“God’s way of telling you you’ve made too much money”, as he remarked). In the early 1980s his marriage fell apart and he started to make bad career moves, choosing films that bombed. But the death from a drugs overdose in 1982 of his friend the actor John Belushi, just hours after Williams had been with him, led Williams to rethink his own lifestyle. He went into rehab and sobered up.
The critical success of Good Morning, Vietnam was followed by a voice role as the Genie in Disney’s cartoon Aladdin (1992), in which left in the studio with a microphone Williams spun off into imitations of everyone from Robert De Niro and Jack Nicholson to Carol Channing. Disney ended up with 30 hours of his improvisations, to which the animation was adapted later to synch with his voice-over. What started as a small cameo role eventually stole the show and helped make Aladdin the biggest earner in Disney’s history. By the time of Mrs Doubtfire in 1993 Williams was one of the biggest box office draws in the world.
In August 2008 Williams announced a 26-city stand-up comedy tour entitled Weapons of Self-Destruction. Though he explained that the tour was his last chance to have fun at the expense of George W Bush, the title could just as well have applied to himself. In 2006 he had gone into rehab for alcoholism, and in 2008 his second wife, Marsha Garces, whom he had married in 1986 and who had become his producer, filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences.
Williams’s many other film credits include Steven Spielberg’s Hook (1991), in which he played the adult Peter Pan, and Flubber (1997), in which he was an absent-minded professor who invents a miraculous flying green gloop. He starred in Paul Mazursky’s Moscow on the Hudson (1984); appeared in Woody Allen’s Deconstructing Harry (1997); and played Theodore Roosevelt in the three Night at the Museum movies, the last of which is currently in post-production. He also played President Eisenhower in The Butler (2013).
An avid video games player, and a fan of professional road cycling and Rugby Union, Williams owned a vineyard in the Napa Valley, California, and raised hundreds of thousands of dollars for charities, including Comic Relief. In addition to his Oscar award and nominations, he won six Golden Globes, two Screen Actors’ Guild Awards and three Grammy awards.
He belonged to the Episcopal Church (“Catholic Lite same rituals, half the guilt”), and was philosophical about death. “In your fifties, loss is a thing you live with a lot,” he told an interviewer . “Pretty soon friends will be checking out from natural causes. It’s the grim rapper, he’s comin’.”
Robin Williams, who had recently been suffering from depression, died at his San Francisco Bay home in an apparent suicide.
Date of Birth: 2 February 2 1925, Detroit, Michigan, US
Birth Name: Elaine Stritch
Elaine Stritch, the American actress, who has died aged 89, was the femme formidable of Broadway, famous for her foghorn voice and deadpan comic timing, and notorious for her filthy temper and “cut-the-crap” frankness; but like many who adopt an abrasive outer shell, underneath there beat a softer heart.
Brassy, skyscraper tall and with a voice once described as “like a corncrake wading through Bourbon on the rocks”, Elaine Stritch was a natural scene-stealer. Not strikingly beautiful, though with wondrously long and shapely legs, there was no one quite like her in showbusiness.
In Britain, where she scored an instant hit as Mimi Paragon, the cruise ship hostess in Noël Coward’s Sail Away, she became everyone’s favourite American actress. She will be best remembered for the long-running 1970s BBC sitcom, Two’s Company, in which she played a rich, demanding American in London, opposite Donald Sinden as Robert, her plummy-voiced butler.
But it was on the Broadway stage that she began her career and where she continued to perform on and off for six decades in comedies and musical drama. She understudied Ethel Merman in Call Me Madam; and brought the house down in Pal Joey singing Zip in the famous 1946 revival. Stephen Sondheim gave her one of his greatest songs, Here’s to the Ladies Who Lunch, in Company, in which she played beady-eyed lush Joanne in the original 1970 production. One reviewer noted that “she can race through the gears from a savage purr to an air-raid siren howl in five seconds without ever losing a note of the melody”.
Elaine Stritch partied with as much energy as she performed. She knocked it back with such dedicated topers as Judy Garland and Jackie Gleason. “Elaine, I never thought I’d say this, but goodnight!” said Judy Garland as she made an 8am exit from one marathon session. She dated John F Kennedy, Marlon Brando, Frank Sinatra and even Rock Hudson, for whom she ditched Ben Gazzara a “bum rap”, she confessed.
The diva of the put-down, Elaine Stritch never learned the art of turning the other cheek. She always had the last word. “I’m sorry about what I said to you earlier today,” an interviewer heard her tell an assistant. “I meant every word.”
Yet underneath this spiky carapace there lurked a more fragile personality, at once addicted to, yet terrified of, performing a woman who fought a long-running battle with the bottle which nearly destroyed her altogether.
The youngest of three daughters, Elaine Stritch was born on February 2 1925 into an upper-middle-class Roman Catholic family in suburban Detroit. Her uncle Samuel was Cardinal Stritch of Chicago; her father a senior executive in Ford Motors. She was educated at a convent where “you daren’t speak in the lavatory and you bathed in your nightgown”.
Her more conventional elder sisters left school and got married, but Elaine’s tastes tended towards the bohemian. As a teenager she accompanied the family’s black maid, Carrie, to “Black and Tan” clubs, where she became familiar with “down and dirty” blues such as I Want a Long Time Daddy, which she sang without understanding the lyrics. She tasted her first whisky sour aged 13 and wanted more.
Her father sent her, aged 17, to New York, where she lived in a convent and studied acting at the New School in Manhattan. A contemporary of Walter Matthau, Tony Curtis and Marlon Brando, she made her student stage debut as a tiger. She “dated” Brando nothing more. When, after a night on the town, he took her back to his place, went to the bathroom, and reappeared in his pyjamas, the teenage Elaine Stritch shot straight back to the convent. “I kissed like a crazy woman,” she recalled. “But I was a virgin until I was 30. Somebody’d touch my breast, and I’d think I was pregnant.”
She was immediately successful. In 1945 she played the parlourmaid in The Private Life of the Master Race and, in 1946, Pamela Brewster in Loco and Miss Crowder in Made in Heaven. After Three Indelicate Ladies and The Little Foxes, she appeared in the review Angel in the Wings singing “Bongo, bongo, bongo, I don’t want to leave the Congo...”. In 1949 she played the part of Joan Farrell in Yes, M’Lord. Having kicked her heels as an understudy to Ethel Merman in the Broadway production of Call Me Madam, she left a show-stopping role in Pal Joey to do the Merman part on tour to enthusiastic reviews.
After that she starred in shows by Irving Berlin, Noël Coward, Stephen Sondheim and Edward Albee, and was directed by such figures as Erwin Piscator, George Abbott, Harold Clurman and Hal Prince. Coward called her “Stritchie” and, after rescuing her from the flop musical Goldilocks (1958), gave her the lead in Sail Away, in which she sang Why Do the Wrong People Travel?
In his diaries, Coward saw her more vulnerable side: “Poor darling Stritch with all her talents is almost completely confused about everything. She is an ardent Catholic and never stops saying f*** and Jesus Christ. She is also kind, touching and loyal and, fortunately, devoted to me.” After “the Master’s” death, she attended his memorial service wearing a bright red blazer, and mistook Yehudi Menuhin for a busker friend of Coward’s.
Elaine Stritch began her film career inauspiciously with Scarlet Hour (1956). After attending a matinee, Richard Burton told her: “Halfway through your last number I almost had an orgasm.” “Almost?” she shrieked reprovingly. She contributed compelling performances to the 1957 remake of A Farewell to Arms, and Providence (1970). In 1971 she was offered a contract by 20th Century Fox but turned it down, not wishing to be typecast as the new Eve Arden the wisecracking girlfriend who never gets her man. Later she appeared in such films as September (1988) and Cocoon (1990),
On television, Elaine Stritch starred in the 1948 domestic comedy Growing Paynes, the short-lived 1960 sitcom My Sister Eileen, and co-starred as the star’s mother in The Ellen Burstyn Show (1986). She was a member of the supporting comedy troupe on the 1949 show Jack Carter and Company, a comic switchboard operator on the 1956 variety series Washington Square, and Peter Falk’s secretary in The Trials of O’Brien (1965).
Coward brought her to London in 1962 in Sail Away, and she returned in 1972 with Sondheim’s Company, winning more ecstatic reviews. She remained in London for several years, making her second home in the Savoy Hotel. Of her barnstorming performance in Tennessee Williams’s Small Craft Warnings, one reviewer described her “bashing through the play like a truck driver in a garage full of Minis”. “I love asking the way in London,” she told an interviewer. “A man actually left his shop to show me where to go. I thought 'I’m not that attractive and I don’t look like a hooker, so what’s in it for him?’ I finally realised he was simply good-mannered.”
By now she had triumphantly shed the title of the “oldest virgin on Broadway”, having lost her virginity aged 30 to the Fifties film star Gig Young, to whom she was briefly engaged before ditching him for Ben Gazzara. This was fortunate, as Young went on to experiment with LSD and ended up shooting his fourth wife and himself. Less percipient was her decision to get rid of Gazzara when she unwisely fell in love with Rock Hudson well known in green room circles as a rampant homosexual.
Eventually, in 1973 and aged 47, she met and married John Bay, her co-star in Small Craft Warnings. When they got engaged, Elaine Stritch called home to ask her father whether she should bring her fiancé home to see if he approved of him. “No, just marry him,” came the reply. “Don’t let him get away.” The marriage lasted a happy 10 years, until Bay died of cancer.
Since her early years Elaine Stritch had suffered from stage fright and, when prayers did not do the trick, she quelled her nerves with alcohol. By the late 1970s her opening gambit at every watering hole was “I’d like four martinis and a floor plan”. Sacked from shows and thrown out of clubs, she failed to stop drinking even after she became diabetic. But after suffering a severe attack in the hallway of a New York hotel (from which she was saved only because a passing waiter happened to be carrying a Pepsi), she went on the wagon and never touched another drop.
In 2002 she made a triumphant return on Broadway in her one-woman retrospective of her career, Elaine Stritch At Liberty, co-written with John Lahr, which played to sell-out audiences at London’s Old Vic the following year. “There’s good news and bad news,” she told her audience. “The good: I have a sensational acceptance speech for a Tony. The bad: I’ve had it for 45 years.” In a typical Stritchian postscript, when she really did make the speech after being awarded a Tony for her performance, it was so long that the orchestra cut her off in mid-flow. Afterwards she gave an angry, tearful press conference. The show also won her the Drama Desk award for best solo performance and a nomination for the Olivier Award for her performance at the Old Vic.
In 2003 she was made a “Living Landmark” of New York City for her contributions to Broadway, and in 2010-11 she appeared in a Broadway revival of A Little Light Music. She was the subject of a documentary film, Elaine Stritch: Shoot Me, released earlier this year.
Date of Birth: February 5 1940, Chur, Swiss Canton, Graubünden, Switzerland
Birth Name: Hans Rudolf Giger
Nicknames: HR Giger
HR Giger, was a painter, sculptor and set designer and the man responsible for the nightmarish, teeth-snapping, acid-dripping creature in the film Alien.
Set in a nearish-future, Alien tells the story of a relentless and apparently unkillable life form that terrorises Ellen Ripley (Sigourney Weaver) and the rest of the crew of the spaceship Nostromo. Vaguely humanoid, with a prominent, armoured skeleton, vicious dual sets of jaws and slashing tail, the hellish creature captivated audiences and helped make Ridley Scott’s picture both a critical and box-office success. As the director himself noted, Giger’s creature was “one of the best all-time monsters”. In its absence, he suggested, “I’ve got a nice, very well-acted, beautifully art-directed movie, but I ain’t got that f------ heart-stopping son of a b----.”
Yet it was not just the alien that Giger designed he fleshed out the creature’s life-cycle (which involved it forcefully implanting itself in host bodies) and developed for it a crepuscular, disturbingly erotic environment that fused elements of the natural and the mechanical. Blending elements of Surrealist and Futurist art, Giger’s world soon became instantly recognisable. It turned out that such representations were deeply rooted in his upbringing.
Hans Rudolf Giger was born on February 5 1940 in Chur in the Swiss Canton of Graubünden. By the time he was 12 he was studying the works of Salvador Dali and Hieronymus Bosch with a sort of fascinated horror. “I was terrified,” he said. “I connected them with World War II atrocities.” He was long gripped by nightmares.
His father, a chemist, tried to steer Hans away from art towards a more stable profession. Yet his mother, Melli, encouraged him. In 1962 Giger moved to Zurich to study Industrial Design. After graduating he found that his work, and its obsession with sex and death, was not always appreciated. One gallery owner, hosting a Giger exhibition, reported having to begin each day by wiping the spittle of disgusted patrons from his window. Nor did Giger alleviate local suspicion by dressing always in black and working only at night. But it was precisely his fascination with the occult, and in particular the fictional Necronomicon, or “book of the dead”, described in the work of HP Lovecraft, that propelled him into the big time.In 1977 Giger’s first collection of drawings, also titled Necronomicon, was published. It found its way into the hands of Ridley Scott, who seized upon one fantastical sketch, Necronom IV, as the model for his new film’s alien. Fox Studios was not so keen on the phallic, fetishised image, but Giger was eventually hired influencing the entire look and feel of the film. As a result he won, with others, the Oscar for best special effects in 1980.
Yet it was not the beginning of a beautiful relationship with Hollywood. Giger was not asked to work on the film’s sequel, Aliens (1986). And when he did contribute to films, such as Poltergeist II, he hated his designs being modified. But he had a clear brand. When producers were casting around for someone to create a sexy yet lethal humanoid alien, called Sil, in Species (1995) they knew where to turn. “We realised that he [Giger] had been drawing Sil for basically his entire career,” noted the director Roger Donaldson. “Anybody else we hired would probably have just gone to take a look at his books.”
Beyond film, Giger was also famed for his album covers. His artwork for the Dead Kennedys’ album Frankenchrist led to the band’s singer being arrested for obscenity, but Giger’s vision of an impaled Debbie Harry on her 1981 album Koo Koo fared better, making a list of the best 100 album covers of all time.
Generally, however, his work did not win the admiration of mainstream critics. Undaunted, in 1998 he bought a chateau in Gruyeres and set up his own museum. But it proved expensive to run. He himself lived in far more modest circumstances, with every available surface covered by his drawings. Even after the success of the Alien films, he declared that what he most feared were his debts.
Date of Birth: October 26 1942, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, UK
Birth Name: Robert William Hoskins
Nicknames: Bob Hoskins
Bob Hoskins, the actor, who has died aged 71, was hailed as the original tough guy of British film, but once described himself as “short, fat and bald, the only actor who had to diet and wear lifts to play Mussolini”.
His cuboid frame, villainous features and Cockney accent fitted him for a series of roles which he described as “animals, thugs and heavies”. These included the gangland boss Harold Shand in The Long Good Friday (1980) and the violent minder George in Mona Lisa (1986), a portrayal that earned him an Oscar nomination. Hoskins won critical success in both films, mainly for his ability to exude menace while suggesting the vulnerability beneath the violent surface of his characters.
Ultimately it was Hoskins’s versatility and eye for a good part that made him a star. He played Arthur Parker in Dennis Potter’s innovative and hugely successful Pennies from Heaven (1978); Nathan Detroit in the National Theatre’s first musical Guys and Dolls (1981); and cameo parts such as the police chief in The Honorary Consul (1983) and Robert de Niro’s plumbing partner in Brazil (1985).
Like his friend Michael Caine, Hoskins was one of the few British actors to become equally successful in Hollywood. Films such as The Cotton Club (1984), Sweet Liberty (1986) and the box office smash Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (1988) consolidated his position as a British actor who could make the transition to the United States. A contributing factor in his American success may have been that Hoskins was one of a small minority of British actors able to produce a convincing American accent.
Robert William Hoskins was born on October 26 1942 in Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, but grew up in Finsbury Park, north London. His father was a clerk for the Pickfords removal firm, his mother a school cook. At Stroud Green secondary modern school, his dyslexia meant that he was often written off as stupid.
During his adolescence, the beatings he endured in street fights toughened him up, and a knife wound across the bridge of his nose left him with a hollow between the eyes. A life in the gangs beckoned he was once taken to meet the Kray twins who ran London’s underworld in the 1950s but he dreamed of becoming an actor.
Hoskins had never been formally trained, and was always proud that he had never attended a single acting lesson. Instead, on leaving school in 1959, he took on a series of temporary jobs, including as a merchant seaman in the Norwegian navy, a banana-picker on a kibbutz, camel-herder in Syria and porter at Covent Garden market.
In 1969, after an abortive attempt at going into accounting with his father, Hoskins claimed that he “fell sideways into acting by mistake”. While waiting in a pub with a friend who wanted to audition for the Unity Theatre, Hoskins was mistaken for the next candidate. “I was too pissed to argue,” he recalled, “so I got on stage and acted my socks off.” He was offered the lead in The Feather Pluckers, and at the play’s first night was signed up by an agent.
Hoskins spent the next 12 months in repertory, building up a reputation as an actor who was content to do anything, including fire-eating and running headlong at brick walls. “In those days we just passed round the hat,” he recalled. “I had a wife and kid to support on that, and so I wasn’t going to say no to anything that was for the good of the show.”
In 1975 he was offered his first television role, as an illiterate truck driver, in the BBC’s adult literacy programme On the Move. The programme established him as a “screen natural”, and attracted a wide following and an almost cult status. After his television appearance, offers of work on stage and screen doubled. One critic described Hoskins as having “cornered the market in the cheeky Cockney chappie”.
In 1980 The Long Good Friday established Hoskins as a global star. The film was enormously successful in the US, but Hoskins was angered by the fact that his speeches were dubbed into “stage Cockney”.
“They thought the Yanks wouldn’t be able to understand me”, he complained. “In the film I end up sounding like Dick Van Dyke.”
In 1981 Hoskins starred in the National Theatre’s production of Guys and Dolls. It was the Theatre’s first attempt at a musical and was a major critical and box office success. As in Pennies from Heaven, Hoskins’s charismatic performance carried him over any deficiencies in his singing and dancing. “The choreographer convinced me I looked like Fred Astaire,” he remembered, “but I really looked like a little hippopotamus shaking its hooves.” Critics described Hoskins’s “animal appeal” and “considerable panache”. They began to compare him with Edward G Robinson and George Raft, and to call him “the Cockney Cagney”.
In 1983 Hoskins was miscast in The Honorary Consul, with Michael Caine, and gave an embarrassing performance as a South American police chief. Despite this setback, however, he received an early morning call from Francis Ford Coppola asking him if he would appear in Coppola’s next film. Hoskins thought it was a joke and shouted down the line: “It’s three o’clock in the morning and you’ve just woken up my kid, you bastard” before hanging up.
Coppola called back later and signed Hoskins as the nightclub owner in The Cotton Club (1984).
In Heart Condition (1990) Hoskins played a bigoted white policeman kept alive by a heart transplant from a black donor. He went on to make Mermaids (also 1990), a comedy in which he starred opposite Cher . In Hook (1991), a live-action version of Peter Pan with Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams, Hoskins played the fusspot Mr Smee.
Although largely self-educated, Hoskins co-wrote and directed the feature film The Raggedy Rawney (1988), a gipsy story set in central Europe, which was reckoned an ambitious failure and had only a limited distribution. On television he won critical approval for his portrayal of the Italian dictator in Mussolini: the Decline and Fall of Il Duce (1985); while his appearance in The Street in 2009 earned him the accolade of Best Actor at the International Emmy Awards of 2010.
In 2012, after being diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease, Bob Hoskins announced that he was retiring from acting.
Date of Birth: 23 September 1920, Brooklyn, New York, US
Birth Name: Joseph Yule Jr
Nicknames: Mickey Rooney
Mickey Rooney was an icon of American youth and energy who was as prolific in his marriages as he was on screen
Mickey, was in the Thirties and for much of the Forties the very image of how Americans liked to think of themselves brash, energetic and eternally young.
As a child star and later a teenager, he epitomised American get-up-and-go, with a cheeky, cocksure arrogance that won him a wide following, especially in the United States. Though he never got an Oscar for his work, in 1938 he shared a special award with Deanna Durbin “for their significant contribution in bringing to the screen the spirit and personification of youth, and as juvenile players setting a high standard of ability and achievement”. In keeping with their stature, the awards were pint-size Oscars.
Diminutive but pugnacious, Rooney managed to look like an adolescent until well into maturity. He was still playing Andy Hardy, the chirpy judge’s son which was his most famous role, until the late Forties, when he was nearly 30.
Like many young players renowned in their teens, however, Rooney found difficulty in landing suitable adult roles. He continued to work and was, indeed, prolific into his seventies and at the age of 90 he filmed a cameo for The Muppets (2011), but the parts were seldom challenging and many of his films barely received a cinema release even in America.
He became better known for his private life than for his work. A prodigious earner at the peak of his popularity, he amassed some $12 million but kept none of it. Most of it went in back taxes and to pay alimony to his many wives (he had eight, of whom the first, Ava Gardner, was the best known). By 1962, he was forced to file for bankruptcy.
Drink at one time was also a problem but it disappeared in remarkable circumstances. As he recounted it, he was dining in a Los Angeles restaurant when up stepped a heavenly messenger with bright golden hair. “God loves you,” the angel said. From that moment Mickey Rooney was a born-again Christian and mended his ways. None of his fellow diners saw the angel.
Mickey Rooney’s real name was Joe Yule Jr. He was born in Brooklyn on September 23 1920, the son of vaudeville performers Joe Yule and Nell Carter, who divorced when he was seven. He joined the act almost from the cradle and, at the age of only 15 months, appeared on stage as a midget, dressed in a tuxedo and sporting a huge rubber cigar. At six, he was a movie actor, making his screen debut (again as a midget) in Not to Be Trusted (1926).
His real screen career began when his mother saw an advertisement placed by the cartoonist Fontaine Fox, who was looking for a child to impersonate his comic strip character Mickey McGuire. Fox took a shine to the boy and he got the job, appearing in some 80 episodes between 1926 and 1932, when the series was wound up. In fact, he was so closely identified with the part that his mother wanted him to adopt the name Mickey McGuire professionally. Fox refused so he became Mickey Rooney instead.
In his early years Rooney worked for a number of studios and was eventually placed under contract by MGM because David O Selznick thought he would be ideal to play Clark Gable as a boy in the film Manhattan Melodrama (1934). MGM guaranteed him 40 weeks’ work a year but reserved the right to loan him out to other studios.
One such arrangement, with Warner Bros, resulted in the best performance of Rooney’s career, as the mischievous Puck in Max Reinhardt’s 1935 production of A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Barely 15 at the time, he was perfect casting impish and with a gurgling laugh that might be construed as innocent or knowing; it was hard to tell.
At MGM, his career took off in 1937 when he first played Andy Hardy, son of Lionel Barrymore’s Judge Hardy in A Family Affair. Planned only as a programme filler, based on a minor Broadway play, it became an unexpected hit and exhibitors begged MGM for a sequel. In the end, the series ran to 15 episodes over the next 10 years, with one ill-judged afterthought in 1958, Andy Hardy Comes Home. Lewis Stone replaced Barrymore as the judge after the first film.
Rooney appeared in much else besides, often opposite the equally youthful Judy Garland. In such films as Thoroughbreds Don’t Cry (1937); Babes in Arms (1939); Strike Up the Band (1940); Babes on Broadway (1942); and several of the Andy Hardy series, they became the most popular team in movies. He also played a juvenile delinquent opposite Spencer Tracy’s priest in Boys’ Town (1938) and its 1941 sequel Men of Boys’ Town and took the title role in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1939).
The success of these films and especially of the Andy Hardy pictures was good for Rooney’s image but bad for his ego. Increasingly bumptious and swollen-headed, he was the only actor on record to have come to blows with MGM’s feared studio boss Louis B Mayer. Rooney wanted the rights to do the Andy Hardy series on radio as well and lost his temper when Mayer said no. Rooney got a hike in salary out of the fracas, but Andy Hardy was never broadcast.
During the war, Rooney served in the Jeep Theatre, entertaining more than 2,000,000 troops, but was unable to recover his popularity in peacetime. Summer Holiday (1948), a musical version of Ah Wilderness!, proved a dismal failure, while nobody had anything good to say of Words and Music (also 1948), in which he played lyricist Lorenz Hart to Tom Drake’s Richard Rodgers. What attracted particular criticism was that the script ignored Hart’s homosexuality, portraying him as a red-blooded American male.
Rooney’s subsequent film career was mostly a catalogue of further disappointments. Especially regrettable was his bucktoothed Japanese photographer in Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961) and his contribution to Stanley Kramer’s leaden comedy It’s a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963).
Against these and many equally as bad, can be set only occasional high points, such as Baby Face Nelson (1957), in which he was cast against type as a Tommy gun-wielding gangster; Pulp (1972), again as a gangster, this time inviting Michael Caine to write his memoirs, and The Black Stallion (1979), for which he received an Academy Award nomination (but did not win) in his supporting role as a horse trainer.
In 1983 he was presented with a second Oscar honouring his lifetime’s work. By the end of his career he had appeared in several hundred films.
He enjoyed a big stage hit in 1979 with a nostalgic tribute to vaudeville called Sugar Babies opposite the dancer Ann Miller. It ran for five years on and off Broadway but failed to translate successfully to London.
In 2003 Rooney and his eighth wife Jan Chamberlin began an association with Rainbow Puppet Productions, providing voices for some of the company’s films. Four years later, in 2007, Rooney made a debut in British pantomime as Baron Hardup in Cinderella at the Sunderland Empire, a role he reprised in the subsequent two years at Bristol and Milton Keynes.
In 2011, as well as his role in The Muppets, he appeared in an episode of Celebrity Ghost Stories, recalling how his dead father had appeared to him one night at a low point in his career telling him not to give up.
Rooney published two volumes of autobiography, of which the second, Life Is Too Short (1992), was conspicuously ungallant about such former movie queens as Norma Shearer and Betty Grable.
Mickey Rooney married first Ava Gardner; secondly Betty Jane Rase; thirdly Martha Vickers; fourthly Elaine Mahnken (all the marriages were dissolved). He married, fifthly, Barbara Thomason (who was shot dead by her lover in what may have been a double suicide pact); sixthly Margie Lang; seventhly Carolyn Hockett (both dissolved); and eighthly Jan Chamberlin, who survives him. He had seven children.
Date of Birth: 14 September 1914, Salzburg, Austria
Birth Name: Maria Franziska von Trapp
Nicknames: Maria von Trapp
Maria von Trapp, was the last of the original Trapp Family Singers, whose story of musical success and subsequent flight from Austria during the Nazi regime in the late 1930s was the inspiration for the Broadway show and hugely successful 1965 film, The Sound of Music.
The Von Trapps were an aristocratic Austrian family headed by the decorated naval officer Baron Georg von Trapp and his wife, Agathe. In the wake of Baroness von Trapp’s death in 1922 the family moved to a villa in Aigen in the suburbs of Salzburg. and Maria Augusta Kutschera a young postulent a woman preparing for a nun’s life from the nearby Nonnberg Abbey, was appointed as tutor to the seven Von Trapp children. She was to become the Baron’s second wife (played in the film by Julie Andrews.)
In the mid-1930s the family’s finances were made precarious by the Baron’s investment in a bank which would later fail. Hardened circumstances caused the Von Trapps to stage paid choral concerts (previously a family hobby) with Maria Von Trapp singing second soprano in the choir.
With the Nazi annexation of Austria in 1938, Baron von Trapp was offered a commission in the German Navy. An ardent anti-Nazi he refused and decided to flee the country with his entire family. Not, as Hollywood immortalised their journey, overnight across the Alps to Switzerland but by train to Italy in broad daylight before taking a passage to America.
Maria Franziska Gobertina von Trapp was born on September 14th 1914, in Salzburg the third child of Georg and Agathe Von Trapp. Since personal telegrammes were not permitted to be sent to those serving in the military, her father learnt of the birth by a message from his wife in pre-arranged code: “S.M.S Maria arrived”.
Music was an integral part of her family’s life. “My father played the violin and the accordion, and I adored him I wanted to learn all the instruments that he played,” recalled Maria von Trapp late in life (she would play the accordion for the rest of her life).
In The Sound of Music, Maria von Trapp was portrayed as the character “Louisa” by the Canadian actress Heather Menzies-Urich (in her debut role). On the film’s release, Maria and her siblings were surprised by the level of dramatic licence taken in bringing their story to the screen. “We were all pretty shocked at how they portrayed our father, he was so completely different. He always looked after us a lot, especially after our mother died,” said Maria von Trapp. “You have to separate yourself from all that, and you have to get used to it. It is something you simply cannot avoid.”
On settling in America, the family, continued to perform choral concerts and opened a ski lodge in Stowe, Vermont. Here Maria was to play the accordion and teach Austrian dance, with her half-sister Rosmarie, one of three children by Georg von Trapp’s second marriage. Maria von Trapp became a US citizen in 1948 and in the mid-1950s worked alongside her step mother as a lay missionary in Papua New Guinea.
In the summer of 2008 she visited her childhood home in Salzburg, on the eve of the villa opening as a hotel. Staying in the house for the first time since the 1930s she found herself haunted by memories.
“Our whole life is in here, in this house,” she recalled as she walked its corridors. “Especially here in the stairwell, where we always used to slide down the railings.”
Date of Birth: 23 July 1967, Fairport, US
Birth Name: Philip Seymour Hoffman
Nicknames: Philip Hoffman
In a little over two decades Hoffman carved out a reputation for delivering strident performances that led to the New York Times describing him as the “greatest character actor of our time”. For many years he stood out in supporting roles from a louche playboy in Anthony Minghella’s The Talented Mr Ripley to a lovesick high school teacher in Spike Lee’s The 25th Hour.
In 2005, however, he took the title role in Bennett Miller’s Capote, a biopic of the waspish author Truman Capote. As the notoriously tart chronicler of high rollers and transient killers, Hoffman caught the writer’s murky DNA, showcasing his talent for manipulation but also his latent insecurity. “Playing Capote took a lot of concentration,” Hoffman stated, “I prepared for four and a half months. I read and listened to his voice and watched videos of him on TV. Sometimes being an actor is like being some kind of detective where you’re on the search for a secret that will unlock the character. With Capote, the part required me to be a little unbalanced.” The performance was to win him that year’s Academy Award for Best Actor.
His appearance and in particular his weight remained a fall-back feature of most journalistic profiles. Hoffman’s wry approach to the veiled criticisms was reminscent of Cyrano de Bergerac’s parry to nasal put-downs. “A lot of people describe me as chubby, which seems so easy, so first-choice,” he said. “Or stocky. Fair-skinned. Tow-headed. There are so many other choices. How about dense? I mean, I’m a thick kind of guy. But I’m never described in attractive ways. I’m waiting for somebody to say I’m at least cute. But nobody has.”
He was instictively comfortable working with many of America’s cinematic auteurs. In particular, his collaborations with the director Paul Thomas Anderson provided many of his most distinctive roles. In Magnolia (1999) he provided warmth and heart as a kindly male nurse tending to a dying millionnaire to an otherwise bleak palette of human disarray and in The Master (2012) he held forth as a magnetically-charasmatic leader of a quasi-religious cult (a figure loosely based on L. Ron Hubbard). Likewise Spike Lee, the Coen Brothers, Charlie Kauffman and David Mamet all drew idiosyncratic and memorable performances.
A dedication to the art of acting was to remain the one constant in a career that otherwise defied categorisation (he embraced drama, comedy and thrillers with equal zeal). “Acting is so difficult for me that, unless the work is of a certain stature in my mind, unless I reach the expectations I have of myself, I’m unhappy,” he said. “If you’re doing it well, if you’re concentrating the way you need to, if your will and your concentration and imagination and emotional life are all in tune, concentrated and working together in that role, that is just like lugging weights upstairs with your head. And I don’t think that should get any easier.”
Philip Seymour Hoffman was born on July 23 1967 in Fairport, a picturesque town on the Erie Canal in New York state. His mother, the former Marilyn Loucks, was a lawyer and civil rights activist and his father, Gordon, was a businessman.
Philip was first drawn to drama at Fairport High School, and when he was 17 attended a state-run summer school for the arts. After graduating he moved to New York City to pursue professional training, attending classes at a summer programme run by the Manhattan theatre, Circle in the Square, and finally graduating from New York University’s Tisch School of the Arts with a degree in Drama.
While at NYU, Hoffman teamed up for the first time with Bennett Miller, who would later direct him in Capote, to launch a drama company, the Bullstoi Ensemble. Though its principals were undoubtedly talented, the Ensemble was notoriously short-lived, and after leaving NYU Hoffman entered rehab to tackle alcohol and drug problems. He then embarked on the classic career path of the hopeful actor, taking odd jobs, such as stacking supermarket shelves, while auditioning and hoping for his big break.
That break took some years to arrive. However, in 1992 he won his first major role in Scent of a Woman, which starred Al Pacino as a blind man whose lust for life (and the opposite sex), is only heightened by his “disability”. Hoffman played a boorish, treacherous friend of the student who is recruited to assist Pacino’s character.
More often, however, his pudgy frame seemed to recommend him to casting directors for roles that required self-doubt, self-loathing even. It was with just such a part that he made his leap into the big time.
Paul Thomas Anderson, the director, who had spotted Hoffman in Scent of a Woman, cast him as a boom operator, Scotty, in his epic recounting of pornographic film making in the 1970s, Boogie Nights (1997). The part marked Hoffman out as an actor of range but, typically, his reward was to be cast in formulaic fayre, such as Flawless (1999) a buddy movie with Robert De Niro.
Hoffman flourished in such illustrious company, and repeated the trick of stealing scenes from more established actors in The Talented Mr Ripley. Meryl Streep was among a gathering band of admirers, describing his performance as “fearless”.
Long a favourite of indie directors, Hoffman's rising star was confirmed in such films as The Big Lebowski (1998) and Almost Famous (2000). But the next five years, while providing steady work, did not see him find many great roles. It was with Capote (2005) that his mesmeric ability to metamorphise began to emerge. He lost weight and shifted the timbre of his voice, inhabiting the part completely without descending to simple mimicry.
He next shone in an unlikely role in Doubt (2008), that of a Catholic priest who may, or may not, have abused one of his pupils. The whole conceit of the film demanded that the audience remain undecided, and thus rested on the strength of Hoffman’s performance.
His ability to turn his hand to almost any role was displayed again in Jack Goes Boating (2010), his directorial debut, and also his first romantic role.
A long, inventive and daring career seemed to stretch before him, but in what turned out to be his last years he mostly starred in the mainstream features such as the Hunger Games series that he had always dotted between the expressive, idea-driven parts in which he truly excelled.
Other films included: Cold Mountain (2003); Mission Impossible III (2006); Charlie Wilson’s War (2007); Synecdoche, New York (2008); Moneyball (2011) and, most recently, A Most Wanted Man (2014).
It was a sign of his talent, however, that many viewed Hoffman as an even better actor on stage than on screen. Perhaps his best performance came in 2012, in the Broadway revival of Death of A Salesman, for which he received his third Tony award nomination.
Philip Seymour Hoffman, who announced last year that he was once again struggling with addiction, is reported to have been found dead in his apartment, possibly of a drug overdose.
Date of Birth: 8 February 1944, Islington, North London, UK
Birth Name: Roger Llyod-Pack
Roger Lloyd-Pack, the actor, who has died aged 69, will forever be associated with the slow-witted Peckham road sweeper Trigger, whom he played in the much-loved television series Only Fools and Horses.
As one of the regulars at the Nag’s Head pub, Trigger provided an immeasurably dim foil to the wit and wisdom of wheeler-dealer Del Boy (David Jason), used-car salesman Boycie (John Challis), landlord Mike (Kenneth MacDonald) and Del Boy’s younger brother, Rodney (Nicholas Lyndhurst).
The character was involved both in one of the series’ best running jokes, and its greatest slapstick moment. In the latter, he accompanies Del Boy on a mission to pick up a couple of “modern euro-birds”, only for Del Boy to fall through the bar after a waiter, unnoticed, lifts the hatch. In the former, Trigger persistently refers to Rodney as “Dave”. Even on the announcement of Rodney’s engagement, to Cassandra, Trigger raises a glass “to Cassandra and Dave”. When she discloses that she is pregnant, he suggests that the couple call the baby “Rodney, after Dave”.
Born with what he described as “an old man’s face”, Lloyd-Pack had to wait until his 40s to find success as an actor; once he found it with Trigger, however, the role would not leave him be. Such was his identification with the road-sweeper that passers-by, even policemen, would shout out “Wotcher Trig?” at him in the street. In conversation, he said, strangers assumed he was very thick. He described the role as “like an albatross in one way. If something becomes mega, like Fools, you’ve had it. I’ll never escape Trigger, I’ve learnt to live with that.”
But the role (which he nearly abandoned after two series, until his agent told he would be “mad”) provided him with a measure of financial security and also ensured that he did not have to worry about finding work again. Though he never subsequently secured the golden roles of Lear or Shylock, to which he aspired, he was sought after for smaller, plum Shakespearean parts, such as Buckingham (in Richard III) or Sir Andrew Aguecheek (in Twelfth Night).
Not that he was above playing a pantomime dame, or signing on to the Harry Potter franchise. Acting, he said, was “a silly job, in a way, especially when you get older. It’s just dressing up, playing at being someone else. It’s rather lovely, too, but it’s hardly life and death.”
Roger Lloyd-Pack was born on February 8 1944 in north London. His father, Charles Pack, had grown up a working-class lad in the East End before turning to acting and, in the 1930s, adding Lloyd to his surname. Roger’s mother, Ulrike, was an Austrian-Jewish emigrée who had fled the Nazis.
Roger was educated at St David’s (“a snobby little prep school run by a sadistic couple”) and Bedales, where he “coasted”. He did not shine at Geography (securing just nine per cent in his O-level), but did begin acting, eventually auditioning for Rada. After training there, however, he found jobs hard to come by.
In part he put this down to his looks. “It took a while for all my features to fall into place,” he said. “I didn’t come into my own as an actor until I was 40. I was not easy to cast.” He found bit parts in series such as The Avengers, The Protectors and Dixon of Dock Green, but spent much of his time drifting in rep waiting, with increasingly little confidence, for his big break.
In the mid-1970s his career got a boost when the director Bill Gaskill invited him to join the Joint Stock Theatre Company, which pioneered the idea of using collaborative workshops to inspire new material from playwrights such as David Hare and Caryl Churchill. But it was not until 1981, with the advent of Only Fools and Horses, that he secured his future as an actor. He was signed up after being spotted by the series’ producer, Ray Butt, while in a play alongside Billy Murray, who was being considered for the Del Boy role.
The series ran for a decade, with the character of Trigger appearing in nearly every episode and acquiring something approaching cult status, notably for moments of inadvertent wisdom that pierced the fog of idiocy. On one occasion, Trigger prompts a philosophical debate by revealing that he has used the same broom to sweep streets for 20 years. When asked his secret, he reveals that he has lovingly maintained it, replacing the head 17 times and the handle 14 times.
In interviews Lloyd-Pack was frank, sometimes disarmingly so, about the nature of his/Trigger’s rather peculiar brand of celebrity. He was also frank about the travails of his personal life, in particular the mental health difficulties faced by his eldest daughter, Emily.
Emily Lloyd, who was born when Lloyd-Pack was 26, was catapulted to Hollywood stardom while still in her teens after appearing in the film Wish You Were Here (1987). A decade in Hollywood followed, but she was increasingly afflicted by mental health problems. In an interview last year, Lloyd-Pack said that watching his daughter struggle with her condition was “absolutely heart-rending and painful”.
He was also forthright about the possibility that, having left his first marriage, to the actress Sheila Ball, when Emily was only two, he had somehow contributed to his daughter’s later difficulties. “I feel very sad about that,” he said. “It’s one of those things where you can’t have a second chance. Forming good, trusting relationships with your children involves being with them when they’re very small and holding them. You can’t replace it. The thing you most want in your life when you’re little is for both your parents to love each other. If not, it can be the beginning of all your problems.”
Roger Lloyd-Pack, who died of cancer, was also clear-sighted about death, upon which, he said, even before his diagnosis, he reflected every day. A keen cyclist, recycler, and campaigner for Left-wing causes, he revealed he would like to buried in “a cardboard coffin”. As for his obituaries: “I don’t really care what [they] say, so long as they are fair. I know I will be best remembered for Trigger in Only Fools and Horses, but I hope all my other work will be acknowledged, too.”
His television credits included Spyder’s Web; Moving; The Bill; The Old Guys; and The Vicar of Dibley. Film credits included The Naked Civil Servant; 1984; Wilt; Interview with the Vampire; Vanity Fair; Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire; and Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy.
Date of Birth: 12 September, 1973, Glendale, California, US
Birth Name: Paul Willam Walker IV
Nicknames: Paul Walker
Paul Walker was one of the actors who helped make the Fast & Furious film franchise so successful.
Walker rode the Fast & Furious franchise to stardom, featuring in all but one of the six action blockbusters, beginning with the first film, in 2001. The blond-haired, blue-eyed Los Angeles-native brought California-surfer good-looks and an easy, warm charm to the street-racing series. Walker did some of his own driving in the films, though the insurers prevented him from doing as much as he would have liked. He said it was the driving and working with the stuntmen that he enjoyed most.
The son of a fashion model, Cheryl, and a sewer contractor, Paul, Walker grew up in a working class Mormon household in Glendale, California, the oldest of five children. His mother began taking him to auditions as a toddler and he was a child model by the age of two. He said his early induction to showbusiness wasn't to start him on a career path, but as simply a way to help provide for the family.
He made his big-screen debut as a 13-year-old in the 1986 slasher-comedy Monster in the Closet, and after a string of television roles, including small parts in Who's the Boss and Charles in Charge, he drifted away from acting for a while, but was then tracked down by a casting director with a long memory who gave him a role in the television series Touched by an Angel. He also had a recurring part in the soap The Young and the Restless
His returned to films in the 1998 comedy Meet the Deedles and had supporting roles in Pleasantville, Varsity Blues (as a young quarterback – "I got to play the meathead jock that I hated in high school," he recalled), Flags of Our Fathers and the 1999 teen comedy She's All That. His performance in the 2000 psychological thriller The Skulls, which explored the conspiracy theories surrounding Yale's Skull and Bones student society, caught the eye of producer Neal H Moritz despite the film's poor critical reception.
Moritz then cast him alongside Vin Diesel in The Fast and the Furious. Adapted from a Vibe magazine article, "Racer X", about underground street racing, the film became an unexpected hit. Walker's undercover police officer, Brian O'Conner, is ordered to infiltrate a ring of illegal street racers suspected of stealing electronic equipment and finds himself drawn to their adrenaline-fuelled lifestyle.
Walker, a self-styled "gearhead", had taken part in street races, and he used some his fee for the first film to import a Nissan Skyline R34 sports car, the model he drives in the 2003 sequel, 2 Fast 2 Furious, in which he starred without Diesel. He wasn't in the third instalment, but the pair were reunited for the fourth film, known simply as Fast and Furious (2009). It became the biggest hit in the series and the producers stuck with the formula for Fast 5 (2011) and Fast and Furious 6 (2013), each successive film garnering bigger box-office grosses. The most recent has made nearly £491.7 million worldwide so far.
Walker starred in other films between Fast & Furious outings, including the crime thriller Running Scared, the Antarctic adventure Eight Below and the heist film Takers, in which a gang of young criminals carry out a series of minutely planned bank jobs to bankroll their expensive lifestyle. Although he didn't make as much of an impact beyond the franchise, he continually drew praise from his co-stars and directors as a kind-hearted and eager collaborator. "Your humble spirit was felt from the start," Ludacris, one of his co-stars, said on Twitter. "Wherever you blessed your presence you always left a mark, we were like brothers."
In 2006 he was cast by Clint Eastwood in Flags of our Fathers as one of the six US Marines who famously raised the American flag at Iwo Jima during the Second World War. The seventh Fast & Furious instalment began shooting in September, with a release planned for next July. The film's production was on break with more shooting to be done, which producers said would go ahead despite Walker's death.
Walker also stars in the forthcoming Hurricane Katrina drama Hours, due to appear later this month. He plays a father stranded with his newborn daughter in a New Orleans hospital in what Walker described as "a passion project". Reading the script, he said, "I just wanted to believe that if I was faced with a similar situation, I would see it through the same way. You want to believe you have the make-up to do what it would take to keep this baby going." He is also in Brick Mansions, a remake of the French action film District B13, due for release next year.
Walker and Rebecca McBrain, a former girlfriend, had a daughter who lived with her mother in Hawaii for 13 years and then moved to California in 2011 to live with Walker.
Roger Rodas, who died with Walker, was a financial adviser and the CEO of Walker's company Always Evolving; the pair met through their shared passion for cars. Another passion for Walker was martial arts, and he held a brown belt in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. He was also interested in marine biology, and made a series for the National Geographic Channel, Expedition Great White, in which he helped tag great white sharks off the coast of Mexico.
Date of Birth: 2 August 1932, Connemara, Ireland
Birth Name: Seamus Peter O’Toole
Nicknames: Peter O’Toole
Peter O'Toole, the Irish-born actor was one of the most charismatic, unpredictable, eccentric and individualistic players of his generation.
Hailed both as a classicist and as an exponent of post-war realism in the new British drama, he seemed destined for greatness on the stage until David Lean’s Lawrence of Arabia (1962) turned him into a film star.
It was one of the most spectacular screen breakthroughs of the post-war years. Though his screen debut was in Kidnapped (1960), he had till Lawrence made little impression. Although Lawrence was presented as an heroic figure, Robert Bolt’s screenplay did not avoid the more debatable aspects of his life, including his sexuality. There is a revealing moment when he first dons Arab clothes and performs a little dance almost as if he were a woman in disguise. Moviegoers twigged instantly that this would be no ordinary portrayal.
Tall, lean, blue-eyed, watchful, whimsical and by middle age, so emaciated that his friends feared for his health O’Toole seemed regularly to veer close to self destruction. A self-confessed lover of sleaze, he once said: “I can’t stand light; I hate weather; my idea of heaven is moving from one smoke-filled room to another.”
When Laurence Olivier chose him in 1973 to inaugurate the National Theatre at the Old Vic in the title role of Hamlet, it was because O’Toole seemed like Britain’s next great actor. But the status of an Olivier, a Redgrave or a Gielgud always eluded him or perhaps he it.
Though he became a greatly popular player, he did not stay with Olivier’s new National Theatre Company and went on to divide his career between stage and screen. The success of Lawrence of Arabia led to a flood of screen offers in meaty parts that contemporary actors envied. These included two aspects of King Henry II, first in Becket (1964), based on Jean Anouilh’s account of his troubled relations with Thomas à Becket, and secondly in The Lion in Winter (1968), James Goldman’s play about the ageing king’s dispute with his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Though Katharine Hepburn won an Oscar as Eleanor, the conflict was even-handed and the two performers were equally riveting.
His acting ranged from the sublime to the ridiculous. It could be subtle, reserved, sensitive and deeply affecting. It could also be loud, self-regarding, mannered and imitative of the worst of the 19th-century barnstormers.
Among the more ridiculous was the Macbeth he played at the Old Vic in 1980. It was an attempt to restore the fortunes of that playhouse after the National Theatre had left it in 1976. Contradicting the advice he had given as Hamlet to the players at the same theatre under Olivier’s direction 17 years earlier, he sawed the air with his hands, tore passions to tatters, and ranted until the audience laughed in his face.
Undismayed, he joined in, especially when he heard one night, as he descended the staircase after dispatching Duncan, the siren of an ambulance passing the theatre. “I was dripping with blood. The ambulance howled as it went up the Waterloo Road. I got the giggles. So did the audience. It was bloody marvellous.”
Nonetheless, the production, disowned by fellow members of the Old Vic board, broke records in London and in the provinces. “I just wanted a crack at Macbeth on the principle of getting the worst over first. In the history of the British theatre, only three actors have pulled it off: Macready, Garrick, and Wolfit and now me. I enjoyed every second.”
Among his more sublime performances was that of the dazed and lonely protagonist journalist in Keith Waterhouse’s Jeffrey Bernard Is Unwell (Apollo, 1989; revived 1999), reminiscing, ruminating, urinating, swaying, and stranded overnight in a London pub with a plastic carrier bag of liquor.O’Toole, himself an experienced alcoholic, long since reformed, brought so much authenticity, poise and painful sincerity to the performance that many play-goers could not believe he was acting.
He loved the excitement and uncertainty of the theatre. “If I hadn’t become an actor I probably would have become a criminal,” he said once. “I’m a very physical actor. I use everything toes, teeth, ears, everything. I don’t simply mean physical in the sense of movement and vigour. I find myself remembering the shape of a scene by how I’m standing, what I’m doing.”
Having achieved immediate recognition as TE Lawrence, the desert adventurer opposite Omar Sharif, he observed: “Stardom is insidious. It creeps up through the toes. You don’t realise what’s happening until it reaches your nut. That’s when it becomes dangerous.”
His scores of screen roles at this time included Joseph Conrad’s Lord Jim (1965), an angel in John Huston’s The Bible (1966), and a musical remake of Goodbye, Mr Chips (1969) opposite Petula Clark. Though he was Oscar-nominated for that role, the film as a whole was an embarrassment, and he should have taken note that Rex Harrison and Richard Burton had turned it down before him.
In 1972 he appeared in another musical, Man of La Mancha, opposite Sophia Loren, in which he played Don Quixote. These two films were temporary diversions he was wise not to repeat. Fortunately, in the same year (1972) he gave one of his best performances in the lead role in Peter Medak’s The Ruling Class, as a berserk British baronet who imagines himself to be Jesus Christ one minute and Jack the Ripper the next.
The son of an Irish bookmaker, Seamus Peter O’Toole was born at Connemara, Co Galway, on August 2 1932. The family moved to England when O’Toole was a boy. The young Peter left school at 14, and moved with his parents to Yorkshire.
He worked variously as a copy boy and reporter on the Yorkshire Evening News, as a jazz band drummer, and as a vacuum cleaner salesman. He first acted professionally at the Civic Theatre, Leeds, in 1949.
After National Service as a signalman in the Royal Navy, he saw Michael Redgrave’s King Lear at Stratford-upon-Avon in 1953; it was this that resolved him to attend the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. He hitch-hiked to London and won an audition and a scholarship.
He joined the Bristol Old Vic, where between 1955 and 1958 he acted 73 parts, notably Jimmy Porter in Look Back in Anger (1957), John Tanner in Man and Superman, the title part in Hamlet and Peter Shirley in Shaw’s Major Barbara, in which he made his first London appearance (Old Vic, 1956).
His first West End part came in another Bristol transfer, this time as Uncle Gustave in the Swiss musical comedy Oh, My Papa! (Garrick, 1957).
It was, however, as the cynical Cockney Pete Bamforth, who befriended a Japanese captive in Willis Hall’s wartime jungle drama The Long and the Short and the Tall (Royal Court, 1959, and New, now Albery), that O’Toole first won wide critical acclaim.
Of that performance Kenneth Tynan wrote: “To convey violence beneath banter, and a soured embarrassed goodness beneath both, is not the simplest task for a young player, yet Mr O’Toole achieved it without sweating a drop.”
At Stratford-upon-Avon in The Merchant of Venice his dashing young Shylock, a nouveau riche mercantile adventurer with social pretensions, was much admired, as were his playful Petruchio (opposite the 52-year-old Peggy Ashcroft) in The Taming of the Shrew and his powerful and thrilling Thersites in Troilus and Cressida.
Back in the West End in the title part of Brecht’s Baal (Phoenix, 1963) his acting soared above the play so impressively that one of Brecht’s biographers, Martin Esslin, dubbed O’Toole “the greatest potential force among all English-speaking actors”.
After the disappointment of his acceptable but uninspiring Hamlet at the launch of the National Theatre Company, he played one of his favourite types of character, the self-destructive hero, in David Mercer’s Ride a Cock Horse (Piccadilly, 1965), agonising over relationships with three women.
The following year, back in Ireland, he played Capt Boyle in O’Casey’s Juno and the Paycock at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, and three years after that he was back in Dublin again as John Tanner in Shaw’s Man and Superman, one of his favourite parts which he had played at Bristol 11 years earlier and which he played yet again in the West End (Haymarket, 1982).
At Dublin’s Abbey in 1969 his scarecrow Vladimir in Beckett’s Waiting for Godot came in what The Daily Telegraph at the time called “the Chaplin tradition: baggy trousers, battered bowler, clownish, absentmindedly surveying the audience as if it were infinity”. He later acted the part at Nottingham Playhouse.
Returning to his training ground, the Bristol Old Vic, in 1973, he took the title role in Chekhov’s Uncle Vanya, “shuffling, weary, pale and unprofiteering… one of the best things O’Toole ever did”, according to one critic. He also played King Magnus “indolent, elegant, condescending” in Shaw’s The Apple Cart, a role which he repeated in the West End (Haymarket, 1986).
When he led, in 1978, a tour of North America as Uncle Vanya, he also added Coward’s Present Laughter to his repertoire. As the flamboyant matinée idol, Garry Essendine, O’Toole used his own mannered and sometimes irritating self-indulgence with authority.
Following the fiasco of his Macbeth for Prospect Productions at the ailing Old Vic two years later, his mercurial Professor Higgins in Shaw’s Pygmalion (Shaftesbury, 1984) was warmly approved for its zest, rhythm, tonal variety, and tender eccentricity. It was seen on Broadway three years later.
In 1991 his ideas about the older Jimmy Porter in Osborne’s new play Déjà Vu clashed with the author’s at rehearsal and the Liverpool production was cancelled.
One of his better screen performances in the 1970s came in Clive Donner’s thriller for television Rogue Male (1976). O’Toole was engaging and, when it mattered, moving, as the resourceful but desperate hero, a British sportsman and would-be assassin of Hitler who, ruthlessly hunted down by Nazis, is forced to live like an animal.
The following year he acted in the dubious Roman epic Caligula, described by Variety magazine as “an anthology of sexual aberrations in which incest is the only face-saving relationship”.
In the uncommercial but intriguing film The Stuntman (1980), he was entirely at home as an impatient and overbearing director on a crazed film project which seemed to make sense only to him. O’Toole, who was again Oscar-nominated, later admitted that he had based his performance on the martinet David Lean, who had directed him in Lawrence of Arabia.
Less impressive were his outings in such schlock as Powerplay (1978), Strumpet City (1980), Supergirl (1984) and Buried Alive (1984).
His performance in Neil Jordan’s big budget Hollywood comedy High Spirits (1988), about a family who move into a haunted house, was nothing if not ebullient; he extracted more humour than the rest of the cast from a weak script in what became one of the turkeys of the year.
It is fitting that his swansong was on the West End stage, which he loved and dominated like no other. Keith Waterhouse’s Our Song provided him with another Bernard-like character or at least that was how he played the hard-drinking advertising man infatuated with a younger woman.
Even those critics who professed to a sense of déjà vu were not inclined to complain about it, but rather revelled in another chance to see O’Toole running the entire gamut of his physical and vocal range. “The exhilarating theatrical swagger of his performance is matched by a real depth of emotion,” said the Telegraph. The play was a sell-out success.
The year 1992 also saw the publication of the first volume of his autobiography, Loitering With Intent. Besides committing to record his own account of a life rich in myth and hyperbole, O’Toole revealed a genuine writing talent whose promise is sadly cut short.
Having been denied as best actor Oscar many times, in 2003 O’Toole received a special honorary award, effectively for his lifetime’s work. He joked about this when, in 2006, he received yet another best-actor nomination, playing a 70-year-old roué in Venus, who romances his best friend’s grand-niece. The lifetime’s recognition, he quipped, had been premature because there was life in the old dog yet.
Date of Birth: 23 September 1923, Tuscumbia, Alabama, US
Birth Name: Margaret Williams
Nicknames: Margaret Pellegrini
Margaret Pellegrini played a flower pot Munchkin and one of the “sleepy head” kids in the MGM classic The Wizard of Oz (1939).
At the time of filming, Margaret was 15 years old and only 3ft 5in tall, and did not attend high school because her mother feared that she would be bullied by the other pupils. “I was not big enough to partake in school activities,” Margaret later recalled. “Midgets were used as the school mascot in those days. I knew people who did that and felt like they were being treated not like a human being but like a rag doll.”
She was born Margaret Williams on September 23 1923 at Tuscumbia, Alabama. When she was 13 she met members of Henry Kramer’s Midgets at the Tennessee State Fair, where she was handing out free samples of crisps. They asked her if she had thought about showbusiness and made a note of her name and address. Two years later she was contacted by an agent in Hollywood, and she boarded a train for California.
The filming of Munchkin Land took about eight weeks to complete. “All the Munchkin sets were built on sound stage 27 at MGM,” she said. “I stayed at the Culver City hotel close to the studio lot.” She was paid £31.16 a week “Toto the dog made more money than me,” she declared. £77.91“Toto made a week, so he had a better agent than I did!”
Of the movie’s star, Judy Garland, Margaret recalled: “[She] wasn’t a big star when she made the movie. MGM had originally wanted Shirley Temple, but her studio, 20th Century Fox, wouldn’t let her go. Judy was a typical teenager on the set, and would sit on the Yellow Brick Road and talk with me and some of the others instead of going to school.”
When the film premiered at Grauman’s Chinese Theatre in 1939, Margaret was working at the World Trade Fair in San Francisco with two of her fellow Munchkins, and she signed autographs for days on end after the organisers had erected enormous banners with the legend: “Meet the stars from Oz”.
Margaret then had a part alongside Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck in Meet John Doe (1941) and in Tarzan’s Secret Treasure (also 1941), starring Johnny Weissmuller. In the same year she married William Pellegrini, a prizefighter, and gave up acting while she brought up their son and daughter.
She tried to resume her career in 1971, appearing in Johnny Got His Gun, with Timothy Bottoms, but no further parts were forthcoming, and she gave up acting for good. She took a number of jobs, including working as a Santa’s helper at a Chicago department store and running a hot dog stand.
On the 50th anniversary of the making of The Wizard of Oz she toured the United States with other surviving Munchkins, and throughout the 1990s appeared at numerous festivals celebrating the film.
She remained in touch with her fellow Munchkins. “It was so uplifting for me,” she said. Walking on to the set of Oz was the first time I had seen so many people like me. In those days we were called 'midgets’; now it’s a much more politically correct 'people of restricted growth’. Whatever the term, the name-calling was there as I was growing up, and I grew to ignore it. But back in 1939 as a teenager I stood side by side with dozens of people who didn’t point or name-call. I cried with joy, and from that day on I was happy to be called Munchkin.”
There are now only two surviving Munchkins from the original 124: Jerry Maren, who is 93, and 95-year-old Ruth Duccini.
Date of Birth: 12 April 1914, Bushey Heath, Hertfordshire, UK
Birth Name: Gilbert Gil Taylor
Nicknames: Gilbert Taylor
The British cinematographer Gilbert Taylor was best known for his camerawork on the first Star Wars movie (1977). Though its special effects and set designs somewhat stole his thunder, it was Taylor who set the visual tone of George Lucas's six-part space opera.
Taylor said ”I wanted to give it a unique visual style that would distinguish it from other films in the science-fiction genre," Taylor declared. "I wanted Star Wars to have clarity because I don't think space is out of focus … I thought the look of the film should be absolutely clean … But George Lucas saw it differently … For example, he asked to set up one shot on the robots with a 300mm camera lens and the sand and sky of the Tunisian desert just meshed together. I told him it wouldn't work, but he said that was the way he wanted to do the entire film, all diffused." Fortunately for everyone, this creative difference was resolved by 20th Century Fox executives, who backed Taylor's approach.
Back in Britain at Elstree studios, Taylor found John Barry's sets, particularly the Death Star, were all black and grey, with little opportunity for lighting at all. "My work was a matter of chopping holes in the walls and working the lighting into the sets, and this resulted in a 'cut-out' system of panel lighting using quartz lamps that we could put in the walls, ceiling and floors. This lighting approach allowed George to shoot in almost any direction without extensive relighting, which gave him more freedom."
Despite his Star Wars fame, Taylor was a master of black-and-white cinematography. Witness the splendour of Stanley Kubrick's Dr Strangelove, Richard Lester's A Hard Day's Night (both 1964) and Roman Polanski's Repulsion (1965). Of this, Polanski wrote: "As I saw it, the only person who could do justice to our black-and-white picture was Gil Taylor, whose photography on Dr Strangelove had deeply impressed me."
Gilbert, sometimes credited as Gil Taylor was born in Bushey Heath, Hertfordshire. The son of a prosperous builder, he was expected to join the family business, but his mother was perceptive enough to persuade his father to let him take a camera-assistant job.
At 15, he worked as assistant on the last two silent films made at Gainsborough studios, in London. He soon went to Elstree studios, to the north of the city, where he was clapper loader on Alfred Hitchcock's Number Seventeen (1932). More significantly, he was assistant and camera operator to Freddie Young on Herbert Wilcox's Nell Gwyn (1934) and Paul Czinner's Escape Me Never (1935).
Taylor's apprenticeship was interrupted by the outbreak of the second world war, when he joined the Royal Air Force volunteer reserve, his primary mission being to photograph the targets of nocturnal raids over Germany after the bombs were dropped. "This was requested by Winston Churchill, and my material was delivered to 10 Downing Street for him to view. On the opening of the second front, I took a small operational unit of cameramen to cover every kind of news story, including the liberation of the concentration camps and the signing of the armistice."
After the war, Taylor returned to studio work as camera operator on two Boulting Brothers pictures, Fame Is the Spur and Brighton Rock (both 1947), for which he did some second-unit photography. This impressed John and Roy Boulting, especially his work on a deep-focus dream sequence in the former. As a result the producer-director twins gave Taylor his first job as director of photography on The Guinea Pig (1948), followed by Seven Days to Noon (1950).
It was then that Taylor started using bounced or reflected light. The indirect lighting of a subject or background gave the films a more naturalistic look, in contrast to the glossier direct light used by most of his contemporaries. This method was particularly effective in the realistic monochrome pictures directed by J Lee Thompson: The Weak and the Wicked (1954) a women-in-prison drama Yield to the Night (1956) with Diana Dors, without makeup, awaiting execution Woman in a Dressing Gown (1957) dowdy Yvonne Mitchell waiting for her philandering husband to return and No Trees in the Street (1959), set in a pre-second world war London slum.
In contrast, also for Thompson, was Ice Cold in Alex (1958), much of it shot in Libya, brilliantly capturing the heat and dust of the desert, as John Mills and company battle to get an ambulance to Alexandria after the fall of Tobruk in 1942.
Away from gritty realism, but still using black and white, Taylor linked up with Lester for two groundbreaking pop musicals, It's Trad, Dad! (1962) and the Beatlemaniacal A Hard Day's Night.
"Dick's enthusiasm for music and film-making blended in mad unison appealed to my mental and physical state at the time," Taylor commented. "When the Beatles came of age, I was given a poor script by Dick, who said we basically had to make it up as we went along. The only thing set was the music; the rest we had to invent daily! The raw quality of the shoot was there onscreen." A Hard Day's Night was shot documentary-style in several real locations, much of it with multiple cameras.
In the same year Dr Strangelove gave Taylor fresh challenges. "Strangelove was at the time a unique experience because the lighting was to be incorporated in the sets, with little or no other light used," Taylor explained. This strategy is exemplified by the elaborate scenes set in the war room, designed by Ken Adam, with a gleaming, black Formica floor and a wide circular table lit by a ring of overhead fluorescent fixtures.
When Taylor was asked to shoot Repulsion, he turned down the chance to make the James Bond movie Thunderball. "Our first day's shooting left me amazed and a bit perturbed by Gil Taylor's way of doing things," Polanski wrote in his autobiography. "He mostly used reflected light bounced off the ceiling or walls and never consulted a light meter. As the rushes were shown, however, he possessed such an unerring eye that his exposures were invariably perfect. We differed on only one point: Gil disliked a wide-angle lens for close-ups of Catherine Deneuve, a device I needed in order to convey her mental disintegration. 'I hate doing this to a beautiful woman,' he used to mutter."
Nevertheless, Deneuve looks extremely beautiful in many sequences, despite Taylor shooting much of the film with a handheld Arriflex with a very wide lens, as did her sister Françoise Dorléac in Polanski's Cul-De-Sac (1966), also with Taylor, whose third and last film with Polanski was Macbeth (1971). Although shot in colour, it is as near to black and white as possible, with its grey, misty landscape.
When Hitchcock invited Taylor to be his director of photography on his penultimate film, Frenzy (1972), he had no recollection of the 18-year-old clapper loader who had worked for him exactly 40 years previously. "Hitchcock never looked through the camera," recalled Taylor. "He would give me a list of shots and ask: 'Can we do this today?' I had to persuade him to go to rushes after nearly four weeks."
Taylor gave Richard Donner's The Omen (1976) a diffused, dreamlike look, which won him the British Society of Cinematographers award. After Star Wars, Taylor, who never made a film in Hollywood, went on various locations for Meetings with Remarkable Men (Afghanistan, 1979), Dracula (Cornwall, 1979), Escape to Athena (Greece, 1979), Flash Gordon (Scotland, 1980) and Green Ice (Mexico and New York, 1981), though the movies were not worth travelling any distance to see.
Taylor retired from films in 1994, but continued to shoot commercials for a few years. Most of his retirement was spent painting and farming, but he still got a kick out of being contacted by Star Wars fans for his autograph.
In 2001, Taylor, who made his home on the Isle of Wight, was presented with a lifetime achievement award by the British Society of Cinematographers, and an international award by the American Society of Cinematographers in 2006.
Date of Birth: 3 September 1932, Los Angeles, US
Birth Name: Verla Eileen Regina Brennan
Nicknames: Eileen Brennan
Eileen Brennan, the American actress was best known for her role as the tough-talking Army captain Doreen Lewis in the 1980 film comedy Private Benjamin, in which she starred alongside Goldie Hawn.
As tormentor-in-chief to Goldie Hawn’s high society recruit, Eileen Brennan earned an Oscar nomination for best supporting actress, and when she reprised the role in a television sitcom adapted from the film, she won two further awards, an Emmy and a Golden Globe. Guest roles on such television shows as Murder, She Wrote; thirtysomething; Taxi; and Will & Grace (in which she played an over-the-top acting coach) earned her six more Emmy nominations.
On film she made a brief appearance as the crazy Cat Lady in the horror film Jeepers Creepers in 2001. Her last big screen appearance was in the 2011 comedy film Naked Run.
Her role in Private Benjamin led to a lasting friendship with Goldie Hawn. In 1982, a couple of years after they had made the film, the two women had dinner in Venice, California. As they left the restaurant, Eileen Brennan was struck by a car, in an accident which smashed her legs, broke bones on the left side of her face, and shattered her left eye socket. She later recalled seething with rage at what had happened: “I was no saint. I was angry, and anger is a powerful emotion. It increased my determination not to go under, to get well.”
She took three years off work to recover, but became addicted to painkillers, and eventually entered the Betty Ford clinic to cure her dependency. She later received treatment for breast cancer.
Ten years after the accident Eileen Brennan said she was glad she had been hit by the car. “You learn from powerful things,” she said in 1992. “Initially, there’s enormous anger, but your priorities get shifted around.”
The daughter of a doctor of Irish descent, Verla Eileen Regina Brennan was born on September 3 1932 in Los Angeles. Her mother had acted in silent films. Educated in convent schools, she went on to study at Georgetown University and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York.
Her first major role on the New York stage was in Little Mary Sunshine, a musical that earned her the 1960 Obie award for best actress. In 1964 she played Irene Malloy in the original production of Hello, Dolly! on Broadway. In Hollywood the director Peter Bogdanovich cast her as a weary waitress who inherits the café where she works in The Last Picture Show (1971).
Her other films included The Sting (receiving excellent reviews as the brothel madam with a heart of gold); The Cheap Detective; Clue and Divorce American Style. On television her versatility led to appearances in All in the Family; McMillan & Wife; Kojak; The Love Boat; Mad About You; and 7th Heaven.
As well as being cast as the gruff Capt Doreen Lewis in Private Benjamin, Eileen Brennan applied her perfect sense of comic timing to several other sharp-tongued film roles including that of the aloof and world-weary Mrs Peacock in Clue (1985), and the cruel orphanage superintendent Miss Bannister in The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1988).
Date of Birth: 2 January 1932, Purley, Surrey, UK
Birth Name: Richard Thorp
Richard Thorp starred as Squadron Leader Henry Maudslay in the 1955 film The Dam Busters, but became better known to millions of television viewers as Alan Turner, the landlord of The Woolpack in the Yorkshire-based soap Emmerdale.
Alan Turner joined the series as a farm manager in March 1982, and went on to become its longest-running character. Inept, boozy and bullying, he ran through a series of lovers, wives and secretaries; but in later years, after becoming landlord of The Woolpack, he sobered up and, by the time of Thorp’s death, had become a pillar of the community “like the village war memorial”, as he put it.
Thorp recalled that when he first joined, the plot lines were very different from those of later episodes: “I remember one story, and it ran for about five episodes. It was all what Seth was doing to Amos’s rhubarb. We didn’t have to go to bed with anybody or get jolly with our mothers, we just put a few slugs on a chap’s rhubarb. I enjoyed that more because everybody knew the characters more back then rather than who they were sleeping with and who was gay and who wasn’t.”
Thorp’s character was central to a number of pivotal plots, including one in which his daughter Steph (played by Lorraine Chase) tried to bump him off by pushing him down the stairs, before keeping him drugged to the eyeballs in a B&B in order to get her hands on his money.
When he first joined Emmerdale, Thorp, a fit 50 year-old, was something of a pin-up for women of a certain age, but by the mid-1990s he had ballooned to 18 stone and had become, in his own words, “less a national heart-throb and more the local heart attack”. In consequence his character became more marginal, and he admitted finding it frustrating not to be given decent storylines. In 2010 he said: “I recently asked the scriptwriters if I could get a juicy love interest, but they said that given my age, they would have to dig someone up!”
But he admitted that he could not afford to retire because he needed the cash to pay three ex-wives.
Richard Thorp was born on January 2 1932 at Purley, Surrey, and got his first film role in Robert Jordan Hill’s 1949 comedy thriller Melody in the Dark. His breakthrough part was that of Squadron Leader Henry Maudslay in The Dam Busters, which he landed after applying for a more minor role because he bore a physical resemblance to the real Maudslay, who had died during the operation.
Thorp appeared in several more feature films, including The Barretts Of Wimpole Street (1957), but later confessed that he had been too lazy to pursue a career in Hollywood, and in any case preferred working in television soaps because they guaranteed a regular income.
Before joining Emmerdale, Thorp was best known as Dr John Rennie in the ITV hospital soap, Emergency Ward 10, which he joined in 1957. Often described by tabloids as “the nation’s heart-throb” who was a regular on the show for 10 years and became so popular with its mainly female audience that its producers employed two secretaries purely to deal with his fan mail.
Thorp continued to work despite ill health. In 1994, after starring on This Is Your Life, he had a serious heart attack and was in intensive care for three days. Shortly afterwards he was diagnosed with chronic lymphatic leukaemia. Although the cancer did not develop, he continued to live with it. In 2009 he took a break from Emmerdale to have knee replacement surgery.
Richard Thorp’s three marriages ended in divorce, and in the 1960s he was briefly (though secretly) engaged to Babs Beverley of the Beverley Sisters.
Date of Birth: 16 July 1946, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US
Birth Name: Richard LeParmentier
Richard LeParmentier was an American character actor but in the 1970s moved to Britain, where he was cast as a young space station commander who is almost choked to death by Darth Vader in the original Star Wars film (1977).
Although LeParmentier appeared in more than 50 films and television series, it was the modest role of Admiral Motti, commander of the Death Star space station, who foolishly mocks Vader’s “sorcerer’s ways” and “sad devotion to that ancient Jedi religion”, for which he became best known.
Darth Vader (played by David Prowse) finds Motti’s lack of faith disturbing, and starts crushing his windpipe using the “Force” (a powerful form of telepathy), choking the young commander, but allowing him to live.
Devotees of the Star Wars canon have acclaimed “a brilliantly understated piece of cinema that showcased the true power of the Dark Side while highlighting the Empire’s main weakness over-confidence”. The scene remains a favourite with fans and has even spawned an online craze known as “Vadering”.
LeParmentier’s role may have been modest but it was also crucial. It was his character’s reckless act of defiance in standing up to Darth Vader that prompted the Rebel Alliance’s strike on the Death Star.
“I did the choking effect by flexing muscles in my neck,” LeParmentier recalled. “It’s one of the most famous Star Wars scenes and it’s the most parodied one too. Eddie Izzard does a bit on it in one of his routines.”
In 1988 LeParmentier played Lieutenant Santino in the animated classic Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (1988) a role that furnished him with the celebrated line: “Now that’s what I call one seriously disturbed toon” and found steady work as an actor on British television.
During the 1980s and 1990s he was also a television screenwriter, scripting episodes of Boon and The Bill for ITV.
Richard LeParmentier was born on July 16 1946 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, but moved to Britain in 1974, settling in Bath. He appeared in the David Essex rock film Stardust (1974), and with James Caan in the futuristic Rollerball (1975). But it was a week’s work at Elstree Studios in 1976, in between playing bit parts on British television, that changed his life when he shot his scene as Motti in Star Wars.
“I thought the film was going to be a success as soon as I read the script, despite the fact people were laughing at us as we shot the thing,” LeParmentier recalled. Walter Murch, a friend of the film’s director George Lucas, explained that people thought it was laughable “because they couldn’t see the vision behind it. It was in pieces. It’s just that once you see the vision, then it all makes sense.”
For more than 30 years LeParmentier was a fixture at Star Wars conventions all over the world, often signing pictures of himself sporting his Imperial Officer uniform while being choked by Darth Vader’s “Force”. His role of Motti, although the briefest of episodes in a 40-year acting career, occupied most of his official website.
One section of the site called “Motti’s hotties” featured a series of photos of LeParmentier posing with female fans, one of whom wore a bored expression and a shirt emblazoned “porn star”. Interviewed on the site, LeParmentier said he would prefer to be known as a writer first and as Admiral Motti second. “But you can’t deny being part of [one of] the most popular and influential films of all time,” he explained.
In the 13th James Bond film Octopussy (1983), LeParmentier played an American aide.
While appearing as a reporter in Superman II (1980) he met the British actress Sarah Douglas, who was cast as the Kryptonian supervillain Ursa. They married the following year, but divorced in 1984.
Date of Birth: 31 July 1947, Thornaby-on-Tees, North Yorkshire, UK
Birth Name: Richard Griffiths
Richard Griffiths was one of Britain’s most recognisable actors, deploying his girth and equally sizeable talent to great effect on television, on stage, and on the big screen.
He was memorable in a host of different genres, with a range and subtlety that belied his giant physique. A natural in Shakespeare’s comic roles, notably Falstaff, he later captured the imagination of young filmgoers with his performances as the hideous Uncle Vernon in the Harry Potter series. But it was, perhaps oddly, for his portrayal of two sexual predators that he was best-loved.
As Uncle Monty in Withnail and I (1987) he erupted, cheeks lightly rouged, into the bedroom of his nephew’s terrified flatmate, declaring that “I mean to have you, boy, even if it must be burglary.” Like the film’s other stars, Paul McGann and Richard E Grant, Griffiths would have such memorable snippets of dialogue quoted at him by legions of fans for the rest of his career. (“They’re all a bit silly about it, and they quote stuff and expect me to know it. I find that very odd.”)
Almost two decades later he played Hector, an inspirational teacher who fondles his pupils while giving them lifts home on his motorcycle, in Alan Bennett’s The History Boys (2004). The play was a smash hit in London, and went on to repeat the success on Broadway. Like Withnail it contained some lines that left audiences helpless with laughter (notably when one boy sighs: “I’m a Jew ... I’m small ... I’m homosexual ... and I live in Sheffield ... I’m f---ed.”) A large part of its appeal, however was what its director Nicholas Hytner called Griffiths’s “masterpiece of wit, delicacy, mischief and desolation”.
Griffiths was always at pains to insist that Hector is not a paedophile the boys in the play are all over 18. “I’d feed all paedophiles into a tree-shredder,” he told interviewers. “One minute with a tree shredder. Anything left the police can have.” And he was almost as intemperate with audience members who forgot to turn off their mobile phones. At least three times he interrupted the play in mid-performance, threatening to walk off.
Griffiths became so associated with gay roles that many assumed he was gay himself. “Look, I’m just acting,” he said. In fact he was married and declared a pronounced preference for women of a fuller figure. “I could never understand the attraction of Bette Davis. I always preferred Jane Russell.” Moreover, not only was he not gay, it turned out that he had started life so skinny that he required medical treatment.
Richard Griffiths was born on July 31 1947 in Thornaby-on-Tees, North Yorkshire. His father, Thomas, was a steelworker who also fought for money in pubs and, like his mother, the former Jane Denmark, was deaf-mute. Only two of the couple’s five children survived: two were stillborn and one, a longed-for daughter, died days after birth. The poverty, Griffiths said later, was “Dickensian”, with the unusual twist that, as he communicated with his parents by sign language, and the family had no television or radio, Richard’s childhood home was largely silent.
He ran away frequently but always came back to his parents because “I was sort of responsible for them. From the age of four I would help with the shopping. They would sign and I would translate to the shopkeeper.” As a result, he complained, “I have a lifelong loathing of shopping.”
He was also skinny as a boy, so skinny in fact that aged eight he was given treatment on his pituitary gland. His metabolism slowed and he gained 60 per cent of his body weight within a year. He was picked on at school but, owing to his new-found heft, coupled with a temper that he retained throughout his life (“I think I get it from my father. He was a very aggressive man”), he was more than able to hold his own. “I was the biggest. I once attacked two kids because they threw an apple core at me and it hit me in the face and everyone laughed and that was what really made me angry, being laughed at. So I pursued them round the school and beat them up. I was so angry. It was the best fight I ever had.”
He left St Bede’s school at 15 and applied for “a poxy job in a warehouse” only to find himself one of 300 hopefuls; so he returned to full-time education at Stockton and Billingham College. Taken by a teacher to see his first professional theatre production at 17, when he was in the audience of Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, Griffiths found himself spellbound.
He applied to do a drama course at the Northern College of Music in Manchester, which did not go down well at home. “In Teesside at the time ... if you said you wanted to be an actor it meant you had to be put to death. I had to keep the acting secret from my Dad. He raged at its pooffery when he found out.”
His first major role was in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible at the college’s drama society. When the student playing the governor of Massachusetts fell ill, Griffiths, promoted from a minor role, found himself overawed. “But I learnt it and did it.”
Like the principal characters in Withnail and I, Griffiths’s years as an aspiring actor were hard. But he soon realised that the weight he struggled with was a theatrical asset. Early in his career he was playing the Griffin in Alice in Wonderland when the actor playing the Mock Turtle turned to him and said: “Now listen to me, lad, you are very, very useful. You’ll never be out of a job.”
In the mid-1970s Griffiths was spotted by Trevor Nunn, then the Royal Shakespeare Company’s artistic director, and moved to live in Stratford. He rose through the roster of roles, eventually playing Bottom and Trinculo as well as Volpone and Henry VIII.
Still, it was a precarious life, and the best financial rewards came from advertising. Griffiths appeared in a series of television ads for Holsten lager, then in 1979 was asked to go to America for three days to film a series of ads for BMW. But Nunn would not give him the time off from the RSC and Griffiths lost out, a blow he never forgot. “That would have meant never having to worry about overheads again, and I could have devoted my life to interesting theatrical projects.” Instead, he would have wait until the Harry Potter films (from 2001) to achieve real financial security despite its subsequent success, Withnail and I was a flop at the box office.
Griffiths appeared in many other films, from Gandhi (1982) to Naked Gun 2 1/2 (1991), and also became well known to viewers of Pie in the Sky as Detective Inspector Henry Crabbe, a food-loving policeman who longs to retire from the force and set up his own restaurant. The light-hearted drama ran for five series on BBC1 from 1994.
Despite his success, Griffiths was not averse to moaning about the lot of the actor. It was a trait, he admitted, that drove his wife, Heather Gibson, an Irish actress whom he met in 1973 in a production of Lady Windermere’s Fan, “nuts”.
His most enduring concern, however, was with his size. His bountiful proportions may have come in useful in securing work, but there were complications elsewhere. Armrests on seats were a particular bugbear. And while he felt that the business of moving about and acting provided some sort of veil to his shape, posing for still photographs left him uncomfortably exposed. “I don’t like the way I look so I don’t like being photographed. I become defensive.” Being asked to appear naked, as his co-stars were in a production of Equus (2007), was never an issue. “Thank goodness it’s not me being naked. I wouldn’t inflict my naked body on any paying audience.”
“Everybody my age should be issued with a 2lb fresh salmon,” he told an interviewer before the play opened. “If you see someone young, beautiful and happy, you should slap them as hard as you can with it. When they ask, 'Why did you do that?’, you say, 'Because, you lucky young bastard, you don’t know how fortunate you are.’ And they don’t...”
Date of Birth: 8 April 1943, London, UK
Birth Name: James Herbert
James Herbert, the author sold more than 50 million horror novels, a tally bettered in the genre only by his friend Stephen King; Herbert wrote 23 books but was always rather to his frustration best known for his first two, The Rats (1974) and The Fog (1975).The Rats, a gory tale about mutant rodents taking over the country, was finished in nine months when Herbert was 28 and working as an art director in the same advertising company as Salman Rushdie. Herbert recalled making “loads of money” at the time but finding the job too easy: “I just decided to write a book, and it all poured out of me.”
The book did not meet with universal approval. Martin Amis, in the guise of “Henry Tilney” in the Observer, was the first to review it. “By page 20,” he wrote, “the rats are slurping the sleeping baby after the brave bow-wow has fought to the death to protect its charge. Enough to make a rodent retch, undeniably and enough to make any human pitch the book aside.”
The Sunday Times’s critic thought differently, calling The Rats “brilliant”; but when Herbert went into his local WH Smith’s and asked if they had the book, they replied no, and nor were they likely to. Such opprobrium inevitably heightened its appeal, and word quickly went around among teenagers that it was gripping stuff. Before long the book had sold more than a million copies.
Despite the commercial success of The Rats and his later novels, Herbert remained dissatisfied with his literary status, feeling that the “literary snobs” should take him more seriously. “I’ve always suffered from being labelled a horror writer just because I didn’t go to university, just because I still talk in my natural voice, just because I’m not as articulate as Martin Amis. We like to kid ourselves that we’re in an equal society, but we’re not.”
In an interview with The Sunday Telegraph, Herbert referred to a men’s style magazine’s recommended reading list of 20th-century novels that one should read by the age of 30: alongside books by Joyce, Salinger and Heller was The Rats, by James Herbert. He also pointed out that his fourth novel, Fluke (1977), had found its way on to the GCSE syllabus, and that a professor at an American university had written to him to say that he was analysing the Herbert oeuvre.
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“I know I’m good,” he said, “and I know I write well.” Of the explicit violence Amis affected to deplore, Herbert explained that “it flowed naturally from the pen. But I also wanted to show what it was really like to have your leg chewed by a mutant creature. I was very much against the Tom and Jerry and John Wayne types of violence where no one is ever really hurt, and Indians are killed without any suggestion that they may be husbands and fathers, and perhaps keep a dog back in the tepee.”
Herbert maintained that his books were moral works about redemption, “packed with metaphor and subtext”. But he did not deem them suitable reading matter for his own daughters until they were 15 (the books were banned from their school, so they couldn’t read them there either). “There are certain key scenes which are graphic,” Herbert admitted, “but I prefer to think of them as spiritual. It’s never wham, bam thank you ma’am unless it’s a subsidiary character.”
James Herbert was born on April 8 1943 in east London, just around the corner from the Krays. “Ours was the only Catholic household in the street,” he recalled. “All the rest were Jewish.” His parents ran a fruit stall in Bethnal Green market. His mother continued doing so into her seventies, and consistently turned down her son’s offers of a comfortable retirement in Sussex. At 75, she sat her GCSE in English. The day she passed, she filed for a divorce from her hard-drinking, gambling husband, but she continued to cook dinner for him once a week; someone would take it round to him on a bus.
At the age of 10, James followed his brother John on a scholarship to St Aloysius, a Roman Catholic grammar school in Highgate. John went on to become a “very, very middle-class” Lloyd’s broker. James progressed to Hornsey College of Art, and from there got a job in a small advertising agency, using the name of a better qualified friend (Denis Barker) for his interview. Before long, “Barker” had progressed to become group head in a larger agency, Charles Barker.
The idea for The Rats, Herbert explained, came from a line in Dracula in which a lunatic says he has seen 1,000 rats with red eyes staring up from the lawns. “I put that image together with my own experience of rats not fear of them, but loathing from growing up in the East End of London.” At the back of his house there had been some stables where the market traders dumped rotting fruit and vegetables. It was alive with rats.
Herbert wrote the book during evenings and weekends. Written in manuscript in purple felt tip pen, with barely a crossing out, he needed only one draft and then asked his wife to type it up a system he stuck to for subsequent novels. He had five rejection slips before he found a publisher, eventually selling it to New English Library for an advance payment of £150 and a royalty of five per cent.
After The Rats, Herbert wrote his books at the rate of roughly one a year until the turn of the century: The Fog (1975); The Survivor (1976); Fluke (1977); The Spear (1978); Lair (1979); The Dark (1980); The Jonah (1981); Shrine (1983); Domain (1984); Moon (1985); The Magic Cottage (1986); Sepulchre (1987); Haunted (1988); Creed (1990); Portent (1992); The City (1993); The Ghosts of Sleath (1993); ’48 (1996); Others (1999); Once (2001); Nobody True (2003); The Secret of Crickley Hall (2006); and Ash (2012).
Four of his novels The Rats, The Survivor, Fluke and Haunted were made into films; The Magic Cottage was dramatised for Radio 4; and The Secret of Crickley Hall was adapted for television by BBC One.
He was appointed OBE in 2010.
In 1979 Herbert was ordered to pay damages to the author Trevor Ravenscroft after Mr Justice Brightman ruled in the High Court that in The Spear an improbable story of neo-Nazi terrorism in England Herbert had copied from Ravenscroft’s The Spear of Destiny. “He did so to give his novel a backbone of truth with the least possible labour to himself,” said the judge, adding: “One must not underestimate the commercial attraction of the rubbish I have attempted to describe.”
For his later novels, Herbert tended towards supernatural plots. “The great advantage of my field is that you can always go way over the top if you’re in danger of getting bored,” he said. He claimed to have torn the horror genre from the grip of the bourgeoisie and “upper-middle-class writers like Dennis Wheatley”: “I made horror accessible by writing about working-class characters.”
Herbert lived in Sussex, with unbroken views of the South Downs. He aimed to be in his study by 10am and write until one, then from 2pm until six. Shrewd and cautious with his money, he was a member of Lloyd’s until 1991, when he withdrew.
“I worry about the many things that could happen to the people I love,” he said. “The books are full of that neurosis and I guess people tune into that. I have a dread of sounding pretentious and try not to talk too much about what I do.”
Date of Birth: 7 June, 1942, East sussex, UK
Birth Name: Patricia Bysshe Shelley
Nicknames: Pat Derby
Pat Derby was an Englishwoman who became an expert handler for some of the biggest animal celebrities on screen, from Lassie to Flipper; after a career working for Walt Disney, among others, she rebelled against what she called the “horrifying” cruelty of the industry.
As well as the famous collies on Lassie and dolphins on Flipper, Pat Derby worked with large American black bears for the series Gentle Ben and in 1975 handled a cougar for a car advertisement in which a skimpily-clad Farrah Fawcett was required to cosy up to the big cat.
Unlike many trainers of the period, her methods centred around “positive reinforcement”, rather than physical coercion. The advertisement, for example, ended on a shot of the snarling cougar perched above a billboard bearing the company logo. “I got him to twitch his tail by tickling it from behind the sign,” she later recalled.
Yet Pat Derby eventually became alarmed by the “dark side” of the Hollywood animal industry. “I went into that occupation with the feeling that if people earn their living off animals, they must love them a lot,” she said. “But it was really horrifying to me when I saw how even little dogs who worked on films had to live.” She once walked out on Disney while filming Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Colour after a bear cub was forced to endure hours of retakes under hot studio lights.
In 1976 she published The Lady and Her Tiger, which served both as an autobiography and an exposé of the inhumane handling techniques practised by some of her colleagues. The book won an American Library Association Award, but it also put an end to her career in show business.
Finding herself persona non grata, Derby became a campaigner and, in 1984, co-founded the Performing Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) with her partner Ed Stewart. After acquiring 30 acres of land in Galt, outside Sacramento in California, they populated it with four-legged refugees from cruel owners and the entertainment world.
Among its first inhabitants were a jaguar, several lions and bears, as well as an African elephant, known as No 71, rescued from an estate in Florida. As the couple achieved public notice with their campaigns against cruelty in the circus industry, numbers at the sanctuary expanded. “It was like Noah’s Ark,” Stewart recalled. “They just kept coming.” Today, PAWS has three Californian sanctuaries, including the 2,300-acre ARK 2000 in San Andreas.
The second of two children, Patricia Bysshe Shelley was born on June 7 1942 in East Sussex. Her father, who claimed the great Romantic poet as an ancestor, died when Pat was 12. She left formal education three years later, moving to New York on her own to try her luck as a dancer and actress. She enrolled at Columbia University but subsequently dropped out and moved to the West Coast, where she found a job at a nightclub in San Francisco.
There, in 1964, she met Ted Derby, a fellow performer who was also an animal trainer. They married and together set up a roadside zoo, also using the animals in film and television. When the marriage broke down in the mid-1970s, however, the couple were forced to divide up their menagerie.
It was while filming the car commercial for the Mercury-Lincoln Cougar that she met Stewart, then employed in advertising for the car company. The pair relocated to California and set up their first animal sanctuary, at Howling Wolf Lodge in Leggett. During this period Stewart became a vocal advocate for animal rights, making his influence felt at the California State Legislature and the Department of Fish and Game. Six years later PAWS was established at Galt to raise awareness of cruelty in the entertainment industry, to ensure high standards of care for animals bred in captivity, and to create a safe environment for the shelter of rescued or retired wildlife.
Their first legislative success came the following year. Pat Derby soon rose to prominence as a spokesperson for animal welfare, appearing on such shows as Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, Animal Planet, The Today Show and CBS Evening News. Working alongside Stewart, she pioneered a “non-dominance” technique in the safe handling of elephants, and served with several state committees, advising on elephant welfare. Throughout her life, she remained acutely conscious of the inherent shortcomings of raising wild animals in captivity: “You can never replace the wild. You can only make the prison as comfortable as possible.”
Work on the ARK 2000 began in May 2002. It is now the only sanctuary in America to house bull elephants. In 2012 Pat Derby and Stewart received the Lily Award, presented by the Voice For the Animals Foundation, “for their extraordinary and heroic work”. An elephant at the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya has been named “Pat Derby” in her honour.
Date of Birth: 20 August 1916, Raton, New Mexico, US
Birth Name: Petro Vlahos
Petro Vlahos, developed the blue- and green-screen technique that made memorable visual effects possible on films such as Mary Poppins and Ben Hur.
While others had grappled before with so-called “composite photography”, overlaying shots of separately-filmed actors on background sets, the results were never totally convincing, with actors often appearing to glow in a halo of light that spoiled the effect.
Vlahos moved the process forward, first for the spectacular chariot race in William Wyler’s 1959 remake of the epic Ben Hur, and later for the charming penguin dance in the Disney musical Mary Poppins (1964). For the song Jolly Holiday, Walt Disney had decided that one of the choruses should be sung by animated penguins dressed as waiters.
Although Disney had spent £164,205.72 buying the rights to Vlahos’s blue-screen process “chicken feed”, he called the money technicians had to accommodate the animation with live footage that had already been shot, which meant major revisions. That did not prevent Vlahos working with the Disney studio on The Love Bug (1969) and Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971), both of which also relied on special effects.
The techniques that Vlahos perfected in such pictures were applied in many subsequent science-fiction and fantasy films, including the first Star Wars trilogy between 1977 and 1983. Unfortunately, shooting for some of the special effects in Star Wars took place during the hottest British summer for many years. The blue-screen process required giant arc lights, making the sets stiflingly hot: electricians fainted, and the actor playing Chewbacca, clad in a body suit of angora wool and yak hair, collapsed from heat exhaustion and dehydration.
Vlahos and his collaborators won an Academy Award for their composite processes in 1965, and with his son, Paul, he shared another Oscar in 1995 for the blue-screen advances made by Ultimatte, the company he founded in 1976.
His original concepts and innovations have been enhanced and expanded over the years, making possible entirely seamless composites which preserve fine details such as hair, smoke, mist, motion blur and shadows while automatically suppressing “blue spill” (whereby light from the blue screen behind washes across the foreground subject).
Refinements of Vlahos’s pioneering technique were used to make many of the blockbuster films of the 1990s, notably Titanic (1997), in which scenes that had hitherto been too dangerous, expensive or difficult to film were finally possible.
Special effects triumphs in contemporary films like Avatar (2009), in which blue-skinned Na’vi dwell among floating mountains, and Life of Pi (2012), in which the tiger, the ocean, and sometimes even the boy Pi himself are digital creations, also derive from Vlahos’s work.
Petro Vlahos was born on August 20 1916 at Raton, New Mexico. After graduating in Engineering from the University of California at Berkeley in 1941, he became a designer at Douglas Aircraft during the Second World War.
After working as a radar engineer at Bell Laboratories, he joined the Motion Picture Research Council, spending six months devising a complex laboratory process that separated blues, greens and reds before recombining them. The result his patented “colour-difference system travelling matte scheme” created the breathtaking visual effects in Ben-Hur .
Having minimised the unwanted “halo” side-effect that had dogged earlier attempts, he modified the technique to work on green screens as well as blue.
On television, technology based on Vlahos’s work was regularly seen in episodes of Doctor Who, and made it possible for weather presenters to point at sun and rain symbols that only their viewers can see.
In all Vlahos held more than 35 patents for film-related gadgetry, and in 1978 received an Emmy for his work.
Date of Birth: 7 September 1914, Leytonstone, London, England, UK
Birth Name: Stuart Freeborne
His imagination and talent were central to the success of such pictures. For example 2001’s famous “Dawn of Man” sequence was only possible because of Freeborn’s pioneering work on ape suits. Though his techniques were new, the results were so polished that some viewers were convinced that the apes must be real. Meanwhile for George Lucas, the director of Star Wars, Freeborn created a cast of intergalactic monsters and heroes from the bloated reptilian villain Jabba the Hutt to the pint-size chartreuse Jedi, Yoda, which appealed to audiences every bit as much, if not more, than their human counterparts.
Yoda appears in the second of the Star Wars films, The Empire Strikes Back (1980), as tutor and mentor to the aspiring Jedi warrior, Luke Skywalker. Freeborn’s effects served to create an emotionally convincing character, and each of Yoda’s gnomic, grammatically-tortured musings was accompanied by expressive head-cocking, ear-twitching, lip-pursing and eye-rolling. The character, whose features Freeborn modelled on his own (with a dash of Albert Einstein thrown in for good measure) has become something of a cult figure.
The Empire Strikes Back combined old-school puppetry with animatronics that would come to dominate special effects thereafter. Animatronics would themselves be largely superseded by computer-generated images, such as those used in the recent Star Wars trilogy (1999-2005). Shot 20 years after the first three movies, the new films’ impressive but somewhat soulless effects had many critics longing for the characterful wizardry of the originals. For Freeborn’s ability to bestow the spark of life was acquired not at the computer screen, but at the mirror of the house in which he grew up, where he endlessly practised transforming the only model available himself.
Stuart Freeborn was born in Leytonstone, east London, on September 7th 1914, and grew up in Beckenham, Kent. His father was an insurance broker and keen that Stuart should follow in his footsteps. The boy had other ideas, and made himself up into a host of characters from Mr Hyde-like fiends to trilby-sporting, matchstick-chewing sleuths. He photographed the results and fired off the pictures to film studios, to no avail.
According to Nick Maley, a make-up artist who later worked alongside Freeborn, the aspiring special-effects man got his break as a 21-year-old by passing himself off in Beckenham as the Emperor Haile Selassie. Initially the impersonation was rewarded only with a police interview, but as the story spread, Denham Studios, headed by Alexander Korda, offered Freeborn a job.
He began on Wings of the Morning (1937), starring Annabella and Henry Fonda, and followed it with Victoria the Great (also 1937) and The Thief of Baghdad (1940). During the war he trained with the RAF but was forced to truncate his service owing to haemophilia. Instead he worked on The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943).
It was not until Green For Danger (1946) that he got his first on-screen credit, and two years later his career took-off with Oliver Twist. Required to transform Alec Guinness into Fagin, Freeborn produced two versions of the character for screen testing. One was subtle, one grotesquely exaggerated. Director David Lean put the tests to a vote, and the latter version won the day. “So that’s the way I had to do it, never mind how over the top it was,” Freeborn recalled. In New York, the hook-nosed villain was denounced as anti-Semitic and Oliver Twist was not shown there until 1951.
The controversy upset Freeborn, but his talent was no longer in doubt. He worked on several films a year, including, in 1957, The Bridge on the River Kwai. Again working with Lean, Freeborn flew out to Sri Lanka where, travelling one day to the set, he was in a car accident that killed all the vehicle’s other occupants. Thrown into the jungle, he lay semi-conscious, unnoticed by rescuers for several hours. After he was spotted he spent four months recuperating in hospital.
He transformed Peter Sellers into three characters in Dr Strangelove (1964) and four years later the director of that film, Stanley Kubrick, hired him again to mastermind the opening sequence of 2001, A Space Odyssey (1968).
The prologue captures the moment that, under the shadow of the unflinching monolith, apes learn how to use tools, a leap in intelligence prefiguring the rise of man. Freeborn’s genius was to craft lightweight foam skins for the headpieces of the ape suits that perfectly reflected the expressions of the mime artists inside them. The apes’ lips drew back to reveal teeth underneath. In each ape mouth, the tongue was operated by the actor’s own. Weaving the bodysuits from yak, horse and human hair, was simple by comparison. It was time-consuming, however, as in many parts of the costume each hair had to be punched into foam latex with a needle. Freeborn would deploy similar techniques to create the hirsute Wookie hero, Chewbacca, in Star Wars.
Also in the 1970s, Freeborn worked on the devilish Omen (1976) and the action-hero film Superman (1978). It was he who came up with the idea of parting Christopher Reeve’s hair one way when he was playing his shy alter ego Clark Kent, and the other when he was sporting his superhero’s cape. Before shooting, Freeborn also played a part in relieving Gene Hackman, cast as the villain Lex Luthor, of his treasured moustache.
Richard Donner, director of Superman, wanted Hackman cleanshaven for the part. So he asked Freeborn to make him up with “the greatest moustache you’ve ever done”, and then had a meeting with Hackman. Donner told the actor: “Do me a favour. The moustache has to go. You take off your moustache and I’ll take off mine.” Reluctantly, Hackman allowed Freeborn to shave him. Once the razor had done its work, Donner peeled off his appendage.
Freeborn continued to work until 1990. His last project was the television film Max and Helen. In 1984 he was nominated for a BAFTA for his work on Return of the Jedi.
Date of Birth: 25 August 1947, Leipzig, Germany.
Birth Name: Peter Gilmore
James Onedin, the protagonist of the long-running BBC television series The Onedin Line, gained his splendid name from a sea nymph. After the programme's creator, Cyril Abraham, had read about mythological figure Ondine, he transposed the "e", thus making her a man. And what a man: Peter Gilmore, who played Onedin in 91 episodes from 1971 to 1980, had tousled hair, flinty eyes, hollow cheeks, mutton-chop sideburns racing across his cheek, lips pulled severely down, chin thrust indomitably forward to face down the brewing gale.
The sea captain did not so much talk as emit salty barks that brooked no demur. In 1972, while filming, Gilmore was buzzed by speedboats from the Royal Naval College. Still in character as Onedin, he yelled irascibly at the tyro sailors: "Taxpayers' money! Where are your guns? What use would you be if the Russians came?"
Like Horatio Nelson, Francis Drake and to a lesser extent the early 70s prime minister Edward Heath, the very cut of Gilmore's jib suggested that the British if only in prime-time costume dramas still ruled the waves. For many, Gilmore's name conjures up the stirring Adagio from Khachaturian's ballet Spartacus that was used on the opening credits. Madly and marvellously, Onedin set up a shipping line with sailing vessels in late-19th century Liverpool at a time when steamships were taking over the seaways.
By series two, his business model had seen off the sceptics but his wife, Anne, had died in childbirth. That plot twist was partly explained by the fact that the actor who played her, Anne Stallybrass, had decided to return to the theatre.
To honour his dead wife's memory, Onedin added a steamship to his fleet called the Anne Onedin and then allowed Kate Nelligan (as a coal-merchant's eligible daughter) and Caroline Harris (as a 20-something worldly wise widow) to vie for his affections. He spurned both, marrying his daughter's governess, Letty Gaunt, who died of diphtheria. By the eighth and last series, Onedin was married to a third wife, Margarita Juarez, and had become a grandfather.
Before Howards' Way, The Onedin Line was the BBC's nautical franchise: Abraham wrote five novels loosely based on his television scripts, while Gilmore was frequently asked to launch ships and was also bombarded with fan mail and advice from veteran sailors. He parlayed fame into reviving a former career as a singer, releasing in 1974 an album of sailor shanties called Songs of the Sea and in 1977 another called Peter Gilmore Sings Gently.
He regretted that he became too typecast as Onedin to get other lead roles. In 1978 he starred opposite Doug McLure in the film Warlords of Atlantis as an archaeologist searching for the fabled underwater city who ends up battling a giant octopus and other sea monsters.
Gilmore was born in the German city of Leipzig. At the age of six, he moved to Nunthorpe, near Middlesbrough, where he was raised by relatives, later attending the Friends' school in Great Ayton, north Yorkshire. From the age of 14 he worked in a factory, but later studied at Rada. While undertaking national service in 1950 he discovered a talent for singing and after his discharge joined singing groups who performed all over the country.
During the 1950s and 60s he became a stalwart of British stage musicals, appearing in several largely unsuccessful shows, including one called Hooray for Daisy! in which he was the chief human in a drama about a pantomime cow. He even released a single in 1960 as a spin-off from his performance in Follow That Girl, Susan Hampshire's only foray into musicals. In 1958 he appeared on the pop programme Cool for Cats, where he met the actor Una Stubbs, then one of the Dougie Squires Dancers, who were weekly tasked with interpreting hit songs in movement. The couple were married from 1958 until 1969.
His success at this time in British and US TV commercials led him to be cast in comedies, with 11 appearances in Carry On films, two of which Carry On Jack (1963) and Carry On Cleo (1964) gave him early nautical roles. In 1970 he married Jan Waters, with whom he starred in both stage and television productions of The Beggar's Opera, he playing the highwayman Captain Macheath.
The Onedin Line brought Gilmore the fame that had eluded him. In 1976, he and Jan divorced and he started living with Stallybrass, whom he married in 1987. In 1984 a new generation of viewers saw Gilmore as Brazen, the security chief of a distant human colony called Frontios in Doctor Who's 21st series. Brazen died heroically while helping the Doctor escape. Gilmore made his last stage appearance in 1987 in Michael Frayn's Noises Off and his last screen one in the 1996 television movie On Dangerous Ground.
Date of Birth: 30 October 1935, Hampstead, London, England, UK
Birth Name: Michael Robert Winner
Nicknames: Michael Winner
Michael Winner, supplied interviewers with a list of more than 30 films he had directed, not always including the early travelogue This Is Belgium (1956), mostly shot in East Grinstead. But his enduring work was himself a bravura creation of movies, television, journalism, the law courts and a catchphrase, ''Calm down, dear", from an exasperating series of television commercials.
He was born in London, the only child of George and Helen Winner, who were of Russian and Polish extraction respectively. His builder father made enough money propping up blitzed houses to invest in London property. The profits funded his wife's gambling, which, her son complained, so distracted "Mumsie" that he was never paid due attention. She left him in the bedroom with the mink coats of guests who came to his barmitzvah only to play poker with her.
A boarder at St Christopher school, a Quaker establishment in Letchworth, Hertfordshire, Winner was an attention seeker from start to expulsion. According to his school reports he was "spoilt" with a "craving for power which he is trying to achieve by the use of his money". He also earned a "reputation of being movie mad" after he pinned handwritten reviews on the noticeboard.
When the publisher Paul Hamlyn addressed the school, Winner, then 14, asked for copies of all his film books and phoned him, reversing the charges, until they were sent. He then approached British studios, claiming to write for Hamlyn, and when that scam was found out, turned his acquaintance with a child actor into an article for the Kensington Post in 1950. It became a regular, syndicated showbiz column: he was not paid, but the seats were free and he had the undivided attention of Bob Hope, Louis Armstrong and Danny Kaye. That became a permanent part of his persona – the enfant terrible among the stars.
For his father, he studied law and economics at Downing College, Cambridge, and also edited the Varsity newspaper. He persuaded the owner of the Rex cinema in Cambridge to apply to the local council to approve a showing of The Wild One, banned by the censor because of its violence. The stunt attracted nationwide interest.
After university, television companies turned Winner down for a directors' course, so he wrote for both TV and film, and was a gossip columnist of sorts. He hired a Rolls-Royce and was, said a fellow writer, "a master at gathering banal quotes from silly girls down to the last burp". He invented a debutante, Venetia Crust, a fiction for which he was eventually exposed (later he used the name of her "father", Arnold, for movie credits).
Winner's father loaned him £1,500 for his first film, money soon recouped as Some Like It Cool (1962) filled a gap in the market for a comedy in a nudist camp. It was among several films he confected in the early 1960s. None demonstrated his maxim "create your own material to get a better class of employment", but they did end a period in which he sacked secretaries rather than have them know that he had no deals going.
Winner shared a new blokey humour emerging in post-Brylcreem Britain: after directing Billy Fury in Play It Cool (1962) and accurately reproducing bedsitter-land in West 11 (1963), he made The System (1964); You Must Be Joking! (1965) for which he blew up a car in Piccadilly Circus in the rush hour and told police he had no idea who was in charge; The Jokers (1966); and I'll Never Forget What's 'Isname (1967), with Oliver Reed and Orson Welles.
Winner extended his boy-genius phase by phoning reference books on his 30th birthday to tell them he was 29, knowing entries would not be changed for three years. He went on the road to make Hannibal Brooks (1969), a comedy lumbering through 200 locations, working again with Reed, and The Games (1969), about an Olympic marathon.
"I was looking for something that would keep us employed," he said of his move to Hollywood. "You don't have that much choice." Rejecting The French Connection as a project, he began with the westerns Lawman (1971), shot in Spain with rubber cacti, and Chato's Land (1972).
His real metier turned out to be primitive violence. Winner despised analysis, but it is significant that he directed testosterone fuelled revenge fantasies during the years when his by then widowed mother (a "nice, little, white-haired lady … She was a killer") sold paintings and antiques left to Winner to fund her casino losses, and set 11 firms of solicitors on him.
Winner mentioned to the actor Charles Bronson the idea of a man "justified" by the rape and murder of his womenfolk to shoot muggers, which led to Winner directing Death Wish (1974), and two sequels. He also directed coarse versions of The Big Sleep (with Robert Mitchum, 1978) and The Wicked Lady (1983 – he saw the original 20 times for Margaret Lockwood's bosom). All of these, as Bronson remarked, were abusively hard on women. In 1993 Winner converted Helen Zahavi's novel Dirty Weekend into a fantasy of a female exterminating angel, but it hardly evened the score (nor squared with his claim that his favourite film was Bambi).
Critics disliked a pleasureless tension gripping his films, whether it be The Nightcomers (1971), a prequel to The Turn of the Screw; Won Ton Ton The Dog Who Saved Hollywood (1976); or Alan Ayckbourn's A Chorus of Disapproval (1989). Winner was always quick to challenge the press he taped his interviews either directly or through legal action (he gave away the damages). Papers would get a warning from the company, Scimitar Films, he ran with John Fraser: back at school, Winner had paid Fraser two shillings a week to clean his room and make his beds, and sixpence for washing up.
In 1984 he set up the Police Memorial Trust in response to the murder of WPC Yvonne Fletcher. Several years later he proposed a naff memorial to officers killed in the course of duty, featuring snarling alsatians (the Queen suggested their mouths be shut).
He began to describe films as a hobby, since he had sufficient millions for Learjet rides, a garage of cars that he drove Mr Toadishly and the slow repurchase of the rest of the Holland Park house in one flat of which his family had lived. The restored mansion, Woodland House, the former home of the Victorian artist Sir Luke Fildes, has more than 40 rooms and housed his valuable collection of artwork for children's books, including EH Shepard's drawings of Winnie-the-Pooh. He also collected the artwork of Donald McGill, master of the ribald, big‑bosomed seaside postcard.
A succession of young women shared evenings among his antiques, but did not live on the premises, where more regular companions included five full-time cleaners and herds of soft toys. On more solitary evenings he cut and glued table mats, and said obituarists would describe him as a "table-mat maker", adding "film‑maker" if there were space.
Eventually, he re-encountered Geraldine Lynton-Edwards, whom he had met in 1957 when she was a teenage ballet dancer; they were engaged in 2007, and married in 2011. He had intended to leave his house to the nation, but put it up for sale for £60m just before his marriage. He also auctioned much of his art collection, but swore this was not to repay £9m he had borrowed for little luxuries, including the hire of helicopters. He did not part with his autograph album of star signatures, or the teddy bears.
"I ate cornflakes on my own," he replied to questions about his swinging life when he was young and slender, although it was never all that he ate, and certainly not after the Sunday Times encouraged him into restaurant reviewing for his Winner's Dinners columns (published in book form in 1999). These were less about digestion than self-definition: several famous eateries banned him for his bullying.
His "calm down" catchphrase in the telly ads he directed and appeared in (once in drag) for the Esure insurance company displaced his own excitability and fluster on to (female) others. Esure sold a million policies during his era, before replacing him with a stop-motion-animated mouse. By then the ''calm down'' line had developed its own career David Cameron was heavily criticised when, during prime minister's questions in 2011, he directed it against the Labour MP Angela Eagle. Winner himself had been a fervent supporter of Margaret Thatcher, before a Blairite conversion.
He retired from his restaurant column in December 2012. His last years had been a tribulation involving a near-fatal bacterial infection from oysters, MRSA and liver disease.
Date of Birth: 19 September 1941, Milan, Italy.
Birth Name: Maria Angela Melato
Nicknames: Mariangela Melato
Melato was born in Milan and studied at the Milan Theatre Academy. A striking, blonde actress, she began her stage career in the early 1960s and rose to fame after delivering powerful performances for a number of notable Italian stage directors such as Dario Fo, Luchino Visconti and Luca Ronconi.
Her cinematic debut came in 1969 with Pupi Avati's Thomas e gli indemoniati and Melato would continue to deliver memorable performances in the 1970s and grew to become a highly respected leading lady of many acclaimed and award-winning Italian films. Her memorable early film roles include the school teacher in Nino Manfredi's comedy Between Miracles (1971) and the female leads in Elio Petri's The Working Class Goes to Heaven (1971) and Vittorio De Sica's Lo chiameremo Andrea (We'll Call Him Andrew, 1972).
Melato received much praise for her role as Giancarlo Giannini's Milanese mistress in The Seduction of Mimi (1972), directed by Lina Wertmüller. This was to be the start of a very successful working relationship with Wertmüller, who also cast Melato and Giannini as the leads in her next film, Love and Anarchy (1973), in which Melato played an anarchic prostitute. The popular duo of Melato and Giannini were then paired in a third film by Wertmüller; Swept Away by an Unusual Destiny in the Blue Sea of August (1974). Melato's critically acclaimed comedic performance in this film as a spoiled, unsympathetic aristocrat is one of her most internationally known roles.
For the remainder of the 1970s, Melato worked with some Europe's most renowned directors, including Claude Chabrol in Nada (1974), Elio Petri in Todo modo (1976) and Luigi Comencini in Il gatto (1978). She also worked on television; playing the role of Princess Bithiah, in the miniseries Moses the Lawgiver (1974), which was also released in a theatrical version.
After attaining international success with many of her films, Melato attempted to make a career for herself in America as well. She played one of her most famous parts with a supporting role as villainess General Kala in Flash Gordon (1980). She also played the female lead opposite Ryan O'Neal in the comedy So Fine (1981).
However, she failed to attain the same success that she had in Italy and quickly went back to her native country, where she went on to act in a number of comedies and dramas. She also reunited with Lina Wertmüller for the film Summer Night, with Greek Profile, Almond Eyes and Scent of Basil (1986) but gradually appeared in fewer films, and did more theatre roles, such as the lead in The Miracle Worker.
Date of Birth: 14 April 1929, Bloomsbury, London, England, UK
Birth Name: Gerald Alexander Anderson
Nicknames: Gerry Anderson
Gerry Anderson, after suffering from Alzheimer's disease, was the main mover behind a number of puppet series commissioned by Lew Grade's Independent Television Corporation. They made the company a fortune from the space age: perhaps the best known was Thunderbirds (1965-66), and among the others were Fireball XL5 (1962-63), Stingray (1964) and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons (1967-68).
Anderson embarked on Thunderbirds in 1964. For Grade, international sales particularly into the US market – were a key concern. So Thunderbirds focused on the Tracy brothers, with first names borrowed from the US astronauts Scott Carpenter, Virgil Grissom, Alan Shepard, John Glenn and Gordon Cooper. Enormously popular in its time, the series is still being repeated today.
Scott and the others were members of International Rescue, based on a south Pacific Island, set up, in a nod to the Bonanza western series, by their father, former astronaut Jeff Tracy. Thus did the brothers, with their motto "Thunderbirds are go!", fight fires in mines and villains in Monte Carlo, rescue solarnauts from the sun, quench blazing gasfields and take on the evil of The Hood, a villainous mastermind operating from a Malaysian jungle temple over some 32 episodes. The British featured with aristo blonde bombshell Lady Penelope (voiced by, and modelled on, Anderson's then wife Sylvia Thamm) and Parker, Cockney butler-cum-chauffeur of Penelope's 21st-century Rolls-Royce, FAB 1.
The pre-ITV world of the early 50s had been one of puppets such as Muffin the Mule and the Flowerpot Men, a mirror for a Britain on extremely visible strings. Rocket men, on BBC radio, Radio Luxembourg and in the Eagle comic, meant Dan Dare and Jet Morgan recycled Biggles and Battle of Britain pilots. After Anderson, they were destined for the galactic dole queue, just as Eagle's demise was hastened by the arrival of Anderson spin-offs such as TV Century 21 (1965-71). "Everything we did," Anderson told his biographers Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn, in What Made Thunderbirds Go! (2002), "was in an endeavour to sell to America," and Grade spectacularly achieved that with Fireball XL5, a US network sale to NBC. Thunderbirds, shown across the world and more than a dozen times on British TV, is the show that defines the Anderson achievement, yet never attracted a US network.
There was also the merchandising, for all the hit Anderson series, but spectacularly for Thunderbirds. While listening to the Royal Netherlands Air Force's rendition of the theme tune, the consumer could contemplate the purchase of the Dinky Toy FAB 1. There was a (very) minor hit record for Fireball XL5 and, beyond toys, wrote Chris Bentley in The Complete Gerry Anderson (2003), there were "clothing, toiletries, crockery, bedding, soft furnishings, ornaments, stationery, confectionery and baked beans".
Grade and Anderson's collaboration began in 1960, in the wake of the latter's western series for children, Four Feather Falls. Anderson proposed Supercar, featuring just before astronauts took off a test pilot hero from Arizona, Mike Mercury. Grade slashed Anderson's projected budget by a third, commissioned 39 episodes, and sold the series to the US, where it was a huge hit. That year, Anderson married Sylvia, beginning their tempestuous creative partnership.
Two years later, as Fireball XL5 was going to NBC, Grade's Associated Television (ATV) purchased Anderson's company, Anderson Provis Films (APF). The deal enriched Anderson, and left him, Grade aside, in creative control. In October 1964 Stingray, with Captain Troy Tempest of the World Aquanaut Security Patrol, battling, among others, Titan, ruler of Titanica, waded ashore on ITV and netted ITC millions worldwide. After Thunderbirds came Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons, and then Joe 90 (1968), which was erratically broadcast or not around the ITV network.
However, the moment seemed to have passed: television appeared clogged up with Anderson's Supermarionation puppets. Two Thunderbird movies had flopped; the tide was ebbing.
Anderson was born in London, the younger son of Deborah and Joseph Abrahams. Joseph's parents were Jews from eastern Europe. Deborah Leonoff's background mixed Jewish and Cornish roots. Their vituperative marriage gave Anderson an unhappy childhood. His father was a socialist, increasingly debt-ridden and trapped in low-paid jobs. The family gravitated from Willesden Green to penury in Kilburn, and then on to Neasden. In the face of the commonplace antisemitism of the times, mother and son, prevailing over Joseph, had the family surname changed to Anderson.
Gerry was educated at Kingsgate infants school in Kilburn and Braintcroft junior and senior schools in Neasden. Puppetry did not feature indeed, he preferred knitting. Escape was provided in the front stalls at the Kilburn State and Grange cinemas, facing each other across the Kilburn high road. He won a scholarship to Willesden county secondary school and became a chain smoker. The death of his Mosquito pilot brother, Lionel, on active service in 1944 devastated the family. Anderson enrolled at the local polytechnic, flirted with a career in architecture, and developed an aptitude for plaster modelling, which triggered dermatitis.
Then a friend invited him to the Pathé laboratories at Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, and Anderson the moviegoer became intrigued by film. At the end of the war he became a trainee at the Colonial Film Unit, before joining Gainsborough Pictures as an assistant editor. Work on two bodice rippers, Caravan (1946) and Jassy (1947), and a thriller, Snowbound (1948), was followed by a posting as an RAF radio operator. By 1950, he was a freelance dubbing editor. The films included The Clouded Yellow (1950) with Trevor Howard and Jean Simmons, Appointment in London (1953) with Dirk Bogarde, A Prize of Gold (1955) with Richard Widmark and Mai Zetterling, and Devil Girl from Mars (1954). It was a journeyman's career path, in a then declining industry.
In the mid-50s, commercial TV arrived. Anderson and Arthur Provis, a camera operator, set up Pentagon Films, whose recruits included Sylvia as a secretary. After Pentagon went bust came APF, which struggled until commissioned to produce a 52-part, 15-minute puppet series, The Adventures of Twizzle (1957-58). This was followed by Torchy the Battery Boy (1959-60). The wild west was big on late 50s British TV, via shows such as Wagon Train and Wells Fargo. APF came up with Four Feather Falls. Nicholas Parsons voiced, and Michael Holliday sang, Sheriff Tex Tucker. Bought by Granada, the programme debuted on ITV in February 1960. Tucker, his English-accented horse Rocky (Kenneth Connor), his dog Dusty and Pedro the villainous bandit rode into British children's teatime to be followed by Supercar.
In 1960 Anderson had produced and directed the B-movie Crossroads to Crime. At the other end of the decade, alongside a late and ill-starred puppet-live action series The Secret Service (1969), he produced the science fiction movie Doppelgänger. The live action TV series UFO (1970), The Protectors (1972-74) and Space 1999 (1975-78) followed. None greatly prospered.
In 1975, financially battered, and in the era before video sales, Anderson sold off his share of APF royalties. That year, too, he and Sylvia separated. Soon his relationship with ATV, in decline since the late 60s, ended. Anderson's finances were collapsing; his career reached its nadir before signs of revival in the 80s.
From the 1990s onwards the work of Anderson and the group of gifted puppeteers and film-makers he had worked with in 1960s Slough was rediscovered. There were conventions, live shows and repeat showings. Anderson developed other projects, but nothing really compared with those strange times and the mystery of Supermarionation, credited from the later episodes of Supercar.
Not that there was a mystery: it was the product, as the 60s advanced, of increasingly sophisticated and expensive technique. Just as the Wizard of Oz turned out to be a man behind a curtain, so Supermarionation merely combined the words "super", "marionette" and "animation". "It didn't mean," Anderson told Archer and Hearn, "anything other than that."
He was appointed an MBE in 2001. His first two marriages ended in divorce. He is survived by his wife, Mary, two daughters from his first marriage, a son from his second, and a son from his third.
Date of Birth: 28 February 1923, Highland Falls, New York, US
Birth Name: Charles Edward Durning
Nicknames: Charles Durning
Charles Durning first grabbed audience attention as the crooked Lieutenant Snyder in The Sting (1973). He makes an explosive appearance, tearing down an alley after the slick grifter played by Robert Redford, and repeatedly lurches out of the shadows throughout the rest of the film. Durning had only a handful of scenes, and over the next 40 years would seldom be granted more screen time in 200-odd film and TV roles. Nevertheless, his jowly face, with its boxer's nose and sly eyes, grew increasingly familiar, and his name in the opening titles usually promised good things ahead. His heavyset frame meant he was often cast as tough guys, but he later assumed more jovial roles, portraying Father Christmas several times.
His first Oscar nomination came for The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), an ebullient musical about the southern hospitality offered at a brothel called the Chicken Ranch. Durning plays the slippery Texan governor who must decide whether to close down the establishment. His evasive nature is captured in a magical song-and-dance routine: "I love to dance a little sidestep," he sings. "Now they see me, now they don't …"
Durning's second Oscar nomination was for playing another character uneasy with his authority – the nougat-loving Gestapo chief Colonel Erhardt in To Be Or Not to Be (1983), Mel Brooks's remake of Ernst Lubitsch's classic about a Polish theatre company's attempt to outsmart the Nazis. Durning has some of the funniest scenes in the film. He barks commands at a hapless captain (Christopher Lloyd), then blames him when his plans backfire. Making doe eyes at Anne Bancroft, he tells her: "Consider yourself in the arms of the Gestapo." It is a broad comic role in a film that balances farce with tragedy.
Durning knew first-hand the horrors of war. Born in Highland Falls, New York state, he grew up near the military academy at West Point. His mother, Louise, laundered the clothes of the cadets there. His father, James, was badly injured in the first world war. Charles joined the army aged 17 and took part in the D-day landing aged 21. In a Memorial Day speech in 2007, he recalled: "I was the second man off my barge, and the first and third man got killed." Shot in the hip shortly afterwards, he spent months in hospital, then fought at the Battle of the Bulge. He received the Silver Star and three Purple Hearts.
Durning was a boxer, ice-cream seller and dance instructor before establishing himself as an actor. He cut his teeth in Shakespearean productions staged by Joe Papp and, in 1972, won a Drama Desk award for his performance in That Championship Season on Broadway.
By then, he had played his first film roles. In Brian De Palma's Hi, Mom! (1970), he is the slobbish superintendent who shows off an unsanitary apartment to a prospective tenant (played by Durning's friend Robert De Niro, who recommended him for the part). He re-teamed with De Palma for Sisters (later Blood Sisters, 1973) and The Fury (1978); in the latter, he is the director of a research facility judging psychic ability, and supervises a female patient who unlocks his own troubling secrets. That decade he also took police roles in Dog Day Afternoon (1975) and the TV series The Cop and the Kid (1975-76).
In Tootsie (1982), he was the wealthy widower Les Nichols, who falls hopelessly in love with the TV star Dorothy Michaels, not knowing that behind the drag makeup is the luckless actor Michael Dorsey (Dustin Hoffman), who is infatuated with Les's daughter. Les's pursuit of Dorothy is full of funny moments – when he squeezes on to a garden swing with her at his ranch, it creaks under his weight but it touches on pathos, too, particularly when Les speaks of his wife, and when he makes his move on Dorothy with an excruciating proposal.
With his physical bulk and commanding presence, Durning was perfectly cast as the tyrannical tycoon Big Daddy in Cat On a Hot Tin Roof on Broadway in 1990, for which he won a Tony award. He also looked at home as Chief Brandon in the box-office hit Dick Tracy (1990). Regrettably, fewer saw one of his best performances, in The Music of Chance (1993), based on Paul Auster's novel. He played Bill Flower, a former accountant who believes he has the Midas touch. Flower and a fellow millionaire host a card game and when their opponent (James Spader) cannot settle his debts, they make him and his friend build a wailing wall from 10,000 bricks. Durning was never creepier, seldom more sadistic.
In the Coen brothers' comedy The Hudsucker Proxy (1994), he was the bigwig who, in a boardroom meeting, runs the length of a conference table and throws himself out of the window. "We cast Durning on the idea that a fat person falling 40 floors is a lot funnier than a thin person falling 40 floors," said Joel Coen. "Charles actually used to be a dancer and all that stuff he does at the beginning where he gets up and digs his heel and shakes the tension out of his body was all Charles. He choreographed all his movements."
In O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), another Coen brothers' production, he was the cantankerous Mississippi governor Pappy O'Daniel, whose re-election campaign is boosted by a trio of convicts turned musicians, the Soggy Bottom Boys. Pappy joins them on stage for a rousing version of You Are My Sunshine.
That year, Durning starred in two comedy films written by David Mamet Lakeboat, and State and Main and appeared on stage in New Jersey in Mamet's Glengarry Glen Ross. There was little to distinguish his subsequent films such as Kinky Killers (2007), a nasty piece of work, but he evidently relished voicing Peter Griffin's mean-spirited stepfather in the animated TV series Family Guy.
He remained bracingly prolific and kept a straightforward approach. "Of course, I'm often not the top dog," he told Playbill in 2000, "but sometimes it's better not to be top dog, because you last longer.
Date of Birth: 10 December 1957, Chicago, Illinois, US
Birth Name: Michael Clarke Duncan
Nicknames: Big Mike
Michael Clarke Duncan was the American actor best known for his film roles as a gentle giant.
Every character actor who has ever been typecast dreams of a role that will transcend the cliches of his image. For Michael Clarke Duncan, who has died aged 54 of complications from a heart attack suffered in July, that breakout role also drew on the hidden truth of his own personality, and the results were spectacular.
Duncan was nominated for an Oscar as best supporting actor in The Green Mile (1999), the film of the Stephen King story in which he plays John Coffey, a gentle giant with extraordinary powers, on death row for raping and killing two young girls. The film's climax, when Coffey, innocent of the crimes but having punished the real killer and an evil guard, goes to the electric chair telling Tom Hanks not to put a hood over his head because he is scared of the dark, left few dry eyes in any audience.
Born in Chicago, Duncan, 6ft 5in and usually weighing about 20 stone, was himself a gentle giant. His father left when he was six, and his mother Jean's reluctance to allow him to play American football led to his deciding he wanted to become an actor instead.
He played basketball at Kankakee (Illinois) Community College, but when his mother became ill, he dropped out of his communications studies at Alcorn State University, a historically black university in Mississippi. After returning home, he supported his mother and sister, Judy, by digging ditches for a gas company and working as a bouncer at night.
He moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting, again working as a bouncer before getting into the "private security" trade. He had acted as a bodyguard for such entertainment figures as Will Smith, Martin Lawrence, Jamie Foxx and LL Cool J before breaking into films in 1995 with a bit part in the Ice Cube vehicle Friday. His early film roles, including Warren Beatty's Bulworth (1998), saw him typecast as bouncers and bodyguards, often billed as Michael "Big Mike" Duncan. He gave up his day job as a real bodyguard for good in 1997, when the rapper The Notorious BIG was murdered on the first day Duncan was assigned to him.
Duncan's break came following a part in Armageddon (1998) alongside Bruce Willis, who recommended him to director Frank Darabont for The Green Mile. He went on to work with Willis in three more films: two comedies – Alan Rudolph's adaptation of Kurt Vonnegut's Breakfast of Champions (1999) and The Whole Nine Yards (2000) and the noirish blockbuster Sin City (2005).
Although he never found another role with the impact of John Coffey, Duncan remained in demand with substantial parts in blockbusters such as Planet of the Apes (2001), The Scorpion King (2002) and perhaps his best later work as The Kingpin, in Daredevil (2003). To play the comic-book villain he went from weighing less than 20 stone to more than 23.
His career blossomed, as his look made him easily cast for supporting roles in films and frequent guest parts in television series, and his resonant baritone voice made him a popular choice for animation voice-overs, in films such as Cats & Dogs (2001), George of the Jungle 2 (2003), Dinotopia (2005) and Kung Fu Panda (2008). He starred in the comedy The Slammin' Salmon (2009), as a boxer turned restaurant-owner who stages a competition between his waiters to pay off a debt to Japanese gangsters, and was the villain, Erlik, in the straight-to-video Cross (2011), a supernatural action film that also featured Vinnie Jones as a Viking named Gunnar transplanted to the present.
In 2010 Duncan undertook something of a reprise of his Coffey role in Redemption Road, as a man with a secret who brings home an alcoholic for his father's funeral. His last television role was a recurring part in the crime series Finder.
In 2009 Duncan converted to vegetarianism. The following year, he met his fiancee, the Rev Omarosa Manigault, in the aisles of a Whole Foods supermarket in Los Angeles. Manigault, a considerable presence in "reality" television, made her name as a controversial participant in the American version of The Apprentice with Donald Trump, and feuded with Piers Morgan in The Celebrity Apprentice.
In May this year, Duncan made a film for the animal-rights group Peta, talking about his conversion to a vegan lifestyle, and how he had thrown away £3,135.13 worth of meat when he did. Two months later, he suffered a massive heart attack.
Date of Birth: 21 July 1923, North Shields, North Tyneside, England, UK
Birth Name: Tony Scott
Nicknames: Anthony Scott
A former advertising director who followed his brother Ridley (now Sir Ridley) to Hollywood, his glossy, commercial sensibility powered films such as Top Gun, Beverly Hills Cop II and Days of Thunder – testosterone-filled movies described by one critic as “visual amphetamines”.
A director with little interest in ideas or morality, he created a visual sheen that lingered in the memory long after narrative and characters were forgotten. Although he was accused of vulgarity and excessive love of hardware, Scott instinctively understood the power of images and was obsessive in his quest for visual impact.
But for all the reviewing community’s artistic unease, Scott was that rarest of beasts: a British filmmaker with a blockbuster reputation. That he lived in Hollywood, collected Ferraris and Harleys and hustled through relationships, only further alienated the sensibilities of his European peers.
He had extraordinary energy, producing and directing movies, making advertisements and, with his brother “Rid”, buying and managing Shepperton studios. Often involved with 20 projects simultaneously, he relaxed by climbing mountains and running. If his films were often accused of having a shiny core where the insight or empathy might have been, no one disputed his contention that his interest lay with “people who live their life on the edge”.
Anthony David Scott was born in North Shields on July 21 1944, seven years after his brother Ridley, and educated at Stockton-on-Tees. He enjoyed painting and rugby, while the proximity of the moors encouraged a love of the wild he retained all his life. Each summer in his youth he hitchhiked to the Alps to climb.
While at grammar school, he appeared as the title character in his brother’s first short film, Boy On A Bicycle. He then studied painting at Sunderland Art School, Leeds College of Art and Design and finally, on a scholarship, the Royal College .
Realising that he was unlikely to sustain a career as a painter, he joined his brother’s fledgling television production company. Ridley recalled: “I knew he had a fondness for cars, so I told him, 'Come work with me and within a year you’ll have a Ferrari.’ And he did.”
Ridley also taught Tony the techniques of making lush, high-quality shorts and, when he left for Hollywood, passed on several gold-tinted franchises, including the Hovis advert, featuring another boy on a bicycle. While Ridley enjoyed early success with Alien and Blade Runner, Tony made thousands of commercials, evolving a singular visual style and winning awards for his work for Chanel, Marlboro and Levis.
After Ridley’s success, and that of fellow “out-of-advertising” British filmmakers such as Alan Parker, Adrian Lyne and David Puttnam, it was inevitable that Tony Scott would try his luck in Hollywood.
But his first feature, the dark, moody The Hunger (1983), starring David Bowie and Catherine Deneuve – was almost his last. A self-consciously arty, Gothic tale of a vampire forced to find a cure for her rapidly ageing lover, the film was a self-confessed “total knock-off of Nic Roeg’s Performance”, and most memorable for a lesbian love scene between Deneuve and Susan Sarandon.
Despite sumptuous cinematography (albeit compromised by Scott’s fatal attraction to the shorthand of advertising coloured filters, exquisitely photographed smoke, fluttering curtains, shafts of light streaming through blinds), the film was mauled by the critics and Hollywood insiders. The director recalled that, after the first screening, “on my parking space my name was painted out. I couldn’t get anyone on the phone. Nobody had the balls to tell me I’d been fired.”
He returned to making commercials until the producer Jerry Bruckheimer hired him to direct Top Gun (1986). Initially he couldn’t “see” the movie. “I wanted to make Apocalypse Now on an aircraft carrier. Then I got it. It’s rock-and-roll, silver jets in a bright blue sky, good-looking guys.” Taking his “look” from a Bruce Weber photograph, Scott was a self-confessed magpie he created the ultimate feel good movie in which Tom Cruise’s air force recruit tried to pass out top of the flying academy and retain the love of Kelly McGillis.
The film, described by one critic as “a sleek, pulsating paean to testosterone”, took £220.59 million at the box office, propelled Cruise to superstar status and Scott on to the Hollywood A-list.
He was rewarded with Beverly Hills Cop II (1987), a hugely successful action sequel starring Eddie Murphy’s wisecracking, rule-busting policeman which confirmed Scott as a director capable of delivering high energy drama loosely attached to a plot.
Both hits were made with Jerry Bruckheimer, who kept Scott’s less commercial instincts at bay, and when Scott made his next film without Bruckheimer, it showed. Revenge (1990) was a darker thriller, a story of adultery in Mexico starring Kevin Costner and Madeleine Stowe. It leaned towards a darker palette reminiscent of the paintings of Francis Bacon that had inspired Scott as a student and was panned.
Back in the cockpit with his usual producer and a familiar star, Days of Thunder (1991) was Top Gun in a different machine. With fighter pilots replaced by racing drivers, Cruise reprised his role as the talented but reckless young buck who has to control his emotions as much as his motor. But the movie failed to repeat his earlier success, the public evidently taking the view that there was no point in watching the same film twice.
Scott was conscious that he was being typecast as a director of blockbusters, so when he was introduced to a video store employee, unknown scriptwriter and fledgling filmmaker called Quentin Tarantino, he tried to buy the rights to True Romance and Reservoir Dogs . Tarantino refused to sell Reservoir Dogs, using the money Scott paid for True Romance to fund filming it.
But his script for True Romance, a Bonnie and Clyde-themed tale of a hooker and her lover on the run from almost everyone, was sharp edged and allowed Scott the opportunity to focus on individuals as much as action. Although it attracted a cast including Brad Pitt, Dennis Hopper, Val Kilmer, Gary Oldman, Patricia Arquette, Christian Slater and, in a cameo, Samuel L Jackson, initial reactions were lukewarm though it attained cult status after the by now ludicrously hip Tarantino blessed it.
Having established his ability to handle the egos of multiple stars in a single picture, the permanently pink baseball-capped, cigar-toting Scott had little trouble attracting Hollywood’s finest to his projects. Crimson Tide (1995) starred Gene Hackman and Denzel Washington as two submariners without radio contact to base who take opposing views over whether they should launch a nuclear attack on a Russian island.
The Fan (1996), which portrayed a baseball fan stalking his hero, starred Robert De Niro, Ellen Barkin, Wesley Snipes and Benicio Del Toro, and was followed by Enemy of the State (1998), a hi-tech thriller in which Will Smith’s hapless lawyer was forced to take on the government machine. An opportunity for the director to pay homage to Francis Ford Coppola’s paranoid classic The Conversation, what Enemy of the State lacked in originality it made up in pace and in Gene Hackman’s beautifully understated portrayal of a tired, cynical investigator.
Spy Game (2001), which had to be cut after the September 11 terrorist attacks, again examined the not always beneficent power of the state. The film portrayed retiring spymaster Robert Redford’s attempts to spring his young partner (Brad Pitt) from a Chinese jail, where he faced execution for spying, despite the refusal of his bosses to help.
Scott’s technical skills and his obsession with cinematography at the expense of narrative were again visible in Man On Fire (2004). This starred Denzel Washington as a tortured ex-CIA agent hired to protect a child in Mexico City who was, to no one’s surprise, kidnapped. Displaying all Scott’s capacity for hi-tech mayhem with hand-held camera shots and jump-cut editing, the hackneyed story bounded along furiously towards its inevitable conclusion.
Domino (2005), which starred Keira Knightley as the heiress-turned-bounty hunter Domino Harvey, was universally panned, as much for its woeful miscasting as for the over-exuberant editing which elbowed what little plausible narrative there was aside.
Denzel Washington also starred in two of Scott’s more recent films, The Taking Of Pelham 123 (2009) and Unstoppable (2010). Latterly Scott had been producing for television as well as films.
For a director of such energy and success, Scott was a surprisingly soft-spoken man who retained his Geordie accent all his life. He indulged his love of fast cars, motorbikes and women, and his highly publicised affair with Sylvester Stallone’s ex-wife and the female lead of Beverly Hills Cop II, Brigitte Nielson, put paid to his own second marriage.
Reportedly a man who needed only three hours’ sleep a night, he awoke to three cups of black coffee and a large Monte Cristo, the first of 12 each day. He was a passionate mountaineer who claimed to be never happier than when “5,000ft up on a cliff face”. An art collector of catholic tastes, he acquired works by artists ranging from Robert Rauschenberg to Guido Reni.
The Scott brothers did not suffer from sibling rivalry; rather, they worked together over Shepperton, understood their respective strengths and rejoiced at each other’s success. “Ridley makes films for posterity,” Tony once observed. “My films are more rock ’n’ roll.”
Tony Scott, who apparently committed suicide by jumping from a bridge in Los Angeles, married three times and divorced twice. His second marriage was to the BBC producer Glynis Staunton. He is survived by his third wife, Donna, and their two children.
Date of Birth: 28 September 1923, New York, US
Birth Name: William Windom
The character actor's career on television spanned seven decades, from his debut as a fiery Tybalt in a Philco Television Playhouse production of Romeo and Juliet (1949) to an episode of Star Trek: New Voyages (2004) in which he recreated the role of the unbalanced Commodore Matt Decker. Decker was first seen in one of the series's best chapters, The Doomsday Machine (1967), and it was enough to sanctify Windom in the eyes of Trekkies. The role had been written for Robert Ryan, but Windom's powerful portrayal made any possible comparisons redundant.
Among many other standout performances on television were two in the cultish Twilight Zone series, as an agitated military officer who turns out to be a doll in Five Characters in Search of an Exit (1961), and as a calm psychiatrist trying to sort out Robert Duvall's disturbed mind in Miniature (1963). Windom also had leading parts in long-running programmes such as The Farmer's Daughter (1963-66), as a widowed congressman who falls for the Swedish farm girl (Inger Stevens), governess to his children; and Murder, She Wrote (1984-96), in which he was Seth Hazlitt, the crusty old doctor, friend and confidant of the crime writer Jessica Fletcher (Angela Lansbury).
The former role was close to his heart because Windom's great-grandfather, of the same name, had been a Minnesota congressman and secretary of the treasury in the 19th century.
Windom was born in New York City and educated at Williams College, Massachusetts. During the second world war he served as a paratrooper, and after it enrolled in the new American University in Biarritz, France. It was there that he started acting, and he continued on his return to the US. Windom made his Broadway debut in 1947 in roles of various sizes in an American Repertory Theatre season that included Shakespeare's Henry VIII, Ibsen's John Gabriel Borkman (as young Erhart Borkman), Shaw's Androcles and the Lion, Barrie's What Every Woman Knows, and Alice in Wonderland (as the White Rabbit). In 1956, Windom showed a flair for comedy in a revival of Noël Coward's Fallen Angels.
When already 13 years into his long career in television, Windom made his big-screen debut in one of his best films, To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), in which he played the smirking prosecutor who knows that he just has to play the race card to win against Gregory Peck, defending a black man charged with the rape of a white woman.
Further unsympathetic roles followed: an alcoholic whose sister (Joan Caulfield) is being wooed by a cattle rancher (Robert Taylor) in Guns of Wyoming (1963); a closeted, married gay man in The Detective (1968); a sleazy movie producer in The Angry Breed (also 1968); and Deborah Kerr's cuckold husband in The Gypsy Moths (1969). In Escape from the Planet of the Apes (1971), Windom, trying not to look foolish, played the US president questioning an English-speaking simian couple who have landed in America by spaceship. "I tend to go overboard," Windom once remarked. "I go too far and then let the director bring me back where he wants me. It's like focusing a telescope."
Few of his feature films allowed for much humour, unlike television, which gave him more leeway. My World and Welcome to It (1969-70), based on the writings and cartoons of the American humorist James Thurber, gave him the chance to play a witty, nuanced character not unlike the original author. The shortlived sitcom won Windom an Emmy award and led to his touring one-man show on Thurber.
Of the show, which Windom performed around the US and abroad for some years, the Los Angeles Times wrote: "Windom has the gift of picking the terrible plainness of living and bringing it forward to say, 'See? Here's what we are, every one of us. And do you know, we're not bad.' "
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Dubris is the Roman name for which coastal town in England? | Roman Sites and Roman Remains in Britain
Aldborough Roman Site, Yorkshire
Urban Centre
Once the capital of a Romanised tribe of native Britons, visitors today can still see two beautiful Roman mosaics as well as the remains of the town wall and a museum exploring the history of the town.
Ambleside Roman Fort, Cumbria
Roman Fort
Dating back to the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, this fort was originally built for two purposes; to protect the Ravenglass to Brougham Roman Road as well as acting as a supply base for Hadrian's Wall to the north.
Aesica Roman Fort
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Excavated in the late 19th century, Aesica is the ninth fort on Hadrian's Wall. A Roman bathhouse has also been discovered a short distance south of the fort.
Agricola's Ditch
Roman Road / Ditch
This enormous earthwork follows the route of Hadrian's Wall from coast to coast, although its purpose has long been argued. It is now thought that Agricola's Ditch (also known as the Vallum) was built as a boundary for the militarised zone around Hadrian's Wall, i.e. so that the local civilians would keep their distance!
Arbeia Roman Fort, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Once a maritime supply fort for Hadrian's Wall, today Arbeias barracks and gatehouse have been reconstructed and a museum set up to showcase the history of the site.
Ardotalia, Derbyshire
Roman Fort
This unexcavated fort could have once housed up to 1000 troops and until the late 18th century, the stone remains could still be seen. Unfortunately the remains of the fort now lie underground although it is still possible to make out the ramparts.
Beckfoot (Bibra) Fort, Cumbria
Roman Villa
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall. Although many of these defences have now been lost, one of the major forts was located at Beckfort. Now just a series of crop marks, the fort was manned by the Romans until around AD 407 and was once home to the Cohors II Pannoniorum, a 500-strong infantry unit from the province of Pannonia, now a region of the Czech Republic. Excavated in 1879, evidence of a civilian settlement, or vicus, was also uncovered.
Bignor Roman Villa, Sussex
Roman Villa
Boasting some of the most complete Roman mosaics in the country, Bignor Roman Villa was discovered in 1811 by a local farmer and has been a popular visitor attraction ever since. The villa dates from around 200AD and was demolished or burnt down around 200 years later.
Birdoswald Roman Fort, Cumbria
Hadrian's Wall Fort
This well preserved fort on Hadrian's Wall was built around 110AD and included barracks, granaries, officers mess and even an exercise building (i.e. a Roman gym). There is also a visitor centre which includes displays and artifacts from the fort, and rumour has it that the tea rooms here are also very good!
Binchester Roman Fort, County Durham
Roman Fort
This large Roman fort was established around AD80 as a defensive measure for the newly built Dere Street. There is still a wonderfully preserved stretch of Roman road at the site, as well as remains of a bath house with underfloor heating.
Brading Roman Villa, Isle of Wight
Roman Villa
This large Roman villa and courtyard was built in the 1st century AD and despite frequent Anglo-Saxon raids and the occasional fire, remained in use until the 4th century AD. Today all of the 12 ground floor rooms can still be seen, including a fabulous mosaic in the main entertaining room.
Bremenium, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Bremenium was once an extremely well defended Dere Street fort complete with artillery defences. Remains of catapult emplacements have been found, once used by the Romans to fire boulders at marauders coming down Dere Street from the north.
Bremetennacum, Lancashire
Roman Baths
This cavalry fort actually sits in the middle of the modern day village of Ribchester. Although only small parts of the fort have been excavated, there have been some fantastic finds uncovered over the centuries including the Ribchester Hoard.
Burgh Castle, Suffolk
Roman Fort
This third century Saxon Shore Fort was built to defend the south coast of Britain against invaders from Denmark and Germany. Today the walls still stand up to an impressive 4 and half metres high.
Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk
Roman Fort
Although nowhere near as well preserved as its neighbour Burgh Castle just a few miles away, this Saxon Shore Fort was partially excavated in the 1950s although much of the fort now lies under modern housing. The excavated part of the site is now managed by English Heritage and is open to the public free of charge.
Caistor St. Edmund (Venta Icenorum), Norfolk
Urban Centre
Once the capital of the Iceni tribe (of Boudica fame), Venta Icenorum soon became one of the most important Roman settlements in East Anglia. Today the most visible part of the remains is the town wall which still stands at around 20 feet high. Much of the rest of the site still lies unexcavated.
Calleva Atrebatum, Hampshire
Urban Centre
This relatively well preserved town is unique in that it did not become completely abandoned after the end of the Roman rule in Britain. Instead, the Anglo-Saxons decided to make nearby Winchester their home, leaving the remarkably intact remains that can still be seen today, including the city walls and the amphitheatre.
Camulodunum (Colchester), Colchester
Urban Centre
Camulodunum (or modern day Colchester) was the home of the first permanent Roman fortress to be built in Britain in AD 43. Over the next 400 years the fort grew into one of the largest Roman cities in the country and even, for a short time, the capital of Britain. If visiting, be sure to check out Balkerne Gate right next to the Hole in the Wall pub: this is the best preserved Roman gateway in Britain.
Carrawbugh, Northumberland
Roman Temple
Once the most northern fort on Hadrian's Wall, today the only visible remains of Carrawburgh fort (a.k.a. Brocolitia) are earthworks and a small Temple of Mithras.
The site of a small Roman town, fort, amphitheatre and mines. Only earthworks remain.
Chedworth Roman Villa, Gloucestershire
Roman Villa
Although the structure of this villa dates from around AD120, it went through a dramatic extension and improvement in around AD310. Today the site is managed by the National Trust and is one of the largest villas of its type in the UK. Be sure to look out for the amazing mosaics, some of which were unearthed as recently as 2011.
Chester Roman Amphitheatre, Cheshire
Roman Amphitheatre
Currently the largest amphitheatre ever found in Britain, only half of the site has actually been excavated. It is thought that the arena was rebuilt more than once, and that the remains of the current amphitheatre date from around 280AD. At its peak, the amphitheatre could have seated up to 8,000 people.
Chesters Bridge , Northumberland
Roman Bridge
This Roman bridge would have spanned the North Tyne River for some 60 metres, carrying the weight of both a military road and Hadrian's Wall upon its arches. Unfortunately very little remains of the western side of the support abutments, but on the eastern side there is still considerable stonework to be seen.
Chichester City Walls, Chichester
Roman Wall
A surprisingly large amount of the original Roman core remains in Chichester's city walls, although most of the visible stonework is the result of 18th century restoration.
Cilurnum, Nothumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Cilurnum was the supporting fort to Chesters Bridge, and today is considered the best preserved Roman fort along Hadrian's Wall. There is also a museum at the site which houses a collection of Roman finds from the nearby area.
Cirencester Roman Amphitheatre, Gloucestershire
Roman Amphitheatre
The remains of one of the largest Roman amphitheatres ever found in Britain although unfortunately no stonework can be seen, only earthworks. At its height the amphitheatre could have seated over 8,000 people.
Concangis, County Durham
Roman Fort
Little remains of this Dere Street fort except for a small excavation of the officers quarters which is located in the centre of Chester Le Street.
Corbridge Roman Site, Nothumberland
Urban Centre
Starting life as a Hadrian's Wall fort, Cordbridge developed into a large civilian centre sometime in the late 2nd century AD. Amongst the remains here are some of the best surviving examples of military granaries in Britain. There is also a museum on the site which displays the Corbridge Hoard.
Crofton Roman Villa, Kent
Roman Villa
The only publicly accessible Roman villa in London, Crofton is situated next door to Orpington Station and features some quite substantial remains including tessellated floors and a hypocaust. There is also a museum on site.
Cunetio, Wiltshire
Urban Centre
First discovered in the 1940s, Cunetio was a Roman town between the 2nd and 5th century AD. Today all of the remains lay underground with only minor earthworks being visible.
Dere Street
Roman Road
Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains. There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland.
Devils Causeway, Northumberland
Roman Road
A spur road leading from Dere Street to Berwick-upon-Tweet, the route of which can still be made out in several places.
Dubris, Kent
Urban Centre and Roman Lighthouse
Dubris, now known as Dover, was one of the most important sites in Roman Britain. Originally a base for the Roman fleet of the Classic Britannica (a branch of the navy designed to protect the English Channel), the town quickly grew into a major trading centre due to both its proximity to Gaul and its positioning at the start of Watling Street. Today there are considerable remains of both a Roman villa and the west wall of a fort at the Roman Painted House (which also includes a museum). The remains of a Roman lighthouse can also be seen within the grounds of Dover Castle.
Durovernum Cantiacorum (Canterbury)
Urban Centre (User Submitted)
Once the capital of a Celtic tribe called the Cantiaci, Canterbury was captured by the Romans in the 1st century AD and renamed Durovernum Cantiacorum (meaning 'stronghold of the Cantiaci'). By the 3rd century AD the city had been rebuilt and grown into an area of around 130 acres, enclosed by a massive city wall with seven gates and a substantial earth bank. Unfortunately not much remains of Roman Canterbury, however sections of the original city wall around the North Gate area can still be seen. There is also a Roman gate still visible, albeit blocked up and incorporated into the medieval city walls. If visiting, be sure to stop in at the Roman Museum which, amongst a host of finds from the city, includes an in situ mosaic dating from the late 2nd century AD.
Eboracum (York)
Urban Centre (User Submitted)
Founded in AD71, Eboracum started out as a Roman fort but soon grew into a urban centre with residents from throughout the Roman Empire. Remains that can be seen today include the military headquarters which is open to the public and located underneath modern day York Minster, as well as a Roman bath (located under the Roman Bath pub in St Sampson's Square), a temple and a portion of city wall in the Museum Gardens known as the Multangular Tower.
Epiacum (Whitley Castle), Cumbria
Roman Fort
This peculiar lozenge shaped fort was thought to have protected Roman lead mine interests in the area, as well as acting as a support fort for nearby Hadrian's Wall. The site is currently unexcavated but is popular with mole hill archaeologists, i.e. rummaging through mole hills looking for Roman remains!
Ermine Street
Roman Road
A major Roman road that ran from London to York via Lincoln. Most of the route has now been incorporated into the A1, but there are still parts (namely just south of Lincoln) where the original Roman road is a public footpath.
Exeter City Wall, Devon
Roman Wall
Over 70% of the original Exeter city wall still exists, and although much of it dates from Anglo-Saxon and medieval times, there are still large portions of the original Roman stonework.
Fishbourne Roman Palace, West Sussex
Roman Villa
Larger than Buckingham Palace and easily the largest Roman residence north of the Alps, Fishbourne Roman Palace was built in the 1st century AD although it is not known who for. Today there are some fantastic mosaics on display, as well as a museum and a reconstructed Roman garden.
Fosse Way
Roman Road
The Fosse Way was one of the most important Roman roads in Britain, linking Exeter, Bath, Cirencester, Leicester and ending in Lincoln. Many sections of the road are now public footpaths.
Gabrosentum, Cumbria
Roman Fort and Civilian Settlement
This former fort and adjoining settlement was built during Emperor Hadrian's reign and was in use until the late 4th century AD. Excavations have revealed official buildings including the commanding officers house, as well as numerous civilian buildings, a fort and a small natural harbour.
Gadebridge Roman Villa, Hertfordshire
Roman Villa
Excavated in the 1960s and again in 2000, Gatesbridge Villa once housed the second largest swimming baths ever found in Britain. Now that the excavations have been completed the villa has been recovered with grassland.
Great Witcombe Roman Villa, Gloucestershire
Roman Villa
Built in the first century AD, it is thought that Great Witcombe Villa once housed a fabulous water garden. Today the remains consist of a latrine, bath house and hypocaust, as well as the outline of the walls of the villa and a mosaic floor.
Habitancum, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Only ditches and a small amount of stonework at the north-eastern corner of this Dere Street fort can still be seen.
Hadrian's Wall, North of England
Roman Wall
Hadrian's Wall is the most prominent and important monument left by the Romans in Britain, spanning the entire width of the country. Read our full article about Hadrian's Wall here .
Halton Chesters, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Located at the juncture of Hadrian's Wall and Dere Street lies Halton Chesters Fort (also known as Hunnum), although only earthworks can still be seen.
Originally an Iron Age hill fort, the Romans captured the site from the Britons in AD45.
Hardknott Roman Fort , Cumbria
Roman Fort
Built between AD120 and AD138 during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, Hardknott Fort (Mediobogdum) appears to have been occupied initially only briefly before being re-occupied probably in the late 2nd century. It housed a cohort of 500 men, the fourth Cohort of Dalmatians, infantry soldiers from Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro. Read our full article on Hardknott Roman Fort here .
Housesteads, Northumberland
Roman Fort
Built to house around 800 soldiers, Housesteads is one of a series of Hadrian's Wall forts and is relatively well preserved. In fact, rumour has it that Housesteads boasts the best preserved Roman latrine in all of Britain!
Jewry Wall, Leicester
Public Building
Standing up to 8 metres high, this strikingly well preserved wall was once part of a Roman bath house. The reason it has survived for almost 2000 years is that the wall was once used in the structure of a nearby church.
Letocetum, Staffordshire
Urban Centre
Letocetum was once a significant Roman settlement with temples, villas, a basilica, forum and amphitheatre. Although the majority of the remains now lie under the modern village of Wall, a bath house and official stopping place (mansio) can still be seen.
Littlecote Roman Villa, Wiltshire
Roman Villa
The remains of Littlecote Roman Villa is perhaps most famous for its well preserved Orpheus mosaic which dates from the latter half of the 4th century AD.
London Wall, London
Roman Wall
From around 200 AD, the shape of London was defined by one single structure; it’s massive city wall. Lost for centuries, many sections of the wall were uncovered during WW2 bombing and can now be seen from Tower Bridge all of the way to Farringdon. Click here for our full walking guide.
Longovicium, County Durham
Roman Fort
Yet another Dere Street fort, Longovicium is situated some 20 miles south of Hadrian's Wall. Although it is not currently open the public, there are plans by local authorities, Durham and Newcastle Universities and English Heritage to allow public access to the site.
Lullingstone Roman Villa, Kent
Roman Villa
Built in around 100AD, Lullingstone Villa is a family friendly site boasting fantastic mosaics and wall paintings, as well as the remains of a bath-suite and temple.
Lunt Fort, Warwickshire
Roman Fort
Built in AD60 to support the Roman army in their campaign against Boudica and the Iceni, Lunt Roman Fort has now been fully excavated and is open to the public. The fantastic wooden gateway was built in the 1970s with the same tools and equipment as would have been used by the Romans.
Lydney Park, Gloucestershire
Roman Temple
Once a Iron Age fort, Lydney Park was used by the Romans for the mining of iron ore. In the 4th century AD a temple was built on the site, the remains of which can still be seen today.
Carvoran Roman Fort, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
One of sixteen forts along Hadrian's Wall, Carvoran is not the most spectacular or most excavated site in the area, but it is the home to the Roman Army Museum which is well worth a visit.
Highfield Barrow, Hemel Hempstead
Roman Barrow (User submitted by Stephanie Nield)
This well preserved Roman barrow is at the junction of Queensway and High Street Green in Hemel Hempstead, and although not currently open to the public it can be seen from the side of the road.
Maryport (Alauna) Fort & Senhouse Roman Museum, Cumbria
Roman Fort
An early Roman fort, rebuilt around AD122 as a supply base for the coastal defences of the mighty Hadrian's Wall. The coastline to the south of the wall being vunerable to attack was defended by a series of Roman milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast. Maryport represents the southernmost fort of these defences, guarding a crossing of the Solway Firth. An observation tower in the museum grounds reveals the extensive remains of the site. Restricted opening times and entrance charges apply.
Milefortlet 21
Hadrian's Wall Fortlet
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall. Although many of these defences have now been lost, including the watchtowers that stood between each milefortlet, Milefortlet 21 is the first to be fully excavated. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Moresby (Gabrosentum) Fort, Cumbria
Hadrian's Wall Milefortlet
Although the mighty Hadrian's Wall stood as the main defensive feature protecting the northern extent of the Roman Empire in Britain, the coastline close to the Scottish border was still exposed to attack. To plug this gap in their defences, the Romans built a series of milefortlets extending down the Cumbrian coast from Hadrian's Wall, linked by a road rather than a wall. Many of these defences have now been lost, and only the earthwork remains of Gabrosentum are visible. Occupied until the early 4th century, St Bridget’s church and graveyard now stand on the north-east corner of the fort.
Newport Arch / Lincoln City Wall, Lincoln
City Wall and Arch
Newport Arch was built in the 3rd century to carry Ermine Street through the city of Lincoln and is still used by traffic today. There is also a small section of Roman city wall to the east of the arch.
Noveum Museum & Roman Baths, Chichester
Public Baths
A purpose built museum designed to show the remains of the city’s Roman bath house, previously hidden under a car park. Excavated in 1975, the public baths served the local Romano-British community between the 2nd and 5th centuries. The museum also includes other collections, charting the social history, archaeology and geology of region. Restricted opening hours and entrance charges apply.
Pevensey Roman Fort, East Sussex
Roman Fort
This Saxon Shore Fort was built around AD290, and although most of the structure dates from the medieval times there is significant Roman masonry in the outer curtain wall.
Piddington Roman Villa, Northamptonshire
Roman Villa and Museum
This Roman villa was discovered by workmen in 1781 when they uncovered a complete mosaic. Unfortunately when the local townspeople of Northampton came along to see the mosaic they decided to break it up and take it away as souvenirs! Recently a museum was set up on the site displaying a host of finds and remains from the villa.
Piercebridge Roman Bridge, County Durham
Roman Bridge
The remains of a Roman Bridge which once led into Piercebridge Roman Fort from across the River Tees. Large masonry blocks and one of the bridge abutments can still be seen to this day.
Piercebridge Roman Fort, County Durham
Roman Fort
Piercebridge is the southernmost of the Dere Street forts, the main road linking York to Hadrian's Wall and on to the Antonine Wall.
Plumpton (Voreda) Fort
Roman Fort
With the earthworks still clearly visible from the adjacent A6, the fort was built upon the old Roman road that ran northwards to Hadrian’s Wall. Occupied between the first and fourth centuries, it is thought the fort was built by the 2nd Cohort of Gauls, or Cohors II Gallorum, a mounted cavalry unit recruited from the Gallic tribes of northern France. Although excavations around the fort have revealed the existence of a large civil settlement or vicus, we can find no evidence of this from the satellite image... but don’t just take our word for it, take a look for yourself!
Portchester Roman Fort, Hampshire
Roman Fort
The best preserved of all of the Roman Saxon Shore Forts, Portchester Fort (also known as Portus Adurni) appears almost as it did the day it was built… at least from a distance! Only four bastions have been lost in the past 1600 years, whilst inside the Roman perimeter walls is a Norman stronghold.
Ravenglass Bath House, Cumbria
Roman Bath House
With its stone walls still standing at almost 4m high, the ruined bath house stands outside the nearby 2nd century Ravenglass Roman fort. Although now on private land, the earthwork remains of the fort are still visible from the bath house. Originally of turf and timber construction, the fort served as an important naval base guarding the nearby harbour. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Rockbourne Roman Villa, Hampshire
Roman Villa
This courtyard villa includes fabulous Roman mosaics, a bath house, living quarters, workshops and underfloor heating. There is also a museum of the site which includes artefacts from the villa.
Roman Baths, Bath
Roman Baths
The Roman Baths and magnificent Temple were built around the natural hot spring which rises at 46°C and were at the centre of Roman life in Aquae Sulis between the first and fifth centuries. The remains are remarkably complete and include sculpture, coins, jewellery and the bronze head of the goddess Sulis Minerva.
Richborough Castle, Kent
Roman Fort
Situated on the site where the Romans first invaded Britain in 43AD, Richborough Castle was built in the late 3rd century as a Saxon Shore Fort. The castle is now managed by English Heritage and in places the walls stand at around 20 feet high.
Segedunum Roman Fort, North Tyneside
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Lying at the eastern corner of Hadrian's Wall, Segedunum is the most thoroughly excavated Roman fort in the country. Unfortunately only the foundations of the fort still remain, although there is also a modern reconstruction of the military bath house.
Stanegate, Cumbria / Northumberland
Roman Road
Stanegate Roman Road was built in around AD80 to link together two major forts but only became a frontier road after the withdrawal from Scotland in 105AD. The original path of Stanegate, including milestones, can still be seen in locations such as Corbridge and Vindolanda.
Temple of Mithras, London
Roman Temple
During the post-war reconstruction of London, an archaeological treasure was found amongst all of the rubble and debris; the Roman Temple of Mithras. Click here to read our full article about this site.
Tripontium, Warwickshire
Urban Centre
Situated around three miles from the town of Rugby, Tripontium was originally a frontier fort built in AD50 to support the Roman invasion to the north. The following centuries saw the site grow in size and become one of the most important towns in the area. Unfortunately the site is not open to the public after excavations were completed in 2006.
Verulamium, Hertfordshire
Urban Centre
Verulamium was settled in the first 10 years of the Roman occupation of Britain and was granted city-like status in AD50. In AD61 Boudica sacked the city and burnt it to the ground but it was soon rebuilt after the Iceni uprising had been quelled. Remains that are now visible include city walls and a theatre, although the majority of the old Roman city remains unexcavated.
Vindolanda, Northumberland
Hadrian's Wall Fort
Built to protect the Stanegate (a road which ran just south of Hadrian's Wall), Vindolanda is perhaps best known as the site where the Vindolanda Tablets (the oldest handwritten documents in Britain) were found.
Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter Roman City), Wroxeter
Urban Centre
Once the fourth largest Roman city in England, Viroconium Cornoviorum (now called Wroxeter) contains the largest free-standing Roman ruin in England as well as other extensive remains. There is also a museum on the site which is managed by English Heritage.
Watling Street
Roman Road
Running from Dover to Wroxeter via London, the path of the original Watling Street is today covered by the A2 and A5 roads although there are certain portions which are either accessible either as footpaths or bridleways.
Welwyn Roman Baths, Hertfordshire
Roman Baths
Preserved in a steel vault under the A1(M) motorway, these fantastic remains of a large villas baths are remarkably intact. There is also a small museum which includes an exhibition about the site as well as finds which were uncovered during excavation.
Wigton (Maglona) Fort, Cumbria
Roman Fort
Also known as Old Carlisle, the fort was constructed towards the end of the first century AD. A strategically important outpost, it formed part of a military frontier against the hostile Picts to the north. Home to a 500 strong cavalry regiment, a small civilian settlement or vicus formed just to the south of the fort. Although much of the stonework was recycled in the 18th century to rebuild Wigton, much of the earthen ramparts are well preserved. Free and open access at any reasonable time.
Winchester City Walls, Winchester
Fragments of the Roman City Wall
Surrounding Winchester Cathedral's grounds is the old medieval city wall, with one visible section of the original Roman wall still intact.
Antonine Wall
Roman Wall
The building of the Antonine Wall started in AD 142 and is thought to have taken six years to complete. Running from east to west and stretching some 37 miles from modern Boness on the Firth of Forth to Old Kilpatrick on the River Clyde, the wall marked the extent of the Roman military advance northwards from the existing frontier of Hadrian's Wall.
Dere Street Roman Road
Roman Road
Dere Street was once the main supply route and only major road between York, Hadrian's Wall and onwards to the Antonine Wall in Scotland. Today the route is still used by many major roads including the A1, although the occasional Roman milestone still remains. There are also sections of the original Dere Street which have not been built on, such as at West Woodburn in Northumberland and Gilston in Scotland.
Inchtuthil, Perthshire
Roman Fort
Built in AD 82 as a command headquarters for the Roman invasion of Scotland, Inchtuthil is fairly unique in that it was never built over and therefore was in remarkably good condition when excavated in the 1950s and 60s.
Trimontium, Scottish Borders
Roman Fort
Built as a base for the Romans advance into Scotland, Trimontium would have at one time housed around 2000 soldiers and civilians. Only faint earthworks can now be seen, along with a monument which marks the site of the fort.
Bar Hill Fort, East Dunbartonshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Situated on the highest point of the Antonine Wall, the remains of Bar Hill include a bath house, granary, barracks and fort headquarters. There are also the remains of an Iron Age fort on the site.
Bearsden Bath House, Glasgow
Antonine Wall Fort / Roman Baths
Almost all of the Roman fort at Bearsden is hidden under modern housing, although the fort's bath house has been excavated and is now on public display. These remains date back to around 143AD and were discovered by builders in 1973.
Castlecary, North Lanarkshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Built in AD 80 by Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the impressive remains of Castlecary Antonine Wall fort are well worth a visit and are easily accessed from the M80.
Croy Hill, North Lanarkshire
Antonine Wall Fort
Not much remains of this Antonine Wall fort except for a single wall ditch and two beacon platforms.
Pennymuir Roman Camps, Scottish Borders
Temporary Roman Camp
Pennymuir was once home to three temporary camps for Roman legions heading between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. Remains that can be seen today include Dere Street as well the camp's ramparts and entrances.
Rough Castle, Falkirk
Antonine Wall Fort
Although Rough Castle was the second smallest fort on the Antonine Wall, it is also one the best preserved with relatively well defined ramparts still visible today. Also visible is a set of Lilas pits which would have had stakes at the bottom, as well as the line of the military road that would have linked all of the Antonine Wall forts together.
Alabum Llandovery Roman Fort, Carmarthenshire
Roman Fort / Roman Road
Although not much of this 1st century auxiliary fort still remains, it is possible to see some scarped slopes to the north and west of St Marys Church. To the north of the church the path of a Roman road can also be seen. Finally, be sure to look out for Roman masonry which has been reused in the walls of the church.
Caer Gybi, Anglesey Roman Fort, Anglesey
Roman Fort
Built in the 4th century AD to protect Anglesey against Irish invaders, Caer Gybi is remarkably well preserved with some parts of the original wall standing to over 4 metres in height (notably the north-western corner). The other walls have Roman foundations although were rebuilt some time later.
Caerleon (Isca Augusta), Gwent
Romant Fort, Wall and Amphitheatre
Built in AD75 to support the Roman conquest of Wales, Isca Augusta once housed up to 5,000 soldiers and was not abandoned until the late 4th century / early 5th century AD. There is a phenomenal amount of remains still visible including an amphitheatre, baths and barracks.
Cardiff Roman Fort, Cardiff
Roman Fort
Although the majority of the Cardiff Roman Fort is a Victorian reconstruction, the original Roman walls can still be seen incorporated into certain portions of the Cardiff Castle. These visible remains are that of a Saxon Shore Short which was built around 300AD, although it is thought that the site housed at least two earlier forts.
Cold Knap, Barry, Barry Island
Roman Building, unknown use
Cold Knap was once a Roman port, and the remains of a 3rd century building can still be seen along the shore.
Dolaucothi Gold Mines and Luentinum Fort, Carmarthenshire
Roman Mines and Fort
Dolaucothi is though to have been the only Roman gold mine in Britannia, and would have been protected by an accompanying fort (known as Luentinum). In the 18th century a large hoard of Roman gold ornaments was found (now on show in the British Museum).
Moridunum, Carmarthen, Carmarthenshire
Roman Fort, Town and Amphitheatre
Situated in modern day Carmathen, the visible remains of Moidunum are limited to an amphitheatre thought to have been the furthest west ever built within the Roman empire. Artefacts from Moridunum excavations can be seen at the nearby museum in Abergwili.
Nidum, Neath, Neath
Roman Fort
Situated at the corner of a main road and a modern housing estate lies the remains of the south gate of Nidum Roman Fort.
Sarn Helen Roman Road, Powys
Roman Road
One of the best preserved Roman roads in the whole of Britain, the remains of both cobbles and a ditch are still visible at the Maen Madoc stone in the Brecon Beacons.
Segontium, Gwynedd
Roman Fort, Town and Temple
Built in around 80AD just a few years after completing their conquest of Wales, Segontium was the largest and most important Roman fort in north Wales. The remains of many of the forts buildings are still visible, quite surprising really considering that Edward I plundered most of the stonework for his castle at Caernarfon!
Tomen-y-Mur Roman Fort, Snowdonia
Roman Fort and Amphitheatre
Visible earthworks of a Roman amphitheatre (albeit a very small one), bath house, temple, parade ground and even a Roman road can be seen, although most of the remains here are from a much later Norman motte and bailey castle.
Venta Silurum, Monmouthshire
Urban Centre
Unquestionably the best surviving Roman town defence walls in Britain (standing up to 5 metres in places!), the remains at Venta Silurum also include a house with underfloor heating, basilica, forum and temple. The site is open to the public.
Y Gaer, Brecon Beacons
Roman Fort
Built in AD75 at the crossroads of two Roman roads, Y Gaer would have been occupied by a contingent of 500 Spanish-recruited cavalrymen. Visible remains today include the perimeter walls, gatehouses and guard towers.
| Dover |
Which famous four part opera by Puccini ends with Musetta praying, Mimi dies, Schaunard discovers Mimi lifeless, Rodolfo cries Mimi's name in anguish and weeps helplessly? | A History of Dover, England
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DOVER
By Tim Lambert
ROMAN DOVER
Dover is the gateway to England. Because of its strategic position Dover has always been an important port.
In Roman times Dover was an important harbor. The Romans built a stone fort to protect it and a civilian settlement grew up nearby. It was called Dubris. In 1971 a Roman house was found in New Street. The walls of the house had paintings. They are the oldest surviving paintings in Britain.
The Romans also built two lighthouses on either side of the harbor. One, the Pharos, still stands. In Saxon times the Church of St Mary in Castra was built alongside it. The old lighthouse was used as a bell tower. However in the 4th century Roman civilization declined and the last Roman soldiers left Britain in 407 AD.
DOVER IN THE MIDDLE AGES
Later in the 5th century the Saxons founded another settlement at Dover. Then in the 9th century Alfred the Great created a network of fortified settlements across his kingdom called burhs. In the event of a Danish attack all the men in the area could gather in the local burh to fight them. In the 10th century Dover was made a burh. An earth rampart probably protected it with a wooden palisade on top. But Dover was more than a fortress. It was also a busy little town with weekly markets. In the 10th century Dover also had a royal mint.
Dover suffered disaster after the Norman invasion of 1066. The Normans sacked Dover then burned it (an easy task when most buildings were made of wood with thatched roofs). However Dover soon recovered from the disaster.
In the later 12th century King Henry II built a stone castle to protect Dover. In 1216 some barons tried to depose King John and they invited a French Prince and his followers to come to England to take the throne. The French laid siege to Dover Castle but they failed to capture it. However in 1295 the French attacked Dover and burned it.
Despite the attack Medieval Dover flourished. In 1203 Hubert de Burgh (who later held Dover castle against the French) built the Maison de Dieu (house of God) where poor travelers could stay. In the Middle Ages people believed their sins would be forgiven if they went on long journeys called pilgrimages. Many pilgrims came to England through Dover.
Henry VIII closed the Maison de Dieu but in modern times it was used as a town hall and museum.
There was also a priory (small abbey) in Dover. Although it was closed by Henry VIII it lives on in the street names Priory Road, Priory Hill and Priory Grove.
In the Middle Ages Dover was one of the cinque ports, who were required to provided ships and crews for the king. It was also a busy little port. Many fishermen lived in Dover and merchant ships carried cargoes to and from France.
DOVER IN THE 16TH CENTURY, 17TH CENTURY AND 18TH CENTURY
Through the centuries Dover continued to be a busy port and in 1583 it was given an enclosed harbor. Shakespeare Cliff is said to get its name because it was mentioned by Shakespeare in his play King Lear.
However in 1665-66 Dover suffered an outbreak of plague. Nevertheless it continued to grow.
In the 18th century Dover was known for its shipbuilding and rope making industries as well as its fishermen. There was also a leather industry in Dover. Meanwhile in 1778 an Act of Parliament formed a body of men called Paving Commissioners with powers to pave the streets of Dover and light them (with oil lamps).
In 1793 Britain went to war with France. So in 1794-95 a network of fortifications were created on the heights overlooking Dover.
Crabble Mill was built in 1812 to grind grain to flour. It is now open to the public.
MODERN DOVER
In the 19th century the old ship building industry declined but Dover boomed as a cross channel port. From the 1820s steam ships carried passengers across the Channel. In 1861 Dover was connected to London by rail, which made it easier for travelers to reach the town. The first car ferry from Dover began in 1928. A train ferry began in 1936. From 1968 Dover was connected to France by hovercraft.
Meanwhile Admiralty Pier was built in the mid 19th century. The Prince of Wales opened at the beginning of the 20th century.
In the 19th century there were a number of improvements to Dover. From 1822 Dover was lit by gas and in the 1850s sewers were dug. Dover Hospital opened in 1850. Between 1897 and 1936 electric trams ran in the streets of Dover but they were eventually replaced by buses.
Meanwhile in 1875 Captain Webb became the first person to swim the Channel from Dover to France and on 25 July 1909 Louis Bleriot (1872-1936) flew from northern France and landed at Northall Meadow by Dover Castle.
During World War II Dover was bombed. It was also possible for the Germans to fire shells from France. In all 216 civilians were killed. Meanwhile trawlers were converted to mine sweepers. They 'swept' part of the Channel and were known as the Dover patrol.
Charlton Shopping Centre was built in 1981. Today Dover continues to be a thriving port. Today the population of Dover is 37,000.
| i don't know |
Isca Dumnoniorum is the Roman name for which southern city in England? | ISCA DVMNONIORVM
Isca Dvmnoniorvm
Type: British Capital, Legionary Fort
Roads
Fosse Way: ENE (18) to Whitley Castle (Whitley Castle, Northumberland)
SE (3) to Topsham (Devon)
W (17) to North Tawton
WNW (17) to Okehampton
Fosse Way: ENE (18) to Mvridvnvm
Isca Dumnoniorum - The Riverside Settlement of the Dumnonii
"Next to these, but more to the west, are the Dumnoni,¹ whose towns are: Voliba [14*45 52�] Uxella [15*00 52�] Tamara [15*00 52�] Isca,² where is located Legio II Augusta³ [17*30 52�]."
Above Passage from Ptolemy's Geography of the Second Century
The Dumnonii tribe occupied the area now contained within the modern counties of Devon and Cornwall in the extreme south-western part of England. Their neighbouring tribe in Somerset and Dorset were the Durotriges .
The first of these Dumnonian towns remains unknown, but the others are Launceston in Cornwall and Plymouth in Devon respectively, the last-named town being, of course, Exeter.
The Second Augustan Legion is also known to have been stationed at Gloucester and at Caerleon in Wales.
Exeter is listed in two routes of the late-second century Antonine Itinerary , however, it would appear that its inclusion in Iter XII is an error. The remaining route, Iter XV, the last in the British section, is entitled "the route from Calleva to Isca Dumnoniorum", wherein Exeter appears as the southern terminus, named Isca Dumnoniorum and listed some 15 miles from Muridunum (nr. Honiton, Devon).
Exeter also appears in the Ravenna Cosmology of the seventh century, this time as the somewhat garbled entry Scadu Namorum (R&C#16), between the unknown entries Melamoni and Termonin, whose names are also probably corrupt.
The Roman Legionary Fortress at Exeter
The city of Exeter is located at the south-western terminus of the Fosse Way at the head of the Exe Estuary in Devon, and has been permanently occupied for almost two thousand years, which means that the Roman occupation levels now lie many feet below some of the principal parts of the modern city. However, the Second World War created an ideal opportunity for archaeologists to study the early history of the town, when German bombs dropped on this important south coast city/port, penetrated down to the Roman occupation levels.
The first Roman military building to be so identified was the principia or regimental headquarters of a Neronian legionary fortress, which was built c.55-60AD and lay below the monumental administrative buildings of the later Flavian period. This H.Q. building lay at the centre of a 37 acre (15Ha) enclosure which is rather small for a legionary fortress, which were usually around 50 acres (20ha) in area, and it seem likely that the camp was never intended to house the full complement of the Second Augusta. This reduction in the legionary complement could be for two main reasons; either the legion had suffered losses of over a thousand men during the earlier campigns throughout southern England, or a number of cohorts were housed elsewhere, perhaps at Corinium in Gloucestershire or even on the Continent. The fact that the fortress was built on a reduced scale must prove that the Roman military did not expect these missing men to suddenly return.
"It is probable that there was an auxiliary fort at Exeter itself, which remains to be found below the later legionary base." (Webster, p.159)
Legio Secundae Augusta - The Second Augustan Legion
For a long time the passage in Ptolemy (vide supra) which placed Legio II Augusta within the lands of the Dumnonii was thought to be in error, whereby the ancient author had mistakenly copied the data for Isca Silurum in South Wales, where a legionary base of the Second was positively known to be situated. However, recent finds have confirmed the presence of this unit during early Neronian times.
"The legion's presence at Exeter is supported by the appearance of a stamped roofing-tile there, in a layer dated to the region of 60AD." (Salway, pp.98/99)
A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55-60AD and underwent renovation shortly afterwards c.60-65, but by c.68 (possibly as early as 66) the legion had transferred to a new fortress at Gloucester , whereupon the Exeter fortress was dismantled and the site abandoned.
The Civitas Capital of the Dumnonii
Around 75AD work on the town's forum and basilica had begun on the site of the former principia and by the late-second century the town walls were built, 10 feet (3 metres) thick and 20 feet (6 metres) high, enclosing the same area as the earlier fortress. The town was in decline by the late-fourth century but one of the major public buildings continued to be occupied into the seventh, and it is known that a colony of "Britons" who lived together in a quarter of the old town were expelled by the Saxon king Aethelstan in the tenth century.
Other Roman Sites in the Area
The fortress was served by a contemporary port at Topsham on the Exe Estuary to the south-east, which continued to serve the later town and civitas capital.
There are a couple of Roman fortlets within sight of the fortress at Ide (SX8888) to the south-west and Stoke Hill (SX9295) to the north. A number of tentative Roman roads may also converge on Exeter; west from the forts at North Tawton and Okehampton, south from the natural harbours at Dartmouth and Salcombe, and possibly north from the fort at Tiverton.
See: The Towns of Roman Britain by John Wacher (2nd Ed., BCA, London, 1995) pp.335-343 & fig.151;
The Roman Invasion of Britain by Graham Webster (London 1993) p.159;
Roman Britain by Peter Salway (Oxford 1981) note, pp.98/99.
This page was last modified: 27/1/2016
| Exeter |
Ex Prime Minister Tony Blair was a member of Parliament for which constituency from 1983 to 2007? | EXETER: The City of Exeter in Exeter, England
Historical notes about the City of Exeter (City Centre)
Exeter
Cathedral city, county town of Devon, site of the University College of the South-West; a busy market and shopping centre and the focus of public transport services for a wide area. Though badly damaged by bombs (one of which injured the cathedral), much good building remains, especially of the Middle Ages and early 19th Century. Note the Regency period market; and, beside the cathedral, the many parish churches. Cathedral has an ornate western fa�ade, tow transeptal Norman towers, a splendid minstrel's gallery and a wealth of tombs. Interesting pictures by Devonshire artists (including Patch) in the art gallery.
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In the United Kingdom cities like Exeter (City Centre) are densely populated urban areas usually consisting of a number of borough and/or districts. Confusingly some people believe a city is a place that has a Cathedral but this is not the case. The city of Exeter (City Centre) was formed by a charter granted by the Crown (Head of State) to celebrate some national event, the last cities were created at the Golden Jubilee of HM Queen Elizabeth II, although this is not always the case. Large towns can petition the Queen to see if she, and her Government, will grant them the status of a city. Once Exeter (City Centre) was granted the status of a city it gained a significant degree of self government and are responsible to Parliament and not the county in which it is located. Many cities also have the right to elect a Lord Mayor, the most famous and prestigious of which is that of the Lord Mayor of London. Nowadays most cities are officially Unitary Authorities.
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"""The Camels are Coming"" published in 1932 was the first book that featured which popular children's hero created by W.E.Johns?" | Big on Biggles - The Adventures Continue on AbeBooks
Big on Biggles
More About Biggles
During the 1960s, Biggles books were removed from libraries and children's reading lists due to the perception of racial prejudice throughout the books.
The publisher Red Fox (a Random House imprint) is reprinting many of the Biggles titles with footnotes that explain slang and military terms used in the books.
Biggles first appeared in 1932 in the first issue of Popular Flying magazine in a story called 'The White Fokker".
James "Biggles" Bigglesworth was born May 1899 in India. He was the second son of an an administrator in the Indian Civil Service and his wife.
Biggles' first encounter with an aircraft was while attending Malton Hall School in Hertbury, England when a Blériot that was forced to land on the school cricket pitch.
A "lost" birth certificate allowed Biggles to join the army as a subaltern in the Rifle Regiment in 1916. In the summer of that year he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps and flew in combat in September 1916 with 169 Squadron, RFC.
Between the World Wars, Biggles worked as a charter pilot.
After World War II, Biggles worked for Scotland Yard as head of a new Special Air Police division.
Because of his upbringing in India, Biggles was fluent in Hindi.
by Richard Davies
Biggles has been fighting off bandits at 2 o’clock since 1932. He’s legend of children’s literature and one of the great adventure heroes. James Bigglesworth, created by W.E. Johns, starred in almost 100 novels beginning with The Camels are Coming . Johns died while writing Biggles Does Some Homework in 1968 but his hero continues to fascinate readers and collectors more than 40 years after his creator’s death.
The fearless flyer began his literary life as a World War I fighter pilot in the Royal Flying Corps, the precursor to the Royal Air Force. Johns wrote from firsthand experience as he flew fighter planes in the Great War and was shot down in 1918. After the conflict ended, he remained in the RAF until 1927.
Much like another British hero James Bond, Biggles was a survivor and time never dimmed his ability to fly to the rescue. Johns wrote about the young Biggles, his adventures in WWI, his career as a charter pilot, his WWII heroics, and then his post-war work in the special air police. Villains could shoot him down every now and again, but Biggles was impossible to kill.
Biggles has been translated into many languages and the series is adored by collectors with a love of adventure. It’s common for a rare Biggles book to sell for a four-figure price.
1930s
Biggles Breaks the Silence
(1949)
Biggles’ popularity has waxed and waned over the years. The books have been criticized for clumsy racial stereotyping, old-fashioned attitudes and war-mongering, and been mercilessly parodied by comedians, including Monty Python. The criticism cannot be shrugged off, but Johns began the series in a world completely different to today and that should be considered when revisiting his books. His writing reflects a bygone age, using bygone language and featuring bygone technology - they are old school adventure stories. The World Wars – the two defining events of the 20th century – were the defining events in Biggles’ life and adventure had been the major theme in fiction for boys long before Johns, who was born in 1893, started writing. Today, Biggles’ first editions are highly collectible, particularly the early stories complete with dust jackets .
1950s
| Biggles |
What was the name of the IRA hunger striker who died in 1981 after a 66 day hunger strike? | Sopwith Camel
Sopwith Camel
Number built
5,490
The Sopwith Camel was a British First World War single-seat biplane fighter aircraft introduced on the Western Front in 1917. Manufactured by the Sopwith Aviation Company , it used a rotary engine , and had twin synchronized machine guns. Though difficult to handle it offered very good manoeuvrability to an experienced pilot. Camel pilots were credited with shooting down 1,294 enemy aircraft, more than any other Allied fighter of the conflict. It also served as a ground-attack aircraft, especially towards the end of the war when it had become outclassed in the air-to-air role. The main variant was the F.1 but dedicated variants were built for a variety of roles including the 2F.1 Ship’s Camel for carrier operations, the Comic night fighter, the T.F.1 trench fighter armoured ground attack aircraft and a two-seat trainer.
Contents
Design and development
Replica Sopwith Camel showing internal structure
The Camel’s predecessor, the Sopwith Pup , was no longer competitive against newer German fighters, such as the Albatros D.III , and thus the Camel was developed specifically to replace the Pup, [2] as well as the Nieuport 17s that had been purchased from the French as an interim measure. It was recognised that the new fighter would need to be faster and have a heavier armament. To meet this demand, Sopwith’s chief designer, Herbert Smith , opted to develop a successor, the Sopwith F.1. [3]
The “Big Pup”, as it was known early in its development, and powered by a 110 hp Clerget 9Z, was first flown by Harry Hawker at Brooklands on 22 December 1916. Its design was conventional for its time, featuring a wooden box-like fuselage structure, an aluminium engine cowling, plywood panels around the cockpit, and fabric-covered fuselage, wings and tail. While having some clear similarities with the Pup, it had a noticeably bulkier fuselage. [3] For the first time on an operational British-designed fighter, two 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine guns were mounted directly in front of the cockpit, synchronised to fire forwards through the propeller disc. A metal fairing over the gun breeches, intended to protect the guns from freezing at altitude, created a “hump”, and it was this feature that led pilots to refer to the aircraft by the name Camel . However this was never an official name for the aircraft. [2] [4]
Harry Cobby sitting in the cockpit of a Sopwith Camel
The bottom wing was rigged with 3° dihedral but the top wing had no dihedral, so that the gap between the wings was less at the tips than at the roots; this change was made at the suggestion of Fred Sigrist , the Sopwith works manager, in order to simplify construction. The upper wing had a central cutout section to improve upwards visibility for the pilot. [5] Production Camels were powered by various rotary engines , most commonly either the Clerget 9B or the Bentley BR1 . [6] To avoid a production bottleneck being imposed on the aircraft by a potential engine shortage, other engines were also used. [7]
The first production contract for an initial batch of 250 Camels was issued by the War Office in May 1917,. [8] During 1917, 1,325 Camels were manufactured, almost entirely of the initial F.1 variant and by the time production came to an end, approximately 5,490 Camels of all types had been built. [9] In early 1918, production of the navalised “Ship’s” Camel 2F.1 began. [10]
Unlike the preceding Pup and Triplane , the Camel was considered to be difficult to fly. [11] The type owed both its extreme manoeuvrability and its difficult handling to the close placement of the engine, pilot, guns and fuel tank (some 90% of the aircraft’s weight) within the front seven feet of the aircraft, and to the strong gyroscopic effect of the rotating mass of the cylinders common to rotary engines . [Note 1]
The Camel soon gained an unfortunate reputation with pilots. [12] Many crashed on take-off when the load of fuel usually carried pushed the centre of gravity beyond the rearmost safe limits. In level flight, the Camel was markedly tail-heavy. Unlike the Sopwith Triplane, the Camel lacked a variable incidence tailplane, so that the pilot had to apply constant forward pressure on the control stick to maintain a level attitude at low altitude. The aircraft could be rigged so that at higher altitudes it could be flown “hands off”. A stall immediately resulted in a dangerous spin .
A two-seat trainer version of the Camel was later built to ease the transition process: [13] in his Recollections of an Airman Lt Col L.A. Strange, who served with the central flying school, wrote: “In spite of the care we took, Camels continually spun down out of control when flew [ sic ?] by pupils on their first solos. At length, with the assistance of Lieut Morgan, who managed our workshops, I took the main tank out of several Camels and replaced [them] with a smaller one, which enabled us to fit in dual control.” Such conversions, and dual instruction, went some way to alleviating the previously unacceptable casualties incurred during the critical type-specific solo training stage. [12]
Operational history
Western front
Camels being prepared for a sortie.
In June 1917, the type entered service with No. 4 Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service , near Dunkirk . Its first combat flight and reportedly its first victory claim were both made on 4 July 1917. [8] By the end of July 1917, the Camel also equipped No. 3 and No. 9 Naval Squadrons; and it had become operational with No. 70 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps . [10] By February 1918, 13 squadrons had Camels as their primary equipment.
The Camel proved to have better manoeuvrability than the Albatros D.III and D.V and offered heavier armament and better performance than the Pup and Triplane. Its controls were light and sensitive. The Camel turned more slowly to the left, which resulted in a nose-up attitude due to the torque of the rotary engine. But the engine torque also resulted in the ability to turn to the right quicker than other fighters, [14] although that resulted in a tendency towards a nose-down attitude from the turn. Because of the faster turning capability to the right, to change heading 90° to the left, some pilots preferred to do it by turning 270° to the right.
Agility in combat made the Camel one of the best-remembered Allied aircraft of the First World War . RFC crew used to joke that it offered the choice between “a wooden cross , the Red Cross , or a Victoria Cross “ [15] Together with the S.E.5a and the SPAD S.XIII , the Camel helped to re-establish the Allied aerial superiority that lasted well into 1918.
Major William Barker ‘s Sopwith Camel ( serial no . B6313, the aircraft in which he scored the majority of his victories), [16] was used to shoot down 46 aircraft and balloons from September 1917 to September 1918 in 404 operational flying hours, more than any other single RAF fighter.
Home defence and night fighting
An important role for the Camel was home defence. The RNAS flew Camels from Eastchurch and Manston airfields against daylight raids by German bombers, including Gothas , from July 1917. [13] The public outcry against the night raids and the poor response of London’s defences forced the RFC to divert Camels from France to home defence, with 44 Squadron RFC reforming on the Camel in the home defence role in July 1917. [17] When the Germans switched to night attacks, the Camel proved capable of being flown at night, and the home defence aircraft were modified with navigation lights to serve as night fighters. A number of Camels were more extensively modified with the Vickers machine guns being replaced by overwing Lewis guns , with the cockpit being moved rearwards so the pilot could reload the guns. This modification, which became known as the “Sopwith Comic” allowed the guns to be fired without affecting the pilot’s night vision, and allowed the use of new, more effective incendiary ammunition that was considered unsafe to fire from synchronised Vickers guns. [18] [19] [Note 2] By March 1918, the home defence squadrons were equipped with the Camel, with seven home defence squadrons flying Camels by August 1918. [21]
Navalised Camels on the aircraft carrier HMS Furious prior to raiding the Tondern airship hangars
151 Squadron Camel night fighters were also intercepting German night bombers over the Western Front, and carrying out night intruder missions against German airstrips, claiming 26 German aircraft downed in five months of operations. [22]
Shipboard use
The RNAS operated 2F.1 Camels from platforms mounted on the turrets of major warships, from some of the earliest aircraft carriers, and from aircraft lighters which were specially modified barges, which were towed fast enough that a Camel could be launched from one against incoming air raids from a more advantageous position than shore bases allowed.
Ground attack
Sopwith 2F.1 Camel suspended from airship R 23 prior to a test flight.
By mid-1918, the Camel had become obsolescent as a day fighter as its climb rate, level speed and performance at altitudes over 12,000 ft (3,650 m) were outclassed by the latest German fighters, such as the Fokker D.VII . However, it remained useful as a ground-attack and infantry support aircraft. During the German offensive of March 1918, squadrons of Camels harassed the advancing German Army, inflicting high losses (although suffering high losses in turn) through the dropping of 25 lb (11 kg) Cooper bombs and low-level strafing. The protracted development of the Camel’s replacement, the Sopwith Snipe , meant that the Camel remained in service until after the Armistice.
Parasite fighter
In summer 1918, a 2F.1 Camel (N6814) was used in trials as a parasite fighter under Airship R23 . [23]
Variants
Camels were powered by several rotary engines :
130 hp Clerget 9B rotary (standard powerplant)
140 hp Clerget 9Bf rotary
100 hp Gnome Monosoupape 9B-2 rotary
150 hp Gnome Monosoupape 9N rotary
Sopwith Camel F.1
The F.1 was the main production version. It was armed with twin synchronised Vickers guns.
The Sopwith 2F.1 Camel used to shoot down Zeppelin L 53 , at the Imperial War Museum , London. Note mounting of twin Lewis guns over the top wing
Sopwith Camel 2F.1
The 2F.1 was a shipboard variant, flown from HMS Furious (47) . [24] It had a slightly shorter wingspan and a Bentley BR1 as its standard engine. Additionally, one Vickers gun was replaced by an overwing Lewis gun .
Sopwith Camel “Comic” Night fighter
The “Comic” was a Camel variant designed specifically for night-fighting duties. The twin Vickers guns were replaced by two Lewis guns on Foster mountings firing forward over the top wing, as the muzzle flash of the Vickers guns could blind the pilot. To allow reloading of the guns, the pilot was moved about 12 inches (30 cm) to the rear and to compensate the fuel tank was moved forward. [25] It served with Home Defence Squadrons against German air raids. The “Comic” nickname was unofficial, and was shared with the night fighter version of the Sopwith 1½ Strutter .
F.1/1
The F1/1 was a version with tapered wings.
T.F.1
The T.F.1 was an experimental trench fighter used for development work for Sopwith Salamander . Its machine guns were angled downwards for efficient strafing , and it featured armour plating for protection.
Trainer
The trainer variant had a second cockpit behind the normal pilot’s position. The weapons were removed, although the hump was sometimes kept.
Operators
A Boulton & Paul built F.1 F6314 is on display at the Milestone of Flight exhibition at the Royal Air Force Museum , London, [37] painted to represent an aircraft coded B of No. 65 Squadron RAF . [38]
F.1 Camel C8228, built by Sopwith in 1917, is on display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. [39]
Reproductions
Media related to Sopwith Camel replicas at Wikimedia Commons
Replica of Camel F.1 flown by Lt. George Vaughn Jr., 17th Aero Squadron at the USAF Museum
In 1969 Slingsby built a flyable Type T.57 Camel reproduction powered by a 145 hp Warner Scarab engine for use in a Biggles film. It is on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum , Yeovilton painted as B6401. [40] [41]
A reproduction F.1 Camel is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio . This aircraft was built by museum personnel from original First World War factory drawings and was completed in 1974. It is painted and marked as the Camel flown by Lt. George A. Vaughn Jr. while flying with the 17th Aero Squadron . [42]
The Camel on display at the Cavanaugh Flight Museum in Addison, Texas is a full scale flying replica built by Dick Day from original factory drawings. The aircraft is fitted with original instruments, machine guns and an original Gnome rotary engine (a rare feature in replicas). It is painted in the scheme of the World War I flying ace Captain Arthur Roy Brown, a Canadian who flew with the Royal Air Force.
In 1977, a flyable reproduction was built for Leisure Sport Ltd by the late Viv Bellamy at Lands End. Painted to represent B7270 of 209 Squadron, RAF, the machine which Captain Roy Brown flew when officially credited with downing Baron Manfred von Richthofen , it has a Clerget rotary engine of 1916 and was registered as G-BFCZ until 2003. First seen at Brooklands Museum in January 1988 for Sir Thomas Sopwith ’s 100th birthday celebrations, it was purchased by the Museum later that year, can be taken by road for exhibition elsewhere and is ground run regularly.
Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome flies a reproduction Camel completed in 1992 with a 160 hp Gnome Monosoupape model 9N rotary, built by Nathaniel deFlavia and Cole Palen. It replaced one of the Dick Day-built and -flown Camel reproductions formerly flown at Old Rhinebeck by Mr. Day in their weekend vintage airshows, which had left the Aerodrome’s collection some years earlier. [43]
N8343 constructed by Dick Day, is part of the Javier Arango Collection, in Paso Robles, California. Powered by a 160 hp Gnome Monosoupape rotary. It is regularly flown.
B3889 in The Vintage Aviator Collection, L.T.D., in Masterton, New Zealand. It was originally built by Carl Swanson for Gerry Thornhill. It is often flown. Powerplant is a 160 hp Gnome Monosoupape rotary engine.
A reproduction is on display at the Canadian Museum of The Air in Langley, BC, Canada. Lacking an engine, a full reproduction wooden Rhone R9 130 hp engine has been installed.
A reproduction is on display at the Royal Australian Airforce Museum, Perth. [44] The engine is original and the propeller is suspected to also be genuine. [45]
A reproduction is currently under construction by the Northern Aeroplane Workshops for the Shuttleworth Collection , England. [46]
A replica Camel is being built in the United States by Koz Aero LLC, based on original factory drawings and using many original parts, including an original engine and instruments. [47]
Two reproductions are being built in France by John Shaw, one with an original Le Clerget 130 9B engine and the second with a new build Gnome Monosoupe 100 hp engine; both were built to the original plans and as authentically as materials allow. [48]
A replica Sopwith F.1 Camel B5577 is on display at Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre , Angus, Scotland.
Airdrome Aeroplanes LTD, Holden MO USA manufactures a full-scale replica kit. http://www.airdromeaeroplanes.com/sopwithcamel.html
Specifications (F.1 Camel)
Data from Quest for Performance, [49] Profile Publications [50]
General characteristics
“Sopwith Camel”
The Camel appears in literature and popular media as:
One of the aircraft flown by Canadian pilot Arthur Roy Brown in the 2008 movie The Red Baron .
The single-seater scout flown by the Royal Flying Corps Squadron in the semi-autobiographical, First World War air combat book Winged Victory written by Victor Maslin Yeates .
The fighter flown by Biggles in the novels by W.E. Johns during Biggles’s spell in 266 Squadron during the First World War. The first collection of Biggles stories, titled The Camels are Coming, was published in 1932. [51]
The “plane” of Snoopy in the Peanuts comic strip, when he imagines himself as a World War I flying ace and the nemesis of the Red Baron . [52]
The type of aircraft flown in the First World War by John and Bayard Sartoris in William Faulkner ‘s Flags in the Dust . [Note 3]
In the Percy Jackson book The Titan’s Curse , Annabeth’s father, a historian, uses a restored and modified Sopwith Camel to aid the heroes at one point during the novel.
Robert Redford ‘s character flies a Sopwith Camel during the climactic aerial battle scene in the 1975 film The Great Waldo Pepper .
See also
References
Notes
^ As compared with radial engines in which a conventional rotating crankshaft is driven by a fixed engine block.
^ The ammunition in question was the RTS (Richard Thelfall and Sons) round, a combined incendiary and explosive round with a nitroglycerin and phosphorus filling. While more effective than earlier incendiary bullets like the phosphorus filled Buckingham bullet, they required careful handling, and were initially banned from synchronised weapons, both because of fears about the consequences of bullets striking the propeller of the fighter, and to prevent cooking off of the sensitive ammunition in the chambers of the Vickers guns, which fired from a closed bolt – a required feature for guns used in synchronized mounts – where heat could build up much quicker than in the open bolted Lewis gun. [18] [20]
^ Quote: “Under fire from a pupil of Richthofen (the Red Baron), John’s Camel caught fire over occupied France. Bayard’s last sight of his twin brother was of John jumping out of his fighter feet first.” Faulkner also wrote about the Camel (and Sartoris) in the story “All the Dead Pilots”.
Citations
^ Loftin, LK, Jr. “Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft. NASA SP-468″. NASA. Retrieved: 22 April 2006.
^ Bruce 1965, p. 12.
^
Butts, D (2000). “Biggles – Hero of the Air”. In Watkins, T; Jones, D. A Necessary Fantasy?: The Heroic Figure in Children’s Popular Culture. New York: Garland Publishing . pp. 137–152 . ISBN 0-8153-1844-8 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
^ Murphy and McNiece 2003, p. 87.
Bibliography
Bowyer, Chaz. Sopwith Camel: King of Combat. Falmouth, Cornwall, UK: Glasney Press, 1978. ISBN 0-9502825-7-X [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Bruce, J.M. “Sopwith Camel: Historic Military Aircraft No 10: Part II.” Flight , 29 April 1955. pp. 560–563.
Bruce, J.M. “Aircraft Profile No. 31. The Sopwith Camel F.1″ Profile Publications, 1965.
Bruce, J.M. War Planes of the First World War: Volume Two Fighters. London:Macdonald, 1968. ISBN 0-356-01473-8 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Clark, Alan. Aces High: The War In The Air Over The Western Front 1914 – 1918. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1973. ISBN 0-297-99464-6 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Davis, Mick. Sopwith Aircraft. Ramsbury, Malborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 1999. ISBN 1-86126-217-5 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Ellis, Ken. Wrecks & Relics, 21st edition. Manchester, UK: Crecy Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-0-85979-134-2 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Guttman, Jon: “Sopwith Camel (Air Vanguard ; 3)”. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2012. ISBN 978-1-78096-176-7 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Jackson, A.J. British Civil Aircraft 1919-1972: Volume III. London: Putnam, 1988. ISBN 0-85177-818-6 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Jackson, Robert. Infamous Aircraft – Dangerous Designs and their Vices. Barnsley, UK:Pen and Sword, 2005. ISBN 9781844151721 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Leinburger, Ralf. Fighter: Technology, Facts, History. London: Parragon Inc., 2008. ISBN 978-1-40549-575-2 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Mason, Francis K. The British Fighter. London: Putnam, 1992. ISBN 0 85177 852 6 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ]
Murphy, Justin D. and Matthew A. McNiece. Military Aircraft, 1919-1945: An Illustrated History of their Impact. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2009. ISBN 1-85109-498-9 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Ralph, Wayne. Barker VC: The Classic Story of a Legendary First World War Hero. London: Grub Street, 1999. ISBN 1-902304-31-4 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Robertson, Bruce. Sopwith: The Man and His Aircraft. London: Harleyford, 1970. ISBN 0-900435-15-1 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Sturtivant, Ray and Gordon Page. The Camel File. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 1993. ISBN 0-85130-212-2 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.
Williams, Anthony G. and Emmanuel Gustin. Flying Guns: World War I and its Aftermath 1914–32. Ramsbury, Wiltshire: Airlife, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-396-2 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
Winchester, Jim, ed. “Sopwith Camel.” Biplanes, Triplanes and Seaplanes (Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-641-3 [ Amazon-US | Amazon-UK ].
External links
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What was the name of the Irish intruder who in 1982 managed to gain access to the Queen's bedroom? | BBC ON THIS DAY | 9 | 1982: Queen fends off bedroom intruder
About This Site | Text Only
1982: Queen fends off bedroom intruder
A man has broken into Buckingham Palace and spent ten minutes talking to the Queen in her bedroom.
At around 0715 BST Michael Fagan, 31, scaled the walls around the palace and shinned the drain-pipe up to the Queen's private apartments.
Barefooted and wearing a t-shirt the unemployed father of four evaded electronic alarms and palace and police guards before disturbing the Queen by opening a curtain.
Mr Fagan is already due to appear at Bow Street Magistrates' Court tomorrow to face charges of trespass and stealing half a bottle of wine from Buckingham Palace on 7 June.
Smoked out
The Queen was only able to raise the alarm when he asked for a cigarette.
She calmly called for a footman who held the intruder until police arrived.
The incident happened as the armed police officer outside the royal bedroom came off duty before his replacement - apparently out walking the dogs - arrived.
This is the sixth breach of security at the Queen's London residence this year and raises serious questions about how well protected she is.
Last month a man with a knife burst into the forecourt of Buckingham Palace and last year three German tourists camped in the grounds, believing it to be Hyde Park.
It is the first time that private royal apartments have been penetrated since Queen Victoria's reign, although the Queen Mother disturbed an army deserter in her bathroom during the Second World War.
Queen talks down prowler in her bedroom
In Context
Michael Fagan was not charged for trespassing in the Queen's bedroom since it was then a civil offence and proceedings would have compromised the Queen's position as head of state.
In September 1982 Mr Fagan was acquitted of stealing wine from Buckingham Palace in June.
He admitted another charge of stealing a car and the judge at the Old Bailey sent him to a top security mental health hospital in Liverpool, as a patient rather than a criminal. He was released three months later.
Since then Michael Fagan has committed several other petty offences.
In 1984 aggravated trespass or the act of trespass with the intent to disrupt or obstruct a lawful activity became a criminal offence.
In June 2003, a comedian managed to gatecrash Prince William's 21st birthday party at Windsor Castle leading to calls to make the offence of ordinary trespass on royal or government property a criminal offence.
Stories From 9 Jul
| Michael Fagan |
What was the name of the horse ridden by Herbert Jones that trampled and killed suffragette Emily Davison during the 1913 Derby? | When an Intruder Entered Queen Elizabeth's Bedroom
By Jennifer Rosenberg
Updated January 29, 2016.
Early on Friday morning, July 9, 1982, Queen Elizabeth II woke to find a strange, bleeding man sitting at the end of her bed. As scary as the situation must have been, she handled it with royal aplomb.
A Strange Man at the End of the Queen's Bed
When Queen Elizabeth II woke up on the morning of July 9, 1982, she saw that a strange man was sitting on her bed. The man, dressed in jeans and a dirty T-shirt, was cradling a broken ashtray and dripping blood onto the royal linens from a lacerated hand.
The Queen kept calm and picked up the phone from her bedside table. She asked the operator at the palace switchboard to summon the police. Though the operator did pass the message to the police, the police didn't respond.
Some reports say the intruder, 31-year-old Michael Fagan, had planned to commit suicide in the Queen's bedroom but decided it wasn't "a nice thing to do" once he was there.1
He wanted to talk about love but the Queen changed the subject to family matters.
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Fagan's mother later said, "He thinks so much of the Queen. I can imagine him just wanting to simply talk and say hello and discuss his problems."2 Fagan thought it a coincidence that he and the Queen both had four children.
The Queen attempted to summon a chambermaid by pressing a button, but no one came. The Queen and Fagan continued to talk. When Fagan asked for a cigarette, the Queen again called the palace switchboard. Still no one responded.
After the Queen had spent ten minutes with the mentally disturbed, bleeding intruder, a chambermaid entered the Queen's quarters and exclaimed, "Bloody hell, ma'am! What's he doing in there?" The chambermaid then ran out and woke up a footman who then seized the intruder. The police arrived twelve minutes after the Queen's first call.
How Did He Get into the Queen's Bedroom?
This wasn't the first time that protection of the royal monarch had been found lacking, but it had supposedly been increased since the 1981 attack on the Queen (a man fired six blanks at her during the Trooping the Color ceremony). Yet Michael Fagan basically walked into Buckingham Palace - twice. Only a month before, Fagan had stolen a $6 bottle of wine from the palace.
Around 6 a.m., Fagan climbed the 14-foot-high wall - topped with spikes and barbed-wire - on the southeast side of the palace. Though an off-duty policeman saw Fagan climbing the wall, by the time he had alerted palace guards, Fagan could not be found. Fagan then walked along the south side of the palace and then along the west side. There, he found an open window and climbed in.
Fagan had entered a room housing King George V's $20 million stamp collection. Since the door to the interior of the palace was locked, Fagan went back outside through the window. An alarm had been set off both as Fagan entered and exited the Stamp Room through the window, but the policeman at the police sub-station (on palace grounds) assumed the alarm was malfunctioning and turned it off - twice.
Fagan then went back as he had come, along the west side of the palace, and then continuing along the south side (past his point of entry), and then along the east side. Here, he climbed up a drainpipe, pulled back some wire (meant to keep pigeons away) and climbed into Vice Admiral Sir Peter Ashmore's office (the man responsible for the Queen's security).
Fagan then walked down the hallway, looking at paintings and into rooms. Along his way, he picked up a glass ashtray and broke it, cutting his hand. He passed a palace housekeeper who said "good morning" and only a few minutes later he walked into the Queen's bedroom.
Normally, an armed policeman stands guard outside the Queen's door at night. When his shift is over at 6 a.m., he is replaced with an unarmed footman. At this particular time, the footman was out walking the Queen's corgis (dogs).
When the public learned of this incident, they were outraged at the lapse of security around their Queen. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher personally apologized to the Queen and measures were immediately taken to strengthen palace security.
1. Kim Rogal and Ronald Henkoff, "Intruder at the Palace," Newsweek July 26, 1982: 38-39.
2. Spencer Davidson, "God Save the Queen, Fast," TIME 120.4 (July 26, 1982): 33.
Bibliography
Davidson, Spencer. "God Save the Queen, Fast." TIME 120.4 (July 26, 1982): 33.
Rogal, Kim and Ronald Henkoff. "Intruder at the Palace." Newsweek July 26, 1982: 38-39.
| i don't know |
What was Bing Crosby's real first christian name? | Harry Lillis Crosby, Jr. (1903 - 1977) - Genealogy
Harry Lillis Crosby, Jr.
1112 North J Street, Tacoma, Pierce, Washington, United States
Death:
in Alcobendas, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, Spain
Cause of death:
Culver City, Los Angeles County, California, United States
Immediate Family:
Added 2013-04-24 13:20:31 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
NewspaperARCHIVE.com
Text:
... reacted with shock and grief Friday to the death of singer Bing Crosby The entertainer instigator of the famed Bing's Clambake at Pebble...
Date:
Added 2013-04-24 13:20:40 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
NewspaperARCHIVE.com
Text:
"...on Crosby's career The Washington Post Bing Crosby who died of a heart attack in Madrid day was a show business phenomenon For years ...
Date:
Added 2013-04-24 13:21:26 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
NewspaperARCHIVE.com
Text:
"...Then waiting wives Bing Crosby rites burial held at dawn By Bob Thomas Associated Press Bing Crosby's relatives and close friends gat...
Date:
Added 2013-04-24 13:21:08 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
NewspaperARCHIVE.com
Text:
"...Classified BING CROSBY is on his way home today with private funeral ceremonies scheduled for Tuesday in Los Angeles Page FOR DRUNKS ...
Date:
Added 2014-12-05 13:15:23 -0800 by gerald duane paddock
Collection:
May 3 1903 - Tacoma, Pierce, Washington, USA
Death:
Oct 14 1977 - Madrid, Spain
Parents:
Harry Lillis Crosby, Catherine Helen Crosby
Wife:
Gary Evan Crosby, Lindsay Harry Crosby, Dennis Michael Crosby, Phillip Lang Crosby
Siblings:
...Nathaniel Crosby, Laurence Earl Crosby, George Robert Crosby, Mary Rose Crosby, Catherine Cordelia Mullin, Edward John Crosby, Edward Crosby
Added 2013-04-24 13:20:23 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
Added 2013-04-24 13:21:20 -0700 by Geoffrey David Trowbridge
Collection:
NewspaperARCHIVE.com
Text:
"...EIGHT Crooner died and Crosby's body on to U.S. Spain The body of Bing who died and after winning a round of is coming American offic...
Date:
Sep 29 1930 - Los Angeles, California, United States
Wife:
Australian Newspapers
Text:
... informed sources said, United Press International reported. Crosby NEW YORK, Tuesday (AAP). — The body of Bing Crosby, who died suddenly...
Publication:
Oct 19 1977 - Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Page:
Cause of death: Myocardial infarction - Oct 14 1977 - La Moraleja
Parents:
Harry Lincoln Crosby, Catherine Harrigan
Siblings:
Bob Crosby, Larry Crosby, Everett Crosby, Mary Rose Crosby, Ted Crosby, Catherine Crosby
Wife:
Lindsay Crosby, Dennis Crosby, Nathaniel Crosby, Harry Crosby, Mary Crosby, Gary Crosby, Phillip Crosby
Residence:
Australian Newspapers
Text:
"...for any other election except the 1972 campaign. Bing Crosby dies after golf Bins Crosby collapsed and died of a heart attack on a Sp...
Publication:
Oct 17 1977 - Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Page:
Australian Newspapers
Text:
... northern Italy, returned to their homes yesterday. OBITUARY Bing Crosby in 1935, 1946 and 1958. Birig Crosby and Mr Cesar de ... Zulucta...
Publication:
Oct 17 1977 - Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
Page:
brother
About Bing Crosby
Bing Crosby was one of the biggest music and movie stars of the mid-20th century. His career stretched more than half a century from 1926 until his death in 1977. Crosby's unique bass-baritone voice made him the best-selling recording artist until well into the rock era, with over half a billion records in circulation.
Born Harry Lillis Crosby in Tacoma, Washington, on May 2, 1903 (although there is some dispute about the year, which is also variously stated as 1901 and 1904), he was one of seven children, all of whom were given music lessons by their musically inclined parents (one brother, Bob Crosby, later earned fame and fortune as a band-leader in the 1930s and 1940s). While he was still a boy the family moved to Spokane, Washington, where he grew up, graduating from a Jesuit high school in 1920 and for a while attending the Jesuit Gonzaga University.
He was christened Harry Lillis Crosby at birth, but was dubbed Bing while in grade school. According to his autobiography, he was an avid fan of a comic strip called "The Bingville Bugle" which appeared in one of the Spokane Sunday newspapers. Friends noticed that, like a number of characters in this strip, the young Crosby had large ears and took to calling him "Bingo" which in time was shortened to Bing. Publicity material issued during the 1930s, however, asserted that his name came from the fact that when he played cowboys and Indians as a child he shouted "bing" instead of "bang."
Crosby began singing professionally in the early 1920s. Throughout the decade he was active with a number of singing groups. The most notable of these groups was the Rhythm Boys, a trio which achieved a great deal of popularity through its association with the then immensely successful Paul Whiteman Orchestra. The trio became an important part of Whiteman's act, touring with the orchestra across America. But in time the trio decided to strike out on its own in Hollywood. Soon the group broke up, and in the early 1930s Crosby achieved recognition on his own.
His beautiful voice and engaging style were perfect for the movies, which had just converted to sound, and to radio broadcasting, which was just coming into its own as a national medium. As the knowledgeable Garson Kanin has pointed out with regard to Crosby at this time: "nothing is so powerful as a crooner who has met his time." Crosby's mellifluous voice, his laid-back persona, and his casual delivery set a crooning style for singers that was widely imitated for years. But he had no real competition until the 1940s and the advent of Frank Sinatra.
Crosby's radio career began in 1930 while he was performing in night clubs in Los Angeles as a band singer. By the following year he had his own 15-minute radio show, and he would have some kind of radio show for over two decades, until the mid-1950s. His theme song, "When the Blue of the Night Meets the Gold of the Day," became one of radio broadcasting's classic theme songs. Crosby is probably best remembered as a radio personality for his stint as the star of NBC's hour long Kraft Music Hall with which he was associated from 1935 to 1946.
When after World War II Crosby wanted to make use of newly developed technology to pre-record the show he met strong resistance from NBC and from the sponsor, Kraft. He moved to another network and easily found another sponsor. Crosby was a star in various mediums. His movies drew well at the box office; his records sold in the millions. But as journalist John Dunning convincingly argued, "radio first spread his name far and wide …, and kept Crosby synonymous with top show business for three decades."
Less good fortune marked Crosby's forays into television. He made many guest appearances before undertaking a weekly show in the mid-1960s. It lasted only a single season and was not a critical success. In 1966 Crosby did his first Christmas special; the last one was aired two months after his death. These specials attracted millions of Crosby's fans and were generally considered successful. Yet, overall, television was not a medium that was kind to Crosby.
The movies were another matter. Crosby was a top star for over 30 years, and for a period of time in the 1940s he was among the top ten box office draws in the United States. He made over 60 films, most of them for Paramount, which released 45 of the films. His association with the studio lasted for a quarter of a century. His movie career began in the Paul Whiteman film King of Jazzin 1930 as one of the Rhythm Boys.
His first important role in a Paramount film was in The Big Broadcast (1932), in which he played a happy-go-lucky crooner singing at a failing radio station. This film, which gave him his big break and which was successful at the box office, set the pattern for most of the other movies he made during the 1930s. These movies were light-weight comedies with Crosby as an easy-going singer with an affable style. It made no difference if the setting was on shipboard (Anything Goes, 1936), at a girl's school (Going Hollywood, 1933), by a showboat (Mississippi, 1935), or in contemporary Los Angeles (Sing You Sinners, 1938).
While he continued to make some similar films during the 1940s, it was the "Road" films that moved his star even higher. In 1940 he embarked with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour on the Road to Singapore. Over the years there followed Road to Zanzibar (1941), Road to Morocco (1942), Road to Utopia (1945), Road to Rio (1947), Road to Bali (1952), and Road to Hong Kong (1962). All of these films were good-natured spoofs which played on the personalities of their leads and were filmed with amiable gags, outrageous quips, and a variety of send-ups.
Another important extension of his talents also took place during the 1940s when he played a relaxed amiable singing Irish priest in Going My Way (1944) and The Bells of St. Mary's (1945). Both these films were smash hits, and Crosby was critically acclaimed. For his first portrayal of Father O'Malley he was awarded an Oscar. These films were followed by more conventional musicals such as Blue Skies (1946), Mr. Music (1950), and Just For You (1952), which were no more or less than their titles indicate.
As the audience for such film fare began to diminish in the 1950s Crosby changed pace and undertook with considerable success a number of dramatic roles, including the part of the has-been alcoholic Broadway actor in the film version of Clifford Odets' bittersweet play The Country Girl. For his moving portrayal Crosby won an Oscar nomination and a New York Film Critics Award. His film career declined in the 1960s. His last major role, really a character part, was as a drunken doctor in the embarrassing remake (1966) of the classic 1939 Western Stagecoach. His last on-screen appearance was as one of the narrators in the nostalgic compilation film That's Entertainment (1974), which dealt with MGM's musical past.
One of Crosby's films - Holiday Inn (1942) - provided him with his greatest success as a recording artist. The Irving Berlin song "White Christmas," sung by Crosby in this film as the lament of a New Englander spending Christmas in snowless Southern California, struck a responsive chord during World War II when millions of soldiers were away from home during the holidays. Crosby's recording of that song has remained a best seller since then. It is estimated to be among the best selling singles ever recorded, having sold over 100 million copies. It has contributed to the fact that Crosby is among the greatest selling recording artists of all time. During his 51-year recording career Crosby recorded more than 1,600 songs and is estimated to have sold over 400 million records.
Bing Crosby was married twice. The first time, in 1930, was to the actress-singer Dixie Lee, who died of cancer in 1952. They had four sons - Gary (born 1934), Dennis and Phillip (born 1935), and Lindsay (born 1938). In 1957 Crosby married actress-starlet Kathryn Grant who was some 30 years younger than him. They had two boys (H. L. Crosby, Jr., born 1958, and Nathaniel, born 1961) and a girl (Mary, born 1959). Crosby died as the result of a massive heart attack on October 14th, 1977, while playing golf on a course in Spain. He is buried in Los Angeles.
During his years in show business Crosby earned a fortune, which he augmented by wise investments and careful management. At his death Crosby was estimated to be worth tens of millions of dollars, and his holdings were said to include everything from real estate and oil and gas wells to stock in the Coca-Cola company. He was one of the wealthiest show business personalities of his day and also one of the best loved. His popularity never really waned.
American singer, actor, and songwriter who achieved great popularity in radio, recordings, and motion pictures. He became the archetypal crooner of a period when the advent of radio broadcasting and talking pictures and the refinement of sound-recording techniques made the climate ideal for the rise of such a figure. His casual stage manner and mellow, relaxed singing style influenced two generations of pop singers and made him the most successful entertainer of his day.
Crosby began to sing and to play the drums while studying law at Spokane, Wash. After a period spent singing with the Paul Whiteman orchestra in 1927, he appeared in the early sound film King of Jazz (1931). Crosby became a star after getting his own program on the CBS radio station in New York City in 1932. He began appearing in more films, and by the late 1930s his records were selling millions of copies. His songwriting activities included part-authorship of “A Ghost of a Chance” and “Where the Blue of the Night” (his radio theme song). His recording of “White Christmas” became one of the most popular songs of the century, exceeded in record sales only by his “Silent Night.” In the 1940s he was the star of a popular radio variety show. Crosby won an Academy Award for best actor for his portrayal of Father O'Malley in the film Going My Way (1944).Crosby's career took a new turn to comedy in the series of seven “Road” films in which he appeared with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour, beginning with Road to Singapore (1940). His other films include The Bells of St. Mary's (1945), White Christmas (1954), and The Country Girl (1954). His autobiography, Call Me Lucky, appeared in 1953. Crosby ran a successful television production company in the 1960s. An astute businessman, he amassed one of the largest fortunes in Hollywood from his earnings as an entertainer and from shrewd investments. By the mid-1970s, 400 million copies of his records had been sold. He was a notable sportsman and died of a heart attack while on a golf course.
| Harry |
With a population of over 150,000 inhabitants, Trondheim is the third most highly populated city of which European country? | Crosby Estate Loses Bid to Toss Claim by First Wife’s Heirs
Crosby Estate Loses Bid to Toss Claim by First Wife’s Heirs
By a MetNews Staff Writer
The estate of Bing Crosby’s first wife may have a community property interest in Crosby’s right of publicity under a 2008 law retroactively making such interests transferable, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Michael I. Levanas ruled Friday.
Levanas, who issued a tentative ruling in favor of Dixie Lee Crosby’s estate last month, denied a motion for judgment on the pleadings brought by the Bing Crosby estate.
The judge agreed with the Dixie Lee Crosby estate that the interest should be considered newly-discovered property for probate purposes. But he also ruled that Crosby’s second wife, Kathryn Grant Crosby, may have am interest in the property and gave the first wife’s estate 20 days to name her in an amended petition.
Born Wilma Wyatt, actress and singer Dixie Crosby married Bing Crosby in 1930. She died of cancer in 1952 at age 40, predeceasing her husband, who died in 1977.
The pair had four sons: Gary, twins Dennis and Phillip, and Lindsay. Bing Crosby, who was born Harry Lillis Crosby, married his second wife in 1957; they had three children together.
In 1979, the California Supreme Court ruled in Lugosi v. Universal Pictures (1979) 25 Cal.3d 813 that an individual’s right of publicity “protects against the unauthorized use of one’s name, likeness, or personality.”
In 1984, the Legislature created a post-mortem right of publicity for deceased personalities, which could be willed or transferred. In 2007, however, federal judges in New York and California ruled that Marilyn Monroe could not have passed post-mortem rights of publicity through the residuary clause in her will because those rights did not exist when she died.
Later that year, however, Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger signed a law expanding Civil Code Sec. 3344.1’s statutory right of publicity to be retroactive and transferable, even if the celebrity died before the 1984 law was enacted.
The law provided that where a deceased celebrity’s statutory heirs did not assert those rights on or before May 1, 2007, and there was no specific disposition of them in the testamentary instrument, the rights would pass under the instrument’s residuary clause.
Probate proceedings in Dixie Crosby’s estate were revived shortly thereafter, and her grandson, Philip Crosby’s son Bing, in May 2009 petitioned for ownership. He argued that Dixie Crosby’s community property interest in her husband’s publicity rights was now the property of her trust, pursuant to her will.
Opposing her petition, HLC Properties, Ltd., which was established to manage Bing Crosby’s assets after his death, argued that the petition was untimely.
HLC also contended that the claims were foreclosed by a detailed agreement between Bing and Dixie Crosby’s estates whereby Dixie Crosby’s estate received $1.5 million in exchange for warranting that all community property rights had been transferred and waiving any other obligations pre-dating the agreement or that the estate “might have.”
The petitioner, however, argued that the 1999 settlement merely resolved issues of money owed, and did not contemplate any question of ownership of publicity rights.
Levanas explained Friday that the legislation enacted in 2007 “rendered the decisions of the courts in [the Marilyn Monroe litigation] invalid and cut-off the rights of statutory heirs where there is a testamentary instrument with a residual clause.”
The new law “in effect caused a ‘reboot’ of” Sec. 3344.1 “with a January 1, 2008 effective date for a new statute of limitations period for testamentary heirs,” the judge said in a footnote.
The judge went on to say that because the 1999 agreement was confidential and not made a part of the record in the prior litigation, he could not consider it as part of the motion for judgment on the pleadings.
Susan Cooley of Oldman Cooley Leighton Sallus in Encino represented HLC Properties, Ltd., while Henry K. Workman of Sullivan, Workman and Dee represented the Dixie Lee Crosby interests.
The case is In re Crosby, P334700.
Copyright 2010, Metropolitan News Company
Text of Levanas's Order
The above-entitled action came on regularly for hearing on April 29, 2010, in Department 11 of the Superior Court, the Honorable Michael I. Levanas, Judge presiding. Petitioner and Special Administrator of the Estate of Wilma Wyatt Crosby (“Dixie Lee”) appeared through attorneys, Henry K. Workman of Sullivan, Workman, and Dee, LLP and Respondent HLC, Properties, Ltd. (“HCL”) appeared through attorneys, Susan J. Cooley of Oldman, Cooley, Sallus, Gold, Birnberg & Coleman, LLP.
After hearing, the matter was taken under submission. HCL’s request for judicial notice of (1) the final order of distribution filed in the County of San Mateo in Case No. 61911 [Harry L. Crosby (“Bing”)’s will was probated in San Mateo County]; (2) the complaint filed in SC 044176, and (3) the dismissal with prejudice filed in SC 044176 is granted.
After further consideration of the arguments and the relevant case law and statutory authority, the Court makes the following finding:
HLC’s motion for judgment on the pleadings (Petition by the personal representative of the Dixie Lee Estate for Order Confirming Dixie Lee’s Community Property Interest in Bing’s Estate”) (PC 850) is denied. However upon the Court’s own motion pursuant to CCP § 436, the Court strikes the Petition and grants twenty (20) days leave to amend to name and serve Kathryn Grant Crosby (“Kathryn”) as a Respondent because Kathryn may be an interested party who is presently not named in the Petition.
The 850 petition herein was filed on May 14, 2009 and made a claim for Dixie Lee’s community property portion of her propriety interest in Bing’s freely descendible “right of publicity”. There is no dispute that both Dixie Lee’s interest and Bing’s interest passed by testamentary instruments prior to 1985. The Petition sets forth sufficient facts to make that determination as to whether Dixie Lee has a community property interest in Bing’s right of publicity and whether the claim to it was timely under the 2007 amendment to CC § 3344.1 (effective January 1, 2008).
CC § 3344.1’s freely descendible “right of publicity” is similar to newly discovered property after there was a final distribution and the matter should proceed as such. Accordingly, this action based upon the 2007 amendment to CC § 3344.1 is timely under CCP § 343[ 1 ] based upon the retroactive substantive changes to CC § 3344.1(effective January 1, 2008). However, if the Court were to rule on Dixie Lee’s community property interest, due process and notice mandates that Bing’s second wife, Kathryn be named and served as a Respondent. Therefore the Court strikes the Petition with leave to amend. (CCP § 436.)
DISCUSSION
A judgment on the pleadings acts like a demurrer. For purposes of testing the sufficiency of the cause of action, the demurrer admits the truth of all material facts properly pleaded (i.e., all ultimate facts alleged, but not contentions, deductions or conclusions of fact or law). (Weil and Brown, Cal. Practice Guide:Civil Procedure Before Trial, (The Rutter Group 1999.) 7:43, p. 7-20.)
The sole issue raised by a general demurrer is whether the facts pleaded state a valid cause of action-not whether they are true. Thus, no matter how unlikely or improbable, plaintiffs allegations must be accepted as true for purposes of ruling on the demurrer. (Weil and Brown, Cal. Practice Guide:Civil Procedure Before Trial, (The Rutter Group 1999.) 7:44, p. 7-20 - 7-21.)
The Court, as a matter of law cannot consider Exhibit 1 attached to HLC’s Reply filed on April 28, 2010 because it is extrinsic evidence of a confidential settlement. There was no judicial notice requested by HCL as to the settlement agreement which was made confidential. (See Reply, Ex 1, p, 14, paragraph 7 (f).) There is no dispute that evidentiary determinations of documents not judicially noticeable cannot be made on a motion for judgment on the pleadings.
It is sufficiently pled that Petitioner’s claim is not a collateral attack on the order for final distribution in the Bing ‘s Probate Estate but rather whether Dixie Lee had a retroactive freely transferrable community property interest in Bing’s “right of publicity” at the time of her death. Dixie Lee bequeathed her community property interest to her trust (Dixie Lee’s ultimate beneficiaries). (Dixie Lee Probate Case No. P 334700.) The Petition, filed May 14, 2009, seeks to have a determination that the Dixie Lee’s community property interest in the “right of publicity” was freely transferrable according to the terms of her will. Dixie Lee died in 1952 and Bing died in 1977. The Judgment on the Pleadings seeks to have the claim declared time barred.
At their deaths neither Dixie Lee nor Bing had a freely descendible “right of publicity”.
California first enacted a right of publicity statute in 1984, after the California Supreme Court in Lugosi v. Universal Pictures (1979) 25 Cal.3d 813, held that the right of publicity “protects against the unauthorized use of one’s name, likeness, or personality.” In 1984, the legislature created a post-mortem “right of publicity” for deceased personalities. Prior to 1985, a “right of publicity” was recognized for living celebrities. (California Civil Code Section 3344.) In 1985, CC § 3344.1 was added to permit the rights to be applicable to deceased personalities and those rights were transferable or descendible, either if they were deceased prior to or after January 1, 1985. CC § 3344.1 (b) recognized that the property rights under this section are “freely transferable or descendible in whole or part by contract or by means of a trust or any other testamentary instrument executed before or after January 1, 1985.
The judicial nomenclature for that bundles of rights described in CC § 3344.1 is collectively referred to as “the right of publicity”. (See Comedy III Productions, Inc. v. Gary Saderup, Inc. (2001) 25 Cal.4th 387, 391 [C.J. Mosk, writing for the unanimous Court referring to the CC § 3344.1 bundle of rights as the “right of publicity”.) Under CC § 3344.1, “the right of publicity” was defined as a property right that may be transferred by contract, trust, or other testamentary document. In the absence of such a transfer, the right is descendible to certain statutory heirs and their successors after the personality’s death.
HLC registered Crosby’s “right of publicity” on March 15, 1985. (See Court’s Judicial Notice below.) On this issue, the Court, on its own motion for Judicial Notice, takes judicial notice of the Official Records of Secretary of State’s office indicating HLC registered that bundle of rights on March 15, 1985. The official record from the Secretary of State’s office was received by the Court with a date stamp bearing the date of mailing as May 4, 2010 and received by the Court on May 7, 2010. It is incorporated into the Court’s ruling and entered into the file and records of the Court in this proceeding as a part of this ruling.
As to the Legislative intent of S.B 771, the “LEGISLATIVE COUNSEL'S DIGEST” for CC § 3344.1sets forth the following: “SB 771, Kuehl. Deceased personalities: testamentary instruments. Existing law establishes a cause of action for damages on behalf of specified injured parties for the unauthorized use of a deceased personality's name, voice, signature, photograph, or likeness for commercial purposes within 70 years of the personality's death, except as specified. Existing law provides that the rights recognized under these provisions are property rights, freely transferable, in whole or in part, by contract or by means of trust or testamentary documents, whether the transfer occurs before the death of the deceased personality, by the deceased personality or his or her transferees, or, after the death of the deceased personality, by the person in whom the rights vest under these provisions or the transferees of that person. This bill would provide, instead, [emphasis added] that the above property rights are freely transferable or descendible by contract or by means of any trust or any other testamentary instrument executed before or after January 1, 1985. It would provide that those rights shall be deemed to have existed at the time of death of any person who died prior to January 1, 1985, and shall vest in the persons entitled to these property rights under the testamentary instrument of the deceased personality effective as of the date of his or her death, except as specified. The bill would provide that, in the absence of an express provision in a testamentary instrument to transfer these rights, a provision in the instrument that provides for the disposition of the residue of the deceased personality's assets shall be effective to transfer the rights.” This indicates that there is a substantive change in law or otherwise “new law.”
The California Legislature passed Senate Bill 771 on September 7, 2007 and signed into law by Governor Schwarzenegger on October 10, 2007. This bill amended CC § 3344.1 to protect retroactively the publicity rights of celebrities who died before 1985. In addition, the bill rendered the decisions of the courts in Shaw Family Archives, Ltd. v. CMG Worldwide, Inc., No. 05 Civ. 3939 CM, 2007 WL 1413381 (D.N.Y. May 7, 2007) and Milton H. Greene Archives, Inc. v. CMG Worldwide, Inc., No. CV 05-2200 MMM (MCx) (D. Cal. Filed May 14, 2007) invalid, both of which dealt with the rights to market photographs of Marilyn Monroe.
These two federal courts revisited the issue of the scope of California’s right of publicity statute. Both the New York and California courts held that the California statute did not apply to Marilyn Monroe, because she died before 1985, the year when the statute had originally been passed. The courts relied on generally accepted probate laws, which assert that testators can only transfer property actually held at the time of their death. Because at the time of Monroe’s death, California had not yet recognized a right of publicity, she could not have passed a right she did not own through a residuary clause in her will. Only heirs specified in the statute could exercise such rights.
Thus, the courts in these cases acknowledged that the California laws confer rights of publicity specifically to the surviving spouses and children of celebrities who died before CC § 3344.1 was enacted. These rights could not, however, be transferred by stipulation of the celebrity’s will to other beneficiaries. Specifically, the District Court in Milton Greene Archives explained that the defendants had “no standing to assert the publicity rights they seek to enforce in this action.” Milton H. Greene Archives, Inc. at 36. The court left open the possibility for legislation. Specifically, the District Court explained, “Nothing in this order prevents legislatures from enacting right of publicity statutes so as to vest the right of publicity directly in the residuary beneficiaries of deceased personalities’ estates or their successors.” Id.
These decisions led to S.B. 771. The bill changes the scope of the earlier California statute, asserting that Section 3344.1 shall retroactively include deceased personalities who died before January 1, 1985 and that publicity rights are freely descendible by any testamentary instrument, even if executed before January 1, 1985. It further addresses the probate principles which were at issue in Shaw and Milton Greene Archives, and establishes that the right of publicity existed at the time of a personality’s death occurring before January 1, 1985 and those rights vest in heirs specified by the testamentary instrument. If there is no express transfer of these rights in the testamentary instrument, then any provision disposing of the balance of the personality’s assets is an effective transfer of such rights. In order for the statutory heirs to retain their publicity rights of personalities who died before 1985, they must have exercised such rights before May 1, 2007; otherwise, according to the bill, the rights will vest in heirs specified by testamentary instrument. Id.
This is new law because statutory heirs were able to claim a right of publicity until May 1, 2007 even if there was a will. The current law prevents this. (CC § 3344.1 (o).)[ 2 ] The fact that Milton H. Green was subsequently reconsidered and thereafter reflected the changes in CC § 3344.1 in 2008 is of no consequence because it merely reflected the changes in state law. HLC’s argument that S.B. 771 merely clarified the law is without merit. “The law neither does nor require idle acts.” (CC § 3532.) S.B. 771 was originally a stem cell research bill but was gutted and changed to its current form so that S.B. 771 rendered the decisions of the courts in Milton Greene Archives and Shaw invalid and cut-off the rights of statutory heirs where there is a testamentary instrument with a residual clause.
As amended, the statutory “right of publicity” presently states it is retroactive and freely transferable or descendible even if the personality died before the 1985 enactment of CC § 3344.1. The amendment allows the disposition of the “right of publicity” with the residue of a deceased personality’s estate in the absence of an express provision in a testamentary instrument. Therefore, as new law, it started a new statute of limitations period which began running from January 1, 2008 for the “right of publicity” that passed with the residue of a deceased personality’s estate in a testamentary instrument for deceased personalities who died prior to January 1, 1985 and limited the rights of statutory heirs effective May 1, 2007.
The effect of the settlement agreement in SC 044176 was argued at the oral argument in this matter and attached to the Reply. However, while the Court granted judicial notice of the dismissal with prejudice in SC 044176, the settlement agreement was confidential and not made a part of the record in that matter. Therefore, the Court can not take judicial notice of the settlement agreement and it is not properly before the Court on a judgment on the pleadings.
CONCLUSION
NOW THEREFORE THE COURT ORDERS, ADJUDGES AND DECREES:
HLC’s motion for judgment on the pleadings is denied. However upon the Court’s own motion pursuant to CCP § 436, the Court strikes the Petition and grants twenty (20) days leave to amend to name and serve Kathryn Grant Crosby (“Kathryn”) as a Respondent because Kathryn may be an interested party who is presently not named in the Petition.
1. The statute of limitations for actions upon a liability created by statute is three years. (CCP § 338 (a).)
2. The Legislature could have prevented lawsuits like the one here be extending the May, 1, 2007 “cut-off” date to “all heirs” where “the right of publicity” was registered prior to May 1, 2007 where not challenged. The Legislature chose not to limit such actions and in effect caused a “reboot’ of CC § 3344.1 with a January 1, 2008 effective date for a new statute of limitations periods for testamentary heirs.
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Which film starring Dustin Hoffman won the award for Best Picture Oscar for 1969? | Oscar History: Midnight Cowboy (1969)–Best Picture Winner Starring Jon Voight and Dustin Hoffman | Emanuel Levy
Oscar History: Midnight Cowboy (1969)–Best Picture Winner Starring Jon Voight and Dustin Hoffman
January 27, 2015 by EmanuelLevy Leave a Comment
In 1969, Midnight Cowboy won the Oscars for Best Picture, Best Director for John Schlesinger, and Best Adapted Screenplay for Waldo Salt.
Midnight Cowboy was based on a respectable source material, the 1966 novel of James Leo Herlihy (who later committed suicide). Though tough and gritty in dealing with unusual subject matter, the movie, with the help of the Oscars, was quite commercially successful.
The year of 1969 was a mixed bags as far as the Oscar race was concerned. Released in the midst of the Vietnam War and Anti-War movement, Midnight Cowboy won over the flawed historical epic “Anne of the Thousand Days,” the stagy adaptation of “A Thousand Clowns,” the campy and exuberant revisionist Western, “Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid,” starring Newman and Redford, the old-fashioned musical, “Hello Dolly! with Streisand in the lead, and Costa-Gavras’ political thriller “Z.”
Midnight Cowboy surprised audiences with its candid view of sex and daring dialogue, though by today’s standards, it’s rather conservative and mild.
The film tells a bittersweet, often touching tale of a strange friendship between two victims of the American Dream. The one, Joe Buck (Jon Voight), is a good-looking, uneducated, and naive Texan who, under the influence of radio and television commercials, fancies himself to be a stud. His ambition is to strike it rich by providing sexual services to wealthy women, only to discover that the image projected by his buckskin jacket and cowboy paraphernalia has appeal mainly in the homosexual market. The other character, Ratzo Rizzo (Dustin Hoffman) is a crippled, ailing mousy scrounger, who lives in a vacant, decaying building, barely eking out an existence by his street smarts.
Some critics, such as Pauline Kael, found the movie offensive and inaccurate in its seedy portrait of New York City. The harshest, most disturbing image shows a man lying unattended on a Fifth Avenue pavement in front to Tiffany’s.
Other critics, such as Barrios, claims that despite the edgy surface, the film is at heart conventional, sort of “old wine in new bottle.”
But I disagree with both of them. Reflecting the zeitgeist, the film tried to capture the ambiance of nightlife at Times Square and the area’s alienated and lonely creatures. In the process, it perpetuated the myth of New York as a sleazy, dehumanized, impersonal city. Schlesinger explored the Dante-like Inferno the 42nd Street area long before it was Disneyfied.
Grounded in its socio-political context, there is a Greenwich Village hippie party that feels like an orgy was a gesture toward the then fashionable kind of decadence.
The relationship between a flawed “innocent” and a cynical, moribund loser emerges out of their desperate need for some kind of human companionship. The movie is sporadically moving and it certainly has energy to transcend the depressing context and awful surroundings. The film focuses on their squalid adjustments to loneliness and desperation. The tone is more morbidly exploitative than honestly realistic–“or humanistic, for that matter. The relationship doesn’t go far enough; it is never overtly sexual, despite innuendos and homoerotic overtones.
Joe may have been America’s last unenlightened fool, a small-town bumpkin, unable to adapt to faster world and new markets. This comes across in most of his interactions, but particularly with Cass (Sylvia Miles), a restless ex-hooker who welcomes the excitement of Joe’s visit to the plush penthouse provided by her current protector. She is an aging floozy that Joe picks up under the mistaken interpretation that she is a society lady.
Moral ambiguity prevails throughout, specifically in the gratuitously brutal act Joe commits in an effort to realize the dying cripple’s fantasy about getting to hot-climate Florida.
Aesthetically, Schlesinger relies on rapid-fire cutting, distorted wide angle shots, crudely inserted flashbacks from Joe’s childhood, and other shock effects. He uses the spurious exuberance of mass media slogans as a counterpoint to joyless real-life encounters. Most critics found the fragmented flashbacks into the cowboy’s lurid formative years to be irritatingly ambiguous and incoherent too.
Indeed, ultimately, what the viewers cared about was not the frenzied style and visual pyrotechnics but the characters and the central friendship. The movie is about the awakening of affection–“and conscience–in two alienated young men, who discover for the first time in their lives what it is to care about another human being. Neither the cowboy nor his pal Ratso, the Times Square derelict who first cheats and then befriends him, has ever really “communicated” with anyone before.
The film catered to and reinforced the facile pessimism of the then young moviegoers, just as the facile optimism of the older generation used to cater to a simpler age. The film used freedom of expression with balancing responsibility and constructive-hopeful purpose. Indeed, it became first prestigious movie to get an X-rated in the new rating system, (which was initiated just seven months before its release.
Awards-wise, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid got more Oscars (four) than Midnight Cowboy, which was nominated for seven Oscars, winning three. Midnight Cowboy was nominated for Best Picture, Director, Adapted Screenplay, two Best Actors (Voight and Hoffman, thus canceling each other out), Supporting Actress (Sylvia Miles), and Editing (Hugh A. Robertson).
The acting of Voight and Hoffman was superb, and both were nominated for Best Actor, though the winner that year was John Wayne for the retro Western, True Grit.
It’s worth noting that “Midnight Cowboy” was released theatrically just weeks before the riots at Stoenwall, New York, a tumultuous event that would open the gates to a more vivid and candid portrayal of gay characters abd relationships.
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What was Buster Keaton's real first name? | Dustin Hoffman (Actor) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News
Dustin Hoffman
Male
Born Aug 8, 1937
Dustin Lee Hoffman is an American actor with a career in film, television, and theatre since 1960. He has been known for his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and vulnerable characters. He first drew critical praise for the play Eh?, for which he won a Theatre World Award and a Drama Desk Award. This was soon followed by his breakthrough 1967 film role as Benjamin Braddock, the title character in The Graduate.… Read More
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Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Dustin Hoffman.
CHILDHOOD
1937 Birth Hoffman was born on August 8, 1937 in Los Angeles, California, the second son of Lillian (née Gold; 1909-1982) and Harry Hoffman (1908-1987). … Read More
His father worked as a prop supervisor (set decorator) at Columbia Pictures before becoming a furniture salesman.<br /><br /> Hoffman was named after stage and silent screen actor, Dustin Farnum. His older brother, Ronald, is a lawyer and economist. Hoffman is Jewish, from an Ashkenazi family of immigrants from the Russian Empire, Poland, and Romania (the family's surname was spelled "Goikhman" in the Russian Empire). His upbringing was non-religious, and he has said, "I donât have any memory of celebrating holidays growing up that were Jewish", and that he had "realized" he was Jewish at around age 10; Hoffman did not have a bar mitzvah. Read Less
TEENAGE
1955 18 Years Old Hoffman graduated from Los Angeles High School in 1955 and enrolled at Santa Monica College with the intention of studying medicine. … Read More
He left after a year to join the Pasadena Playhouse, although when he told his family about his career goal, his Aunt Pearl warned him "You can't be an actor. You are not good-looking enough." He also took classes at the Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City.<br /><br /> Hoffman initially hoped to become a classical pianist, having studied piano during much of his youth and in college. While at Santa Monica College, he also took an acting class, which he assumed would be easy, and "caught the acting bug." He recalls: "I just was not gifted in music. I did not have an ear." Now an aspiring actor, he spent the next ten years doing odd jobs, being unemployed, and struggling to get any available acting roles. He composed a song called "Shooting the Breeze" and Bette Midler wrote the words. Read Less
TWENTIES
1960 23 Years Old In 1960, Hoffman was cast in a role in an Off-Broadway production and followed with a walk-on role in a Broadway production in 1961. … Read More
Hoffman then studied at Actors Studio and became a dedicated method actor. Sidney W. Pink, a producer and 3D-movie pioneer, discovered him in one of his off-Broadway roles and cast him in Madigan's Millions. Through the early and mid-1960s, Hoffman made appearances in television shows and movies, including Naked City, The Defenders and Hallmark Hall of Fame. Read Less
1966 29 Years Old His first critical success was in the play Eh?, by Henry Livings, which had its US premiere at the Circle in the Square Downtown on October 16, 1966.
THIRTIES
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Hoffman made his film debut in The Tiger Makes Out in 1967, alongside Eli Wallach.
In 1967, immediately after wrapping up principal filming on The Tiger Makes Out, Hoffman flew from New York City to Fargo, North Dakota, where he directed productions of William Gibson's Two for the Seesaw and William Saroyan's The Time of Your Life for the Fargo-Moorhead Community Theatre. … Read More
The $1,000 he received for the eight-week contract was all he had to hold him over until the funds from the movie materialized. Read Less
In 1967, director Mike Nichols cast Hoffman in The Graduate (1967), his first major role, for which he received an Academy Award nomination. … Read More
Hoffman played the character of Benjamin Braddock, who returns to his wealthy parents' home in California after graduating from college. Confused about what to do with his life, he is seduced into having an affair with Mrs. Robinson, an alcoholic and a neurotic, and the wife of his father's business partner.<br /><br /> Although Life magazine joked that "if Dustin Hoffman's face were his fortune, he'd be committed to a life of poverty", The Graduate was a gigantic box-office hit for Embassy Pictures, making Hoffman a major new star at the same time. The film received near-unanimous good reviews. Time magazine called Hoffman "a symbol of youth" who represented "a new breed of actors." The film's screenwriter, Buck Henry, notes that Hoffman's character made conventional good looks no longer necessary on screen: <br /><br /> Hoffman biographer Jeff Lenburg adds that "newspapers across the country were deluged with thousands of letters from fans," with one example published in the New York Times: "I identified with Ben I thought of him as a spiritual brother. He was confused about his future and about his place in the world, as I am. It's a film one digs, rather than understands intellectually." Read Less
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Also in 1969, Hoffman co-starred with Mia Farrow in John and Mary. … Read More
He received a 1970 BAFTA Award as Best Actor, although the film received mixed reviews. He was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award as Best Actor.<br /><br /> This was followed by his role in Little Big Man (1970), where Jack Crabb, his character, ages from teenager to a 121-year-old man. The film was widely praised by critics, but was overlooked for an award except for a supporting nomination for Chief Dan George. Hoffman continued to appear in major films over the next few years. Who Is Harry Kellerman and Why Is He Saying Those Terrible Things About Me? (1971), Straw Dogs (also 1971), and Papillon (1973).<br /><br /> Hoffman next starred in Lenny (1974), for which he was again nominated for Best Actor. Lenny was based on the life of stand-up comedian, Lenny Bruce, who died at age 40, and was notable for his open, free-style and critical form of comedy which integrated politics, religion, sex, and vulgarity. Expectations were high that Hoffman would win an Oscar for his portrayal, especially after his similar role in Midnight Cowboy. Film critic Katharine Lowry speculates that director Bob Fosse "never gave him a chance" to go far enough into developing the character. "We never understand what, besides the drugs he injected, made him tick like a time bomb," she says. Read Less
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All the President's Men (1976) was made less than two years after the Watergate scandal, and starred Hoffman and Robert Redford as the real life journalists, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, respectively. Based on actual events, Hoffman and Redford play Washington Post reporters who uncover a break-in at the Watergate Hotel and end up investigating a political scandal that reaches all the way to the presidency. The film, as earlier ones, had Hoffman take on a dramatically different character than his previous one (as Lenny Bruce). Author James Morrison compares the two roles: "As Lenny Bruce in Lenny (1974), Hoffman plays a martyr to the cause of establishment oppression, while in All the President's Men, he plays a reporter exposing presidential malfeasance." <br /><br />Vincent Canby of the New York Times described the film as "a spellbinding detective story." "The strength of the movie", he added, was "the virtually day-to-day record of the way Bernstein and Woodward conducted their investigations." The characters portrayed by Hoffman and Redford shared the rank of No. 27 Hero on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains list, while Entertainment Weekly ranked All the President's Men as one of the 25 "Powerful Political Thrillers". <br /><br />Hoffman next starred in Marathon Man (1976), a film based on William Goldman's novel of the same name, opposite Laurence Olivier and Roy Scheider. Read Less
Its director, John Schlesinger also directed Hoffman in Midnight Cowboy in 1969. … Read More
Described as "Schlesinger's thriller," by author Gene D. Phillips, Hoffman plays the hero, Babe Levy, a part-time long-distance runner and graduate student, who suddenly finds himself being pursued by a fugitive Nazi. To put himself in the mindset of someone under severe emotional distress, rather than simply acting, Hoffman did not sleep for days at a time and let his body become disheveled and unhealthy.<br /><br /> Goldman describes his inspiration for the novel: "What if someone close to you was something totally different from what you thought? In the story, Hoffman thinks his brother (Roy Scheider) is a businessman where the reality is that the man is a spy, who has been involved with the Nazi, Szell." However, Hoffman remembers a serious disagreement he had with Goldman, who also wrote the screenplay, about how the story ends: <br /><br /> Hoffman's next roles were less successful. He opted out of directing Straight Time (1978), but starred as a thief. His next film, Michael Apted's Agatha (1979), was with Vanessa Redgrave as Agatha Christie. Read Less
Hoffman married Anne Byrne in May 1969. … Read More
Hoffman adopted Karina (b. 1966), Byrne's child from a previous marriage, and with Byrne had daughter Jenna (born October 15, 1970). In 1970, Hoffman and Byrne were living in Greenwich Village in a building next door to a townhouse occupied by members of the Weathermen, when a bomb was accidentally detonated in the townhouse's basement, killing three people. In the 2002 documentary The Weather Underground, Hoffman can be seen standing in the street during the aftermath of the explosion. Read Less
FORTIES
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The couple divorced in 1980.
He married businesswoman Lisa Gottsegen Hoffman in October 1980; they have four children â Jacob Edward (born March 20, 1981), Rebecca Lillian (b. … Read More
March 17, 1983), Maxwell Geoffrey (born August 30, 1984), and Alexandra Lydia (born October 27, 1987). Hoffman has two grandchildren. In an interview, he said that all of his children from his second marriage had bar or bat mitzvahs and that he is a more observant Jew now than when he was younger; he has also lamented that he is not fluent in Hebrew.<br /><br /> A political liberal, Hoffman has long supported the Democratic Party and Ralph Nader. In 1997, he was one of a number of Hollywood stars and executives to sign an open letter to then-German Chancellor Helmut Kohl protesting the treatment of Scientologists in Germany, which was published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune.<br /><br /> In 2009, he received the freedom of the Italian city Ascoli Piceno for being there during 1972 to shoot the movie Alfredo, Alfredo by Pietro Germi, where he played the role of Alfredo Sbisà . Read Less
1984 47 Years Old In 1984, Hoffman starred as Willy Loman in the Broadway revival of Arthur Miller's play, Death of a Salesman He reprised his role in a TV movie of the same name, for which he won the 1985 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor along with a Golden Globe. … Read More
Hoffman first read the play at age 16, but today considers the story much like his own: "It was a blueprint of my family. I was the loser, the flunky, and my brother, a high-school varsity football player, was Biff." Author Marie Brenner notes that Hoffman "has been obsessed with the play" throughout his career: "For years he has wanted to be Willy Loman; when he discovered that Arthur Miller was his neighbor in Connecticut, they began to talk about it in earnest." For Hoffman, the story also left a deep emotional impact from the time he first read it: <br /><br /> Hoffman rehearsed for three weeks with the play's original star, Lee J. Cobb, and remembers seeing his stage performance: "I'll never forget that period in my life. It was so vivid, so intense, watching Lee J. Cobb and his sixteen-inch guns as Willy. God, how I think about what I saw on that stage!" Brenner adds that Hoffman "has been training like a boxer for the role that so exhausted Cobb he had to be replaced after four months." The original play was directed by Elia Kazan, who Hoffman considers "the perfect director, the best there ever was.... God, I would have done anything to have worked with Kazan." Read Less
FIFTIES
1991 54 Years Old In 1991, Hoffman voiced substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom in The Simpsons episode "Lisa's Substitute", under the pseudonym Sam Etic. … Read More
As a reference to this episode, during the episode featuring the Itchy & Scratchy movie, Lisa claims that Dustin Hoffman had a cameo in that movie but didn't use his real name.<br /><br /> Throughout the 1990s, Hoffman appeared in many large, studio films, such as Dick Tracy (1990) (where his Ishtar co-star Beatty plays the titular character), Hero (1992) and Billy Bathgate (1991) co-starring with Nicole Kidman who was nominated for a Golden Globe). Hoffman also played the title role of Captain Hook in Steven Spielberg's Hook (also 1991), earning a Golden Globe nomination, and the narrator in Dr. Seuss Video Classics: Horton Hears a Who! (also 1992); in Hook, Hoffman's costume was so heavy that he had to wear an air-conditioned suit under it.<br /><br /> Hoffman played the lead role in Outbreak (1995), alongside Rene Russo, Kevin Spacey, Morgan Freeman, Cuba Gooding Jr. and Donald Sutherland. In the film, Hoffman is a medical doctor who uncovers a newly discovered Ebola-like virus which came to the U.S. from Africa in an infected monkey. Hoffman races to stop the virus's spread and find a vaccine before it becomes a worldwide pandemic with no cure. Read Less
1994 57 Years Old …
He was then offered the lead in Midnight Cowboy (1969), which he accepted partly to prove many critics were wrong about his acting range and the variety of characters he could portray. As author and critic Peter Biskind explains, "it was the very contrast between his preppy character in The Graduate, and Ratso Rizzo" that appealed to Hoffman. "I had become troubled," recalls Hoffman, "by the reviews that I read of The Graduate, that I was not a character actor, which I like to think of myself as. It hurt me. Some of the stuff in the press was brutal." Critics assumed that director Mike Nichols got lucky by finding a typical actor with average acting ability to play the part of Benjamin Braddock. <br /><br />John Schlesinger, who would direct Midnight Cowboy and was seeking lead actors, held that same impression. Hoffman's performance as a button-down college graduate and track star was so convincing to Schlesinger, "he seemed unable to comprehend the fact that he was acting," notes Biskind. To help the director, whom he had never met, overcome that false impression, Hoffman met him in Times Square dressed as a homeless person, wearing a dirty raincoat, his hair slicked back and with an unshaven face. Schlesinger was sold, admitting, "I've only seen you in the context of The Graduate, but you'll do quite well." <br /><br />Midnight Cowboy premiered in theaters across the United States in May 1969. For his acting, Hoffman received his second Oscar nomination and the film won Best Picture. Read Less
In 1994, the film was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. … Read More
Biskind considers Hoffman's acting a major accomplishment: Read Less
1996 59 Years Old Following that, he appeared in the 1996 revenge-drama/legal-thriller Sleepers (1996) with Robert De Niro, Brad Pitt, Jason Patric, and Kevin Bacon. … Read More
In the mid-1990s, Hoffman starred inâand was deeply involved in the production ofâDavid Mamet's American Buffalo (also 1996), and an early effort of film editor Kate Sanford. Read Less
LATE ADULTHOOD
1997 - 2004 3 More Events
1997 60 Years Old In 1997, Hoffman starred opposite John Travolta in the Costa Gavras film Mad City. … Read More
Hoffman gained his seventh Academy Award nomination for his performance in Wag The Dog (1997), in a role that allowed Hoffman the chance to work with both Robert De Niro and Denis Leary. The movie is a black comedy film produced and directed by Barry Levinson, who also directed Hoffman in Rain Man in 1988.<br /><br /> The story takes place a few days before a presidential election, where a Washington, D.C. spin doctor (De Niro) distracts the electorate from a sex scandal by hiring a Hollywood film producer (Hoffman) to construct a fake war with Albania. Hoffman, as a caricature of real life producer Robert Evans, according to some, "gives the kind of wonderfully funny performance that is liable to win prizes, especially since its mixture of affection and murderous parody is so precise. Stanley (Hoffman) conducts business meetings in tennis clothes or in robe and slippers," notes critic Janet Maslin. Read Less
1999 62 Years Old In 1999, Hoffman received the AFI Life Achievement Award and recalls the emotional impact that receiving the award had on him: … Read More
Hoffman next appeared in Moonlight Mile (2002), followed by Confidence (2003) opposite Edward Burns, Andy GarcÃa and Rachel Weisz. Hoffman finally had a chance to work with Gene Hackman in Gary Fleder's Runaway Jury (also 2003), an adaptation of John Grisham's bestselling novel.<br /><br /> Hoffman played theater owner Charles Frohman in the J. M. Barrie historical fantasia Finding Neverland (2004), costarring Johnny Depp and Kate Winslet. In director David O. Russell's I Heart Huckabees (also 2004), Hoffman appeared opposite Lily Tomlin as an existential detective team member. Read Less
2004 67 Years Old Seven years after his nomination for Wag the Dog, Hoffman got another opportunity to perform again with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Barbra Streisand and Ben Stiller in the 2004 comedy Meet the Fockers, a sequel to Meet the Parents (2000).
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Ridden by a policeman named George Scorey, what was the name of the white horse used to clear the Wembley pitch at the 1923 FA Cup Final between Bolton and West Ham? | All Funked Up :: Video: Wembley Stadium Opens with White Horse Final in 1923
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On April 28, 1923, the First Association Challenge Cup Final took place. It was on this day that the Bolton Wanderers faced off against West Ham United for the FA Cup in what was the first ever event at Wembley Stadium in London, England.
The Bolton Wanderers were founded as the Christ Church F.C. in 1874, but changed to their current name three years later. The club became one of the founding members of The Football League in 1888, and it's the oldest international competition in its sport. The Wanderers had made the FA Cup Final in 1894 losing to Notts County 4-1, and ten years later in a 1-0 loss to Manchester City. So the Wanderers were looking for their first FA Cup win.
As a strong defensive team, the Wanderers allowed just two goals in five games in route to making the FA Cup Final. They went on the road to beat Norwich City 2-0 in their opening round game before defeating Leeds United 3-1 in the 2nd round at home. Their next opponent was Huddersfield Town from the First Division, and they went to a 1-1 draw which by rule prompted a rematch between the two as the Wanderers would win the second meeting between the two. They went on to beat Charlton Athletic 1-0 in the 4th round before defeating Sheffield United in the semi-final by that same score to advance to the FA Cup Final.
West Ham United was originally Thames Ironworks F.C. beginning in 1895 before they reformed as their current name in 1900. The club had competed in the Southern League and Western League before they began play in The Football League in 1919. West Ham earned status in the First Division of The Football League four years later in 1923. This was the club's first ever trip to the FA Cup Final.
West Ham's style of play was more fast paced, and their path on paper should have been easier since they played no one above the Second Division. However, the team experienced three draws on their way to the final game.
After a first round 3-2 win over Hull City, they played Brighton & Hove Albion from the Third Division to a 1-1 draw. They won the rematch 1-0, and then beat Plymouth Argyle 2-0 in the 3rd round. Southampton was their 4th round opponent, and they played to 1-1 ties on each of their home fields. West Ham finally got past them with a 1-0 victory in Birmingham on a kick in the 70th minute in the third meeting between the two. The semi-final was an easier game as West Ham defeated Derby County 5-2 to reach the FA Cup Final.
Wembley Stadium(originally called British Empire Exhibition Stadium in northwest London) cost £750000(roughly $1.13 million USD) to build which began in 1922. It was to be completed in two years, but was done in 300 days. The stadium was ready to host the FA Cup Final four days before it was to take place. Also, the venue opened exactly ten days after the world famous Yankee Stadium in New York had opened .
Ticket admissions were not used for the FA Cup Final, and that would be costly later because of the overflow of attendance at the event.
Wembley Stadium had a seating capacity of 127,000 upon completion, and that would be far exceeded for this game. Seeing that the game was the first to be played at the new stadium and that it was the FA Cup Final, people flocked in record numbers for the match-up. After the terraces were overflowed, the pitch had seen fans piling up on it. Fans then began to get on the field of play before police controlled the situation.
Police Constable George Scorey and his white horse(it was actually grey but was white due to all newsreels being in black and white in those days) named Billie along with other policeman began to push the crowds back off the field so that the game could begin.
The start of the match was 45 minutes delayed because of the crowd, and the vision of Billie would eventually lead this game to be known as the White Horse Final. Depending on who you ask, the total attendance of this game was anywhere between 200,000 to 300,000 with many as about 60,000 having been turned away, too. Officially, the attendance was listed at 126,047.
After the crowds had been contained, the match-up began with both clubs trying to use their own strengths to gain the advantage. West Ham wanted to use their speed with outside forwards Dick Richards and Jimmy Ruffell whenever they got the ball.
But Bolton had game-planned against that.
On a throw-in, West Ham's Jack Tresadern was late getting back to the pitch after getting entangled in the crowd which gave Bolton's David Jack the opportunity to give the Wanderers a 1-0 lead when his kick got past goalie Ted Hufton about two minutes into the game. When the ball hit the back of net, a spectator had been knocked unconscious when it struck him in the head.
Nonetheless, Jack had scored the first goal at Wembley Stadium.
West Ham had an opportunity to tie the game, but Vic Watson's kick sailed over the crossbar of Bolton.
It wasn't long after that the crowd once again began to get out of control.
Almost eleven minutes into the contest, the crowd poured onto to the pitch which temporarily suspended play. Police as well as George Scorey and Billie came out to clear the crowd, and some were in need of first aid treatment. Two policeman and about 22 spectators were taken to the hospital after the match.
After play resumed, the police remained there to keep the pitch clear for linesman to call the rest of the game. Officials later said if not for Scorey and Billie, the match may not have been played nor continued. Even though they were there, it was tough to observe the laws of the game because of the overabundance of fans especially on corner kicks being that police had to push fans back so players could get a running start to kick.
West Ham had another chance to tie the game when Richards' kick on goal had been fumbled by goalie Dick Pym, although he saved it before it crossed the line. From that point on, Bolton's defensive ways took over the game.
Bolton's strong defense kept West Ham off-balance mainly because of the Wanderers switching positions to form a line of five half-backs. West Ham had their speed negated because of this tactic.
With Bolton leading 1-0 after half-time, Watson missed another chance to tie the game near the goal area. A few minutes later, Bolton added to their 1-0 lead in controversial fashion.
Jack Smith scored a goal past Hufton, but West Ham claimed the ball never actually entered the goal after they said it rebounded from the goalpost. Referee D.H. Asson stated the ball did indeed enter the goal before it struck a fan. West Ham also claimed a fan helped Bolton, but that goal did stand as the Wanderers took a 2-0 lead.
Fans began to pile out of the stadium sensing that Bolton had already won the game in which the score held up. Both teams didn't really come close to any more scoring opportunities as Bolton secured their first ever FA Cup in a 2-0 win over West Ham. King George V presented the FA Cup trophy to Bolton captain Joe Smith before leaving the stadium to a nice reaction from the remaining crowd.
The Bolton Wanderers would win two more FA Cup titles in the 1920s by beating Manchester City in the 1926 Final and Portsmouth in 1929.
West Ham would have to wait 41 more years to win their fist FA Cup trophy after doing so in 1964. They would win two more in 1975 and 1980 as well as a runner-up finish in 2006.
The first ever event at Wembley Stadium almost didn't play, and many of those issues were addressed for future events there especially with ticketing. Tickets were issued for every single event held at Wembley Stadium after this game.
However, the White Horse Final still has the record for the largest attendance for a non-racing sports event in history. After renovations over the years, the seating capacity was reduced at Wembley Stadium to about 82,000. The stadium was shut down in 2000 where it was demolished for a newer facility in 2003.
The new Wembley Stadium opened up in 2007, and a footbridge near there was voted on to be called White Horse Bridge in honor of this match. The bridge does improve safety for its fans just as George Scorey and his horse Billie did the same in 1923.
Football(Soccer in America) had changed on this day as Wembley Stadium became an important landmark for sporting events. The White Horse Final was a day of firsts for the stadium, Football Association, Bolton Wanderers, and for the image of Billie the white horse that played a big role in controlling the crowd frenzy that came to see history in the making. With an FA Cup trophy on the line in the first event ever held at one of the most recognized sports venues ever, it's easy to see why this game still has the record for the largest unoffical crowd ever for a non-racing sports event. The White Horse Final for its record-setting game earned its spot in sports history.
Here's an amazing short video of fan Denis Higham that was at this game in 1923. The video was on Youtube.com nearly eight years ago. In it, you can clearly see how many fans flocked to see this historic game and why many still say the attendance was about 300,000 or better.
Like this post? Feel free to tweet to @davidfunk74 or like my All Funked Up page on Facebook.
| Billie |
Which film starring Robert De Niro won the Best Picture Oscar for 1978? | West Ham United F.C. : Wikis (The Full Wiki)
West Ham United Football Club are East London club based in Upton Park , London Borough of Newham , East London . They have played their home matches at the Boleyn Ground stadium since 1904.
The club was founded in 1895 as Thames Ironworks FC . In 1900 the club reformed as West Ham United. They initially competed in the Southern League and Western League before eventually joining the full Football League in 1919 and subsequently enjoyed promotion to the top flight for the 1923 season. 1923 also saw the club feature in the first FA Cup Final to be held at Wembley against Bolton Wanderers .
In 1940 the team won the inaugural Football League War Cup . Subsequently the club has won the FA Cup three times: in 1964, 1975 and 1980 as well as being runners-up twice, in 1923 and 2006. In 1965, they won the European Cup Winners Cup , and in 1999 they won the Intertoto Cup . The club's best final league position is third place in the 1985–86 (old) First Division .
Three West Ham players were considered an important factor behind England 's triumph in the 1966 World Cup , as England's captain at the time was West Ham's Bobby Moore , and both goalscorers in the final were the West Ham players Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters .
West Ham currently compete in the Premier League , and finished in 9th position in the 2008–09 season. They have been members of the Premier League for all but three seasons since its creation in 1992, and their highest finish in the Premier League was 5th in 1998–99 .
Their current manager is former International Italian Forward Gianfranco Zola , who replaced former player Alan Curbishley in September 2008 after his resignation was accepted.
Contents
18 External links
History
Past few years. Chelsea 4-1 West Ham Reading 6-0 West Ham West Ham 1-4 Chelsea West Ham 0-4 Chelsea Chelsea 4 - 1 West Ham United
This "Past few years" section looks very much like one of those nihilistic bits that Chelsea fans seems to be putting in all over the Wiki football pages. Can I suggest an editor takes it out - it certainly is utterly out of context.
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Origins
Earliest club shot, during its founding year as Thames Ironworks in 1895
The earliest generally accepted incarnation of West Ham United was founded in 1895 as the Thames Ironworks team by foreman and local league referee Dave Taylor and owner Arnold Hills [2] and was announced in the Thames Ironworks Gazette of June 1895.
The team played on a strictly amateur basis for 1895 at least, with a team featuring a number of works employees including Thomas Freeman (ships fireman), Walter Parks (clerk), Tom Mundy, Walter Tranter and James Lindsay (all boilermakers), William Chapman, George Sage, and William Chamberlain and apprentice riveter Charlie Dove . [2]
1895-96: First kit [3]
The club, Thames Ironworks [4] were the first ever winners of the West Ham Charity Cup in 1895 contested by clubs in the locality, then won the London League in 1897. They turned professional in 1898 upon entering the Southern League Second Division, and were promoted to the First Division at the first attempt. [5] The following year they came second from bottom, but had established themselves as a fully fledged competitive team. They comfortably fended off the challenge of local rivals Fulham in a relegation play-off, 5–1 in late April 1900 and retained their First Division status. [5]
The team initially played in full dark blue kits, as inspired by Mr. Hills, who had been an Oxford University " Blue ", but changed the following season by adopting the sky blue shirts and white shorts combination worn through 1897 to 1899. In 1899 they acquired their now traditional home kit combination of claret shirts and sky blue sleeves in a wager involving Aston Villa players, who were League Champions at the time.
Following growing disputes over the running and financing of the club in June 1900 Thames Ironworks F.C. was disbanded, [4] then almost immediately relaunched on 5 July 1900 as West Ham United F.C. with Syd King [4] as their manager and future manager Charlie Paynter as his assistant. Because of the original "works team" roots and links (still represented upon the club badge), they are still known to this day as 'the Irons' or 'the Hammers' amongst fans and the media. [4] [6] [7]
Birth of West Ham United
The reborn club continued to play their games at the Memorial Ground in Plaistow (funded by Arnold Hills) but moved to a pitch in the Upton Park area when the team officially severed ties with the company (losing their works provisioned offices in the process). After being made groundless in 1901 the team became transient, playing their home games on a number of local teams' grounds until moving to its current home, Upton Park (in the guise of the Boleyn Ground stadium), in 1904.
West Ham's first game in their new home was against local rivals Millwall [4] (themselves an Ironworks team, albeit for a rival company) drawing a crowd of 10,000 and with West Ham running out 3–0 winners, [8] and as the Daily Mirror wrote on 2 September 1904:
“
"Favoured by the weather turning fine after heavy rains of the morning, West Ham United began their season most auspiciously yesterday evening; when they beat Millwall by 3 goals to 0 on their new enclosure at Upton Park."
”
West Ham Utd had joined the Western League for the 1901 season [9] in addition to continuing playing in the Southern Division 1. In 1907 West Ham were crowned the Western League Division 1B Champions, and then defeated 1A champions Fulham 1–0 to become the Western Leagues Overall Champions. [9]
Billie the White Horse, saviour of the 1923 FA Cup Final
In 1919, still under King's leadership, West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , the first game being a 1-1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923, also making the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium. Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final . This is because so many people turned up to the game, (estimated at 200,000), that they spilled out on to the pitch. The pitch had to be cleared prior to kick-off, by Billie, a giant white horse (actually grey) being ridden by PC George Scorey. The Cup Final match itself ended 2–0 to Bolton Wanderers. The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for 10 years and reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1927.
In 1932 the club was relegated to Division Two and long term custodian Syd King was sacked after serving the club in the role of Manager for 32 years, and as a player from 1899 to 1903. He was replaced with his assistant manager Charlie Paynter who himself had been with West Ham in a number of roles since 1897 and who went on to serve the team in this role until 1950 for a total of 480 games.
The club spent most of the next 30 years in this division, first under Paynter and then later under the leadership of former player Ted Fenton . Fenton succeeded in getting the club once again promoted to the top level of English football in 1958 and in helping develop both the initial batch of future West Ham stars and West Ham's approach to the game.
The Glory Years
Ron Greenwood was appointed as Fenton's successor in 1961 and he soon led the club to two major trophies, winning the FA Cup in 1964 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1965.
During the 1966 World Cup , key members of the tournament winners England were West Ham players, including the captain, Bobby Moore ; Martin Peters (who scored in the final); and Geoff Hurst , who scored the only hat-trick (to date) in a World Cup final.
Champions Statue on Barking Road
There is a "Champions" statue in Barking Road , opposite The Boleyn pub, commemorating West Ham's three sons who helped win the 1966 World Cup: Bobby Moore, Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters. Also included on the statue is Everton's Ray Wilson .
After a difficult start to the 1974–75 season, Greenwood moved himself "upstairs" to become General Manager and without informing the board, appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager. The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in the their first four games combined and won the FA Cup, becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all English side when they beat Fulham 2–0 in the 1975 final.
Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners' Cup final in 1976, though the team lost the match 4–2 to Anderlecht . Greenwood's tenure as General Manager lasted less than three years, as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie 's resignation in 1977.
Ups and Downs
In 1978, West Ham were again relegated to Division Two, but Lyall was retained as manager and led the team to an FA Cup Final win against Arsenal in 1980. This was notable because no team outside the top division has won the trophy since that time. West Ham were promoted to Division One in 1981, but were relegated again in 1989. This second relegation resulted in John Lyall's sacking, despite the fact that that stay in Division One saw West Ham achieve their highest-ever placing in the top division, finishing 3rd in 1986.
After Lyall, Lou Macari briefly led the team, though he resigned after less than a single season in order to clear his name of allegations of illegal betting whilst manager of Swindon Town . He was replaced by former player Billy Bonds . In Bonds' first full season ( 1990–91 ), West Ham again secured promotion to Division One. The following season they were again relegated to Division 2, which had been renamed Division One as part of the league realignments surrounding the creation of the English Premier League in 1992. West Ham spent the 1992–93 season in Division One. finishing second and returning to the Premier League in May 1993.
After the 1993–94 season, Bonds quit and was replaced by Harry Redknapp in August 1994. Redknapp was active in the transfer market , and gained a reputation as a "wheeler-dealer" especially with foreign players being more available following the Bosman ruling . He led West Ham to fifth place in the 1998–99 season, but missed automatic qualification for the UEFA Cup, and instead qualified as winners of the Intertoto Cup . Despite consolidating the league placings for a handful of seasons, a disagreement with the board of directors during the close of the 2000–01 season , found Redknapp replaced with Glenn Roeder , promoted from youth team coach.
In Roeder's first season the team finished seventh, but West Ham lost by wide margins in several matches (7–1 to Blackburn , 5–0 to Everton and 5–1 to Chelsea ) The subsequent season started badly and eventually resulted in relegation. Roeder, who had missed some of the season after being diagnosed with a brain tumour that was treated) was sacked on 24 August 2003, three games into the Championship campaign.
West Ham players on open-top bus near Upton Park celebrate winning the 2005 play-off final in Cardiff. From L-R Shaun Newton (crouching), Back row, Matthew Etherington , Jimmy Walker , Teddy Sheringham , Marlon Harewood , Front row Don Hutchison , Carl Fletcher , Elliott Ward and Mark Noble (with flag)
Trevor Brooking (who served as manager during Glenn's ill health the previous season) stepped in as interim manager before being replaced by Alan Pardew in October 2003, headhunted from fellow promotion contenders Reading . Pardew led the team to a playoff final, though they were beaten by Crystal Palace . The club stayed in Division One (which at this time became the Championship) for another season, when they again reached the playoff final , but this time won, beating Preston North End 1–0, gaining re-entry to the Premier League.
Recent seasons
On their return to the top division, West Ham finished in 9th place, [10] The highlight of the 2005–06 season, however, was reaching the FA Cup final , and taking favourites Liverpool to a penalty shootout , after a thrilling three-all draw. Although West Ham lost the shootout, they gained entry to the UEFA Cup as Liverpool had already qualified for the Champions League through league position.
In August 2006, West Ham completed a major coup on the last day of the transfer window, after completing the signings of Carlos Tévez and Javier Mascherano . [11] The club was eventually bought by an Icelandic consortium, led by Eggert Magnússon in November 2006. [12] Manager Alan Pardew was sacked after poor form during the season [13] and was replaced by former Charlton manager Alan Curbishley . [14]
The signings of Mascherano and Tévez were investigated by the Premier League, who were concerned that details of the transfers had been omitted from official records. The club was found guilty and fined 5.5 million pounds in April 2007. [15] However, West Ham avoided a points deduction which ultimately became critical in their avoidance of relegation at the end of the 2006–07 season. Following on from this event, Wigan Athletic chairman Dave Whelan , supported by other sides facing possible relegation, including Fulham and Sheffield United, threatened legal action. [16]
West Ham escaped relegation by winning seven of their last nine games, including a 1–0 win over Arsenal, and on the last day of the season defeated newly crowned League Champions Manchester United 1–0 with a goal by Tévez to finish 15th, above the relegation zone. Tévez' contributions were arguably important to the survival of the club in the Premier League as he scored seven goals, five of them crucial, in the last couple of months of the season to enable the team to stay up, notwithstanding his ineffectiveness throughout the early part of the season.
In the 2007–08 season , West Ham had a reasonably consistent place in the top half of the league table despite a slew of injuries; new signings Craig Bellamy and Kieron Dyer missed most of the campaign. The last game of the season, at the Boleyn Ground , saw West Ham draw 2–2 against Aston Villa ; ensuring 10th place, finishing three points ahead of rivals Tottenham Hotspur . It was a five-place improvement on the previous season, and most importantly West Ham were never under any realistic threat of relegation.
After a row with the board over the sale of defenders Anton Ferdinand and George McCartney to Sunderland , manager Alan Curbishley resigned on 3 September 2008. His successor, the former Chelsea striker Gianfranco Zola took over on 11 September 2008 and in so doing became the club's first foreign manager (The Scottish manager Lou Macari was the only other manager not from England), to coach the club and became West Ham's 12th manager. [17]
In the 2008–09 season , under Zola's stewardship West Ham finished 9th. Zola's team had an impressive second half of the season just missing out on European qualification after being one point above the relegation zone on Christmas Day.
In the 2009–10 season , West Ham started strongly with a 2–0 win over newly promoted Wolves with goals from Mark Noble and newly appointed captain Matthew Upson . However the victory was soon overshadowed as the club were once again in the media spotlight for the wrong reasons. A League Cup match against old rivals Millwall brought about violent riots outside the ground as well as pitch invasions and crowd trouble inside Upton Park . [18] [19]
In August 2009 finanicial worries continued at the club with the current owners unable to provide any funds until a new owner was found. Shirt sponsor SBOBET provided the club with support to help purchase a much needed a striker with the Hammers having Carlton Cole as the only fit, experienced striker on the books. SBOBET 's backing enabled the purchase of Alessandro Diamanti for an undisclosed amount. [20]
Crest
The previous club crest 1987–1997
The original club crest was a crossed pair of rivet hammers; tools commonly used in the iron and shipbuilding industry. A castle was later (circa 1903/04) added to the crest and represents a prominent local building, Green Street House, which was known as "Boleyn Castle" through an association with Anne Boleyn . The manor was reportedly one of the sites at which Henry VIII courted his second queen, though in truth there is no factual evidence other than the tradition of rumour. [21]
The castle may have also been added as a result of the contribution made to the club by players of Old Castle Swifts , or even the adoption (in 1904) of Boleyn Castle FC [22] as their reserve side when they took over their grounds on the site.
The crest was redesigned and updated by London design agency Springett Associates in the late 1990s, featuring a wider yellow castle with fewer cruciform "windows" along with the peaked roofs being removed; the tops of the towers had previously made the castle appear more akin to Disneyland 's Sleeping Beauty's Castle than a functioning fortress. The designer also altered other details to give a more substantial feel to the iconography.
When the club redesigned the facade of the stadium (construction finished 2001/02) the 'castle' from the later badge was incorporated into the structure at the main entrance to the ground. A pair of towers are now prominent features of the ground's appearance, both bearing the club's modern insignia (which is also located in the foyer and other strategic locations).
Colours
The original colours of the team were dark blue, due to Thames Ironworks chairman Arnold Hills being a former student of Oxford University . However the team used a variety of kits including the claret and sky blue house colours of Thames Ironworks, as well as sky blue or white uniforms. [23] [24]
The Irons permanently adopted claret and blue for home colours in the summer of 1899. Thames Ironworks right-half Charlie Dove received the Aston Villa kit from his father William Dove, who was a professional sprinter of national repute, as well as being involved with the coaching at Thames Ironworks. Bill Dove had been at a fair in Birmingham , close to Villa Park , the home ground of Aston Villa and was challenged to a race against four Villa players, who wagered money that one of them would win.
Bill Dove defeated them and, when they were unable to pay the bet, one of the Villa players who was responsible for washing the team's kit offered a complete side's 'uniforms' to Dove in payment. The Aston Villa player subsequently reported to his club that the kit was 'missing'.
Thames Ironworks, and later West Ham United, retained the claret yoke/blue sleeves design, but also continued to use their previously favoured colours for their away kits, and indeed, in recent years the club have committed to a dark blue-white-sky blue rotation for the away colours. For instance, the 2008–09 squad will wear sky blue away kits, while last year's campaign saw white away kits, the year before saw navy blue, etc. However, last year's away kit will be the Hammers' third kit for the coming season. Interestingly enough, the 2009–10 version of West Ham's claret home kits do not feature the traditional sky blue sleeves. Instead the sleeves are also claret, with some sky blue trim added to the shoulders.
Supporters, hooliganism and rivalries
pretty bubbles in the air.
”
—original lyrics to "Bubbles", from John Helliar [25]
The team's supporters are famous for their rendition of the chorus of their team's anthem, " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " introduced to the club by former manager Charlie Paynter in the late 1920s. At the time, a Pears soap commercial featuring the curly haired child in the Millais " Bubbles " painting who resembled a player Billy J. "Bubbles" Murray in a local schoolboy team of Park School for whom the headmaster Cornelius Beal coined singing the tune " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " with amended lyrics.
Beal was a friend of Paynter, whilst Murray was a West Ham trialist and played football at schoolboy level with a number of West Ham players such as Jim Barrett . Through this contrivance of association the clubs fans took it upon themselves to begin singing the popular music hall tune before home games, sometimes reinforced by the presence of a house band requested to play the refrain by Charlie Paynter. [25]
There is a slight change to the lyrics sung by the Upton Park faithful. The second line's "nearly reach the sky" is changed to "they reach the sky", "Then like my dreams" is also changed to "And like my dreams". In addition the fans begin a chant of "United, United!" to cap it off.
“
—Supporters song to the tune of 'The Bells are Ringing' , circa 1960 [26]
The 1975 FA Cup version – which contains the original lyrics, and features vocals from the teams then current players – is always played before home games, with the home crowd joining in and carrying the song on after the music stops at the verse line "Fortune's always hiding". The song was originally released as a single by the 1975 Cup Final squad and has been covered on occasion by such as the Cockney Rejects .
Like other teams (such as Liverpool's adoption of " You'll Never Walk Alone ") the team also have a history of adopting or adapting popular songs of the day to fit particular events, themes, players or personas. These have included serious renditions of theatre and movie classics such as " The Bells are Ringing ", along with more pun laden or humorous efforts such as chanting former player Paolo di Canio 's name to the canzone La donna è mobile by Verdi , or D.I. Canio to the tune of Ottawans D.I.S.C.O. , or singing That's Zamora to the tune of Dean Martins 1953 classic That's Amore in honour of former Iron striker Bobby Zamora (this chant was originally created by the Brighton fans when he was at the club).
On the fans' darker side, they gained national attention after giving a torrid time to David Beckham in his first away match of 1998–99 the season after the England midfielder was sent off for a petulant foul on Diego Simeone . [27] Coinciding with the game there were claims (and an image taken) that fans, organised by a hardcore, had hung an effigy of the player outside a local pub. Although it was later revealed that the pub was in South-East London , the heartland of West Ham's greatest rivals Millwall . The West Ham fans did boo Beckham's every touch of the ball during the game, however. [28]
They have also displayed a particular zeal when it comes to abusing former players particularly those who are perceived to have abandoned the club, or performed some disservice. Famously Paul Ince ("Judas, Judas" [29] ), Frank Lampard ("Fat Lumpolard" [30] ), Jermain Defoe ("You're just a small Paul Ince" [31] ), Craig Bellamy [32] and Nigel Reo-Coker [33] have born the brunt of verbal assaults and a guaranteed hostile reception at Upton Park. However, players such as Joe Cole , Michael Carrick , Rio Ferdinand , Bobby Zamora and Carlos Tévez receive applause and even standing ovations in honour of their contributions during their time at the club.
West Ham fans display their rosettes, scarves and novelty hammers at an FA Cup match in 1933
Many West Ham fans also follow Leyton Orient and Dagenham and Redbridge , West Ham fans can be seen at either Leyton Orient or Dagenham and Redbridge, whenever West Ham are playing away from home, although the warmth felt by West Ham fans for Orient is not usually reciprocated by the Orient supporters.
On 6 September 2009 the Daily Mirror newspaper carried a report that HM Queen Elizabeth II had admitted to being a long time West Ham supporter. She had overheard staff discussing football, one admitting to being a Millwall supporter. [34]
Hooliganism
The origins of West Ham's links with organised football-related violence starts in the 1960s with the establishment of The Mile End Mob (named after a particularly tough area of the East End of London). [35]
During the 1970s and 1980s (the main era for organised football-related violence ) West Ham gained further notoriety for the levels of hooliganism in their fan base and antagonistic behaviour towards both their own and rival fans, and the police.
The Inter City Firm were one of the first " casuals ", so called because they avoided police supervision by not wearing football-related clothing and travelled to away matches on regular "Inter City" trains, rather than on the cheap and more tightly policed "football special" charter trains. The group were an infamous West Ham-aligned gang. As the firm's moniker "inter city" suggests violent activities were not confined to local derbies – the hooligans were content to cause trouble at any game, though nearby teams often bore the brunt.
During the 1990s, and to the present day, sophisticated surveillance and policing coupled with club supported promotions and community action has reduced the level of violence, though the intense rivalry and association with Millwall, Chelsea and other major players in the 'firm' scheme remains.
The 2005 film Green Street (an allusion to the road on which the Boleyn Ground stands) depicted an American student played by Elijah Wood becoming involved with a fictional firm associated with West Ham, with an emphasis on the rivalry with Millwall . The two teams and their Chairmen moved to distance the clubs from the movie at the time. West Ham hooliganism was again highlighted in film in 2008, with the film based on the life of well known former hooligan Cass Pennant , Cass . Also a gang of armed robbers who supported West Ham were portrayed in the 2008 episode "Are We Not Men?" of the British sitcom The IT Crowd .
Rivalries
West Ham have strong rivalries with several other clubs. Most of these are with other London clubs, especially with their neighbours Tottenham Hotspur , Arsenal and also with Chelsea , which sublimates the age-old East versus West London rivalry. The rivalry between West Ham and Tottenham has been fuelled by players such as Jermaine Defoe leaving the Hammers to join Tottenham. Most of the matches are well contested. The rivalry has also deepened as former Hammers manager Harry Redknapp is Tottenham's manager.
The "Champions" statue, of Moore , with the World Cup , Hurst , Peters and Ray Wilson , boarded-up for protection before the visit of Millwall on 25 August 2009
The strongest and oldest rivalry is with Millwall known as The East London derby . The two sides are local rivals, having both formed originally around the works sides Thames Ironworks and Millwall Ironworks shipbuilding companies. They were rivals for the same contracts and the players lived in the same locality The early history of both clubs are intertwined, with West Ham proving to be the more successful in a number of meetings between the two teams, resulting in West Ham being promoted at the expense of Millwall. Millwall later declined to join the fledgling Football League while West Ham went on to the top division and an FA Cup final. Later in the 1920s the rivalry was intensified during strike action started by the East End (perceived to be West Ham fans) which Isle Of Dogs -based companies (i.e. Millwall fans) refused to support, breeding illwill between the two camps.
The rivalry between West Ham and Millwall has involved considerable violence and is one of the most notorious within the world of football hooliganism. The teams were drawn against each other in the second round of the 2009–10 League Cup and met on 25 August 2009 at Upton Park . This was the first time in four years that the two clubs had played each other, and the first ever in the Leauge Cup. Clashes between hundred of fans occurred outside the ground, resulting in violence erupting up to half a mile away from the stadium, with serious injuries, damage to property and several arrests reported by police. There were also several pitch invasions which brought a temporary halt to the game. [36]
Another rivalry which developed is with Sheffield United . The Blades have tried to sue West Ham and the Premier League for damages, over their claim that West Ham had an unfair advantage by playing Carlos Tévez . In April 2007 The FA fined West Ham a record £5.5 million for a contract allowing third party influence (illegal in the Premier League) and for attempting to conceal the existence of such a contract in the deal that brought Tévez and Javier Mascherano to Upton Park . [37] [38] The day after West Ham were fined, they continued their fight to stay in the Premier League by defeating Wigan Athletic 3–0. In their last nine games West Ham picked up 21 points by winning seven games and losing only two. Sheffield United only won two of their last nine games, one of which was by defeating West Ham 3–0 at home to initially go five points above them. Their 2–1 defeat by Wigan on the last day of the season sealed their relegation. Meanwhile, West Ham won 1–0 away to Manchester United, with Carlos Tévez scoring the only goal, to ensure that they remained in the Premier league.
The FA has sat twice on the matter and has thrown the case out twice. Settlement was reached between West Ham United and Sheffield United on 14 March 2009. The settlement amount was undisclosed but has been quoted as anything from £10 million to £25 million. [39] [40] [41]
This action by Sheffield United has increased fan and club rivalry and they are now seen as rivals.
Nicknames
The fans and club alike are known as "The Hammers" by the media, partly because of the club's origins as Thames Ironworks company football team (see club crest) and also (incorrectly) due to the club's name. However, they are also known as "The Irons" by their own supporters. They are also known as "The Cockney Boys" from their history of being a Cockney team. Yet another nickname is "The Academy of Football", or just "The Academy", a nickname given, then adopted by West Ham United, by the London media.
Stadium
See also: Boleyn Ground
The Boleyn Ground.
West Ham are currently based at the Boleyn Ground , commonly known as Upton Park , in Newham , East London . The capacity of the Boleyn Ground is 35,303. [1] This has been West Ham's ground since 1904. Prior to this, in their previous incarnation of Thames Ironworks , they played at Hermit Road in Canning Town and briefly at Browning Road in East Ham , before moving to the Memorial Grounds in Plaistow in 1897. They retained the stadium during their transition to becoming West Ham United and were there for a further four seasons before moving to the Boleyn Ground in 1904.
Former chairman Eggert Magnússon made clear his ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics . However, the move to the Olympic Stadium was abandoned when it was revealed that the stadium would have a reduced capacity from the current Boleyn Ground, and would have to remain primarily an athletics venue. [42]
Former Club Chief Executive Scott Duxbury revealed in an interview with a West Ham fan website [43] , that there was planning permission to expand the East Stand to take capacity to over 40,000 although financial constraints of the current owners meant this would not happen for sometime. He said he would prefer to stay at Upton Park. Any progress on expansion or a move from Upton Park seems unlikely until a new owner is found and/or the 2012 Olympics are over.
When current chairmen Gold and Sullivan assumed control of West Ham they also stated their ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics and felt it was a logical move for the Government as it was in the borough of Newham . But, in the month of February 2010, the British Olympic Minister stated that West Ham wouldn't get the stadium, and it would instead be used for track and field. [44]
The Academy of Football
Main article: The Academy of Football
"Academy of Football"
The club promotes the popular idea of West Ham being " The Academy of Football ", with the moniker adorning the ground's new stadium façade. The comment predominantly refers to the club's youth development system which was established by manager Ted Fenton during the 1950s, that has seen a number of international players emerge through the ranks. [45] Most notably the club contributed three players to the World Cup winning England side of 1966 including club icon Bobby Moore , as well as Martin Peters and Geoff Hurst who between them scored all of England's goals in the eventual 4–2 victory. Other academy players that have gone on to play for England have included Trevor Brooking , Alvin Martin , Tony Cottee and Paul Ince .
Since the late 1990s Rio Ferdinand , Frank Lampard , Joe Cole , Michael Carrick and Glen Johnson begun their careers at the club and all are playing for one of the "Big Four" clubs. Most recently the likes of first team midfield regulars Mark Noble and Jack Collison and younger stars Freddie Sears , Junior Stanislas , James Tomkins , Josh Payne and Zavon Hines have emerged through the Academy. Frustratingly, for the fans and managers alike, [46] the club has struggled to retain many of these players due to (predominantly) financial [47] reasons. West Ham, during the 2007/08 season, had an average of 6.61 English players in the starting line up, higher than any other Premier League club, [48] which cemented their status as one of the few Premier League clubs left that were recognised to be bringing through young English talent and were recognised as having 'homegrown players'.
Much of the success of The Academy has been attributed to Tony Carr who has been West Ham youth coach since 1973. [49]
A sign of the success of the academy was shown in an England International Friendly against Holland (finished 2-2) where no less than seven of the players on the field had some affiliation with the club, a large proportion from the academy itself.
Players
Current squad
As of 18 March 2010. [50]
Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
No.
Alan Devonshire
Hammer of the Year
The following is a list of the "Hammer of the Year award" won by West Ham United players. [51] Trevor Brooking is the only player for West Ham United to have been honoured with the title of 'Hammer of the Year' three times in a row (1976, 1977 and 1978). He also is the player who has won the award most times as he has won it on five occasions (1972, 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1984). Bobby Moore, Billy Bonds and Julian Dicks have won it four times each.
Bobby Moore has been runner-up four times, while Billy Bonds and Tony Cottee have both been runner-up three times.
Billy Bonds and Trevor Brooking's wins are notable in the amount of time between first and last "Hammer of the Year Award". Bonds has sixteen years separating his wins whilst Brooking has twelve.
Year
Steve Rigby
Managers
West Ham have had only 12 managers in their history, fewer than any other major English club. Up until 1989 the club had only had five different managers. Before the appointment of Gianfranco Zola in 2008 the club never had an overseas manager, with the only non-Englishman being the Scot, Lou Macari. Numerous former Hammers have taken on temporary managerial roles at the club, between permanent managers. Ronnie Boyce briefly took the reins, in February 1990, following Lou Macari's resignation and the appointement of Billy Bonds . Former Hammers player and board member Trevor Brooking was briefly in charge during two separate spells as caretaker manager in 2003, first during the illness of Glenn Roeder and again between Roeder's sacking and the appointment of Alan Pardew. Former player Kevin Keen was a brief caretaker manager (just one game), prior to Zola's reign.
Manager
38.87
Ownership
West Ham United was owned by Terry Brown until 2006, when Eggert Magnússon and Björgólfur Guðmundsson bought the club. Soon after, manager Alan Pardew was sacked and ex- Charlton Athletic Manager Alan Curbishley was hired. In a bizarre twist of fate, Pardew replaced Les Reed as Charlton manager a few weeks later and the two managers met each other in a relegation battle where the Hammers lost 4–0 to their South East London rivals. However, West Ham eventually stayed up and Charlton were relegated. Terry Brown was criticised by some sections of the fans (including pressure group Whistle specifically formed for this purpose) due to a perception of financial and staff mismanagement. On 18 September 2007, it was announced that Magnússon would step down as executive chairman [54] but would still retain the role as club non-executive chairman overseeing a new management structure, and would keep his stake in the club. [55]
However on 13 December 2007, it was announced that Magnússon had left West Ham and that his 5 per cent holding had been bought by club majority owner Björgólfur Guðmundsson . [56] On 8 June 2009, Icelandic CB Holding which is 70% owned by Straumur-Burdaras bank and 30% owned by Icelandic based banks Byr and MP [57] took over Hansa Holding, which only had West Ham United as their asset and filed for bankruptcy protection. Straumur was one of Hansa Holding's largest creditors. Straumur appointed one of their directors, Andrew Bernhardt, as the new chairman. In January 2010, David Sullivan and David Gold acquired a 50 percent share in West Ham, from CB Holding, given them overall operational and commercial control. [58]
Shirt sponsors and kit suppliers
On 11 September 2008, the BBC News Channel reported that the team's main sponsor, XL Leisure Group had been placed in administration, although Simon Calder of The Independent confirmed the group's website was still taking bookings.
The XL Leisure Group confirmed on their website that 11 companies associated with the group had been put into administration on 12 September 2008. This included XL Airways UK Limited, Excel Aviation Limited, Explorer House Limited, Aspire Holidays Limited, Freedom Flights Limited, The Really Great Holiday Company plc, Medlife Hotels Limited, Travel City Direct, and Kosmar Villa Holidays plc. It did not affect the German and French divisions of the company's operations.
On 12 September 2008 the club terminated its contract with XL Leisure group. [59] [60]
During this brief period, players had their squad numbers ironed over the existing sponsorship logo. On 3 December 2008 West Ham announced that they had signed a shirt sponsorship deal with Far Eastern betting firm SBOBET . The deal was set to run until the end of the 2009/10 season, and saw the company's logo on First Team and Reserve Team kit, and adult replica shirts; all Academy teams and child replica shirts carry the logo of the Bobby Moore Fund due to the main sponsor being a betting firm. [61]
In September 2009, the club officially announced that SBOBET had extended their deal with the team until 2013 after their welcomed help in securing Diamanti.
The club will end their relationship with Umbro and instead have Italian firm Macron make the kit starting from the 2010/11 season. West Ham will be the first Premier League club kit to be made by the firm who produce several Championship clubs strips including rival Sheffield United . [62]
Shirt sponsors
West Ham United L.F.C. , the affiliated women's team
Sources
Belton, Brian (2007). "BROWN OUT": The Biography of West Ham Chairmen, Terence Brown. Pennant Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-906015112.
Belton, Brian (2006). West Ham United Miscellany. Pennant Books. ISBN 0-9550394-4-4.
Blows, Kirk and Hogg, Tony (2000). The Essential History of West Ham United. Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7036-8.
Hellier, John and Leatherdale, Clive (2000). West Ham United: The Elite Era - A Complete Record. Desert Island. ISBN 1-874287-31-7.
Hogg, Tony (2005). Who's Who of West Ham United. Profile Sports Media. ISBN 1-903135-50-8.
Kerrigan, Colm (1997). Gatling Gun George Hilsdon. Football Lives. ISBN 0-9530718-0-4.
Nawrat, Chris and Hutchings, Steve (1996). The Sunday Times Illustrated History of Football. Hamlyn. ISBN 1-85613-341-9.
Pickering, David (1994). The Cassell Soccer Companion. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-34231-9.
Redknapp, Harry With Derek McGovern (1998). Harry Redknapp - My Autobiography. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-218872-4.
Ward, Adam and Smith, Dave (2003). The Official West Ham United Dream Team. Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-60835-2.
References
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What is the name of the traditional throwing game, popular in fairgrounds, that features the head of an old woman with a clay pipe in her mouth? | Aunt Sally - The Full Wiki
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More info on Aunt Sally
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Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles .
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A drawing from the 1911 edition of Whiteley's General Catalogue.
Aunt Sally is a traditional throwing game. The term is often used metaphorically to mean something that is a target for criticism. In particular, referring to the fairground origins, an Aunt Sally would be "set up" deliberately to be subsequently "knocked down", usually by the same person who set the person up.
Contents
4 References
The game
The game was traditionally played in British pubs and fairgrounds . An Aunt Sally was originally a figurine head of an old woman with a clay pipe in her mouth, or subsequently a ball on a stick. The object was for players to throw sticks at the head in order to break the pipe. The game bears some resemblance to a coconut shy or skittles , and may have developed from the blood sport of cock throwing , in which a chicken was tied to a post and people took turns throwing coksteles (special weighted sticks) at the bird until it died.
Today, the game of Aunt Sally is still played as a pub game in Oxfordshire , Warwickshire , Berkshire and Buckinghamshire . The ball is on a short plinth about 10cm high, and is known as a 'dolly'. The dolly is placed on a dog-legged metal spike and players throw sticks or short battens at the dolly, trying to knock it off without hitting the spike.
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Modern rules of play
Two teams of eight players throw six sticks each per leg. The game is played over three legs, or 'horses'. The largest number of dolls scored per team wins each leg. If there is a tie in the decisive leg, each team can throw three sticks and then one until there is a decisive result. In the league system, however these days legs can be tied, with two points being awarded for a leg win and one for a draw. If a player fails to score in a leg, it is called a blob with the ultimate embarrassment of a three blob game often being published in the local newspapers sports section. It is a custom that the winner of the fourth (beer) leg is bought a drink of their choice by a member of the opposing team.
Other kinds of Aunt Sally
Aunt Sally appears as a character portrayed by Una Stubbs in the television adaptation of the children's serial Worzel Gummidge , produced by Southern Television for ITV from 1979 to 1981. She is a fairground doll of the type used as a target for throwing competitions but nevertheless considers herself to be of a superior class to Worzel, a scarecrow and her frustrated suitor.
The term 'Aunt Sally' is in limited use as a political idiom, indicating a false adversary or straw man , set up for the sole purpose of attracting negative attention and wasting an opponent's energy.
The technique is sometimes used during planning applications when the applicant needs to show they exhausted all other options and may resort to creating false alternatives that are easily identified as unsuitable.
See also
| Aunt Sally |
Which famous novel of 1930 centres on the death of a character named Colonel Protheroe? | Aunt Sally - The Online Guide
Aunt Sally
About
Aunt Sally is played by throwing timber batons at a wooden skittle (known as a doll or dolly) on top of a post. It is one of those pub games which is played only in a confined locale and hardly at all outside of this area. In the case of Aunt Sally, the location is Oxfordshire and despite being restricted only to pubs in and around Oxfordshire it is an extremely popular game indeed that is taken very seriously by regulars and for which there are numerous leagues of some longevity.
Action shot of modern Aunt Sally by kind permission, Arthur Taylor.
Origins
Some authors have suggested that Aunt Sally goes back at least as far as the 17th Century. The vague assertion is that it may have been introduced by Royalist soldiers during the English Civil war when Charles set up court in Oxford. However, the earliest references to the term "Aunt Sally" only go back to the mid 1800s so unless someone comes up with something more concrete than historical speculation, we should assume that the game was invented along with so many others by the Victorians. If we accept that, there are more solid theories as to it's origin.
There are two 14th century manuscripts which show a game called club kayles (from the French "quilles" or skittles) which depict a skittles game in which one skittle is bigger, differently shaped, and in most cases positioned so as to be the most difficult to knock over. The throwers, in the pictures, are about to launch a long club-like object at the skittles underarm. Many skittles varieties of today still feature this extra large kingpin". Aunt Sally may be a development of skittles whereby this "Kingpin" became the sole interest of the game and the other skittles were dispensed with.
Here is a drawing from the 1911 edition of Whiteley's General Catalogue (with thanks to Stewart Russ). The author is not sure of the context of the picture but the doll has been dressed up to look like a woman of exactly the same as the picture below left.
An alternative theory ascribes Aunt Sally as a development of a game which was essentially a humane version of a barbaric blood sport called "throwing at cocks". In this horrible pastime a cock was tied by one leg to a stake in the ground and the participants would then pay for a turn at throwing a "cok-steles" (small club) at the bird. Whoever killed the bird got to take it home for dinner. If the bird's leg was broken, the sad creature would be supported on sticks until the bitter end. Joseph Strutt noted in 1801 that humane versions of this had been seen as fairground amusements wherein the cock was replaced by a wooden replica and people paid a small sum to attempt to hit it. He thought that this had died out but this theory believes it persisted and became Aunt Sally.
The third theory is my own and is more straightforward still. Can you think of another game in which the objective is to knock something off the top of a post? Of course - it's the traditional coconut shy which any self-respecting school fair would be embarrassed to be without. The
Coconut shy is just the latest incarnation of a fair game that has been going on for at least two centuries. For instance, look at the 1818 Rowlandson cartoon to the right. The objects on top of the posts are different prizes. If you knock off the prize, you win it (presumably prizes were not made of bone china). The game was sometimes called 'Knock 'em down' and the exact same game can be seen in the Frost Fair print from 1814 to the left.
It is easy to jump to the conclusion that this is certainly the most likely ancestor of Aunt Sally but one shouldn't be too hasty. This "prize shy" is actually more akin to the modern game which didn't appear until around the 1930s and the aim of the original Aunt Sally fair game, as will be seen was not to knock the doll off the top of the post... So, all three theories seem reasonably plausible - in this author's view, more evidence is needed before one could justifiably argue for one theory more than another.
Fairground / Parlour Aunt Sally
What is known for sure is that Aunt Sally rose to general popularity in Victorian times as a vulgar misogynist fairground pursuit. As you can see from the pictures on this page, it is apparent that the doll used to be dressed up to resemble an old maid and no doubt it was thought to be an amusing to chuck sticks at the ugly looking Aunt Sally doll. As can be seen from the examples shown, it seems that often the figure was painted black - the game was both mysogynist and racist.
At this time, too, the game was played quite differently to the modern game. A number of clay pipes were inserted into the mouth and hung from other parts of the doll and instead of knocking the dolly off the post, the the objective was to break the pipes or knock them off the doll.
The example to the right by kind permission of Richard Ballam shows a late nineteenth century doll on the right that would have been used with the clay pipes. However, the smaller doll on the left is different - it is from an indoor version of the game called "Parlour Aunt Sally" that was commercially manufactured at that time. A closer look reveals that this is not the same game at all - presumably people would not have sticks flying around their drawing room nor would bits of clay pipe all over the floor have been particularly welcome. Hence Parlour Aunt Sally is a rings / quoits game and the target is a single clay pipe in the mouth of the doll...
The Rise of Modern Aunt Sally
Why did the old girl lose her clothes? Perhaps the participants couldn't be bothered to dress her up any longer, perhaps their game became too competitive to be trivialised in this way - or perhaps the landlord's wife objected...
Here is a close up of the doll from "The Boy's Modern Playmate published in 1890. Pretty she ain't. According to this tome, the game has a brief "tremendous run of popularity". "For a season, Aunt Sally was the reigning queen of society, the goddess of fashion, at whose shrine it behoved all persons who aspired to position in society to come and bow themselves down." Interestingly, the description of the game in this book departs radically from the game of today - instead of knocking the doll off the stick, a number of [presuambly clay] tobacco pipes were stuck into holes in her nose and ears and the objective was to knock the pipes out and/or break them.
Regardless, at some point the game started to be played in a few Oxfordshire pubs where it later began to be taken more seriously and all socially dubious connotations are now lost in the mists of time.
The source of Aunt Sally as a pub game is slightly hazy but the author has made some progress in narrowing it down. Firstly, in 1966 Timothy Finn asserted that the The Seven Stars in Baldon laid claim to "discovering" Aunt Sally and apparently there was an impressive Aunt Sally trophy cabinet on display at that tavern. The truth of this may never be known - as at July 2008, the pub landlord informed me that the pub has changed hands numerous times in the last five years and hasn't played Aunt Sally for some time. He is thinking of restarting the game there but any traces of the history would seem to be lost.
The Oxford Aunt Sally League has records that go back to the second world war - presently the earliest documentary evidence of Aunt Sally as a pub game. Thanks to Andy Beal for the following information. "The first singles winner of The Oxford Aunt Sally League was G.Smith from the Black Boy in 1938!! 1939 to 1941 no games were played, but from 1942 no years were missed. There are records of all the singles and pairs winners from then".
Approaching from the other direction, the latest reference found referring to Aunt Sally as a parlour game is from a 1935 Encyclopedia owned by the author in which instructions for making your own "home" version of the game are included. So it's seems almost as if World War II acted as a catalyst to metamorphose the game into a politically correct and more codified sport. This is the game that emerged after the war in various pubs around Oxford.
Contemporary Aunt Sally
In modern Aunt Sally, the single white stubby skittle, about 6 inches high and 2 and 3/4 inches in diameter, is called "dolly" and the round-ended projectiles, of which there are six, are 18 inches long, 2 inches in diameter and are called "sticks". A hollow rod (the "iron") driven into the earth so that the top is two and a half feet above the ground and an iron swivel is inserted into the top. The swivel can rotate and is positioned to stick out to one side with the doll set on the little platform at the swivel's end. Each turn consists of six throws, a point being is scored for each doll knocked cleanly off the swivel. Players throw the sticks at the doll from behind a line known as the "ockee" which is 10 yards from the iron.
Normal league play has two teams each consisting of eight players and three legs or "horses" are played. Each horse consists of each member of each team having one turn so that each team makes 48 throws. It is believed that the record for a horse stands at 40 so it can be seen that hitting the doll is quite tricky.
The purpose of the swivel is a mystery to beginners but some reflection will show that it is vital to the game. Bear in mind that pub games need a level of clarity beyond normal umpired games - with a few beers consumed, judgements become impaired and a dispute can quickly spiral out of control. That's why skittle games are popular (a skittle is either down or not), dart boards have their segments separated by wires and quoits and throwing games with targets that are a hole work well.
For Aunt Sally a point is only counted as long as the stick hits the doll cleanly off the swivel. If the doll was simply balanced on top of the post, it would often not be clear whether the iron was hit before the doll or vice-versa. With the doll hovering away from the post, any doll that falls to the ground due to a stick hitting the iron is clearly not a point.
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With a population of over 170,000 inhabitants, Szeged is the third most highly populated city of which European country? | Hungary facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Hungary
CAPITAL: Budapest
FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1957, is a tricolor of red, white, and green horizontal stripes.
ANTHEM: Isten áldd meg a magyart (God Bless the Hungarians).
MONETARY UNIT: The forint (Ft) of 100 fillérs is a paper currency with flexible rates of exchange. There are coins of 10, 20, and 50 fillérs and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 100, and 200 forints, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, and 5,000 forints. Ft1 = $0.00508 (or $1 = Ft196.83) as of 2005.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.
HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of 1848 uprising against Austrian rule, 15 March; Labor Day, 1 May; Constitution Day, 20 August; Day of the Proclamation of the Republic, 23 October; Christmas , 25–26 December. Easter Monday is a movable holiday.
TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.
LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
Hungary is a landlocked country in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, with an area of 93,030 sq km (35,919 sq mi), extending 268 km (167 mi) n–s and 528 km (328 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Hungary is slightly smaller than the state of Indiana . It is bounded on the n by Slovakia , on the ne by the Ukraine , on the e by Romania , on the s by Serbia and Croatia , on the sw by Slovenia , and on the w by Austria , with a total boundary length of 2,171 km (1,349 mi). Hungary's capital city, Budapest, is located in the north central part of the country.
TOPOGRAPHY
About 84% of Hungary is below 200 m (656 ft) in altitude, its lowest point, at the Tisza River, being 78 m (256 ft) above sea level and the highest being Mt. Kékes (1,014 m/3,327 ft) in the Mátra Mountains, northeast of Budapest. The country has four chief geographic regions: Transdanubia (Dunántúl), the Great Plain (Alföld), the Little Plain (Kisalföld), and the Northern Mountains. Hungary's river valleys and its highest mountains are in the north-east. Generally, the soil is fertile. The chief rivers are the Danube (Duna) and Tisza. The largest lake is Balaton, which has an area of 601 sq km (232 sq mi).
CLIMATE
Hungary lies at the meeting point of three climatic zones: the continental, Mediterranean, and oceanic. Yearly temperatures vary from a minimum of -14°c (7°f) to a maximum of 36°c (97°f). The mean temperature in January is -4°c to 0°c (25° to 32°f) and in July, 18° to 23°c (64° to 73°f). Rainfall varies, but the annual average is approximately 63 cm (25 in)—more in the west and less in the east—with maximum rainfall during the summer months. Severe droughts often occur in the summers.
FLORA AND FAUNA
Plants and animals are those common to Central Europe. Oak is the predominant deciduous tree; various conifers are located in the mountains. Among the abundant wildlife are deer, boar, hare, and mouflon. The Great Plain is a breeding ground and a migration center for a variety of birds. Fish are plentiful in rivers and lakes. As of 2002, there were at least 83 species of mammals, 208 species of birds, and over 2,200 species of plants throughout the country.
ENVIRONMENT
Chemical pollution of the air and water is extensive, but resources to combat pollution are scarce: a 1996 government study estimated that us$350 million were needed to combat pollution, but only us$7 million were allocated for this purpose. According to the study, air pollution affects 179 areas of the country, soil pollution affects 54 areas, and water pollution affects 32. Hungary is also one of 50 nations that lead the world in industrial carbon dioxide emissions, with a 1992 total of 59.9 million metric tons, a per capita level of 5.72 metric tons. However, the total carbon dioxide emissions dropped to 54.2 million metric tons in 2000. Hungary has 6 cu km of renewable water resources, with 55% used for industrial purposes and 36% used for farming activity. Hungary's principal environmental agency is the National Council for Environment and Nature Conservation, under the auspices of the Council of Ministers.
Geothermal aquifers lie below most of Hungary. The water brought from these to the earth's surface ranges in temperature from 40°c (104°f) to 70°c (158°f). In the southwest, geothermal aquifers have produced water at 140°c (284°f). Some of these waters are cooled and used for drinking water, but many aquifers are used to heat greenhouses.
In 2003, about 7% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 7 types of mammals, 9 species of birds, 1 type of reptile, 8 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, 24 species of other invertebrates, and 1 species of plant. Endangered species included the longicorn, the alcon large blue butterfly, the dusky large blue butterfly, and the Mediterranean mouflon.
POPULATION
The population of Hungary in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 10,086,000, which placed it at number 79 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 16% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 16% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 91 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the population for 2005–10 was expected to decline annually by -0.4%, a rate the government viewed as too low. The fertility rate, which had been declining since the 1990s, reached just 1.5 births per woman in 2005. The projected population for the year 2025 was 9,588,000. The population density was 108 per sq km (281 per sq mi).
Since the early 1950s, there has been a fundamental shift of the population from rural to urban areas. The UN estimated that 65% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005. The urban growth rate has substantially slowed in recent years, with the UN estimating annual growth in urban areas at just 0.14% as of 2005. The capital city, Budapest, had a population of 1,708,000 in that year. Other urban areas include: Debrecen, 217,706; Miskolc, 211,000; Szeged, 178,878; Pécs, 172,177; Nyíregyháza, 115,643; Székesfehérvár, 111,478; and Kecskemét, 107,267.
MIGRATION
Sizable migration during the two world wars resulted from military operations, territorial changes, and population transfers. Peacetime emigration in the decades before World War I was heavy (about 1,400,000 between 1899 and 1913). Emigration of non-Magyars was prompted by the repressive policy of Magyarization; groups also left because of economic pressures, the majority going to the United States and Canada . In the interwar period, migration was negligible, but after 1947 many thousands left, despite restrictions on emigration. As a result of the October 1956 uprising, approximately 250,000 persons fled Hungary. The largest numbers ultimately emigrated to the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom , Germany , France , Switzerland , and Australia . Emigration totaled 42,700 between 1981 and 1989. By the 1990s, emigration was virtually nonexistent; only 778 persons left in 1991, according to official statistics.
Between 1990 and 2003, some 115,000 immigrants acquired Hungarian citizenship, granted almost exclusively to ethnic Hungarians from neighboring countries. At the end of 2000, 3% of Hungary's population (294,000) were foreign-born, resulting from international migration, and as a consequence of historic events such as border changes or citizenship agreements. According to Migration Information Source, from 1990 to 2003, the border guards recorded 152,000 cases of foreigners attempting to enter illegally, and 80,000 efforts to leave Hungary illegally. These activities indicate Hungary's transit role in illegal migration.
Since 1960, net migration from the villages to the cities has decreased, from about 52,000 that year to 20,814 in 1986. Since 1989, Hungary has received nearly 155,000 refugees, with major influxes from Romania in 1988–89 and the former Yugoslavia in 1991–92. About 5,400 asylum seekers have been recognized as refugees since 1989. In the 1990s Hungary provided temporary protection for over 32,000 Bosnians. Most of these refugees resettled to another country or repatriated. The Temporary Protection status of some 480 Bosnian refugees, who remained in Hungary in the latter part of the 1990s, was withdrawn by the government in mid-1999. As a result of the Kosovo crisis, 2,800 Yugoslav asylum seekers arrived in Hungary, including 1,000 Kosovo Albanians. The organized voluntary repatriation of refugees began in August 1999, when the first 185 Kosovars returned to their homeland. At the end of 2004 there were 7,708 refugees and 354 asylum seekers in Hungary. Asylum seekers were from Georgia and Turkey . In 2004, 832 Hungarians applied for asylum in Canada.
As a member of the European Union (EU) since 1 May 2004, Hungary's migration and illegal migration border controls have tightened. According to Migration Information Source, as of 2002 some 115,000 foreign citizens with a valid long-term permit (i.e., good for at least one year) or permanent residence permit resided in Hungary; 43% were Romanian citizens, 11% Yugoslavians, 8% Ukrainians, and most of these were ethnic Hungarians, and 6% were Chinese. This population amounted to 1.13% of Hungary's total population. These changing waves of labor migration are also characterized by a new form of labor migration within the EU, termed "walk-over-the-border for employment," where workers seeking higher wages travel from one country to a neighboring one, such as from Slovakia to Hungary.
In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as 0.86 migrants per 1,000 population.
ETHNIC GROUPS
Ethnically, Hungary is essentially a homogeneous state of Magyar extraction. The 2001 census indicates that Hungarians constitute about 92.3% of the total population. Roma account for about 1.9%. Ethnic Germans make up about 0.7% of the population. There are also small groups of Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Greeks, Serbs, Slovenes, Armenians, Ruthenians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, and Romanians.
LANGUAGES
Hungarian, also known as Magyar, is the universal language. In addition to the letters of the English alphabet, it has the following letters and combinations: á, é, í, ó, ö, ő, ú, ú, cs, dz, dzs, gy, ly, ny, sz, ty, zs. Written in Latin characters, Hungarian (Magyar) belongs to the Finno-Ugric family, a branch of the Ural-Altaic language group. Hungarian (Magyar) is also characterized by an admixture of Turkish, Slavic, German, Latin, and French words. In addition to their native language, many Hungarians speak English, German, French, or (since World War II ) Russian. In 2002, 98.2% of the population spoke Hungarian; 1.8% spoke various other languages.
RELIGIONS
According to a 2001 census, approximately 55% of the people are nominally Roman Catholic, 15% are members of the Reformed Church, 3% of the population are Lutheran, and less than 1% are Jewish. About 3% of the population describe themselves as Greek Catholics. About 15% of the population claim no religious affiliation.
About one million Jews lived in Hungary before World War II and an estimated 600,000 were deported in 1944 to concentration camps. According to estimates from the World Jewish Restitution Organization, there are between 70,000 and 110,000 Jews currently residing in Hungary. There are also seven Buddhist and five Orthodox denominations. There are three Islamic communities.
A 1990 Law on the Freedom of Conscience provides for separation of church and state and safeguards the liberty of conscience of all citizens and the freedom of religious worship. However, the state does grant financial support to religious denominations for religious practice, educational work, and maintenance of public collections. To promote further support of religious institutions, between 1997–99 the government signed separate agreements with the country's four largest churches (the Roman Catholic, Jewish, Lutheran, and Calvinist churches) and two smaller groups (Hungarian Baptist and Budai Serb Orthodox). The government also provides funds each year for the revitalization of churches based on annual negotiations between the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and the Ministry of Finance.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation facilities have improved steadily since the 1960s. Budapest is the transportation center. In 2002, roads totaled 159,568 km (99,251 mi), of which some 70,050 km (43,571 mi) were paved, including 527 km (328 mi) of expressways. In 2003, Hungary had 2,777,219 passenger cars and 394,988 commercial vehicles registered for use.
As of 2004, Hungary had 7,937 km (4,937 mi) of broad, standard and narrow gauge railroad lines. Of that total, standard gauge lines accounted for the largest portion at 7,682 km (4,778 mi), followed by narrow gauge lines at 219 km (136 mi) and broad gauge lines at 36 km (22 mi). Most freight is carried by trucks; railway transport is of lesser importance. The railroad and bus networks are state owned.
Permanently navigable waterways totaled 1,622 km (1,009 mi) in 2004, of which most were on the Danube and Tisza rivers. In addition to the government shipping enterprises—which operate the best and largest ships and handle the bulk of water traffic—the Shipping Cooperative, an association of small operators, continues to function. In 1999, the latest year for which data was available), the merchant marine fleet consisted of 2 cargo ships with a total capacity of 12,949 GRT.
Hungary had an estimated 44 airports in 2004. As of 2005 a total of 19 had paved runways, and there were also five heliports. Ferihegy Airport in Budapest is the most important center for domestic and international flights. All domestic traffic is handled by the Hungarian Air Transportation Enterprise (Magyar Légiközlekedési Vallalat—MALÉV). In 2003, about 2.369 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.
HISTORY
Ancient human footprints, tools, and a skull found at Vértesszóllós date the earliest occupants of present Hungary at a period from 250,000 to 500,000 years ago. Close to that site, at Tata, objects used for aesthetic or ceremonial purposes have been discovered, among the earliest such finds made anywhere in the world.
Celtic tribes settled in Hungary before the Romans came to occupy the western part of the country, which they called Pannonia and which the Roman Emperor Augustus conquered in 9 bc. Invasions by the Huns, the Goths, and later the Langobards had little lasting effect, but the two subsequent migrations of the Avars (who ruled for 250 years and, like the Huns, established a khanate in the Hungarian plain) left a more lasting impression.
The Magyars (Hungarians) migrated from the plains south and west of the Ural Mountains and invaded the Carpathian Basin under the leadership of Árpád in ad 896. For half a century they ranged far and wide, until their defeat by Otto the Great, king of Germany and Holy Roman emperor, near Augsburg in 955. They were converted to Christianity under King Stephen I (r.1001–1038), who was canonized in 1083. The Holy Crown of St. Stephen became the national symbol, and a constitution was gradually developed. The Magna Carta of Hungary, known as the Golden Bull of 1222, gave the nation a basic framework of national liberties to which every subsequent Hungarian monarch had to swear fidelity. Hungary was invaded at various times during the medieval period; the Mongols succeeded in devastating the country in 1241–42.
Medieval Hungary achieved its greatest heights under the Angevin rulers Charles Robert and Louis the Great (r.1342–82), when Hungarian mines yielded five times as much gold as those of any other European state. Sigismund of Luxembourg, king of Hungary, became Holy Roman emperor in 1410, largely on the strength of this national treasure. During the 15th century, however, Turkish armies began to threaten Hungary. The Balkan principalities to the south and southeast of Hungary developed as buffer states, but they did not long delay the advance of the Turks ; nor could the victories of János Hunyadi, brilliant as they were, ultimately stem the Turkish tide. With the Turks temporarily at bay, the Hungarian renaissance flourished during the reign of Hunyadi's son, Matthias Corvinus (1458–90), but his successors in the 16th century overexploited the gold mines, brutally suppressed a peasant revolt, and allowed the Magyar army to deteriorate. Hungary's golden age ended with the rout by the Turks at Mohács in 1526.
Thereafter, warring factions split Hungary, but power was gradually consolidated by the Habsburg kings of Austria. With the defeat of the Turks at Vienna in 1683, Turkish power waned and that of the Habsburgs became stronger. The Hungarians mounted many unsuccessful uprisings against the Habsburgs, the most important insurrectionist leaders being the Báthorys, Bocskai, Bethlen, and the Rákóczys. In 1713, however, the Hungarian Diet accepted the Pragmatic Sanction, which in guaranteeing the continuing integrity of Habsburg territories, bound Hungary to Austria.
During the first half of the 19th century, in the aftermath of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Hungary experienced an upsurge of Magyar nationalism, accompanied by a burst of literary creativity. The inability of a liberal reform movement to establish a constitutional monarchy led to the revolt of 1848, directed by Lajos Kossuth and Ferenc Deák, which established a short-lived Hungarian republic. Although Hungarian autonomy was abolished as a result of intervention by Austrian and Russian armies, Austria, weakened by its war with Prussia , was obliged to give in to Magyar national aspirations. The Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 established a dual monarchy of Austria and Hungary and permitted a degree of self-government for the Magyars.
After World War I, in which Austria-Hungary was defeated, the dual monarchy collapsed, and a democratic republic was established under Count Mihály Károlyi. This was supplanted in March 1919 by a Communist regime led by Béla Kun, but Romanian troops invaded Hungary and helped suppress it. In 1920, Hungary became a kingdom without a king; for the next 25 years, Adm. Miklós von Nagybánya Horthy served as regent. The Treaty of Trianon in 1920 formally freed the non-Magyar nationalities from Hungarian rule but also left significant numbers of Magyars in Romania and elsewhere beyond Hungary's borders. The fundamental policy of interwar Hungary was to recover the "lost" territories, and in the hope of achieving that end, Hungary formed alliances with the Axis powers and sided with them during World War II. Hungary temporarily regained territories from Czechoslovakia , Romania, and Yugoslavia. In March 1944, the German army occupied Hungary, but Soviet troops invaded the country later that year and liberated it by April 1945.
In 1946, a republican constitution was promulgated, and a coalition government (with Communist participation) was established. Under the terms of the peace treaty of 1947, Hungary was forced to give up all territories acquired after 1937. The Hungarian Workers (Communist) Party seized power in 1948 and adopted a constitution (on the Soviet model) in 1949. Hungarian foreign trade was oriented toward the Soviet bloc, industry was nationalized and greatly expanded, and collectivization of land was pressed. Resentment of continued Soviet influence over Hungarian affairs was one element in the popular uprising of October 1956, which after a few days' success—during which Hungary briefly withdrew from the Warsaw Treaty Organization—was summarily put down by Soviet military force. Many people fled the country, and many others were executed. From that time on, Hungary was a firm ally of the USSR . In 1968, the New Economic Mechanism was introduced in order to make the economy more competitive and open to market forces; reform measures beginning in 1979 further encouraged private enterprise. The movement toward relaxation of tensions in Europe in the 1970s was reflected in the improvement of Hungary's relations with Western countries, including the reestablishment of diplomatic relations with the FRG in 1973. A US-Hungarian war-claims agreement was signed that year, and on 6 January 1978 the United States returned the Hungarian coronation regalia.
The New Economic Mechanism that had been instituted in 1968 was largely abandoned, at Soviet and Comecon insistence, a decade later. This compounded the blows suffered by Hungary's economy during the energy crisis of the late 1970s, leading to a ballooning of the country's foreign indebtedness. By the late 1980s the country owed $18 billion, the highest per capita indebtedness in Europe.
This indebtedness was the primary engine of political change. The necessity of introducing fiscal austerity was "sweetened" by the appointment of reform-minded Karóly Grosz as prime minister in 1987. Faced with continued high inflation, the government took the step the following year of forcing János Kádár out entirely, giving control of the party to Grosz. In 1989 Grosz and his supporters went even further, changing the party's name to Hungarian Socialist Party, and dismantling their nation's section of the Iron Curtain. The action that had the most far-reaching consequences, however, came in October 1989 when the state constitution was amended so as to create a multiparty political system.
Although Hungarians had been able to choose among multiple candidates for some legislative seats since as early as 1983, the foundations of a true multiparty system had been laid in 1987–88, when large numbers of discussion groups and special interest associations began to flourish. Many of these, such as the Network of Free Initiatives, the Bajscy-Zsilinszky Society, the Hungarian Democratic Forum, and the Alliance of Free Democrats, soon became true political parties. In addition, parties that had existed before the 1949 imposition of Communist rule, such as the People's Party, the Hungarian Independence Party, and the Social Democrats, began to reactivate themselves.
All of these groups, or the parties they had spawned, competed in the 1990 general election, the first major free election to be held in more than four decades. No party gained an absolute majority of seats, so a coalition government was formed, composed of the Democratic Forum, Smallholders' Party, and Christian Democrats, with Forum leader Jozsef Antall as prime minister. Arpad Goncz, of the Free Democrats, was selected as president. An important indicator of Hungary's intentions came in June 1989, when the remains of Imre Nagy, hanged for his part in the events of 1956, were reentered with public honors; politicians and other public figures used the occasion to press further distance from Communism and the removal of Soviet troops. Another sign of public sentiment was the first commemoration in 40 years of the anniversary of the Revolution of 1848.
Under Antall Hungary pursued a vigorous program of economic transformation, with the goal of transferring 30–35% of state assets to private control by the end of 1993. Hungary's liberal investment laws and comparatively well-developed industrial infrastructure permitted the nation to become an early leader in attracting Western investors. However, there were large blocs in society, and within the Democratic Forum itself, that found the pace of transition too slow, particularly since the government did not keep to its own time schedule.
In addition to its economic demands, this radical-right contingent also has a strongly nationalist, or even xenophobic, agenda, which has tended to polarize Hungarian national politics. Approximately 10% of the Hungarian population is non-Hungarian, including large populations of Jews and Roma (Gypsies). There are also large Hungarian populations in neighboring states, particularly in Romania, all of whom had been declared dual citizens of Hungary in 1988. The appeal to "Hungarianness" has been touted fairly frequently, widening preexisting tensions within the dominant Democratic Forum party, and weakening their coalition in parliament. The Smallholders Party withdrew from the coalition in 1992, and in 1993 other elements were threatening to do the same.
The Democratic Forum's loss of popularity was vividly exposed in the parliamentary elections of May 1994, when the party, led by acting head Sandor Leszak, lost almost one-third of the seats it had controlled. In that election voters turned overwhelmingly to the Hungarian Socialist Party, giving the former Communist party an absolute majority of 54%. Voter turnout in the two-tier election was as high as 70%, leaving little doubt that Hungarian voters had repudiated the Democratic Forum and its programs of forced transition to a market economy.
Hungary's international indebtedness remained very high—the country ran a $936 million trade deficit for the first two months of 1994 alone—obligating new prime minister Gyula Horn to continue most of the same economic reform programs which the Socialists' predecessors had begun. There was concern, however, that the Socialists' absolute majority could lead to a reversal of some of the important democratic gains of the recent past. Those concerns sharpened in July 1994, when Prime Minister Horn unilaterally appointed new heads for the state-owned radio and television, who immediately dismissed or suspended a number of conservative journalists.
On 8 January 1994 Hungary formally accepted the offer of a compromise on NATO membership. The offer involved a new defense partnership between Eastern Europe and NATO. By July 1997, NATO agreed to grant Hungary full membership (along with Poland and the Czech Republic ) in the organization in 1999. In order to help them qualify to join NATO and the EU, Hungary and Romania signed a treaty on 16 September 1996 ending a centuries-old dispute between the two neighbors. The agreement ended five years of negotiations over the status of Romania's 1.6 million ethnic Hungarians. On 12 March 1999, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic were formally admitted to NATO, becoming the first former Warsaw Pact nations to join the alliance.
Despite improvements in the economy, the position of the Socialists was undermined by dissatisfaction among those negatively affected by privatization and austerity measures, as well as by financial scandals in 1997. The Socialist government was toppled in national elections held in May 1998, and a new center-right coalition government was formed in July by Viktor Orbán, leader of the victorious Federation of Young Democrats-Hungarian Civic Party (Fidesz).
In 1997 Hungary was invited to begin negotiations leading to membership in the European Union. It was formally invited to join the body in 2002 at the EU summit in Copenhagen . It was accepted as a full member on 1 January 2004. In 2000, parliament elected Ferenc Madl as president.
Under Victor Orbán, Hungary experienced increasing prosperity, but also increasing social division. Fidesz is a strong supporter of ethnic Hungarians in neighboring countries. Indeed, parliament in June 2001 passed a controversial law entitling Hungarians living in Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine, Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia to a special identity document allowing them to temporarily work, study, and claim health care in Hungary. In June 2003 the law was amended by the parliament, with a majority of the Hungarian population agreeing with it. However, the referendum held in December 2004, in conjunction with this law, was invalidated due to low turnout.
Orbán's party was challenged in the April 2002 general elections by the Socialist Party, which chose Péter Medgyessy as its candidate for prime minister. Although Medgyessy characterized his party as patriotic, he stressed it was less extreme than Fidesz, and supported diversity as well as traditional values of fairness and social justice.
The 2002 campaign was divisive, and saw nationalists come out in force in favor of Fidesz. Although it won the largest bloc of seats in the National Assembly in the second round of voting (aligned with the Hungarian Democratic Forum), it was the Socialists in concert with the Alliance of Free Democrats that formed a coalition government with Medgyessy as prime minister.
In June 2002, allegations surfaced that Medgyessy had worked as a counterintelligence officer in the secret service under the Communist regime in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Medgyessy claimed he never collaborated with Moscow 's KGB, but instead sought out Soviet spies attempting to disrupt Hungary's efforts to join the IMF. Upon his admission, his popularity soared.
In the summer of 2004, internal problems within his own party, as well as growing opposition from the coalition partners—the Alliance of Free Democrats, led Medgyessy to resign. He was replaced with Ferenc Gyurcsany, the former sports minister and one of the government's most popular figures. Gyurcsany received 453 votes, while his main contender—Peter Kiss—got 166.
The new prime minister promised to strengthen the coalition, boost economic growth, and improve living conditions for Hungarians. However, strict budget controls (many imposed by the EU), and unfulfilled election promises dramatically decreased the popular support for his government, and party. In the 2004 European Parliament elections, the Young Democrats (the main opposition party) led the pack, and predictions for the 2006 national parliamentary elections showed Socialists as garnering only 20% of the votes.
In June 2005, opposition-backed Laszlo Solyom was elected as the new president of Hungary. He garnered 185 votes, in the third round of elections, followed closely by the Socialist's nominee—Katalin Szili—with 182 votes.
GOVERNMENT
Hungary's present constitution remains based upon the 1949 Soviet-style constitution, with major revisions made in 1972 and 1988. The 1988 revisions mandated the end of the Communist Party's monopoly on power, removed the word People's from the name of the state, and created the post of president to replace the earlier Presidential Council.
The present system is a unitary multiparty republic, with a parliamentary government. There is one legislative house (the National Assembly), with 386 members who are elected to four-year terms. The head of state is the president, who is elected by the parliament, for a five-year term. In 2005, Laszlo Solyom—a university professor and former president of the Constitutional Court—was elected president by a simple majority of the legislative vote. The next presidential elections were scheduled for June 2010.
The head of the government is the prime minister, leader of the largest party seated in the parliament. The prime minister is elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the president. In the Antall government important ministerial and other posts were split among representatives of various parties. As of 2005, the prime minister was Ferenc Gyurcsany, a wealthy businessman and popular political figure. Gyurcsany replaced Péter Medgyessy in 2004, following dissentions within the ruling coalition.
POLITICAL PARTIES
Following the general elections of April 2002, four political parties were represented in the 386-member National Assembly, split into two coalitions. This situation raised fears that Hungary was drifting into a two-party state, divided by ideology and personalities, instead of reflecting other interests not represented in government.
The predominant party is the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP), whose government was toppled in 1998, but returned to power in 2002, receiving 42.05% of the popular vote and garnering 178 seats in the National Assembly. The MSZP is the Hungarian Communist Party renamed and, to a certain extent, reoriented. The party's platform indicates strong support for the market economy system, albeit with a wide net of social services. It supports diversity in Hungarian society, as opposed to the center-right's more populist, nationalistic party Fidesz.
The leading opposition party was the Federation of Young Democrats-Hungarian Civic Party (also known as Fidesz), which held 164 seats. The party's leader, Viktor Orbán, was named prime minister in 1998; he was out of office in 2002 when the Socialists came to power. Originally known as the Federation of Young Democrats, the party was formed on an anti-Communist platform by student activists and young professionals in 1988. During the 1990s, it evolved into a mainstream center-right party and was renamed in 1995.
The Alliance of Free Democrats (SzDSz), which holds 20 seats, is the coalition partner of the MSZP. This party was a liberal opposition party during the Antall government, with positions strongly in favor of closer integration with Europe, cooperation with Hungary's neighbors, and support for alien Hungarians. In economic terms their platform is very similar to that of the MSZP, which was the basis of their agreement to enter into a coalition. However, their alliance had frequent disputes that in result undermined their political strength.
The Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), which has been reduced to 24 seats, is a party of strong support for the ethnic minorities within Hungary. It is currently aligned with Fidesz. The Hungarian Justice and Life Party (MIEP) first gained parliamentary representation in 1998, winning 14 seats, and was founded by Istvan Csurka, who was expelled from the MDF for his nationalist and anti-Semitic sentiments. The party is populist in orientation, seeking to elevate "Hungarian values." It won 4.4% of the vote in 2002 but held no seats. The next legislative elections were scheduled for April 2006.
The Independent Smallholders' Party (FKgP), which held 48 seats in the 1998 government but no seats in the government formed in 2002, is a center-right party that seeks to ensure Hungarian interests in the context of European integration. It draws particular support from rural districts and among farmers.
Other parties include the centrist Center Party and the communist Worker's Party. Hungary also has a noticeable "skinhead" movement, which has provoked fights and other disturbances, especially with Gypsies.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Hungary is divided administratively into 19 counties, 20 urban counties, and the capital city of Budapest also has county status. At the local and regional level, legislative authority is vested in county, town, borough, and town precinct councils whose members are directly elected for four-year terms. Members of the county councils are elected by members of the lower-level councils. Hungary also has provisions for minority self-government, which is not based territorially, because minorities live dispersed throughout the country. Municipality councils must seek the approval of minority self-governments for matters affecting minority education and culture, among others.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Cases in the first instance usually come before provincial city courts or Budapest district courts. Appeals can be submitted to county courts or the Budapest Metropolitan Court. The Supreme Court is basically a court of appeal, although it may also hear important cases in the first instance. As of 2003, a new intermediate court of appeal was to be established between county courts and the Supreme Court, designed to alleviate the backlog of court cases.
The president of the Supreme Court is elected by the National Assembly. A National Judicial Council nominates judicial appointees other than those of the Constitutional Court. The state's punitive power is represented by the public prosecutor. Peter Polt was appointed as prosecutor general in 2000.
The Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of laws and statutes as well as compliance of these laws with international treaties the government has ratified. The 11 members of the Constitutional Court are elected by parliament for nine-year terms with a two-thirds majority; their mandates may be renewed in theory, but as of 2002, this had not happened in practice.
ARMED FORCES
In 2005, Hungary had a total of 32,300 active personnel in its armed forces, including an army of 23,950 and an air force of 7,500 personnel. The Hungarian Army operates 238 main battle tanks, 178 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 458 armored personnel carriers, and over 573 artillery pieces. The Air Force operates 14 combat capable aircraft, as well as 12 attack helicopters and 17 support aircraft. All major equipment is of Soviet design. There is a small Army maritime wing with 60 personnel operating three river craft to patrol the Danube River. Paramilitary forces, consisting of frontier and border guards, under the direction of the Ministry of the Interior, number about 12,000. There are about 44,000 military reservists. The defense budget was estimated at $1.43 billion in 2005. Hungary provides UN observers and peacekeepers to eight regions or countries.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Hungary has been a member of the United Nations since 14 December 1955 and participates in ECE and most of the nonregional specialized agencies except the IFAD. Hungary became a member of the OECD in 1996, a NATO member in 1999, and a member of the European Union in 2004. Hungary is also a member of the WTO, the Council of Europe, G-9, and the OSCE. The nation has observer status in the OAS and is a member affiliate of the Western European Union.
Hungary is part of the Australia Group, the Zangger Committee, the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), and the Nuclear Energy Agency. In environmental cooperation, Hungary is part of the Antarctic Treaty, the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, International Tropical Timber Agreements, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.
ECONOMY
Before World War II, industrial growth was slow because adequate capital was lacking. Since 1949, however, industry has expanded rapidly, and it now contributes a larger share than agriculture to the national income. The government has no capital investments abroad, but it participates in limited economic activities in developing countries. Substantial industrial growth continued through the 1960s and mid-1970s, but output in the socialized sector declined during 1979–80, and growth was sluggish in the 1980s.
After the fall of Communism in 1989, Hungary began a painful transition to a market economy. Between 1990 and 1992, GDP dropped by about 20%. Freed to reach their own level, consumer prices rose 162% between 1989 and 1993. The rate of unemployment was 12.2% at the end of 1992. By late 1998, private-sector output was over 85% of the GDP.
By 1994, Hungary was in an economic slump unknown since the reforms toward capitalism began. Export earnings were down, inflation was on the rise, and Hungary's gross debt rose to about $31.6 billion in mid-1995 (the highest per capita foreign debt in Europe). The IMF directed the government to curb social spending, but restricting social welfare during a period of high unemployment was unpopular with voters. The government began a stabilization plan in March 1995 designed to decrease the budget deficit by ft170 billion (3–4% of the GDP) and to decrease the current account deficit to $2.5 billion from the record high of $4 billion in 1994. The government cut expenditures, increased its revenues, devalued the forint by 9%, introduced a crawling peg exchange rate policy, added an 8% surcharge on imports, and called for wage controls at state-owned companies. As a result of the program, inflation and GDP growth rose. In addition, the black market economy was estimated to be as much as 30% of GDP.
In the years since its implementation, the stabilization program has borne fruit. By 1999, the IMF assistance had been repaid. The Hungarian economy exhibited strong growth rates with GDP increases of 4.6% and 5.1% in 1997 and 1998, respectively. Although a hard winter and the Kosovo conflict appeared to hamper Hungarian efforts to match the prior years' growth rate levels, the economy performed well in 2000, led by an increase in foreign direct investment. Since then, manufacturing output and productivity increased, and export industries did well, although increases in wages and a rapid appreciation of the forint in 2002 moderated export growth. The global economic downturn that began in 2001 had an impact on the Hungarian economy, as GDP rose by 3.3% in the first half of 2002, down from 6.6% in the first half of 2000. Although this growth rate was higher than most European nations in 2002, it was below the rate needed for Hungary to reach the wealth levels of EU countries.
Due to government efforts at privatization, over 80% of the economy was privately owned by 2001, and Hungary stands as a model for countries undergoing market reforms. In December 2002, Hungary was formally invited to join the EU; it was accepted as a full member in May 2004 as one of the most advanced of the 10 candidate countries slated for accession.
As an EU member, Hungary maintained its position as one of the most dynamic and strong economies in Central and Eastern Europe. Its position within the European Union, and the fact that it is still comparatively cheaper to do business there than in other Western European countries, makes Hungary a prime target for investments. However, Hungary is being challenged by some of its neighbors that have managed to maintain lower labor costs, and a more attractive tax system. Already some of the investments in the country have moved further east, to countries like Romania and Ukraine, and some of the bids for new investments have been lost for the same reasons.
Although the GDP growth was slower in 2002 and 2003 (3.3% and 2.9% respectively), it recuperated lost ground in 2004, with a 4% increase, and is expected to exceed 4% in 2005. Inflation decreased to 7% in 2004, and unemployment was only 5.9% in the same time period. However, in order to catch up with the developed economies in the EU, Hungary should register (according to the IMF specialists) annual growth rates of 5–5.25%. This means that further investments have to be attracted to generate funds for the state. Consequently, the governments planned to sell Budapest Airport and Antenna Hungaria in 2005. Attracting additional foreign investments is increasingly difficult though, as the country has to fight with rather high budget deficits (5.9% in 2004), and with increased competition from its neighbors.
INCOME
The US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) reports that in 2005 Hungary's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $159.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $15,900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 3.7%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 3.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 3.9% of GDP, industry 30.9%, and services 65.3%.
According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $295 million or about $29 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.4% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $248 million or about $25 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of the gross national income (GNI).
The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Hungary totaled $56.30 billion or about $5,574 per capita based on a GDP of $82.8 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.6%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 25% of household consumption was spent on food, 17% on fuel, 6% on health care, and 20% on education. It was estimated that in 1997 about 17.3% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
LABOR
Hungary's workforce in 2005 was estimated at 4.18 million. In 2003, agriculture accounted for 5.5% of the labor force, with 33.7% in manufacturing, and 60.7% in the services sector. In 2005, the estimated unemployment rate stood at 7.1%.
Before World War II, trade unions had not developed substantially; their combined membership was only about 100,000, principally craftsmen. After the war, the government reduced the number of the traditional craft unions, organized them along industrial lines, and placed them under Communist Party control. The Central Council of Hungarian Trade Unions (SZOT) held a monopoly over labor interests for over 40 years. Since wages, benefits, and other aspects of employment were state-controlled, the SZOT acted as a social service agency, but was dissolved in 1990 with the shift away from centralization to democracy. The National Federation of Trade Unions is its successor, with 735,000 members in 1999. There are now several other large labor organizations in Hungary, including the Democratic League of Independent Trade Unions, with some 100,000 members, and the Federation of Workers' Councils, with 56,000 members. Labor disputes are usually resolved by conciliation boards; appeal may be made to courts. Since 1991, most unions have been hesitant to strike, preferring instead to act as a buffer between workers and the negative side effects of economic reform. Collective bargaining is permitted but is not widespread.
The eight-hour day, adopted in several industries before World War II, is now widespread. The five-day week is typical, but many Hungarians have second or third jobs. The law prohibits employment for children under the age of 15 and closely regulates child labor. The minimum wage in 2002 was $140 per month which was not sufficient to provide a decent lifestyle for a family. Most workers earn more than this amount. Health and safety conditions in the workplace do not meet international standards, and regulations are not enforced due to limited resources.
AGRICULTURE
In 2003, 52% of the land (4,820,000 hectares/11,910,000 acres) was arable. More than half of Hungary's area lies in the Great Plain; although the soil is fertile, most of the region lacks adequate rainfall and is prone to droughts, requiring extensive irrigation. In 2003, some 230,000 hectares (568,000 acres) of land were irrigated. In 2003, agriculture contributed 4% to GDP.
Before World War II (1939–45), Hungary was a country of large landed estates and landless and land-poor peasants. In the land reform of 1945, about 35% of the land area was distributed, 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres) among 640,000 families and 1.3 million hectares (3.2 million acres) in state farms. In 1949, the government adopted a policy of collectivization based on the Soviet kolkhoz, and by the end of 1952, 5,110 collectives, many forcibly organized, controlled 22.6% of total arable land. Peasant resentment led to a policy change in 1953, and many collectives were dissolved, but the regime returned to its previous policy in 1955. As a result of the 1956 uprising, collectives were again dissolved; but a new collectivization drive begun in 1959 was essentially completed by 1961. Meanwhile, the proportion of the economically active population employed in agriculture decreased steadily. In 1949, agricultural employees accounted for 55.1% of the total labor force; in 2003, agriculture accounted for 10.7% of the engaged labor force and gross agricultural output was valued at over €1.95 billion. In 2004, Hungary had an agricultural trade surplus of $1.3 billion.
Hungary has achieved self-sufficiency in temperate zone crops, and exports about one-third of all produce, especially fruit and preserved vegetables. The traditional agricultural crops have been cereals, with wheat, corn (maize), and rye grown on more than half the total sown area. In recent years, considerable progress has been made in industrial crops, especially oilseeds and sugar beets. Fruit production (especially for preserves) and viticulture are also significant; the wine output in 2004 was estimated at 48 million liters. That year, over 650,000 tons of grapes were produced on 93,000 hectares (230,000 acres).
The principal field crops harvested in 2004 included (in tons): corn, 8,317,000; wheat, 6,020,000; sugar beets, 3,130,000; potatoes, 767,000; rye, 125,000.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Although animal husbandry is second only to cereal cultivation in agricultural production, the number and quality of animals are much lower than in neighboring countries. An inadequate supply of fodder is one of the chief deficiencies. In 2005 there were 4,059,000 hogs, 1,397,000 sheep, 723,000 head of cattle, and 68,000 horses; poultry numbered 32,800,000. The 2005 out-put of livestock products was 1,034,000 tons (live weight) of meat, 2,043,000 tons of milk, and 5,000 tons of wool; egg production was 180,200 tons.
FISHING
Fishing was unimportant before World War II (1939–45), but production has increased in recent years. The best fishing areas are the Danube and Tisza rivers, Lake Balaton, and various artificial ponds. The catch is composed mainly of carp, catfish, eel, and perch. The 2003 catch was 18,406 tons, 64% from aquaculture. Hungary imports around $15–20 million in seafood annually to meet demand.
FORESTRY
Forests totaled 1,840,000 hectares (4,547,000 acres), or 19.9% of Hungary's total land area, in 2000. The forest consists of the following main species: oak, 23%; black locust, 20%; pine and fir, 15%; Austrian and turkey oak, 11%; poplars, 9%; beech, 6%; horn-beam (blue beech), 6%; and others, 10%. Because of the relatively small forest area and the high rate of exploitation, Hungary traditionally has had to import timber. During the 1960s, a systematic reforestation program began. Reforestation affected about 440,000 hectares (1,087,000 acres) during 1960–68 but only about 65,000 hectares (161,000 acres) in 1970–74 and 64,322 hectares (158,942 acres) during 1975–81. From 1990–2000, some 136,000 hectares (336,000 acres) were annually reforested.
Roundwood production has remained stagnant in recent years, at 5,660,000 cu m (200 million cu ft) in 2004. Less than 12% of the production is softwood; Hungary's wood imports consist mostly of softwood, while exports are based on hardwood products. Production of wood products in 2004 (in thousands of cu m) included: sawn wood, 204; wood-based panels, 638; paper and paper-board, 579; and pulpwood, 653.
Privatization of agricultural land, including forests, finished in 1996. According to estimates from the Ministry of Agriculture's Forestry Office, 55% of forests were under state control, 44.5% were owned by private individuals, and 0.5% belonged to municipalities.
MINING
In 2002, Hungary produced modest amounts of fossil fuels and industrial minerals, cement and coal being the dominant components of industrial minerals and metals. Although the country had significant output of alumina and bauxite, the output of primary aluminum was modest, due to limited domestic energy sources. Construction aggregates and cement continued to play an important role in Hungary's economy, especially in view of the modernization process necessary for the country's infrastructure, for which planned highway construction through 2008 would be an important element. Mineral reserves were small and generally inadequate.
Bauxite mining and refining to alumina, as well as manganese mining, remained the only metal mining and processing operations in Hungary in 2002. Production of bauxite, found in various parts of western Hungary, was 720,000 tons in 2002, compared with 1 million tons in 2001. Total resources of bauxite were estimated to be 23 million metric tons, with commercial reserves at 16 million metric tons. Bakony Bauxitbany Kft. constituted Hungary's bauxite mining industry in 2002. Hungary also produced 40,000 metric tons of manganese ore concentrate (gross weight) in 2002, up from 338,000 metric tons in 2001, and 250,000 tons of gypsum and anhydrite in 2002. A total of 500,000 tons of calcined lime were also produced that same year. In addition, Hungary produced alumina (calcined basis), bentonite, common clays, diatomite, kaolin, nitrogen, perlite, sand (common, foundry, and glass) and gravel, dimension stone, dolomite, limestone, sulfuric acid, and talc. Although Hungary no longer mined copper, past surveys of the deeplying Recsk copper ore body, in the Matra mountains, discovered 172–175 million tons of copper ore at a grade of 1.12% copper and about 20 million tons of polymetallic ore at a grade of 4.22% lead and 0.92% zinc as well as smaller quantities of gold, molybdenum, and silver. After failing to attract foreign investment, the exploration shaft and adit at Recsk was closed, the equipment removed, and the facilities flooded in 1999. Exploration for gold in the Recsk region continued in 2000, as 35 million tons of gold-bearing enargite copper ore was delineated with a grade of 1.47 grams per ton of gold.
ENERGY AND POWER
Hungary has modest reserves of oil, natural gas, and coal. In addition, the country's electric power sector relies upon nuclear power to provide a sizable portion of its electric power needs.
In 2002, Hungary's electric power generating capacity stood at 8.393 million kW, of which conventional thermal plants accounted for: 6.478 million kW; nuclear 1.866 million kW; hydropower 0.048 million kW; and geothermal/other 0.001 million kW. Electric output in 2002 came to 34.061 billion kWh, of which: conventional thermal sources accounted for 20.548 billion kWh; nuclear 13.255 billion kWh; hydropower 0.192 billion kWh; and geothermal/other 0.066 billion kWh. Electric power consumption in 2002 totaled 35.977 billion kWh. Imports and exports of electric power that year came to 12.6 billion kWh and 8.3 billion kWh, respectively. By the end of 1963, all villages were connected with electric power. Hungary's sole nuclear power plant, at Pécs, consists of four second-generation, Soviet-designed, VVER-440/213 reactors, which began production in 1982. As of 2002, modernization was planned to extend the operating life of the reactors by 20 years. The normal lifespan of the four units would end between 2012 and 2017. However, if the continuous operation of the power plant is to be maintained, the needed modernization would have to start in 2007.
Hungary's reserves of crude oil and natural gas are estimated, as of 1 January 2004, at 102.5 million barrels and 1.2 trillion cu ft, respectively. Refining capacity for that same date is estimated at 161,000 barrels per day. Coal reserves in 2001, were estimated at 1,209 million short tons. In 2003, Hungary's total oil production was estimated at 45,700 barrels per day, with natural gas and coal output estimated in 2002 at 110 billion cu ft and 14.2 million short tons, respectively. Consumption of oil, natural gas and coal outstrips domestic production. Demand for oil in 2003 was estimated at 137,000 barrels per day, while natural gas and coal consumption in 2002 were estimated at 473 billion cu ft and 15 million short tons, respectively. However, the consumption of coal has declined. Between 1993 and 2003, Hungary's demand for coal fell 21%. Brown coal, or lignite, accounted for all domestic coal out-put in 2002. Uranium, discovered in 1953 near Pécs, is expected to supply its nuclear station until 2020.
INDUSTRY
Hungary is poor in the natural resources essential for heavy industry and relies strongly on imported raw materials. Industry, only partially developed before World War II, has expanded rapidly since 1948 and provides the bulk of exports. Industrial plants were nationalized by 1949, and the socialized sector accounted for about 98.5% of gross production in 1985.
Hungary has concentrated on developing steel, machine tools, buses, diesel engines and locomotives, television sets, radios, electric light bulbs and fluorescent lamps, telecommunications equipment, refrigerators, washing machines, medical apparatus and other precision engineering equipment, pharmaceuticals, and petrochemical products. Textile and leather production has decreased in relative importance since World War II, while chemicals grew to become the leading industry in the early 1990s. Food processing, formerly the leading industry, provides a significant portion of exports; meat, poultry, grain, and wine are common export items.
In 1993, industrial production was only two-thirds of the 1985 level. In 1997, industrial output increased in the manufacture of road vehicles, consumer electronics, insulated cables, office equipment and computers, steel products, aluminum metallurgy, household chemical products and cosmetics, rubber and plastic products, and paper and pulp production. In 1992, Suzuki and Opel began producing automobiles in Hungary, the first produced there since before World War II. Suzuki increased annual output at the Magyar Suzuki Corporation from 29,000 to 50,000 units starting in the 1995 fiscal year. Since 1990, Hungary has developed industrial strength in the automotive field as well as an expanding automotive sourcing industry in plastics and electronics. In 2001, Hungary produced 144,313 automobiles, a 5% increase over 2000. In 2000, it produced 1,621 heavy trucks, a 24% increase over 1999. In 2000, close to 14% of total Hungarian industrial output was accounted for by the vehicle manufacturing industry.
The growth in manufacturing output and productivity in the early 2000s has been supported by a considerable amount of foreign investment. Successive Hungarian governments have pursued privatization policies and policies to restructure industry, so that by 2002, 80% of the economy was privately owned. Hightech equipment (computers, telecommunication equipment, and household appliances) showed the strongest industrial growth in 2001. Industries targeted for growth in 2003 were the automotive industry, the general industrial and machine tool industry, and the information technology industry. Housing construction was another growth sector in 2002.
In 2004, the share of the industrial output in the GDP was 31.4%, while its representation in the labor force was 27.1%. Agriculture contributed 3.3% to the GDP, while occupying 6.2% of the labor force; services came in first with a 65.3% share in the economy, and a 66.7% representation in the labor force. The industrial production growth rate was 9.6% in 2004, and most of this growth occurred in industries like motor vehicles, chemicals (especially pharmaceuticals), textiles, processed foods, construction materials, metallurgy and mining.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
In 2002, there were 486 technicians and 1,473 researchers per million people that were actively engaged in research and development (R&D). Total expenditures on R&D during that year amounted to $1.374 million, or 1.01% of GDP. Of that total, the government sector accounted for the majority of spending at 58.6%, followed by business at 29.7%, foreign investors at 10.4%, and higher education at 0.3%. Undistributed funds accounted for the remainder. Hightech exports in 2002 were valued at $7.364 billion and accounted for 25% of manufactured exports.
Among major scientific organizations are the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (founded in 1825), the Association for Dissemination of Sciences (founded in 1841), and the Federation of Technical and Scientific Societies (founded in 1948), with 32 agricultural, medical, scientific, and technical member societies. In 1996, Hungary had 45 research institutes concerned with agriculture and veterinary science, medicine, natural sciences, and technology. There are 25 universities and colleges offering courses in basic and applied science. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 32% of university enrollment. In 2002, science degrees (natural sciences, mathematics and computers, and engineering) accounted for 11.9% of all bachelor's degrees awarded.
In addition to the National Museum of Science and Technology, Budapest has museums devoted to transport, electrical engineering, agriculture, natural history, and foundries.
DOMESTIC TRADE
Budapest is the business and trade center of the country, though most production facilities lie elsewhere. Over the past few years, the retail and wholesale sector has grown along Western standards. Throughout most of the country, small, family-owned and operated retail establishments predominate. However, in Budapest supermarkets, department stores, and indoor shopping malls have grown rapidly.
The Polus Center, the first American-style shopping mall in Central Europe, opened on the outskirts of Budapest in November 1996. West End City Center, the largest mall complex in Central Europe, was opened in Budapest in 1999. As of 2002, there were about 400 franchise operations nationwide. Several foreign chains are present. Retail purchases are still primarily cash based, though some banks are beginning to issue credit cards. A 12% value-added tax (VAT) applies to food, books, hotel accommodations and utilities. A 25% VAT applies to most other good and services. Additional excise taxes (ranging from 10–35%) apply to some products, such as gold, coffee, wine, and automobiles.
New regulations passed in January 1997 concerning trade in food products and the operation of retail outlets focus on the reduction of black market activity, consumer protection, and harmonization with EU law. Nevertheless, the underground economy remained at around 30% in 1999.
Business hours extend from 9 or 10 am to 4 or 5 pm for offices and general stores and to 3 or 4 pm for banks. Early closing (between noon and 1 pm) on Saturdays is widespread; Sunday closing is general. Food stores open between 6 and 8 am and close between 7 and 9 pm weekdays; a few remain open on Sundays.
Country
501.8
(…) data not available or not significant.
Newspapers and general, trade, and technical magazines are used for advertising; there is also broadcast and outdoor advertising. A major industrial fair, held since 1906, takes place every spring and autumn in Budapest.
FOREIGN TRADE
Hungary imports raw materials and semifinished products and exports finished products. Within that general framework, however, the structure, volume, and direction of Hungarian foreign trade have changed perceptibly in recent years. The total trade volume expanded from huf18.344 million (foreign exchange) in 1959 to huf2.657 billion in 1994. In 2000, exports were estimated at $28.1 billion (up from $12.9 billion in 1995), while imports were estimated to be $32.1 billion (up from $15.4 billion in 1995).
The majority of Hungary's export market is concentrated in the manufacturing industry, including electrical machinery, motor vehicle parts, polymers, petroleum refining, telecommunications equipment, and aluminum. Manufactured goods make up 82% of all exports. Other important exports include apparel (4.4%), polymers (2.2%), and meat (2.1%).
In 2004, Hungary's exports reached $54.6 billion (FOB—Free on Board), while its imports (FOB) grew to $58.7 billion; the trade deficit was $4.1 billion. The most important export partners were Germany (where 31.4% of Hungary's exports went), Austria (6.8%), France (5.7%), Italy (5.6%), and the United Kingdom (5.1%). The bulk of exports were made up of machinery and equipment (61.1%), and other manufactures (28.7%); other export commodities included food products (6.5%), raw materials (2%), fuels and electricity (1.6%). Imports came mainly from Germany (29.2%), Austria (8.3%), Russia (5.7%), Italy (5.5%), the Netherlands (4.9%), China (4.8%), and France (4.7%). The main import commodities included machinery and equipment (51.6%), other manufactures (35.7%), fuels and electricity (7.7%), food products (3.1%), and raw materials (2.0%).
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
Having scrapped central planning, the Hungarian government is engaged in stabilizing the economy and taming inflation. In 1992, exports had grown by 7.4%, but recession in export markets, western European protectionism, an appreciating forint, bankruptcies of firms producing one-third of exports, and drought caused Hungarian trade to slow down. In 1994, Hungary had a current account deficit of $4 billion, but it shrank to $2.5 billion in 1995, and to a further $1 billion in 2001. Export markets were weak in 2003, and were not expected to rebound until mid-2004. Strong private consumption growth was sustaining the growth of the economy in 2003, but the current account deficit was forecast at 5.4% of GDP in 2003/04.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2002 the purchasing power parity of Hungary's exports was $31.4 billion while imports totaled $33.9 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $2.5 billion.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Hungary had exports of goods totaling $28.1 billion and imports totaling $30.1 billion. The services credit totaled $7.71 billion and debit $5.55 billion.
By 2004, the exports of goods and services expanded to $65.3 billion, while imports reached $68.3 billion; this resulted in a
Current Account
-336.0
(…) data not available or not significant.
negative resource balance of $3 billion. Also, the current account deficit worsened, growing from -$7.2 billion in 2003, to -$8.8 billion in 2004. The reserves of foreign exchange and gold grew from $11.5 in 2003 to $14.8 in 2004, covering less than four months of imports. Hungary is a major recipient of aid from the EU—for 2004–06 it had $4.2 billion available in structural adjustment and cohesion funds. The external aid is dwarfed however by the external debt, which grew from $47.4 billion in 2003 to $61.3 billion in 2004.
BANKING AND SECURITIES
Banking was nationalized in 1948, when the National Bank of Hungary was installed as the bank of issue, with a monopoly on credit and foreign exchange operations.
Following the 1987 reform of the banking system, the National Bank retained its central position as a bank of issue and its foreign exchange monopoly, but its credit functions were transferred to commercial banks. Three new commercial banks were established: the Hungarian Credit Bank, the Commercial and Credit Bank, and the Budapest Bank. Two other commercial banks, both founded in the 1950s, are the Hungarian Foreign Trade Bank and the General Banking and Trust Co. These six banks serve the financial needs of enterprises and government operations. The main bank for the general public is the National Savings Bank; in 1987 there were also 262 savings cooperatives. The Central Corporation of Banking Companies handles state property, performs international property transactions for individuals, and deals with the liquidation of bankrupt companies. The State Development Institution manages and controls development projects. In 1987 there were also three banks with foreign participation: the Central European International Bank (66% of shares held by six foreign companies), Citibank Budapest (80% owned by Citibank New York), and Unibank (45% owned by three foreign companies). In 1991 there were 10 government owned commercial banks, 16 joint-stock owned commercial banks, 5 government owned specialized financial institutions, one offshore bank, and 260 savings cooperatives. By 1997, Hungary had over 30 commercial banks, about 10 specialized financial institutions, and 260 savings cooperatives. By 1998, around 75% of all banks had been privatized and 70% of these shares had foreign owners. Upon joining the OECD in 1996, Hungary ceased its ban on the establishment of foreign branches, effective January 1998.
The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $9.7 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $24.3 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 9.8%.
In Budapest, an authentic commodity and stock exchange functioned from 1867 until 1948, when it was closed down as the country transformed into a centralized socialist economy. The reorganization of the Hungarian securities market, after a pause of some 40 years, started at the beginning of the 1980s. The Exchange was founded eventually on 21 June 1990. The bull market on the Budapest Stock Exchange (BUX) continued during the final quarter of 1996. The BUX index closed 1996 at 4,125, up 170% compared with end-1995. The increase was the second strongest in the world, following the Venezuela market. By 7 February 1997, the BUX index had reached 5,657. By mid-2000, the index stood at over 8,800, but as of mid-2003, it had dropped to just over 8,000 amid the global recession. However, by the end of 2004, the BUX had recovered, rising 57.2% that year to close at 14,742.6. In 2004, a total of 47 companies were listed on the BUX, which had a market capitalization of $28.711 billion.
INSURANCE
Before World War II, 49 private insurance companies—25 domestic and 24 foreign—conducted business activities in Hungary. All insurance was nationalized in 1949 and placed under the State Insurance Institute, a government monopoly. A new institution, Hungária Insurance Co., was founded in 1986. As of 1997, the regulatory authority was the Insurance Supervisor (allami Biztositasfeluegyelet). Compulsory insurance in Hungary includes third-party auto liability, workers' compensation, and liability for aircraft, watercraft, and several professions. In 2003, the value of direct premiums written totaled $2.454 billion, of which nonlife premiums made up the largest portion at $1.473 billion. Allianz Hungaria was the country's leading nonlife insurer, with gross written nonlife premiums of $621.8 million for 2003. ING was Hungary's top life insurer in 2003, with gross written life premiums totaling $280.1 million.
PUBLIC FINANCE
In recent years, the government has presented its budget bill to the National Assembly sometime during the first several months of the year, but the budget itself becomes effective on 1 January, when the fiscal year begins. It is prepared by the Ministry of Finance. Although Hungary had one of the most liberal economic regimes of the former Eastern bloc countries, its economy still suffered the growing pains of any country trying to come out of communism
Revenue and Grants
30.2%
(…) data not available or not significant.
and privatize its industries. The last few years, however, Hungary has enjoyed a remarkable expansion, averaging annual GDP growth of 4.5% between 1996 and 2002. Inflation in that period dropped from 28% to 7%, and unemployment fell to 6%, less than most EU countries. Eighty percent of GDP is now produced by privately owned companies. Still, Hungary's foreign debts remain large, putting a damper on the economy's otherwise spectacular performance.
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Hungary's central government took in revenues of approximately $51.4 billion and had expenditures of $58.3 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$6.9 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 60.9% of GDP. Total external debt was $76.23 billion.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were Ft6,338.1 billion and expenditures were Ft7,781.6 billion. The value of revenues was us$25 million and expenditures us$30 million, based on an exchange rate for 2002 of us$1 = Ft257.887 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 28.1%; defense, 3.0%; public order and safety, 4.3%; economic affairs, 20.6%; environmental protection, 0.5%; housing and community amenities, 0.4%; health, 5.8%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.8%; education, 5.2%; and social protection, 30.2%.
TAXATION
As of 2006, Hungary's corporate tax rate is 16%. Capital gains are also taxed at the 16% rate. However, only 50% of capital gains generated from stock transactions are subject to the tax. Capital gains from the sale of business assets are treated as business income. The withholding tax on dividends paid to foreign companies is 20% unless recipients reinvest them in Hungarian companies. Dividends paid to individuals are subject to a 25% withholding tax, and dividends that are in excess of 30% of the return on equity are subject to a 35% rate. However, most tax treaties with Hungary reduce the withholding tax to between 5% and 15%.
The progressive personal income tax schedule in Hungary has a top rate of 38%. Individuals receiving capital gains on immovable property or the sale of securities are subject to a 25% tax. Individuals also can take allowances against the taxes they owe in the form of tax deductions or tax credits. The main deduction from taxable income is 20% of annual income up to a certain maximum. The disabled are given an extra deduction. There are also partial deductions allowed for school fees, interest paid for the purchase of a house, and for donations to charity. Inheritance and gift taxes range from 11–15%. There is a 2–6% tax on the transfer of housing, and a 10% tax on the transfer of large estates. Local authorities may levy individual income and corporate taxes.
The major indirect tax in Hungary is the value-added tax (VAT). The normal VAT rate is 25%, with a reduced rate of 15% for items of social value, food and other staple items. A 5% VAT applies to certain medical materials and supplies, and to textbooks. Housing leases, health and education services, and financial services are exempt from the VAT. Other taxes include a stamp tax and a consumption tax imposed on cars, jewelry, gasoline, alcohol, cigarettes, and cosmetics at rates between 10% and 200%.
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
Under Hungary's liberalized import policies, 93% of all imports do not require licenses. Under World Trade Organization (WTO) rules, import licenses on certain products from WTO states are no longer required. Under the same regulations, duties for countries with most-favored-nation status stood at around 8% in 2002, but could be over 100% for selected commodities.
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
Even before the repudiation of communism, Hungary sought to enter joint ventures with Western countries. By the end of 1996, Hungary had attracted $15 billion in foreign direct investment. Since 1989, Hungary has attracted nearly one-third of all foreign direct investment in Central Europe and Eastern Europe. In 1995–96, the government adopted a stringent economic reform program of liberalization and privatization, and by 2002, the private sector, which had been 20% of the economy in 1989, was about 80%. Hungary has five free trade zones in which corporations are treated as foreign and are exempt from custom duties and taxes.
In the period 1988 to 1990, Hungary's share of world FDI inward flows was five and a half times its share in world GDP, the sixth-largest ratio in the world. Annual foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into Hungary reached a peak in 1995 at about $4.5 billion, from which point they declined steadily until 2001, when there was an upswing to $2.4 billion from $1.6 billion in 2000. In 2002, FDI inflow fell to less than $1.5 billion. The average FDI in-flow from 1998 to 2001 was about $2 billion a year. For the period 1998 to 2000, Hungary's share of FDI inflows was about equal to its share of world GDP. Total FDI stock, from 1989 to 2002, is estimated at about $34 billion.
The largest single source of foreign investment has been the United States, followed by Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, the United Kingdom, and France.
Of foreign capital invested in Hungary through 2000, 50% has been in manufacturing, 15% in telecommunications, 13% in energy, 6% in banking and finance, and 10% in other areas. FDI out-flows from Hungary have averaged about $400,000 per year and as of 2001, foreign stock held by Hungarians totaled $2.2 billion.
The flow of foreign investment reached peak levels in 2003 and 2004, with €2.3 billion and €2.5 billion respectively. The Hungarian Ministry of Economics and Transportation estimated that by 2004 the total stock of FDI exceeded €42 billion, with the United States and Germany taking the lion's share of this total. The same agency expects the flow of FDI to grow to €3–3.5 billion in 2005. Most of the investments went to manufacturing (46%); real estate (12%); trade and repair (11%); finance (10%); transport, telecommunications, storage and post (10%); and the energy sector (5%). By 2003, the biggest investors in Hungary were: Deutsche Telekom A.G., Germany (with cumulative investments exceeding $1.7 billion); Audi A.G., Germany ($1.4 billion); General Electric, US ($1.1 billion); Telenor ASA, Norway ($1 billion); and, Vodafone, Netherlands ($850 million).
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
During the first 20 years after World War II, Hungary had the following economic plans: the three-year plan (1947–49) for economic reconstruction; the first five-year plan (1950–54) which aimed at rapid and forced industrialization and which was slightly modified in 1951 and by the "new course" policy of 1953; the one-year plan of 1955; the second five-year plan (1956–60), designed to further industrialization but discarded as a result of the October 1956 uprising; the three-year plan (1958–60), which also emphasized industrialization, although it allocated greater investment for housing and certain consumer goods; and the new second five-year plan (1961–65), which provided for a 50% increase in industrial production. These were followed by the third five-year plan (1966–70); the fourth five-year plan (1971–75), with greater emphasis on modernization of industrial plants producing for export and housing construction; the fifth five-year plan (1976–80), which called for amelioration of the gap in living standards between the peasantry and the working class; the sixth five-year plan (1981–85), emphasizing investment in export industries and energy conservation and seeking to curb domestic demand; and the seventh five-year plan (1986–90), which projected growth of 15–17% in NMP, 13–16% in industrial production, and 12–14% in agriculture.
Far-reaching economic reforms, called the New Economic Mechanism (NEM), were introduced on 1 January 1968. In order to create a competitive consumers' market, some prices were no longer fixed administratively, but were to be determined by market forces. Central planning was restricted to essential materials, and managers of state enterprises were expected to plan and carry out all the tasks necessary to ensure profitable production. In the early years of the NEM, the growth rate of industrial output surpassed target figures; national income rose substantially, surpassing any previous planning periods; and productivity increased significantly in all sectors of the national economy. However, following the huge oil price increases of 1973–74, the government returned to more interventionist policies in an attempt to protect Hungary's economy from external forces. Beginning in 1979, the government introduced a program of price reform, aimed at aligning domestic with world prices; changes in wage setting, intended to encourage productivity; and decentralization of industry, including the breakup of certain large enterprises and the creation of small-scale private ones, especially in services. New measures introduced in 1985 and 1986 included the lifting of government subsidies for retail prices (which led to sharp price increases) and the imposition of management reform, including the election of managers in 80% of all enterprises. The 1991–95 economic program aimed to fully integrate Hungary into the world economy on a competitive basis. The program's main features were to accelerate privatization, control inflation, and institute measures to prepare the way for the convertibility of the forint.
Reforms slowed in 1993 and 1994, and the privatization of state firms stopped. However, privatization accelerated in 1995 as the result of new laws passed in May of that year, which made the process simpler and allowed for the rapid privatization of small firms. Some large utilities were privatized in 1995; the first wave of the electricity and gas company privatization totaled $3.2 billion, primarily from German, Italian, and French interests. Budapest Bank, one of the country's largest banks, was sold to GE Capital Services. Hungary is now one of the few countries in Eastern Europe to have privatized major portions of its telecommunications and energy sectors. In 1995, the government received $4.5 billion in privatization proceeds. From the mid-1990s, a massive amount of foreign investment flowed into the country. (It stood at just under $23.5 billion by the end of 2001, which was equivalent to about 46% of GDP.)
In 1994, the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD distributed $68.3 million in aid to Hungary. Net concession flows from multilateral institutions that year amounted to $132 million. With the adoption of an International Monetary Fund (IMF)-backed stabilization program in 1995, Hungary exhibited consistent GDP annual growth of 4% in the late 1990s. Moreover, Hungary has repaid its entire debt to the IMF, and was formally invited to join the EU in 2002, and finally accepted in 2004, together with nine other countries.
The private sector now produces 80% of GDP. The economy was suffering from the effects of currency appreciation in 2003, and from rises in wages in 2001–02. Hungary's markets in 2003 were weak, given the dismal state of the global economy. (Exports in 2001 reached the equivalent of some 60% of GDP, up from 30.6% in 1991.) The current account deficit reached 5.9% of GDP for in 2004.
The Hungarian economy improved as it joined the EU, but the rate of improvement was deemed unsatisfactory. The GDP growth rate was 4% in 2004, but IMF specialists consider that the economy needs to grow by 5–5.25% annually if Hungary is to catch up with Western Europe in the timeline that it set for itself. The Hungarian policy makers are trying to attract additional investments in the country as a way of fostering additional growth. This task is made difficult however by increasing competition from neighboring countries, and the need to implement a leaner and more flexible tax system.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
A national social insurance system was relatively well advanced before World War II for the nonagricultural population. A 1972 decree of the Council of Ministers extended this system to cover virtually the entire population, including craftsmen; by 1974, 99% of the population enjoyed the benefits of social insurance. Coverage includes relief for sickness, accidents, unemployment, and old age and incapacity, and provides maternity allowances for working women, allowances for children, and payment of funeral expenses. Men can collect old age pensions at the age of 62 after 20 years of employment. As of 2005, women collect at age 60, and will meet the same standards as men by 2009. The social insurance system also provides for disability and survivorship benefits. Medical care is provided directly to the insured through the public health service.
Women have the same legal rights as men, including inheritance and property rights. They hold a large number of the positions in teaching, medicine, and the judiciary, but generally earn less than men. Women are underrepresented in senior positions in both the private and public sectors. Sexual harassment in the workplace is commonplace, and it is not prohibited by law. Spousal abuse is a huge problem; approximately 20% of women were victimized in 2004. Sexual abuse, rape, and domestic violence are underreported due to cultural prejudice.
Minority rights are protected by law, allowing for the creation of minority local government bodies for limited self-rule. The law also preserves ethnic language rights and encourages minorities to preserve their cultural traditions. Despite these efforts, the Roma minority continues to face discrimination and prejudice. There were also reports of excessive police force in certain cases, as well as pretrial detention.
HEALTH
The Ministry of Health administers the state health service, with the counties and districts forming hospital regions. By the end of 1974, 99% of the population was covered by social insurance and enjoyed free medical services; those few not insured pay for medical and hospital care. Limited private medical practice is permitted. In 1992, the Ministry of Welfare proposed a compulsory health care scheme based on the German system, to be administered by the National Health Security Directorate. After the termination of socialism in 1989, the Hungarian health system was largely unchanged. About 5% of clinics were privatized and health care was available to nearly all of Hungary's people. Health expenditures comprised an estimated 6.8% of the gross domestic product.
As of 2004, there were an estimated 316 physicians, 852 nurses, and 46 dentists per 100,000 people. Hungary's birthrate was estimated at 9 per 1,000 people. Contraceptives were used by an estimated 73% of married women. Average life expectancy was 72.40 years in 2005. Free professional assistance given to insured pregnant women and to the mothers of newborn children, maternity leave and grants, and improved hygienic conditions helped lower the infant mortality rate to 8.57 per 1,000 live births in 2005. As of 2000, the total fertility rate was 1.3 per woman during her child-bearing years.
The country faces severe problems in maintaining an acceptable level of health care for its population. The UN considers its death rate unacceptable (13 per 1,000 in 1999). The heart disease occurrence is below the average for wealthier countries. The likelihood of death after age 65 from heart disease was 283 (male) and 283 (female) per 1,000 people during 1990–1993. The number of cardiovascular deaths in 1994 was 74,182 people. Arteriosclerosis is a major cause of death (100 per 100,000 people). Contributing factors include the incidence of cardiovascular disease, which is directly related to stress through pressures of work, together with smoking and dietary factors. Hungary has one of the highest smoking rates in Europe. In 1990, there were 40 reported cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. Virtually all children up to one year old were vaccinated against tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, polio and measles.
Compulsory testing for HIV has been widespread since 1988 in Hungary's attempt to stop the spread of AIDS . Hungary has resisted pressure from international agencies to switch from compulsory to voluntary testing. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 2,800 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.
HOUSING
The construction rate for new dwellings has been greater in smaller cities and towns than in Budapest, where as of 1980, 17.3% of all housing units were built before 1900 and 56.3% before 1945. About 20,320 new dwellings were completed in 2000; about 31,511 dwellings were completed or under construction in 2001. According to national statistics, in 2005 there were about 4,127,743 dwelling units nationwide. About 84% were owner occupied. Only about 130,208 units were owned by municipal governments. Most homes have an average of four rooms. It has been estimated that about 1.2 million people are affected by overcrowding.
Low-income residents and other private builders generally rely on the labor of family and friends, buying the essential materials little by little; they may apply for loans if necessary to complete the dwelling.
EDUCATION
Before education was nationalized in 1948, most schools were operated by religious bodies, especially the Roman Catholic Church . The educational system is under the control of the Ministry of Education and is supervised by the local councils, which receive financial assistance from the central government. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 5.5% of GDP, or 14.1% of total government expenditures.
Education is free for 12 years of study and compulsory for 10 years. The state also pays the bulk of costs for higher education. Primary school covers eight years of study. Secondary schools are divided into academic schools (gimnázium ) and vocational schools (szakközépiskola ). Programs at academic schools run from four to six years. Vocational school programs generally cover four years of study. In addition to its regular primary education, Hungary has over 100 primary schools with special music programs based on the pedagogy of the 20th-century composer Zoltan Kodály; at these "music primary schools," music receives as much emphasis as all other subjects. The academic year runs from September to June.
In 2001, about 80% of children between the ages of three and six were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 91% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 94% of age-eligible students. Most students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 9.6:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 11:1.
Hungary has about 77 institutions of higher education, including 25 universities and 47 colleges. Adult education expanded after World War II, especially through workers' schools and correspondence courses. Although there are university fees, many students are exempt from payment or pay reduced fees. In 2003, about 51% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 99%.
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
Hungary's National Archives were established in 1756; among its treasures are some 100,000 items from the period prior to the Turkish occupation (1526). Hungary's National Széchényi Library is the largest and most significant in the country. Founded in Budapest in 1802, it has more than 2.5 million books and periodicals and more than 4.5 million manuscripts, maps, prints, and micro-films. Other important libraries are the Lóránd Eötvös University Library (1.5 million volumes) and the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2.1 million volumes), both in Budapest; and the Central Library of the Lajos Kossuth University in Debrecen (1.27 million volumes). There are numerous local and regional public libraries.
There were over 500 museums (about 70 in Budapest) and many zoological and botanical gardens. One of the largest institutions is the Hungarian National Museum, which displays relics of prehistoric times as well as artifacts reflecting the history of Hungary from the Magyar conquest through 1849, including the Hungarian coronation regalia. A branch of the National Museum is the Hungarian Natural History Museum. Other museums, all in Budapest, include the Ethnographical Museum, the Museum of History, the Hungarian National Gallery, and the Museum of Fine Arts. Many castles and monasteries throughout the country have been converted to museums. There is also a Bela Bartok Museum, a Chinese Museum, a House of Terror museum (2002), and a Franz Lizst Memorial Museum and Research Center, all in Budapest.
MEDIA
Budapest is the principal communications center. Although tele-communication services in Hungary were long underdeveloped, services improved significantly during the 1990s, and investment in value-added services, such as the Internet and VSAT, grew. In 2003, there were an estimated 349 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 28,000 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 769 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.
In 2004, there were two state-owned public service television stations and two national commercial television stations. The same year, there were one public service radio and two national commercial radio stations. There are some smaller regional stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 690 radios and 475 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 190.7 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 108.4 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 232 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 210 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.
Budapest has always been Hungary's publishing center. The largest dailies (with affiliations and 2002 circulation rates as available) are Népszabadság (Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, 316,000), Népszava (Hungarian Trade Unions, 120,000), Mai Nap (100,000), Kurir (80,000), Magyar Hírlap (Budapest Party Committee and Metropolitan Council, 75,000), Expressz (75,000), and Magyar Nemzet (Patriotic People's Front, 70,000).
The constitution of Hungary provides for free speech and a free press, and the government is said generally to respect these rights. Although previously all means of communication had been government property, 1995 saw the beginning of the privatization process, with aims to put most print and broadcast media in private hands.
ORGANIZATIONS
There is a Chamber of Commerce in Budapest. The International Labour Organization has a subregional office in Budapest. Hungary is a member of the International Chamber of Commerce. Trade and professional associations exist representing a variety of occupations, including the steel and automotive workers, journalists, teachers, librarians, engineers, architects, and various medical professionals. There is a Confederation of Professional Unions based in Budapest.
Organizations promoting research and study of various medical and scientific fields also exist. Some of these are member organizations of the Federation of Hungarian Medical Societies and/or the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. A cultural organization particular to Hungary is the International Kodaly Society; named for the music composer, scholar, and teacher, this organization promotes appreciate and study of music, particularly for youth. The multi-national scientific organization of the International Measurement Confederation is based in Budapest.
Notable national youth organizations include the Federation of Young Democrats of Hungary, the Goncol Environmental Youth Alliance, the National Union of Hungarian Students, and Young Musicians of Hungary. The Hungarian Scout Association is also active, as are various chapters of the YMCA/YWCA. There are several sports associations promoting amateur competition in such pastimes as tennis, badminton, skating, and baseball. There is a national chapter of the Paralympic Committee. National women's organizations include the Association of Hungarian Women and the National Council of Hungarian Women.
Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs and International, are also present. The Red Cross, Caritas, and Amnesty International have active chapters in the country.
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
Among Hungary's diverse tourist attractions are Turkish and Roman ruins, medieval towns and castles, more than 500 thermal springs (some with resort facilities), and Lake Balaton, the largest freshwater lake in Europe. Budapest is a major tourist attraction and cultural capital, with 2 opera houses, over 200 monuments and museums, and several annual arts festivals.
Popular sports include handball, football (soccer), tennis, and volleyball. The Budapest Grand Prix, the only Formula-1 motor race in Eastern Europe, was inaugurated in August 1986. A valid passport is required of all foreign visitors. Citizens of the United States and Canada are not required to have a visa for stays of up to 90 days.
Hungary had 31,412,483 visitors in 2003, about 48% of whom came from Central and Eastern Europe. There were 64,091 hotel rooms with 158,634 beds and an occupancy rate of 38%. The average length of stay was three nights. Tourist expenditure receipts totaled $3.4 billion.
In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily expenses for staying in Budapest at $218. Other areas were much lower at $93 per day.
FAMOUS HUNGARIANS
The foundations for modern Hungarian literature begin with the movement known as the Period of Linguistic Reform, whose leaders were the versatile writer Ferenc Kazinczy (1759–1831) and Ferencz Kölcsey (1790–1838), lyric poet and literary critic. Among the outstanding literary figures was Dániel Berzsenyi (1772–1836) of the Latin School. Károly Kisfaludy (1788–1830) founded the Hungarian national drama. Mihaly Vörösmarty (1800–55), a fine poet, related the Magyar victories under Árpád in his Flight of Zalán. He was followed by Hungary's greatest lyric poet, Sándor Petöfi (1823–49), a national hero who stirred the Magyars in their struggle against the Habsburgs in 1848 with his Arise Hungarians. Another revolutionary hero was Lajos Kossuth (1802–94), orator and political author. János Arany (1817–82), epic poet and translator, influenced future generations, as did Mór Jókai (1825–1904), Hungary's greatest novelist. The outstanding dramatist Imre Madách (1823–64) is known for his Tragedy of Man. Endre Ady (1877–1919) was a harbinger of modern poetry and Western ideas; Attila József (1905–1937) is another well-known poet. Lyric poets of the contemporary era include László Nagy (1925–78), János Pilinszky (1921–81), and Ferenc Juhász (b.1928). Gyula Illyés (1902–83), a poet, novelist, and dramatist, was one of the outstanding figures of 20th-century Hungarian literature. Ferenc Molnár (1878–1952) is known for his plays Liliom, The Swan, and The Guardsman. György Lukács (1885–1971) was an outstanding Marxist writer and literary critic. Hungarian-born Arthur Koestler (1905–83), a former radical, was a well-known anti-Communist novelist and writer. Imre Kertész (b.1929) is a Jewish-Hungarian author, Holocaust concentration camp survivor, and winner of the Nobel Prize in literature in 2002.
János Fadrusz (1858–1903) and József Somogyi (1916–93) are among Hungary's best-known sculptors. The outstanding Hungarian painter Mihály Munkácsy (1844–1900) is best known for his Christ before Pilate. Victor Vasarely (1908–97), a world-famous painter of "op art," was born in Budapest and settled in France in 1930. Miklós Ybl (1814–91) was a leading architect; and Gyula Halasz (1899–1984), better known as Brassai, was a well-known photographer. The Hungarian-born Joseph Pulitzer (1847–1911) was a noted journalist and publisher in the United States. Hungarian musicians include the composers Franz (Ferenc) Liszt (1811–86), Ernst (Ernö) von Dohnányi (1877–1960), Béla Bartók (1881–1945), Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967), and György Ligeti (b.1923); violinists Jeno Hubay (1858–1937) and Joseph Szigeti (1892–1973); cellist János Starker (b.1924); and pianists Lili Kraus (1903–86) and Erwin Nyiregyhazi (1903–87). Renowned Hungarian-born conductors who became famous abroad include Fritz Reiner (1888–1963), George Széll (1897–1970), Eugene Ormándy (1899–1985), Antal Doráti (1906–88), and Ferenc Fricsay (1914–63). Miklós Jancsó (b.1921) is a distinguished film director, and Vilmos Zsigmond (b.1930) a noted cinematographer; Béla Lugosi (Blasko, 1882–1956) and Peter Lorre (Laszlo Loewenstein, 1904–64) were famous actors.
Notable scientists include Lóránd Eötvös (1848–1919), inventor of torsion balance; Ányos Jedlik (1800–95), known for his research on dynamos; and the psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933). Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818–65) pioneered in the use of antiseptic methods in obstetrics. Béla Schick (1877–1967) invented the skin test to determine susceptibility to diphtheria.
Hungarian-born Nobel Prize winners are Róbert Bárány (1876–1936) in 1914, Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986) in 1937, and Georg von Békésy (1899–1972) in 1961 in physiology or medicine, Georg de Hevesy (1885–1966) in 1944 in chemistry, and Dénés Gábor (1900–79) in 1971 for physics. Budapest-born scientists who contributed to atomic research in the United States were Leó Szilárd (1898–1964), Eugene Paul Wigner (1902–95), John von Neumann (1903–57), and Edward Teller (1908–2003). Theodore van Karman (Todor Kármán, 1881–1963) is the father of aerodynamics. Paul Erdős (1913–1996) was an important mathematician, as was John von Neumann (Neumann János, 1903–1957). Eugene Paul Wigner (1902–1995), physicist and mathematician, received the 1963 Nobel Prize in physics. George Andrew Olah (b.1927 as György Oláh), a Hungarian-American chemist, won the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1994.
Imre Nagy (1895?–1958) served as prime minister from 1953 to 1955, but was removed from office because of his criticism of Soviet policy; the uprising of October 1956 briefly brought Nagy back to the premiership. Arrested after the Soviet military intervention, Nagy was tried and executed in 1958. János Kádár (1912–89), first secretary of the HSWP since 1956, initially aligned himself with Nagy but subsequently headed the government established after Soviet troops rolled in. Kádár, who held the premiership from late 1956 to 1958 and again from 1961 to 1965, was the preeminent political leader in Hungary until his removal in May 1988. Gyula Horn (b.1932), a former communist, was named prime minister in 1994. He served in that post until 1998, when he was succeeded by Viktor Orbán (b.1963), who was prime minister between 1998 and 2002. Péter Medgyessy (b.1942) served as prime minister from 2002 until 2004, not completing his term. Ferenc Gyurcsány (b.1961) succeeded him.
George Soros (b.1930), philanthropist, was born in Budapest.
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Cite this article
Higher: 26%
History & Background
The Republic of Hungary is one of the oldest nations in Europe, tracing its roots to the invasion of the vast Hungarian plain from the east by King Árpád the First around A.D. 1000. This cultural group, the Magyars, was the forerunner of today's ethnic Hungarian population that constitutes more than 90 percent of the current population. In addition to a long settlement history, Hungary also boasts a long history of formal education. The University of Pécs was established in 1367 to study law and medicine, and a number of other universities were established as early as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In 1777 the first university was established in the capital Budapest . The blossoming of the Austro-Hungarian Empire between 1848 and 1920 saw significant achievements in the educational, scientific, and cultural life of the nation. This period also saw significant exchanges with other European universities that contributed to the vitality of the Hungarian educational system. The end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the significant reduction in the territorial area of Hungary in 1920, as a result of the conditions of the Treaty of Trianon, created a large diaspora of ethnic Hungarians outside the present boundaries of Hungary. The welfare of these people, particularly in the preservation of their Hungarian identity, has been an issue since 1920. Education has played a significant role in preserving this identity; for example, the demand by the Hungarian government for the creation of Hungarian language universities in present day Romania has been a feature of inter-ethnic and international relations.
Language is the single most unifying feature of Hungarian identity. Hungarian is a language of the Finno-Ugrian group of Uralic languages. It is therefore a non Indo-European tongue with its nearest linguistic relatives being Finnish and Estonian. As a result speech, writing, and comprehension are more difficult for Indo-European speakers. Thus the Hungarian education system is marked not only by an emphasis on studying the mother tongue but also on preparing students to communicate in the Indo-European tongues, particularly English and German, of the nations that surround them. Religion is also important in Hungary, and the Catholic Church in particular plays a large role in the educational system. More than two-thirds of the population are Roman Catholic, 20 percent are Calvinists, and 5 percent are Lutheran. A major exception to the Hungarian linguistic and religious majority is the presence of 500,000-700,000 Roma, often called "Gypsies," representing approximately 5 percent of the population. The educational system and achievements of this cultural group represent a major exception to the overall excellent standard of education in Hungary.
The other significant development in the Hungarian educational system has been the effects of demographic trends. Demographically, Hungary is one of the few nations in the world experiencing a negative natural increase. In other words, the death rate is higher than the birth rate. This pattern has been present for more than 20 years and as such has important repercussions for school enrollment and ultimately the future labor force.
All of these cultural and historical trends must be seen in the light of political change in Hungary in the twentieth century from a European system between 1920 and 1948 to a socialist system between 1948 and 1990. From 1990 to the present, the restructuring of the system to reflect a more democratic system of government and privatization of property and the demands of a market economy occurred.
For many years the Hungarian system of education was seen as one of the finest in the world. Indeed at one point Hungary had produced more Nobel Prize winners per capita than any other nation. It particularly excelled in science, where such important figures as Dr. Leó Szilárd and Dr. Edward Teller, atomic scientists on the Manhattan project, and Van Kaman, the helicopter pioneer, were all Hungarian born and trained. Perhaps more recognizable are Ernö Rubik, the Hungarian mathematician who invented the Rubik's cube, and József Bíró, who invented the Biro disposable pen. Finally, Andy Grove, the CEO of Intel Corporation and the 1998 Time magazine Man of the Year was born in Budapest. Today the challenge presented by the need to restructure the Hungarian educational system puts this legacy of educational excellence at serious risk.
Constitutional & Legal Foundations
Constitutional Provisions & Laws Affecting Education: An understanding of the laws and regulations that currently guide Hungarian education requires an understanding of the changes wrought by the imposition of the socialist system in 1948. The socialist government in the years following 1948 placed a great emphasis on education and significantly increased the number of schools, colleges, scientific institutes, and universities. They also made all the institutes of higher education separate and distinct from other institutions within the higher education community. Thus, for example, medical schools were separate institutions from law schools, which in turn were separate from technical schools, schools of veterinary medicine, teacher training colleges, art colleges, and physical education colleges. Yet all of these could be located in the same city and often on the same campus. At the highest level of the system were the Academies of Sciences that functioned as supreme educational, yet predominantly research institutes.
Reform of this system commenced in 1993 with the Law on Higher Education (Act LXXX). All education was placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (previously education had been the responsibility of five ministries). Two advisory bodies were formed to guide, and in some cases control, institutions and their curricula. These bodies were the Hungarian Accreditation Committee (HAC) and the Higher Education and Scientific Council (HESC). The law also established budgeting procedures for student support, facility support, program development, and research.
In 1996 the Law on Higher Education was amended to integrate postsecondary vocational institutions into an overall system of higher education. In addition the law proscribed what constituted a higher education degree namely:
A 3- or 4-year degree (equivalent to an undergraduate degree)
A 3-year doctoral program (The Ph.D.)
A further 2-year program for a specialized postgraduate degree
This amendment also initiated the integration of the universities. The goal was to reduce the number of state institutions of higher education from 55 to 30 (17 universities and 13 state colleges). However many of the existing colleges refused to forgo their autonomy, and the process of integration was slow and resented.
Further amendments were made in 1999 (Act LII) to expedite this consolidation, and further proposals to amend the Act in 2000 were produced that would affect quality assurance, admissions to higher education, distance learning, the credit system, and regional cohesion.
Educational Philosophies: Since 1990, the Hungarian educational philosophy has been concerned with access, equality of opportunity, quality (or, given the standard of excellence prior to 1990, maintenance of quality), and applicability to the needs of the twenty-first century workforce and in particular to its integration into the European Union philosophy of educational development. The Ministry of Education in 2000 enunciated the following goals:
To provide the opportunity of having access to educational institutions of guaranteed quality to every child and youth
To make the standard and efficiency of the educational work visible to all partners and interested parties
To improve the quality of the professional work of maintainers of schools and kindergartens
To enhance the flexibility of the structure of training and its orientation towards the labor market in secondary vocational education
The educational policy of the Ministry of Education is based on three pillars, namely: strengthening the role of the state in the field of financing (increasing the ratio of state funding to local funding), supplementing the regulation of content by framework curricula, and developing the national system of assessment and quality control. As part of the latter, the COMENIUS 2000 Program for Quality Improvement in Public Education was launched in 2000.
Educational System—Overview
Compulsory Education & Age Limits: Education in Hungary is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. The child may have had the benefit of a kindergarten (óvoda ) experience prior to school entry but formally begins school (általános iskola ) at 6 and remains in that school until 14. At 14 the child will attend a secondary school, either a grammar school devoted primarily to academic studies (gimnázium ) or a vocational school (szakközépiskola ). While the pupil is permitted to leave school at 16, most continue to 18 years of age. Further study in institutes of higher education is by competitive entry and less than one fifth of all students go on to colleges and universities.
Academic Year: The school academic year runs from September to mid-June while institutes of higher education are finished by the end of May. Schools generally use two semesters, but religious holidays ( Christmas and Easter ) are times of extended school breaks.
Enrollment: In 1996 enrollment in primary schools was 97 percent of the relevant age group and enrollment in compulsory secondary school was 87 percent. Enrollment for males (98 percent) was similar to females (97 percent) in primary schools but female enrollment was higher in secondary schools (87 percent) than males (85 percent). Overall school enrollment has risen since 1990, probably as a result of a dedicated effort on the part of the government and population to adjust to economic change.
Females & Minority Enrollments: Unlike many nations, Hungary has full equality in education as a legacy of the Socialist system. As a result school enrollment is around 98 percent for the nation. The most significant obstacle to full enrollment is enrollment of Roma children into the school system.
Language of Instruction: In the primary and secondary schools of Hungary, Hungarian is the predominant language of instruction. However, in areas of significant ethnic minorities (Croats, Serbs, and Roma), bilingual education is present. This is particularly so in southern Hungary (areas of Croat and Serbian ethnicity) and in the northeast region (an area of Roma concentration). Language training in English and/or German (sometimes Italian) commences around the age of ten, but, in schools specializing in languages, it can be as early as the third grade or age eight. Language training continues through the four years of secondary school. In institutes of higher education, classes are often taught in German or English to improve student familiarity with these languages and also to attract foreign students to study in Hungarian institutions.
Examinations: Students at the primary and secondary levels are examined at the end of the year with the summer examination acting as the judge of whether the student advances to the next grade. Examinations at the end of secondary school are set by the state and partly used as university entrance examinations, in conjunction with examinations set by the individual university for the faculty in which the aspiring student wishes to enter. Examinations in universities and colleges are at year's end and can be both written and oral.
Grading System: When graded at primary and secondary school, the grading is on a one (failure) to five (excellent) system.
Private Schools: Private schooling is not a major part of the Hungarian educational system. This is because the state has consistently reaffirmed its commitment to full funding (albeit an increasingly diminishing amount). In 1996 only 2 percent of all preprimary students were in private schools, 3 percent of primary school children were in school, and 5 percent of secondary students were in school.
Religious Schools: During the period of Socialist government, the church as a vehicle in the education system was totally repressed. With the coming of democracy, the church sought to recover its role in the system, culminating in Law LXX of July 1999 that established the role of the Catholic Church in the financing of the public and religious activities of the schools. In 1999 the church ran 74 kindergartens, 177 primary schools, 7 schools for special education, 15 vocational schools, and 79 general secondary schools. At the tertiary level in 2000, there were 26 institutions of higher education sponsored by the church, mostly theological colleges but some universities. One example is Pázmány Péter Catholic University, which was established in 1993 following the change of government. Other religions were less impactful. The Károlyi Gáspár University of the Hungarian Reform church was formed in 1993 though.
It should also be noted that there are six "foundation" colleges in Hungary specializing in such subjects as education for the handicapped, business, and entrepreneurial activity. They receive their funding from tuition fees and educational foundation grants and attempt to provide educational services to defined market niches.
Instructional Technology (Computers): There is a growing availability of computers in the schools of Hungary, usually for administrators and within the library. Most students commence computer training at the age of 11 or 12, but voluntary instruction at an even earlier age is not unknown. Most of the institutions of higher education have computer labs but state institutions, particularly in the outlying cities, have a serious lack of computers for instructional technology. Access to the Internet is thus restricted.
Textbooks—Publication & Adoption: The state of school libraries is generally considered poor notwithstanding their heavy use in the curriculum. Budget difficulties in education have meant that new textbooks have not been produced or purchased, and hence the concern is not necessarily content but quantity and the physical condition of the existing inventory. Most socialist texts have disappeared though this was never a major feature of Hungarian libraries. In the area of tertiary education the situation seems a little better. As the institutions merge their holdings and expand, new libraries are being built to cater to the larger institutions. The World Bank has been a major supporter in the revitalization of libraries at the tertiary level.
Audiovisuals: There is a serious deficiency in the provision of audio-visual services in the classrooms at all levels. In large part this is a legacy of the socialist pedagogical method of instruction by means of lecture. Budget restrictions since the collapse of the Socialist system has made the provision of audio-visual as a modern teaching aid even more problematic. Audio-visual aids are limited to overhead projectors and slide projectors.
Curriculum—Development: The state is responsible for the development of the schools' curriculum and, in the case of Hungary, has been very active in the attempted transformation to a more western or global perspective. Teachers have some freedom to decide on their course content based usually on local and regional topics, opportunities, and issues.
Foreign Influences on Educational System: With the granting of associate membership in the European Union (EU) in 1994, the full application to join in 1997, and the joining of Hungary to NATO in 1999, European influences on Hungarian education have become more apparent. In particular Hungary was required to fulfill a number of requirements in order to conform to EU standards, which involved significant foreign involvement. Specific EU influences include Hungarian participation in the Socrates (K1-12 student exchanges), Erasmus (youths and student exchanges in higher education), and Leonardo da Vinci (development of vocational education) projects. Hungary is a partner in the EU European Voluntary service initiative established in 2000 and is also part of the "Fifth framework program" in which research and technological development are coordinated with the EU through the Ministry of Education. Finally, by becoming part of NATO, Hungary could take part in the NATO Science Fellowships Program that links Hungarian research in higher education to scientific institutes within all NATO countries.
Role of Education in Development: Education is very important to the Hungarian economy with more than 297,000 persons employed in this sector in 1997 or 8.14 percent of the labor force, making it a very significant employer in the country. Moreover, education has been touted as a major contributor to the bringing of Hungary into the world economy. To this end there has been a great emphasis placed on the role of the education system in fostering innovative thinking and entrepreneurship—two major areas that are seen as very important for the future of Hungary but were completely lacking in the socialist system of education. This emphasis must be reconciled with the concern that since the high literacy rates and technological achievements in the socialist era, the educational system has regressed. The reasons for this regression are readily apparent: lack of funding for teachers, equipment, and buildings; a movement out of the teaching profession of teachers; and a move away from a teaching career of the best and brightest graduates.
Preprimary & Primary Education
General Survey: Prior to 1990 Hungary had an extensive system of crèches and kindergartens that provided preschool care from the age of one up to the time children started primary school. This system was state-run and was an excellent preparation for school system entry. Mass privatization and the divesting of kindergarten facilities by the state and "new" private enterprises has led to a reduction in the number of preschool facilities. By the year 2000, crèches were still in use, but children could only enter kindergarten at age three and then move into the primary school at six. In 1999 to 2000 there were 4,643 kindergartens with 365,704 students and 31,409 teachers. The children are taught songs, games, and nursery rhymes in the first year and then language, basic mathematics skills, communication skills, and music in subsequent years.
In 1999 to 2000 there were 3,696 primary schools with 960,601 students being taught by 82,829 teachers, a ratio of 11:1 that ranks it amongst the best in the developed world. Enrollments in primary schools are in a state of decline as a result of the overall decline in birth rates. Primary enrollments are falling by about 4 percent per annum, and the decline in enrollments is exacerbated in rural areas as a result of migration into the cities as young people pursue employment opportunities.
One area that has received significant attention in the provision of education has been the attempt by the government to more fully integrate the Roma population into the educational system. Most often these efforts have been directed at the primary level of schooling for, as noted below, the dropout rate for Roma children is particularly high at this level. The official government policy that attempts to give the Roma population a more sedentary lifestyle has created a large number of predominantly Roma villages, and the educational result has been a series of special schools. There are 134 special schools in Hungary, but they are unevenly distributed in the country. In some parts of the country, particularly the northeast, this proportion is as high as 94 percent. The Hungarian Ombudsman for Ethnic and Minority Rights notes that such a disproportionate number of Roma pupils is a sign of institutional prejudice and discrimination and in particular the education of these pupils suffers because of this spatial concentration. Moreover the schools have great difficulty in finding teachers who will and can teach in such schools in part because of discrimination but also because of the need to speak Romany, the Roma language. The government responds that such a concentration helps disadvantaged Roma children but has appointed an Ombudsman for Educational Affairs to study the issue. The issue of Roma education remains a difficult issue. For example in 2000 the Hungarian courts found in favor of Roma students whose primary school had organized a separate graduation ceremony for Roma students, and the local government was required to pay compensation. The issue of Roma education will remain at the forefront of Hungarian educational policy as the EU views respect for minority rights as a major criterion for admittance.
Curriculum—Examinations: The curriculum for all students is set by the state, and teachers generally teach this curriculum though departures are possible. The most important subjects, not prioritized, are mathematics, history, Hungarian language and grammar, physical education, a foreign language of choice, physics, biology and chemistry (the latter 3 only ages 12-14), music, arts, geography, and environmental skills. Music and art lessons only take place in one or two classes per week. At the conclusion of each lesson period of some 45 minutes, the teacher is required to record in a centralized book what was taught to each student. The student will typically have 5 to 6 classes per day. Students are not usually examined in primary schools but are required to do essays and homework and interact during creative problem solving exercises. They are graded on their work on a scale of one (failure) to five (the best) and these cumulative assessments at the end of the school year determine whether they will be advanced to the next grade level.
Urban & Rural Schools: Data on the ratio of urban to rural schools is difficult to obtain. It is known that 25 percent of all primary schools are in the central region of Budapest and Pest County. If rural settlements are defined as those below 10,000 people, then 58.7 percent of schools are in rural areas and 41.3 percent in urban areas. Rural primary schools exhibit lower results in all performance measures than urban schools as enrollments are decreasing as a direct result of state support that is less than urban schools. This is because the amount of state subsidy is directly based on number of enrollments.
Teachers: Most teachers are women. They are usually trained at the regional teachers training institute and in rural areas usually teach in a former collective school building. In preprimary Hungarian schools, 100 percent of the teachers are women while in primary schools 92 percent are women. The average monthly salary in 2001 was approximately 50,000 Hungarian Forints or less than $200. In urban and suburban areas, teaching conditions are better than rural areas with greater access to equipment and supplies. Moreover local city governments are relatively more wealthy than rural governments and hence the buildings are in a better state of repair and thus more conducive to teaching. Overall, including secondary education, teacher numbers in the labor force per capita at 50 per 1,000 is amongst the highest in the world.
Repeaters & Dropouts: The number of repeaters in any one school year in Hungary was reported in 1990 at 3 percent (4 percent males and 2 percent females). Officials suggest that this has not changed significantly over the years. Total numbers of dropouts are not available but it is known that in 1999 the proportion of those reaching the age of 15 but not finishing primary school was 6.3 percent. This is up from 5 percent in 1997 and 5.1 percent in 1998. It is also known that a disproportionate number of these school dropouts are Roma children. In 2000 the EU indicated less than 46 percent of Roma youth completed their primary school education.
Secondary Education
General Survey: In 1999 to 2000 there were 14,155 secondary school teachers in the 1,533 general grammar schools and 26,512 teachers in the 990 secondary vocational schools. In total there were 503,617 students at the secondary level with females in the majority in general secondary schools (87,569 females and 57,641 males). In vocational schools males outnumber females (195,268 males and 162,035 females). The number of enrollments in secondary schools increased on average 3 percent per year between 1997 and 2000, but the decrease in primary and preprimary enrollments should reverse this trend in coming years.
Curriculum—Examinations & Diplomas: The most important diploma a student obtains is his or her Secondary School Certificate, which forms the basis for entering higher education or a profession. It is supplemented by an official book in which the school has recorded all courses taken and the grades received in the various examinations that are a part of the courses.
Teachers: Of the teachers in the secondary school system, most have received a university education, which is a necessary prerequisite to teaching in the school system. In secondary schools teachers tend to teach specialized subjects such as music, physical education, science, and art. With the falling number of teachers and the rising enrollment rate, class sizes are invariably increasing.
Vocational Education: As was noted earlier, a student, upon completing the lower level of primary education at age 14, can either continue in the secondary school or begin specialized technical or vocational study at a vocational school. In 1999 to 2001 there were 357,303 students and 26,512 teachers in 990 secondary vocational schools teaching 350 subjects. In 1999 the number of students in different types of secondary vocational schools were as follows: teacher training (1,684), arts (4,916), journalism and media (114), business administration (41,891), computers/MIS (7,229), engineering (27,929), manufacturing (7,909), architecture (4,939), agriculture (6,055), health (5,851), social services (2,535), human resources (8,445), transportation (4,137), environmental programs (1,996), security (3,100), and pre-vocational training (112,639). Since 1999 the government has dedicated a significant portion of its efforts to reforming the system of vocational education to create conformity with EU practices and objectives. The first measure was to provide a network of Public Evaluation and Examination Centers to standardize vocational education and training. The National Institute for Vocational Education, in conjunction with these centers, undertook an assessment of the needs of economy and recommended changes to the qualifications a student should obtain to reflect the changing labor marketplace. Finally, in January 2000 these qualifications were transferred from the Ministry of Economic Affairs to the Ministry of Education such that such qualifications were part of the educational attainment of the individual. By 2001, some 460 qualifications or 50 percent were under the Ministry of Education. Further progress in this area is being driven by Hungary's participation in the Leonardo da Vinci program that assists in aligning vocational education with future EU labor needs.
Education Outside the School System: In order to fight illiteracy and upgrade the workforce, Hungary has an extensive system of training outside the school system delivered primarily through regional job centers. In 1998 there were 103,675 participants in 5,363 vocations of which government or some other external financial source supported 36 percent. A total of 43 percent of these students were completing secondary school qualifications and 46 percent primary school qualifications. Of the fields of study of the vocational training establishments, 23 percent were in business administration; 20 percent in hospitality, trade, and tourism; 19 percent in the acquisition of computer skills; 16 percent in the industrial sector; 5 percent in health industries; and 17 percent in 7 miscellaneous fields. The institutions providing this type of private training are predominantly private companies (45 percent), autonomous bodies of existing educational institutions (47 percent), and non-profits (8 percent).
Higher Education
Types of—Public & Private: There are no private institutions of higher education with the exception of the 6 foundation universities noted above and the 26 church universities that are run with some support from the state.
Admission Procedures: Admission to Hungarian institutions of higher education commences with the publication of an admissions guide on or around December 15 each year. A central body, the National Office of Higher Education Admissions (NOHEA), publishes this guide. This body also provides information on the criteria required for admission, and sets national university entrance examinations. Their booklet also contains the application forms, which must be submitted by March 1 in the proposed year of entry. (There are two other less significant application periods but these are only for a limited number of subjects and institutions.) This body receives and processes the application forms after March 1 and sets entrance exams. It then acts as a liaison with the institutions of higher education.
Individual institutions have a significant role in the selection and admission of students. Applicants are generally scored on a combination of their scores in the final examination at secondary school, their overall GPA in secondary school, and their score on the NOHEA national examinations. However in practice the individual institutions have significant autonomy in the criteria they use in ranking an applicant. In some cases NOHEA scores alone may be used or the examinations waived (particularly for outstanding students). Language ability is often an important criterion, as is previous professional training. Health and artistic abilities may also be used. Finally a parent who graduated in the proposed profession, particularly law and medicine, may also be a factor. These subjective criteria for admission are awarded as "extra points" when creating an applicant's total score for admission. Essentially the institutions control their entry numbers and choose their entry-level class.
Applicants, on their application form, may apply for several majors and institutions but must rank their choices as they can only be admitted to one institution. The national scores for the NOHEA tests are published in July, and the applicant can then see if he or she has passed the standard for university or college admission. If this is so, at that time the prospective student's secondary or lower choices for colleges are dropped. It is also at this time that the "extra points" are awarded to place students.
It should be noted that in 2000 the Ministry of Education began a process to reform this admissions process, particularly to standardize admissions and make the system more equitable, transparent, and fair. To do this it is expected that greater emphasis will be placed on overall performance in the secondary school system and the final secondary school score and the NEOHA test will be made more responsive to specific applications to specific disciplines. The Ministry hopes to have reformed the secondary school examinations by 2002 and the university entrance exams by 2005. Finally, as part of this overall change, the admittance of more students into higher education is planned. At present only 17 percent of all eligible students are in higher education (up from 12 percent in 1995). The system is therefore seen as elitist and discriminatory.
Administration & Governance: Administration of higher education establishments is conducted by the individual institution with the state acting in an oversight capacity and enforced by granting an accreditation license to award degrees. The senior administrator is the rector (or the director general in a small number of colleges) who is elected by the university faculty for a period of five years, which is a renewable term. The rector reports to an institutional council and a senate that ratifies his decisions but who can also veto his decisions. The state can only intervene in university affairs in theevent of legal irregularities. Thus a university is essentially autonomous in regard to its inner workings. The composition of the governance boards is specified in the Higher Education Act of 1993-1996.
Enrollment: In 1999 there were 62 institutes of higher education in Hungary serving 280,000 students. Most are located in and around Budapest. With the amalgamation of the former Socialist institutions, there has been a move to provide regional centers of educational excellence that in turn will create economic development. Thus the cities of Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, and Pécs have taken on importance in not only regional education but also regional economic development. Eötvös Loránd University, with 18,500 students and more than 1,000 faculty; the Technical University of Budapest, with 12,300 students and more than 1,000 faculty members; and the Budapest University of Economic Science and Public Administration, with 3,700 students and 375 full time faculty, are the largest institutions of higher education in Budapest. Budapest is also the center for universities and colleges concentrating on music, fine arts, and applied arts. The University of Pécs, with 407 full-time faculty members and 19,500 students; the University of Debrecen, which will have 1,600 full-time faculty members and 14,000 students when 4 institutions are fully amalgamated into 1; and the University of Szeged, catering to 6,000 students with approximately 500 full-time faculty members, have the most students outside Budapest. Highly specialized studies (veterinary medicine, dentistry, pharmaceutics, forestry, and horticulture) tend to be located in only one institution, usually in the city and institution that provided that specialization in socialist times. Of all the institutions of higher education, the ecclesiastical institutions catered to 10,303 full-time students and 5,511 evening and correspondence students in 1999 while the foundations catered to 7,582 full-time students and 15,743 evening and correspondence students.
Teaching Styles & Techniques: The principal language of instruction in the institutions is Hungarian. Teaching pedagogy is in the process of slow change from primarily a standard lecture format to a more varied style with wider use of source material. Thus the use of overheads is becoming increasingly common but PowerPoint presentations and the use of Internet sources is still rare.
Finance (Tuition Costs): Typical tuition fees for Hungarian nationals for university courses range from US$75.00 (20,000 HUF) per course rising to $2,200 per semester, but fees for all Hungarian colleges and universities are generally paid for in full by the state in the form of fee waivers. In addition the state may give scholarships for living expenses or support in the form of meals and accommodations. In addition the Hungarian government has substantially increased the number and amount of scholarships for Roma students in higher education in order to increase the number of Roma in higher education. Data indicates only 0.24 percent of the Roma population obtained a degree in higher education in 1999.
Courses, Semesters, & Diplomas: Higher education in Hungary depends on the institution and the level of study. At the college level the length of study is either three or four years. The student receives the equivalent of a baccalaureate degree. For a university degree, the length of study is between four and five years and is equivalent to obtaining a master's degree. The exception to these degrees are degrees in law and medicine in which the law degree can be obtained in four and a half years and medicine is typically of six years duration with significant practical work in the latter part of the prospective lawyer or doctors study.
During the socialist regime, upon completion of the university education, a student could undertake further post-graduate work, usually of a scientific nature. Thus a person could get a doctor universitatis (university doctor or dr. univ) from a university or a candidatus scientiarium (candidate of sciences or C.Sc.) or doctor scientarium (doctor of sciences or D.Sc.) as part of the Academy of Sciences system. However within the Act of 1993 there was the provision for universities to grant a Ph.D. There has been a dramatic change in the number of doctoral degrees awarded from the former system to the new Ph.D. qualification (or a Doctor of Liberal Arts—DLA —in the case of liberal arts) allowed under the law. In all doctoral programs the student is required to pursue a proscribed course of study, undertake original research, and write and defend a dissertation.
Upon completion of their degree program students receive a college graduate degree (fo~iskolai oklevél ) or a university graduate degree (egyetemi oklevél ) that may be referred to as a Bachelor of or Master of, depending on their study program and its length in order to facilitate comparison with international degrees. In the case of medical doctors, dentists, veterinary doctors or lawyers, their degrees are dr. med, dr. med. dent., dr. vet., and dr. jur., respectively.
All higher education institutes work in a two semester system that commences in September and ends in May with a one-month winter recess.
Professional Education: Universities and colleges can also provide certification programs of shorter duration than typical university courses. This is called Accredited Higher Vocational Training (AHVT) and is typically in a specialized area of applied study. These programs are usually two years in length, taught at colleges (though not exclusively), and in cooperation with secondary vocational schools. The graduate receives a certificate upon graduation, not a diploma. In addition university and college courses may be taught at other campuses to extend the reach of an institute's course offerings. This represents an important source of supplementary income for both institutions and their faculty.
Postgraduate Training: There is a long history in Hungary of post-graduate teaching in the various Academies of Science that was usually linked with the award of the doctorate degree. Out of necessity, this training was highly specialized and found in those specialized institutes established under the socialist system to produce an intellectual elite. This system is gradually being replaced by a system where university professors undertake both research and teaching while former academicians in academies must make their living by teaching as well as undertaking research.
Foreign Students: There are a number of foreign students in Hungarian universities primarily studying at the baccalaureate level. Typical of the extent of foreign students was the University of Pécs with 95 foreign students or 0.5 percent of their total student body in 2001. Seventy-five came from Europe, primarily under the EU Socrates program, and the remainder were American. Many of the students classified as foreign are ethnic Hungarians granted scholarships to study at Hungarian institutions. Thus, for example, ethnic Hungarians living as Croatian citizens in Croatia or Romanian citizens living in Transylvania often study in Hungary. The number of students from Western Europe and the United States is considerably less owing to the difficulty in understanding Hungarian, which is the language of instruction. Many universities provide lectures in English in part to offset this problem, and these courses are often linked to the Socrates/Erasmus program of the EU. Elementary language instruction in Hungarian is also a significant part of Hungarian higher education course offerings. In 1999 there were 448 Americans studying in Hungary.
Students Abroad: Given the difficulty of transition and the uncertain future of the nation, any ability to speak a foreign language, particularly English, and the resultant opportunity to study abroad has become a major incentive to students in higher education completing their studies overseas. This incentive is unfortunately accompanied by a reluctance to return to Hungary to become part of the labor force. Essentially a brain drain is occurring—albeit on a small scale, but enough to warrant concern. In 1999 there were 1,166 Hungarian students in the United States with a little more in Europe, the majority being in Germany . The major deterrent for Hungarian students to study abroad is the high cost of tuition and living expenses outside Hungary. Hence most students studying outside Hungary are on some kind of scholarship. It should also be noted that in 2000, a total of 479 Hungarian scholars were also studying in the United States, the largest of any eastern European country except Poland .
Role of Libraries: As was noted above, libraries have received serious attention since the change from a socialist government. In addition the historic importance placed on education throughout the last 500 years has left an impressive legacy of historic documents and literature that is available for consultation.
Administration, Finance, & Educational Research
Government Educational Agencies: There are essentially two levels of educational responsibility in Hungary. At the local level, elected administrative bodies (village and city councils) are responsible for school provision, maintenance, and teaching materials, including teachers. At the state level the Ministry of Education sets the curriculum for all primary and secondary public schools while institutions of higher education set their own curriculum with approval from the Higher Education and Scientific Council. Control over education policy is exercised by the state through the HESC by means of allocating finances, certification, and licensing of educational bodies.
At the local level schools are funded through a portion of tax revenue that is provided to schools by the local municipality and supplemented by state funds.
In Hungary, local teachers elect school principals. However, the election is a formality since the local government appoints school leaders in the end. School boards exist but without power or decision-making authority—policy and appointments are thus made by the local mayors and councils. Thus a school principal may not be a professional educator but rather a political appointee.
Ministry of the Department of Education: Daily responsibility for state education resides in the Ministry of Education based in Budapest. There were 700 public servants working in the Ministry of Education in 2001—613 ministry employees, 5 for the secretariat of UNESCO, and 82 working for the National Public Education and Examination Board.
Educational Budgets: State budgeting is still the primary source of funds for education in Hungary. Hungary's Gross National Product was $46.6 billion in 1998, and while only 1992 data on contribution to education is available (in 1992 education contributed 7.5 percent to the GDP ), it is estimated that the percentage has remained approximately the same.
In 1996, some 308 billion forints (US$1,029 million) of government expenditures were spent on education. By 2001 spending on education represented 4.6 percent of the gross national product and had fallen since 1996 when it was just over 6 percent. Of the monies spent on education, 0.74 percent of the GNP went to kindergarten education, 2.38 percent to primary, 1.47 percent to secondary, 0.81 percent to higher education, and 0.28 percent to other forms of education. Education spending represented 9.56 percent of all government expenditures in 1990, and it fell at an average annual rate of 5.2 percent between 1990 and 1996. In 1996 education represented 8.66 percent of all state expenditures. Inflation over the years has also eroded significantly the purchasing power of these expenditures and notwithstanding the commitment to funding education, it is apparent that education spending is falling.
Types of Expenditures: Preprimary and primary education consumed 36.8 percent, secondary education consumed 46.3 percent and tertiary education consumed 15.5 percent of the national education budget in 1996. However expenditures per pupil as a percentage of GNP indicate only 18 percent was spent on primary and preprimary education (down from 23 percent in 1990), 49 percent was spent on the secondary sector, and 33 percent on tertiary education. Teacher and professional salaries take up approximately 70 percent of the total education budget.
National Education Organizations: There are a large number of committees and advisory bodies that advise the Minister of Education. The presence of advisory bodies such as HÖOK, the Association of Hungarian Students, the House of Professors, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the Hungarian Rectors Conference are important independent bodies guiding Hungarian educational policy. Moreover the two major committees that guide policy and programming, the Hungarian Accreditation Committee and the Higher Education and Scientific Council, have representatives from all interest groups. For example, the HAC has a board of 30 members chosen from higher education, research institutes, and professional organizations. There are also non-voting members on the HAC from unrepresented groups and also a nonvoting student representative. The HESC has 21 members on its board of which 10 are academics, 10 are from user organizations (employers, municipalities, academic bodies, and unions), and 1 is from the Ministry of Education.
Educational Research: There are two bodies conducting educational research in Hungary; the Hungarian Institute for Educational Research (Oktataskutato Intezet ), which deals with sociological and other social science issues associated with education. They also publish a periodical called "Education." This institute provides for a doctorate in education through the University of Debrecen. The second body, the National Institute of Public Education (Orszagos Kozoktatasi Intezet ), carries out research at all levels of education and across the spectrum of educational issues usually by means of surveys on education topics. Both institutes are part of the Ministry of Education but they also receive external funding from private sources both Hungarian and international.
Project specific research is also undertaken by the HAC and the HESC. As part of their mandates to provide educational policy and program development, they may see the need to research a particular issue. To that end they frequently utilize experts and professional committees to undertake research as preparatory work for the decisions of the bodies.
Nonformal Education
Adult Education: Adult education has been recognized as a priority in Hungary in order for adults to adjust to the new socio-economic system. However the requirement that students (or businesses) pay for this learning seems to be a major obstacle to its success in difficult economic times. Invariably, if the individual wishing to upgrade his or her skills is unemployed, the government, through the job-center network, will pay for or subsidize the training. Costs vary on the type of training but the average in 2001 was between 70,000 and 120,000 HUF (US$230 to US$400). Foreign languages, bookkeeping and accounting, marketing and market economics, management and particularly human resource management, and computer literacy have been identified as priorities, but few establishments outside the larger cities of Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, and Pécs offer these programs at present. In 1999 there were 132,789 persons registered as undertaking 6,743 types of adult education courses.
Open Universities & Distance Education: There are no open university-type opportunities. Distance learning in the form of correspondence courses through existing universities is possible but these are supplementary to the universities' normal in-residence structure. Correspondence courses with major universities are a significant contributor to the part time student body. There are distance education courses delivered through TV, radio, or Internet. These are becoming more and more popular but a dramatic growth in online courses is limited owing to the limited availability or scarcity of Internet links.
Teaching Profession
Training & Qualifications: Seven universities and colleges offer teacher training either as distinct faculties of teacher training or integrated into schools of natural, humanities, or social science. Those teachers who are trained in colleges graduate after four years and are qualified to teach in kindergartens and primary schools. Those trained in universities train for five years and are then qualified to teach in secondary schools. In 1999 some 21 percent of the total tertiary student population in teacher training colleges were education majors. This was down from 35 percent in 1994 probably reflecting the poor salaries to be expected upon graduation. In 1999 to 2000, there were 44,500 students studying in teacher training institutes, and if one assumes one-sixth of these graduated, there would be 6,500 new teachers in 2000. Eighty percent of all new graduates were women. In view of the low birth rates it might be expected that the demand for teachers in the twenty-first century will be reduced but this must be balanced with a teaching force that has a high median age. Moreover the loss of teachers, particularly in rural areas as a result of urbanization, will be cause for concern. This process will be exacerbated by the fact that urban schools have a higher prestige attached to teaching in them so they are preferred by teachers. It is also known that while 37 percent of the Hungarian population is considered rural, only 8 percent of students leaving secondary schools are from rural areas. As a result the challenge is to persuade urban teachers to move to rural areas—a policy that is in conflict with the urban migration trend of the rural population. Finally, upon the transformation away from a socialist economy to a more western system in 1990, there was a shortage of English language teachers in particular. By 2000 there was no teacher shortage and in some subject areas a surplus.
Salaries: Education is generally considered by Hungarians to be one of the worst paying employment sectors in the nation. The average teacher salary has increased every year since 1990 but has been grossly inadequate both in purchasing power and in its ability to keep up with inflation. It remains one of the most problematic areas of Hungary's educational system. In 2001 a typical salary of a person working in the education sector would be 72,710 HUF gross and 48,533 HUF net. There is no official discrimination in salary between men and women. More detailed data from the Ministry of Education reveal that salaries for women can range from 67,644 HUF to 46,162 HUF and for men 90,122 HUF to 56,714 HUF. This probably reflects the lower salaries for women who tend to occupy the more menial tasks (cleaners and canteen workers) in the education system. The typical salary scale quoted above is for all persons in education. Specifically for teachers, in 1998 a kindergarten teacher received 1.14 times the average salary, primary teachers earned 1.38 times, a secondary school teacher 1.67 times, and a university teacher 1.9 times. At the rate of exchange in 2001, a primary school teacher would take home approximately US$160.00 per month, while a university assistant professor could be expected to receive US$300.00 (In 2001, $1.00 was approximately 300 forints). The amount of salary usually depends on the years spent in the job, educational background, degree, and number of languages spoken, but not on gender. These salaries should be seen in light of daily living expenses in Hungary in 2001 that invariably exceeded salary by a significant amount. Indeed the average salary of a teacher or university professor in Hungary is such that supplemental sources of income must actively be sought. In rural areas it is estimated that 80 percent of teachers make extra money in addition to their teaching salary while in Budapest the figure is 79 percent of primary school teachers. In secondary schools the figure is 88 percent. This supplemental work usually involves private tutoring, supplemental teaching or consulting or even separate and different employment outside school hours, especially during the long summer recess.
Unions & Associations: Teachers are represented in Hungary by a union called The Democratic Union of Higher Education Employees (Pedagógusok Szakszervezete ). However, the role and influence of this trade union, as those of all other trade unions, is weakening. In the socialist era they were not, nor could be, real organs of interest or representation, and after the systemic change in 1990, they were unable to adjust to the new political and economic system. The Union of Higher Education that represents employees in other areas of education (Felso~oktatási Dolgozók Szakszervezete ) is not an exception, either. It is too weak to have a strong negotiating position.
There are also a number of student and administration bodies that are actively making representation in the process of changing the Hungarian educational system. For example there is a students' union that represents students' interests; it is represented at the national level by an association of students' unions with the acronym HÖOK.
Summary
General Assessment: The Hungarian educational system is currently in a state of rapid and dramatic change. Up until the collapse of the eastern Bloc, it was a model of literacy, availability, and accomplishment. Since 1990 it has been required to transform to a more global orientation, conform to a more European system, and make provision in its graduates for a student that must function in a market economy and democratic system. The adjustment has been often slow, painful, and problematic. The principal challenges appear to be:
The desire to retain the standard of excellence that has characterized Hungarian education for many years
The ongoing ability of the Central government to find the financial means to provide complete funding for education
The need to pay teachers in the public schools and universities a living wage
The need for curriculum change to reflect the move away from a centralized economy to a market-driven privatized economy
A decreasing birth rate, particularly in the urban areas, that will put pressure on the educational system to adjust to a diminution in students entering the school system in the coming years
The removal of administrative appointments from the political sphere and its replacement by a system based on competition and merit.
It is also common practice that people who have not undergone educational leadership training, nor studied organizational development, make all education decisions at the local and regional level. It appears that there is the need for the installation of a professional educational leadership system of school principals and superintendents to provide professional leadership at the local and regional level. This in turn would suggest the need for more power for school boards made up of parent representatives.
International Programs: Upon the fall of the Soviet Union , the countries of the eastern Bloc embarked on a rapid program of opening up their educational system to the influences of western educational institutions. Many of these links were established by expatriate Hungarians who were located in the west as refugees or descendants of refugees from the 1956 Hungarian uprising. Hungarian institutions therefore invariably have a network of partners that are former socialist states as well as European and American partners. More specifically, the desire of the Hungarian government to join the European Union also created an extensive liaison with western institutions. Thus, for example, the HAC has an international advisory board of nine European Union and U.S. academics that meet yearly to advise and recommend changes to Hungary's educational system. The overall result today is vibrant and active exchanges between Hungarian educators and international educational institutions.
Needs for Changes—Future: It would therefore appear that the most significant changes required for Hungary's educational system to stabilize would be for the country to enjoy economic stability and prosperity from which education could take its place as a significant contributor to the country's viability. This kind of stabilization and growth is anticipated upon the accession of Hungary to the EU and at that time a revitalization of Hungarian education might be said to be complete.
Bibliography
Europa Publications 2001. The Europa World Yearbook 2000. 41st ed. Vol. 2. London: Europa Pub.
International Association of Universities 1998. International Handbook of Universities. 15th ed. New York: Groves Dictionaries, 1998.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (UNESCO). The Right to Education. World Education Report 2000. Paris: UNESCO, 2000.
Government of Hungary, Ministry of Education, 2001. Available from http://www.om.hu/jg.html.
—Richard W. Benfield and
Budapest , Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, Pécs, Gyor
Other Cities:
Ajka, Baja, Eger, Hajdúböszörmény, Kaposvár, Kecskemét, Makó, Nyíregyháza, Sopron, Székesfehérvár, Szombathely, Veszprém
EDITOR'S NOTE
This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated August 1996. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.
INTRODUCTION
Budapest, the capital city of Hungary located on the Danube River, is one of the most beautiful cities of Europe . An assignment here can be rewarding and highly enjoyable. Since the major political changes here in 1990, the challenges of living in Hungary have been greatly diminished; all who live or visit here can easily partake in the countless affordable opportunities presented in Hungary for working, learning, and enjoying life. Because of Hungary's location, travel to other European destinations is relatively trouble-free. The city of Budapest is split by the Danube , with the hilly, wooded section of Buda on the west bank and Pest, the flat, more urban side, on the east. It is a city growing with the 20th century, yet retaining its Old World charm and rich sense of tradition, culture, and history.
MAJOR CITIES
Budapest
Budapest, the capital and principal city of Hungary, is a combination of three originally distinct cities: Buda on the western bank of the Danube River, Pest on the eastern bank, and Obuda, located north of present day Buda. The three are now linked by nine bridges across the Danube. Despite heavy damage during World War II and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Budapest has been rebuilt into one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. Much of the city, particularly Pest, has a decidedly 19th century look.
Buda, built on rolling hills rising to 1,700 feet, contains many attractive residential sections and wooded areas. Pest, built on level ground, is the business center of the capital. Obuda, located north of Buda, is the fastest growing area of the city. The greater city population is 1.9 million.
Food
Fresh fruit and vegetables (in season), meat and poultry are available in local markets year round, but the variety is limited during winter and early spring. The variety of fresh and frozen fish is limited throughout the year. Large and small shops stock canned and frozen produce, breads, dairy products, pasta, and cleaning and personal hygiene supplies. Such items are not available everywhere and at all times, so shopping can be an adventure. However, there are several large Western-style grocery stores that carry a wide variety of food and household items. Fresh milk is pasteurized and safe to drink, but tends to have a short shelf life. Long-life milk is widely available and is stocked in the commissary. All fruits and vegetables are safe to consume.
Local food prices are slightly lower than in the Washington, D.C. area, but imported items are more expensive.
Clothing
Dress in Hungary is similar to that in Washington, D.C. Cold weather clothing is an absolute necessity. Also, the spring season can be raw and rainy. The summer season stretches from late May through August, with temperatures ranging from 70°F through the 90's. Rain apparel, warm winter boots, and walking shoes are necessary, as well.
It is advisable to bring shoes and boots from the U.S. These are available locally, but proper fit can be hard to find. Comfort is important for Budapest's rough and often uneven streets. Thin-soled shoes are not recommended, as streets are often in poor condition.
Men: Men's ready-made Hungarian-made suits are sometimes less than satisfactory in material and style; although imported clothing is of higher quality, it tends to be quite expensive.
Hats are not generally worn, except in cold or rainy weather.
Women: Women's suits and knit-wear are practical and often worn to work, daytime affairs. Pants, dressy and sport, are worn by everyone, including Hungarians.
Children: Bring a supply of children's clothes. Baby supplies are available locally, but usually at higher cost and lesser quality. Good quality clothing can also be found in Vienna , but prices are much higher than those in the U.S.
Supplies and Services
Services: A few excellent men's tailors are located in Budapest. Good dressmakers are also available at reasonable prices. Alterations are satisfactory. Zippers, buttons, thread and accessories are available. Shoe repair is inexpensive, and a number of shops have opened in convenient locations.
Dry-cleaning is reasonably priced and satisfactory.
Good salons are abundant, and the work is excellent. Beauticians use local supplies; hotel shops have more modern equipment, and more English language speakers, but rates are higher. Manicures are inexpensive, as are facials, massages and waxing. All local salons cut men's hair. A few shops cater especially to children.
Auto repair is available for most vehicles. Parts for some American cars may be difficult to obtain in Hungary.
Religious Activities
Religion can be practiced in total freedom in Hungary. Budapest has many Catholic churches, the most well known being the Matyas Templom (Matthias Church) in the Var. Several synagogues and places of worship for a variety of religions exist, such as Lutheran, Reformed, Calvinist, Baptist , and Seventh Day Adventist. These services are in Hungarian. However, there are a number of weekly English language services in Budapest, including Anglican, Presbyterian, Baptist, Catholic, and Nondenominational Evangelical.
Education
There are a number of educational opportunities for children in Budapest. The most popular is the American International School of Budapest (AISB). There are other schools, as well, including a British-run elementary school, a Christian school, and other English-language schools. The AISB is the only American-accredited school in Budapest.
The American International School of Budapest, which offers instruction for kindergarten through high school, was founded in 1973. Since then, it has undergone tremendous growth. The lower school, which includes grades kindergarten through five, is located in the Buda hills next to the American Club. The upper school, which includes grades six through twelve, is located further up the hill, and is situated in the confines of a natural recreation preserve. Special features of the lower school campus include a large indoor swimming pool, full gymnasium, separate kindergarten playground, tennis court, sports field, theater, and computer lab.
Children must be 5 years old by September 1 of the year of entrance in order to be eligible for enrollment in kindergarten. Please note that there is NO exception to this age requirement rule. Kindergarten classes run the entire school day.
Sports
Budapest has a wide variety of recreational facilities. The American Club has its own indoor basketball/volleyball court, a platform tennis court, and a full-size swimming pool. The clubhouse contains a bar area, television with satellite hookup with Armed Forces Network, dartboard, and ping-pong table. Aerobics classes are held in the gym twice a week, and are open to American Club members. Nonmembers pay a small fee.
Softball, popular among many Westerners, is played on Margit Island from spring through fall, with games open to all who care to play.
Outdoor sports activities in Budapest during the winter months include jogging, skiing, horseback riding, skating, sledding, and platform tennis. A small ski area in the Buda hills, snow permitting, offers skiers a short run.
Touring and Outdoor Activities
Many pleasant excursions can be made within the city of Budapest and the surrounding area, by car or public transportation. The hills of Buda provide numerous attractive areas for pleasant weekend walks and picnics. Szentendre, an artists' colony located on the Danube north of Budapest, and Esztergom, the seat of the presiding Bishop of the Catholic Church in Hungary, are worthwhile nearby visiting places and can be reached in less than an hour from the city.
Further away from the city, Lake Balaton, the summer retreat for a great part of Budapest's population, offers swimming, windsurfing and sailing. The major Balaton resorts of Balatonfured, Siofok, and Tihany are about 90 minutes from Budapest by car, and all offer adequate hotel facilities at international prices. In addition, cottages are available for rent throughout the Balaton region.
Other interesting points in the countryside are the attractive city of Eger, which has traditionally been the center of the Catholic Church in Hungary. A well-preserved minaret located in Eger is one of the most visible reminders of the century and a half of Turkish rule here during the 16th and 17th centuries. In addition, Eger is an important center of the Hungarian wine industry, and wine cellars outside the city are open to visitors. The countryside north of Eger is somewhat similar to the terrain found in the U.S. Appalachian Mountains in the vicinity of Washington, D.C., and provides some scenic contrast to the flat plain that accounts for the largest percentage of the Hungarian countryside.
Eastern Hungary contains the plain of the well-known Hungarian Puszta, where one is able to see for miles in any direction. At Hortobagy, in the middle of the Puszta, visitors can see displays of traditional horsemanship performed by costumed csikos (cowboys) and view the unique gray longhorn breed of Hungarian cattle, which have vanished from the landscape elsewhere. An overnight stay at the 250-year-old Hortobagy Inn, which offers charming deluxe accommodations, can be most enjoyable.
Half an hour east of Hortobagy lies Debrecen, the largest city in Eastern Hungary and the center of Hungarian Protestantism. Debrecen's Protestant College, one of Hungary's oldest learning institutions, is exceptionally interesting. It is noteworthy that Debrecen was the seat of the provisional government during the revolution against Austrian rule in 1848. Other interesting provincial cities include Szeged and Gyula, both of which host annual summer festivals; Kecskemet, which lies in the heart of the country's fruit growing region an hour from Budapest; Pecs, where two Turkish mosques remain and which enjoys an exceptional ballet company; Sopron, with its medieval walled city center; and Sarospatak, seat of the Reformed College, with a remarkable library and cloister, which has been converted to a good restaurant.
In Budapest, Margit Island, the central city park, Varosliget, and a number of smaller parks offer greenery and play areas for children. The Varosliget also contains a city zoo, an ice skating rink for winter skating (boating in summer), an amusement park, a weekend flea market, and a circus.
A number of first-rate museums of old and modern art, several of oriental art, and of Hungarian folklore are located in Budapest. The Szechenyi Library contains old Hungarian publications and manuscripts.
Entertainment
Budapest's cultural life is rich with opera, symphonies, chamber music, ballet, theater, and nightclubs. There is a wide range of operas and ballets running concurrently. Operas are well staged and directed with a wide repertoire of German, Italian, Russian, and Hungarian works. Most are performed in Hungarian. A number of foreign and Hungarian guest stars appear in Budapest during the opera season. The Operetta Theater specializes in light musicals.
Budapest offers numerous concerts by symphonies and chamber groups. Stage plays are performed in over a dozen theaters. Although translated into Hungarian, many western and American musicals and plays are performed, including works by Albee, O'Neill, Williams, Miller, and Weber. The Duna Players, a fledgling amateur group of English speaking expatriates, presents plays periodically.
More than 100 cinemas in Budapest feature films from all over the world, including many recent American films. Most theaters show films in their original language with Hungarian subtitles, and there are many films shown in English. Folklore programs by the Hungarian State Folk Ensemble and other leading groups are presented at the Folklore Center and other venues throughout the year. Budapest is also well known for its culinary opportunities; it boasts a wonderful variety of international cuisine. Many Hungarian restaurants feature live Gypsy music.
In the spring, Budapest hosts the annual Spring Festival, a month-long performing arts extravaganza. During the summer, performances of operas, ballets, concerts, and folklore programs are staged in the outdoor theater on Margit Island, at the Buda Castle, the Kiscelli Museum, and some of the smaller cities in Hungary. A music festival is held each summer in the city of Szeged. Youth concerts by various internationally-known popular music groups are offered throughout the year.
You may take pictures in Hungary, provided they are not of a military nature. Areas are marked where photography is forbidden.
Social Activities
Among Americans: Entertaining is informal. The new joint ventures opening in Hungary have brought a large number of American private business people to Budapest. Other American residents of Budapest include Peace Corps volunteers, Fulbright scholars, students, and retirees.
The American Club of Budapest, located in the Buda hills on the AISB grounds, provides an excellent opportunity to meet Americans and people of other nationalities. A restaurant and bar operate on the premises. Club members enjoy numerous special activities, including Thursday night family dinners, volleyball, basketball, tennis, and other sporting and social events. Many of these events celebrate children's holidays. The Club can also be rented for private parties. Membership in the American Club is open to individuals of all nationalities.
International Contacts: Budapest is home to a large and active international community. The International Women's Club is open to all foreign women in Budapest. The American Women's Association, with membership open to all women from North America , meets monthly and sponsors numerous events.
Budapest boasts a chapter of the "Hash House Harriers," who enjoy a biweekly run and meal following. The Harriers are popular worldwide, and the Budapest group attracts many diplomats, business people, and other Westerners.
The Budapest Platform Tennis Association also promotes the enjoyment of the sport of platform tennis for the international community. A platform tennis court is located adjacent to the AISB and American Club. Several tournaments are held during the season, with some highly competitive matches.
Debrecen
Debrecen is located in eastern Hungary, 20 miles west of the Romanian border and 120 miles east of Budapest. With a population of 208,000, Debrecen is the country's second largest city, as well as the economic and cultural center of the Great Plain (Alföld) region east of the Tisza River. Industrially, the city produces railway cars, agricultural machinery, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, furniture, and processed foods. Traditionally, Debrecen is known for its fairs and livestock markets.
Historically, Debrecen grew from a cattle and grain market in the 13th century to a stronghold of Hungarian Protestantism in the 16th century. From the 16th through the 17th century, the city was occupied by the Turks , enjoying semi-autonomous status and often serving as a refuge for peasants fleeing the Turks. Debrecen was also an important trade center before the late 17th century wars ruined the city's economy. The city was the center of Hungarian resistance against Austrian rule in the 19th century, and on April 14, 1849, Hungary's independence was proclaimed from the church in Debrecen's center.
Miskolc
Miskolc, Hungary's third largest city with a population of 178,000, is located 90 miles northeast of Budapest on the Sajó River. A major industrial center, Miskolc has large iron and steel mills, machinery and motor vehicle factories, and lime and cement works. Iron ore and lignite mines are located nearby. Wine is also produced locally, and the region's numerous caves are used as wine cellars. Miskolc is the seat of a Protestant bishopric and the site of a law school and a technical university.
Historically, Miskolc was frequently invaded by Mongols , Turks, and Germans, and was nearly destroyed by the Mongols in the mid-13th century. Industrialization began late in the 19th century.
Landmarks here include the 15th century Avas Reformed Church, the remains of a 13th-century castle, and a museum displaying Scythian art.
Mezokövesd, 20 miles southwest of Miskolc, is a city of about 19,000 noted for the embroidery produced there. Polgár, 20 miles southeast of Miskolc, has a population over 12,000;Ózd, 25 miles northwest of Miskolc, has 42,000 residents.
Szeged
Szeged, in southern Hungary near the Serbian border, is 95 miles south of Budapest at the confluence of the Tisza and Maros Rivers. A river port, railroad hub, and agricultural center, Szeged has a population of 166,000. Among the city's industries are food processing, flour milling, boat building, and textile production. The chief city of southern Hungary is also a principal tourist spot known for its attractive parks and squares. An annual festival of drama and music is held in Szeged.
The seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, Szeged has a university, established in 1921, a medical school, and a library. The early history of Szeged saw the city as a military stronghold and trade center of the Arpad kings in the 10th century; it was ruled by the Turks from 1542 to 1686. Partly destroyed by a flood in 1879, Szeged was rebuilt in modern style. It retains a 13th-century Romanesque tower and a 16th-century church.
Hódmezovásárhely, 15 miles north of Szeged, with a population of 49,000, produces textiles. Békéscsaba, 60 miles northeast of Szeged, produces textiles and processes food; the population is 69,000. Kiskunfelgyháza, 40 miles north of Szeged, is a market center for livestock, tobacco, fruit, and wine, with a population of 33,000.
Pécs
Pécs is situated in southwest Hungary at the confluence of the Danube and Drava Rivers, 105 miles southwest of Budapest near the Croatian border. An industrial center in Hungary's chief coal-producing region, the city produces coke, metals, agricultural machinery, tobacco, and leather goods. There are also several vineyards in the surrounding region. Pécs is also known for its pottery.
One of Hungary's oldest cities, Pécs was the site of a Celtic settlement and was later the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. By 1009, Pécs was an episcopal see, and in 1367, the first Hungarian university was established there. The Turks ruled Pécs from 1543 to 1686. German miners and colonists settled there in the 18th century and in 1780, Pécs became a free city.
Historic landmarks include an 11th-century cathedral (rebuilt in the late 19th century), an episcopal palace, a Turkish minaret, and several churches that were formerly mosques.
The current population of Pécs is 161,000.
Gyor
Gyor is located in northwest Hungary, 65 miles west of Budapest near the Czechoslovak border. Situated at the confluence of the Raba and Danube Rivers, Gyor is a road and rail hub, a river port, and a leading industrial city and one of the fastest growing cities in western Hungary. With a current population of just over 127,000, the city is known for its textile and distilling plants, flour mills, and engineering works. Its location midway between Budapest and Vienna makes Gyor an important communications point.
Originally, the site of Gyor was a Roman military outpost called Arabona that was evacuated in the fourth century and later destroyed. Fortifications were built by the Magyars in the same area in the ninth century. Gyor was established around the fortress, which was later used as a defensive position against the Turks in the 17th century. Hungarian forces were defeated by the Austrians near Gyor in 1849.
Historic landmarks include a 12th-century cathedral, an episcopal palace, and several impressive monuments. The baroque houses dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, the stately squares, and narrow, winding streets give Gyor an Old World charm.
The town of Mosonmagyaróvár, with a population of 31,000 is 22 miles northwest of Gyor. Pápa is 25 miles south of Gyor, with a population of 35,000. It produces tobacco products, textiles, and farm trucks, and is the site of an 18th-century castle.
OTHER CITIES
AJKA lies in the Csinger Valley in west-central Hungary, 15 miles west of Veszprém. It began as a small coal-mining village in the late 19th century. Major growth in the mid-20th century was the result of bauxite exploitation of a deposit said to be Europe's largest. Currently, the city has food-processing facilities, an aluminum furnace, and a telecommunications parts factory. Ajka's population exceeds 35,000.
BAJA is situated in south-central Hungary, less than 40 miles northeast of Pécs. With a population of 40,000, it is a market center for livestock and agricultural produce. Baja is also a river port that manufactures chemicals, furniture, and farm machinery. There are a number of baroque churches and old houses in the city.
EGER , a town of 62,000, is located in north-central Hungary, 25 miles southwest of Miskolc. The modern city is known for its orchards and vineyards and the resulting wine and brandy. Tourists may visit the town's wine cellars. Historically, Eger gained fame in the 16th century when its small garrison held back a Turkish force of 150,000. It took the Turks more than 40 years to finally capture the fort, which they then held between 1596 and 1687. Ruins of the old fort still remain, as well as other historical buildings including an 18th-century county hall and a palace, which houses a county library.
HAJDÚBÖSZÖRMÉNY , about 20 miles northwest of Debrecen, has a population of 31,000 and a 16th-century church. Hajdúszoboszló, with a population of 22,000, is a health resort 13 miles southwest of Debrecen. Balmazújváros, a commune just west of Debrecen, has a population over 18,000; and Püspökladány, 30 miles southwest, has a population over 16,000.
KAPOSVÁR is 25 miles northwest of Pécs and 30 miles south of Lake Balaton. With a population of 71,000, Kaposvár is the market center in a livestock-raising region. Nagykanizsa, 65 miles northwest of Pécs, was held by the Turks from 1600 through 1690. Oil and natural gas wells are near the city, which has a current population of 55,000. Mohács, 20 miles southeast of Pécs on the Danube River, is a commercial center with a population of 20,000. The city was the site of two battles between the Hungarians and the Turks in the 16th and 17th centuries.
KECSKEMÉT , 50 miles north of Szeged, is a market center for an agricultural, fruit-growing, and livestock-raising region. With a population of 105,000, the city is also known for its leatherwork.
MAKÓ is 15 miles east of Szeged near the Romanian border on the Muresul River. A market town in an agricultural and livestock-raising region, Makó was the birthplace of the American journalist, Joseph Pulitzer (1847-1911). The current population is 26,000.
NYÍREGYHÁZA is 30 miles north of Debrecen in northeast Hungary. The city was completely destroyed during the 16th-century occupation of Hungary and rebuilt in the 18th century. Today, Nyíregyháza is a road and rail center and a market for an extensive agricultural region which grows vegetables, tobacco, and potatoes. The city has museums that contain gold relics. The current population is 113,000.
SOPRON , 50 miles west of Gyor near the Austrian border, has a population of 55,000. The only part of Burgenland that remained in Hungary after the rest of the province transferred to Austria in 1922, Sopron produces wine, sugar, and textiles, and has a medieval church. A former Roman outpost, Sopron today is still surrounded by much of the old garrison.
SZÉKESFEHÉRVÁR , 40 miles southwest of Budapest, is a busy industrial town and market center for fruit and wine. It is best known, however, as the coronation and burial site of Hungarian kings. The patron saint and first king of Hungary—Stephen—is buried here. The Turks destroyed many of the medieval monuments during their 150-year domination of the city, but there are outstanding buildings from more recent times. Székesfehérvár's present population is 107,000.
SZOMBATHELY is 60 miles southwest of Gyor near the Austrian border. A commercial center in a rich wine-producing region, Szombathely's population is 87,000. The site of a cathedral and an episcopal palace, the city was taken in World War II by the Soviets on March 29, 1945.
Named in honor of the Polish prince Bezbriem, the city of VESZPRÉM is nestled between the Bakony Mountains in western Hungary. It is located 60 miles southwest of the capital on the Séd River. Notable landmarks include the street of ancient houses, the baroque bishop's palace (1765-1776), the fortress with its Heroes' Gate, the Cathedral of St. Michael, and the Gizella Chapel with valuable frescoes from the 13th century. Industries include the manufacture of textiles, vegetable oil, and wine. Veszprém's population is over 70,000. The Veszprém University of Chemical Engineering opened in 1949.
COUNTRY PROFILE
Geography and Climate
Hungary is a landlocked country, 36,000 square miles in area. It is bounded by Slovakia on the north, Ukraine and Romania on the east, Slovenia , Croatia , and Serbia on the south, and Austria on the west. Some parts of Hungary are flat, but other sections offer pleasant scenery, such as the Matra Mountains in the north and the area around Lake Balaton, central Europe's largest lake.
Budapest's climate is temperate. Winters, although damp and cold, are generally less severe than in Washington, D.C. Snow may fall from late November through February, but generally disappears on the Pest side after 3 or 4 days. In the hills of Buda, small amounts of snow may remain on the ground for weeks. January, the coldest month, has an average temperature of 31°F. During the winter, the minimum daily temperature is generally below freezing. The July mean temperature is 71°F. The occasional periods of hot, dry weather are easier to tolerate than Washington's humidity. Temperatures are somewhat lower on the Buda side of the city. The yearly average precipitation is 25.2 inches.
Population
Of Hungary's 10.1 million people, 2.9 million reside in the capital city of Budapest. Hungary is the most densely populated country in east-central Europe, and trends indicate a steady urbanization. The ethnic composition is 89.9 percent Hungarian, 2.6 percent German, 4 percent Gypsy, 1 percent Slovak, .8 percent Southern Slavs, and .7 percent Romanian.
Roman Catholics account for 67.5 percent of the population. Calvinists and Lutherans make up 20 percent and 5 percent, respectively. All major churches receive limited financial aid. Religion can be practiced in total freedom.
Political Setting
Hungary is a young democracy. For 40 years prior to 1989, the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party Central Committee and Politburo established all policy. In 1989, round table discussions commenced between the reform-oriented communist government and the political opposition. A democratic republic was established in October.
Hungary has a functioning multi-party democracy, with all parties represented in Parliament committed to free market democracy and stability. The center-right coalition government headed by the Hungarian Democratic Forum, which led the country since Hungary's first free elections in 1990, was voted out in the May, 1994 parliamentary elections. The Hungarian Socialist Party and the Alliance by Free Democrats formed a new government as a result of the elections. Hungarian foreign and domestic policies have not changed dramatically as a result of the change in government.
According to the Constitution, the 386-seat Parliament is the supreme organ of state power. It has the authority to propose, review, adopt or reject all legislation, and can override presidential vetoes. A political party must receive at least five percent of all votes to gain representation in Parliament.
The Government consists of the Prime Minister, currently Viktor Orbán, who is elected by a majority of the members of Parliament, and a Council of Ministers. The Ministers are appointed by the President of the Republic, currently Ferenc Mádal, upon the Prime Minister's recommendation. The Prime Minister chairs the Council of Ministers and is the government's chief executive official. The President, elected separately by the Parliament to an independent five-year term, is the Head of State. The President has limited, largely ceremonial powers, but his role in promulgating laws gives him the ability to return legislation to Parliament for further debate or to forward it to the Constitutional Court if he deems any of its provisions unconstitutional. The President also appoints the commander of the armed forces and approves the nation's defense plan. The Constitutional Court decides the constitutionality of legislation, and a separate Hungarian Supreme Court adjudicates appeals from lower courts.
Arts, Science and Education
Hungary has enjoyed a long and rich cultural tradition that has produced important leaders and innovators in the fields of music and science. Among the most well known are Ferenc Liszt, Bela Bartok, Zoltan Kodaly, Edward Teller, and Nobel Prize winner Albert Szent-Gyorgy, a participant in the U.S. delegation that returned the Crown of St. Stephen to Hungary in 1978.
Hungarian cultural life has also produced a number of outstanding writers and poets, such as Gyula Illyes and Endre Ady. Although translation of Hungarian works is increasing, it is a slow process that produces only a few works over a long period of time; this continues to hinder Hungary's rise in international literary eminence.
Budapest is the center of Hungary's cultural life. It has a large number of permanent theaters, as well as open air stages that offer performances in the summer. Performances of excellent opera productions, ballets and concerts, often featuring foreign artists, are held at both the State Opera House and the Erkel Opera Theater.
The city's highly rated symphonies, chamber groups, and soloists perform at the Academy of Music in the winter and on Margit Island in the summer. Budapest Music Weeks, arranged each year in the spring and fall, and the Liszt-Bartok Piano Competition, held every third year, are internationally known. The Hungarian State Folk Ensemble and the Budapest Ballet perform regularly during the winter season. The Budapest Festival Orchestra, a newly organized ensemble of polished younger musicians, now presents excellent programs throughout the year.
Hungarian filmmaking has achieved a high level of sophistication. A number of Hungarian films and directors have received international recognition, including Istvan Szabo, who received an Oscar for "Mephisto" in 1982. Budapest has many affordable first-run movie theaters that show both Hungarian and foreign films. A wide range of American and European films are shown regularly in theaters in Budapest. A good number of these remain in English, with Hungarian subtitles, although the trend is toward dubbing into Hungarian.
As a consequence of efforts to preserve Hungary's historical and cultural treasures, Budapest abounds in museums of all types. Among the most interesting are the Buda Castle Museum, which recreates the atmosphere of the Middle Ages with its artful blend of authentic medieval artifacts and skillful reconstruction; the Hungarian National Gallery, which focuses on Hungarian painting, sculpture, and graphic arts from the 19th and 20th centuries, both in the Var (Castle district); The Museum of Fine Arts, which houses an extensive collection of both Hungarian and foreign artwork, much of which is top quality; and the Hungarian National Museum, which is the repository of the Crown of St. Stephen.
A number of galleries and exhibition halls display the work of contemporary Hungarian artists. Among them are the Mucsarnok and Ernst Museums. Hungarian artists are well versed in Western art movements and tendencies, which often find expression in their work.
In all cultural areas, tickets are priced well below U.S. equivalents. Information on cultural events is published in each of the daily papers, while such publications as the Pesti Musor and Programme in Hungary, as well as the cultural pages of the weekly English language press, provide details. For further information on this topic, please refer to the following section on recreation.
Budapest is the center of Hungarian education. In addition to the Eotvos Lorand University, consisting of faculties of law, liberal arts, and the natural sciences, the Semmelweis Medical University, Budapest University of Economics, and academies for fine arts and technical fields are located in Budapest. The Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the country's highest scientific body, maintains more the 80 research institutes and centers, most of which are located in Budapest.
Commerce and Industry
Hungary possesses few natural resources other than agriculture, rich bauxite deposits, and some coal, oil, and natural gas. A strategic location in the heart of central Europe, a well educated population, and a history of government policies favorable to exports combine to give the economy a remarkable degree of openness. Emphases on internal reform and on foreign trade have helped make Hungary a leader among the reformist economies of central and eastern Europe.
Roughly three economic watersheds have taken place since 1945. The first was post-World War II reconstruction, setting the base for a highly concentrated Stalinist-type heavy industry. The second was the reintroduction of light industry and modern agriculture following the 1956 popular uprising and Hungary's acceleration through the 1968 New Economic Mechanism. The third, most dramatic and far-reaching step has been the economic transformation following the end of the socialist era here in 1990.
Recent Economic History and Current Situation
Hungary's transition to a free market economy has proven more protracted and difficult than expected. Unemployment in 2000 remained high (9.4%) in a society where job security was long taken for granted. Output has fallen throughout the economy. Privatization has been frustratingly slow. Hungary remains saddled with Europe's highest per capita foreign debt. 8.6% of the population lives below the official poverty line, and living standards of the middle class have declined.
However, painful policies are yielding positive results. The country has had strond economic growth in recent years. Hungary manages its foreign debt responsibly, and has attracted over $23 billion in foreign investment.
Hungary's creation of a market economy, its removal from the COCOM list of proscribed countries, and its trade agreements with European trading partners offer expanded opportunities for American businesses. The U.S. Government is assisting the country with a wide range of official assistance programs.
Transportation
Local
Public city transportation is excellent. Budapest and its environs are well serviced with a network of buses, streetcars, and subway lines. All systems are crowded during rush hour. The monthly pass for bus, subway, and streetcar is currently around 1,140 forints ($11.40), but increases quite often. Taxis are numerous, and available at stands throughout the city. Taxi fares depend on the taxi company and time of day. In addition, a highly dependable van service operates to and from Ferihegy, the Budapest airport; fares are much lower than for taxis.
Regional
Air service between Budapest and most cities in Western Europe is adequate but, as is common in Europe, expensive. However, there are discount fares available in winter. Service is provided by KLM, Swissair, Austrian Airlines, Sabena, Iberia, Lufthansa, British Air, Alitalia, Delta, Air France, and Malev.
Trains are available in Budapest to almost any destination in Europe. During the summer, daily (except Sunday) hydrofoil boats travel the Danube from Budapest to Vienna. The ride is scenic, pleasant, and takes about 5 hours. Reservations must be made in advance.
There is zero tolerance for driving under the influence of alcohol. Police often conduct routine road checks where breath analyzers are administered. Persons found to be driving while intoxicated face jail and/or fine. The condition of Hungarian highways is, in general, relatively good. However, roads in the provinces are narrow, badly lit, and in poor repair in some places. They are often used by pedestrians, agricultural machines, and animals, requiring increased caution from drivers.
Communications
Telephone and Telegraph
Telephone and telegraph service to most countries is available, but quality is not up to U.S. standards. A stake in the Hungarian telephone company was recently purchased by a German-American consortium, which plans to upgrade the quality of service. Most countries can be reached by direct dialing, but service is unreliable and frustrating during working hours. After hours calling is easier and more reliable.
Long distance calls are expensive to the U.S. (two to three times higher than calls placed from the U.S.), but relatively inexpensive to continental Europe. It is now possible to use long distance calling cards here, and this results in some cost saving on calls to the U.S. The Embassy operates its own FAX services. Telegrams sent through the Hungarian post office are inexpensive and reliable.
All government-owned and-rented housing units have telephone service available at the occupant's expense. Monthly bills include a monthly service charge and a per-call charge; however, the calls are not itemized. Local monthly service is much cheaper than in the U.S.
Radio and Television
Hungarian Radio (MR) has eastern FM channels which broadcast to a nationwide audience. They play music, news, talk shows, and entertainment programs. Pending the lifting of the three-year moratorium on the licensing of TV and radio frequencies, there are other radio stations audible in Budapest. Privately owned Radio Bridge, which broadcasts rock music on the western FM band, also runs Voice of America news in English several times a day, as well as locally produced English language news programs twice a day. Danubius Calypso Juventus, jointly owned by a media entrepreneur and the 11th District Council, broadcasts daily on the eastern FM band to a small section of Budapest. Radio Danubius and Radio Calypso, commercial stations owned by MR, play music on western FM. Radio Juventus is a private commercial channel based in Siofok.
There are numerous indigenous cable producers, and satellite television is increasingly popular in Hungary. The Hungarian government finances a satellite television network, Duna TV, which is seen in Hungary and surrounding countries.
Hungarian television uses the PAL SECAM standard.
Newspapers, Magazines and Journals
There are many daily newspapers in Budapest and scores of other regional and local dailies in the provinces. The printed press was privatized very soon after the political changes in Hungary, and many papers were bought by foreign investors. A wide variety of opinions and views are represented, though most papers tend to be associated with a particular political faction or point of view.
Western newspapers and magazines are readily available in Budapest, but less so outside the city. The International Herald Tribune is available on the day of publication, either by subscription or at the kiosks. USA Today is available, usually a day late. Daily newspapers such as The New York Times are almost impossible to find, and arrive late and at great cost. The international editions of Time, Newsweek, and other magazines are in the kiosks on the day of publication. There are currently several English-language newspapers published weekly by American publishers, including Budapest Week, The Budapest Sun, and The Budapest Business Journal.
Health and Medicine
Medical Facilities
Many pharmacies are beginning to stock Western drugs as they become licensed in Hungary.
Local physicians are highly qualified and well trained. Many pediatricians provide home care. More and more small, private clinics are opening with well-trained, English-speaking doctors. Although the hospitals and other facilities are often dated and standards of appearance are lower than what Americans are accustomed to, medical competency is high. Most doctors and hospitals expect cash payment before providing health services…
Preventive Measures
Tap-water is potable. Because the water is considered very "hard," with a high metal content and sediment, many individuals filter their drinking water. Budapest is a source of naturally carbonated water, which is sold in restaurants and stores. It is not necessary to boil milk. However, regular pasteurized milk spoils quickly. Sterilized long life milk is widely available and has a shelf life of six months. Raw fruits and vegetables are safe to eat, using washing precautions normally followed in the U.S. Sewerage and garbage disposal is adequate.
Sinus and respiratory ailments are aggravated by winter smog and year-round pollution. Springtime provokes allergy problems.
NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS
Each person should have a Hungarian entry visa. Completed application forms and photographs should be submitted to a Hungarian diplomatic or consular mission under cover of a note from the individual's post of origin. This should be done well before your estimated arrival time in Hungary, as the application process normally takes up to three weeks.
A visa is not required for stays of up to 90 days. Further information concerning entry requirements can be obtained at the Embassy of the Republic of Hungary at 3910 Shoemaker Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 362-6730, or the nearest Hungarian consulate in Los Angeles or New York .
Each member of the family, including children, should have his or her own passport.
Hungary has a low rate of violent crime. However, street crime, which occasionally involves violence, has increased especially at night near major hotels and restaurants and on public transportation. Theft of passports, currency and credit cards is a frequent problem, especially in youth hostels, at train stations, and when riding public transportation. The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to local police and to the U.S. Embassy or Consulate. Foreigners may also experience problems with excessive billing, etc., at night clubs featuring "adult entertainment." The number of burglaries has risen substantially, and vehicle thefts, particularly of high value automobiles, is a major problem.
No quarantine restrictions apply to household pets, but all animals must have valid, current general health and rabies certificates. All shots must be up to date at least thirty days before arrival in Hungary. Several well-trained veterinarians practice in Budapest, many of whom speak English and make house calls. Most pet supplies are available locally.
The unit of Hungarian currency is the forint (Ft.). Currency is available in notes of 5,000; 1,000; 500; 100; and 50 Ft., and coins of 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 Ft. The official exchange rate at the beginning of 2001 was around 282 Ft. to the U.S. dollar.
You may exchange travellers checks and hard currency at banks and leading hotels. However, the acceptance of traveler's checks and credit cards is not universal. The presence of ATM's is increasing in Budapest only. Black market exchange and use of unauthorized currency exchange vendors in Hungary is illegal.
Hungary uses the metric system.
U.S. citizens are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy, and obtain updated information on travel and security within Hungary. The U.S. Embassy is at V. Szabadsag Ter 12 in Budapest; telephone (36-1) 267-4400, or afterhours at (36-1) 269-9331.
LOCAL HOLIDAYS
Oct. 22… Hungary Goverment Holiday
Oct. 23… Republic Day
Nov. 1…All Saints' Day
Dec. 25…Christmas Day
Dec. 31…Hungary Government Day
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RECOMMENDED READING
Editor's note: Because of the political change in Hungary in 1990 and its subsequent effect on nearly all aspects of life in Hungary, much of the literature about Hungary and Budapest is already outdated and obsolete. The following list is therefore necessarily short. It can be added to the literature which relates to Hungarian history prior to 1990 referred to in the reading list published in the previous Post Report. One may also consult A Readers Guide To Hungary, a reading list published by the Foreign Service Institute School of Area Studies.
Abel, Elie. The Shattered Bloc: Behind the Upheaval in Eastern Europe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990).
Ash, Garton. The Magic Lantern: The Revolution of '89 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin , and Prague (New York: Random House, 1990).
Austria and Hungary, 1991-1992. Frommer's Guides Series. New York: Prentice-Hall General Reference and Travel, 1990.
Batt, Judy. East Central Europe: From Reform to Transformation. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1991.
Brada, Josef C., and Istvan Dobozi, eds. Money, Incentives, and Efficiency in the Hungarian Economic Reform (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1990).
Gati, Charles. The Bloc that Failed (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana Univ. Press, 1990).
Honak, Peter, ed. One Thousand Years: A Concise History of Hungary. Portland, OR: International Specialized Book Services, 1991.
Kiraly, Bela K. et al., eds. The First War Between Socialist States: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and Its Impact. New York: East European Quarterly, 1984.
Kornai, Janos. The Road to a Free Economy—Shifting from a Socialist System: The Example of Hungary (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990).
Michener, James A. Bridge at Andau. New York: Random House, 1957.
Parsons, Nicholas T. Hungary: A Traveller's Guide. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1991.
Sisa, Stephen. The Spirit of Hungary: A Panorama of Hungarian History and Culture, 2nd ed. Long Branch, NJ: Vista Publishing, 1991.
Torok, Andras. Budapest: A Critical Guide (Budapest: Park/Officina Nova, 1992).
Cite this article
146.4
Background & General Characteristics
Perhaps the one person that is associated worldwide with excellence in the media, innovation in communications, independent liberalism in journalism and education for the media is Joseph Pulitzer, a man of Hungarian descent. At 17, Pulitzer left Hungary for America where, in a series of newspaper ownerships, he pioneered the use of illustrations and photographs, news stunts and crusades against corruption. As a result of competition with the Hearst Group of newspapers characterized by vicious and lengthy circulation wars, Pulitzer's newspapers became renowned for sensationalism, yellow journalism and banner headlines. His name was later remembered for the foundation of the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism in New York , and endowment of the series of prizes for excellence in journalism, the Pulitzer Prizes.
Thus it is somewhat ironic that nearly 100 years after his death in 1911, the country of his birth is attempting to establish an independent media by means of sensationalism, the rooting out of corruption and mismanagement, and with a political orientation of independent liberalism that was the hallmark of Pulitzer's newspapers in his formative years as a journalist in America.
The need for an independent media results from the period following World War II , during which Hungary was part of the Eastern Bloc and therefore dominated by the Soviet Union . At that time, all media was strictly controlled as an instrument of the Communist Party. In 1989 Hungary became the first country of the Eastern Bloc to move away from the Soviet Union and its attempt to establish an independent media dates from then. The years since independence generally have been successful economically, but the transformation of the media from a state-controlled propaganda machine to an independent and self-policing vehicle of public discourse has been a hard-fought battle. At the turn of the twenty-first century the Freedom House, an independent, non-partisan organization that assess media freedom, awarded Hungary a rating of 27 out of 100, indicating almost complete freedom of the press.
The Nature of the Audience
The population of Hungary is around 10 million, of which 1.8 million (18 percent) live in the capital Budapest . Other major cities are Debrecen (204,000), Miskolc (172,000), Szeged (158,000), Pécs (157,000) and Györ (124,000). Almost two-thirds of the population is urbanized and the remaining one-third has ready access to all media.
Hungary has a highly literate audience. Literacy is estimated at almost 100 percent for men and women, and the level of education is high. Thus it is no surprise that newspapers have a circulation of 194 per 1,000 people, though this is down from the early 1990s when reportedly a phenomenal 400 per 1,000 of the population read newspapers.
The Hungarian language is classified as Finno-Ugrian and is part of the Altaic group of languages. Apart from linguistic relatives in Estonia and Finland , the Hungarian language is unique in Europe, and 95 percent of ethnic Hungarians speak a language very different from other European languages. There exists a possibility the media could marginalize other ethnic groups, but the Hungarian government has made significant commitments both in the constitution and the media to recognize and cater to these groups. The most numerous of the ethnic minorities are the Roma—often called Gypsies—the exact numbers of which are unknown but may be as high as 9 percent of Hungary's population. Germans, Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Polish, Serbian, Ruthenes and Ukrainians comprise the balance of the population. Of the 13 recognized ethnic minorities in Hungary, it is the status and accommodation of the Roma that is the most serious case for concern and which has received the most attention in the context of minority rights.
Notwithstanding the highly literate nature of the Hungarian population, the fact that the economy is in the process of recovering from the problems inherited from the socialist economic system means the affluence of the average Hungarian remains relatively low in contrast to that of its neighbors to the west. The purchasing power standard in Hungary, estimated by the European Union at 11,700 Euros, is 52 percent of the European Union average. This figure conceals significant hardships that exist in the population, not the least among the unemployed, senior citizens, and the Roma population in general. This climate of hardship and perceived injustice has created a vocal and predominantly liberal journalistic orientation.
Hungary has little in the way of historic traditions of a free media because it was effectively under the influence of the Soviet Bloc since 1945. Any history of media independence present in pre-World War II was lost in the following 45 years of Communist rule. During the Soviet period Hungary's oldest newspaper, Magyar Nemzet, was the principal organ of the party but was in serious decline near the turn of the twenty-first century. With mounting debts and a circulation of only 40,000 it merged with a right-wing daily, Napi Magyarorszag, and in recent years is Hungary's second most popular newspaper. It generally is considered the most right-wing of newspapers, and hence was the most sympathetic to the predominantly conservative governments of post-independence Hungary amid a sea of left-leaning print publications. Foremost among the liberal press are newspapers of the German-owned Axel Springer group, which have a leading position in the Hungarian newspaper market, particularly in the county newspapers outside Budapest.
Most Hungarian journalists cite a great journalistic tradition in their nation, largely a result of the early foundations of journalism during the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the socialist years since 1945 little movement away from the party line occurred in Hungarian journalism. The only exception was during the time of the Hungarian revolution in November 1956 when many journalists and newspaper editorials supported the head of the independence movement, Imre Nagy. Following the Russian invasion to quell the revolution, a number of journalists were executed and others sentenced to long prison terms. Western observers have given Hungarian journalists a mark of 4 on a scale of 10 for quality of journalism, citing too much commentary, little quality investigative reporting and a tendency to present the newspaper's avowed political leanings with little or no attempt at balance in editorial viewpoint.
The Importance of Newspapers
There are more than 40 daily newspapers in Hungary, and more than 1,600 print publications. The most popular newspaper up to 2000 was Népszabadság with a daily circulation of 210,000. It was surpassed in the beginning of the millennium by a new Swedish-owned, freely distributed tabloid, Metro, which by 2002 had a circulation of 235,000. Newspapers are in a constant circulation war, competing in a declining readership market amid an excess of publications and are increasingly turning to yellow journalism in attempts to gain market share.
Népszabadság Rt. (People's Liberty Co.) was founded in 1990 with 340 million Hungarian forints (HUF) in capital assets. Today it is a powerful business owned by the Swiss-based Ringier Corporation, with some 8 billion HUF annual revenues and it is active in other media fields. Its paper, the Népszabadság (Peoples Liberty) is by far the largest newspaper in circulation in Hungary. Its long-time slogan was "Hungary's Most Popular Daily Newspaper." The paper is of standard size (63 by 47 cm) and is published six times a week (Monday to Saturday). The number of pages varies during the week—Wednesday averages the most (40)—as does the ratio of advertisements—Friday averages the highest percentage (29) of advertisements. It has only a morning edition, similar to all Hungarian newspapers, with the exception of Déli Hírek (News at Noon), a regional newspaper circulated in the Northeast region of Miskolc and the surrounding county of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén. Déli íírek is on newsstands by noon or the early afternoon, and also has a single edition per day.
The Népszabadság has both permanent features and special supplements over the week. Its standard coverage consists of foreign politics with commentary, home affairs, mirror to the world, mirror to Hungary, culture, forum, market and economy, real estate market, news of the world, sport (in every day's edition), info world, green page, youth/school, the economy and technical/computer electronics. Each weekday there are special sections concentrating on popular subjects. Monday's edition has a regular supplement called "Daily Investor, " Tuesday has a supplement on labor and job issues, Wednesday's special edition is dedicated to cars and motorcycles, Thursday it produces a supplement called "At Home" (concentrating on domestic Hungarian issues), Friday has a real estate supplement, and Saturday has "Magazine" and "Weekend" sections. The newspaper generally is considered to have a left-wing attitude, so it was quite critical towards the Hungarian government from the middle of 1998 to the middle of May 2002.
In contrast, the second largest newspaper, Magyar Nemzet (Hungarian Nation) has a definite right-wing bias. It is owned by Nemzet Lap és Könyvkiadó (Nemzet Newspaper and Book Publishing Co.) which consists of a number of private shareholders. It calls itself the "bourgeois paper" and acted as a de facto forum. Some would say it also acted as a mouthpiece for the government up to 2002, with an orientation favoring the conservative government in power. Magyar Nemzet has a circulation of about 110,000, is published six times a week from Monday to Saturday, and has permanent columns dedicated to home affairs, foreign affairs/diplomacy, the economy, culture, letters from the readers, a large sports section, and a weekend magazine on Saturday. It usually has two to three pages of advertisements and around 20 to 24 total pages. It is a full-size newspaper.
Magyar Hírlap (Hungarian News), also owned by the Ringier Group, has a circulation of around 38,000, regular (large) size pages and 24 pages on weekdays, but the Saturday edition has 28. Its motto is "The news is intangible, the opinion is free," thus claiming that it is the most objective of all Hungarian newspapers. Its regular columns are the topic of the day, foreign affairs, home affairs centered on Budapest, culture, letters from the readers, world news, the domestic economy, the world economy, E-world, food market, science, sports and a weekend magazine called "As You Like It" in the Saturday edition.
Népszava (People's Word) a left-wing broadsheet owned and influenced by trade union interests, has about the same circulation as Magyar Hírlap. Its regular columns include home affairs, foreign affairs, background, opinion, world, culture, television programming, letters from readers, sports and world news.
There are two economic papers published five times a week on weekdays. In the mid-1990s they were one paper, then they split into Napi Gazdaság (Daily Econo my) and Világgazdaság (World Economy). They are much more expensive than the dailies, especially Világgazdaság, which costs 190 HUF, and Napi Gazdaság 's cost of 178 HUF. In comparison Népszabadság sells for 85 HUF, Magyar Nemzet 98 HUF, Magyar Hírlap 99 HUF and Népszava 89 HUF.
In Budapest there is an English-language weekly, the Budapest Sun, which primarily covers topics of concern to the business community. Other European-language newspapers are readily available and often with same-day coverage as the rest of Europe. North American newspapers (USA Today, New York Times ) usually are editions from two to three days earlier. There is no restriction on their import.
A major feature of Hungarian newspaper readership is the numbers, circulation and impact of 18 regional newspapers outside Budapest. Hungarian county newspapers and magazines are noteworthy for their dominance by the Axel Springer German newspaper conglomerate. Axel Springer is the publisher of nine county papers, or almost half of all the county papers, as there are 19 counties in Hungary. Pest County, where Budapest is located, has no newspaper of its own but owing to the dominance of Budapest in Hungarian affairs, the national dailies devote much of their news coverage to what is happening in the capital. Only three counties— Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Heves and Fejér—have more than one paper. Total circulation of the nine county papers is about 250,000 with an average circulation around 37,500, thus giving them as important an impact, if not more, than the so-called national dailies. Axel Springer's county newspapers are the following: Békés Megyei Hírlap (Békés County News, circulation of 33,200); Új Dunántúli Napló (New Transdanubian Diary, 55,000); Jászkun Krónika/Új Néplap (Jászkun Chronicle/New People's Paper, 16,000); Heves Megyei Hírlap (Heves County News, 21,000); Nógrád Megyei Hírlap (Nógrád County News, 17,000); Somogyi Hírlap (Somogy News, 25,365); Petöfí Népe (Petöfí's People, 50,485); Tolnai Népújság (Tolna People's Paper, 23,650) and 24 Óra (Twenty-four Hours, 25,365).
The remaining county newspapers are owned either by another German-based group, Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitungsgruppe (WAZ), an Austrian-based conglomerate, Inform Stúdió Ltd. or the British-based Daily Mail group.
The second largest conglomerate, Pannon Lapok Társasága (Society of Pannon Papers), a division of Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitungsgruppe (WAZ), is one of the largest European regional media concerns, consisting of more than 160 companies and an annual turnover in excess of 4 billion Deutsche Marks in 2001. It has papers in Germany , Austria , Hungary and Bulgaria . In Hungary it has four county papers with a total circulation of around 250,000. These papers have a radio and television program color attachment called RTV-Tipp. The newspapers are: Zala Megyei Hírlap (Zala County News, with a circulation of about 65,000); Napló (Diary, 56,400); Vas Népe (Vas People, 64,200) and Fejér Megyei Hírlap/Dunaújvárosi Hírlap (Fejér County News/Dunaújváros News, 53,500 and 9,800, respectively).
The third county newspaper group in Hungary is Funk Verlag—Inform Stúdió. The publisher has Austrian majority ownership (Inform Stúdió Ltd.) but with its Hungarian center in Miskolc. It publishes three county newspapers with a total circulation exceeding 136,000. Its papers are: Hajdú-Bihari Napló (Hajdú-Bihar Diary, 50,400), Észak-Magyarország (North Hungary, 37,350), and Kelet-Magyarország (East Hungary, 48,750).
Finally the Rothermere family, based in Britain and publishers of the Daily Mail in the UK, publishes two county papers in Hungary with a total circulation of more than 150,000. The Kisalföld (Small Hungarian Plain) is the leading county paper in Hungary, with regional editions distributed across county borders. Its other paper is Délmagyarország/Délvilág (South Hungary/Southern Part).
Additionally, there are three minor county/urban county seat dailies. They are: Békés Megyei Nap (Békés County Daily, 10,680), Komárom-Esztergom Megyei (Komárom-Esztergom County News, 15,000) and the only afternoon-edition newspaper, Déli Hírek (News at Noon, 18,000).
In the magazine market, a company called AS-Budapest publishes most of the major magazines such as the popular women's magazines Kiskegyed (My Fine Lady), Csók és Könny (Kisses and Tears), Kiskegyed konyhája (Kitchen of the Kiskegyed), Gyöngy (Pearl), TVR-hét (Weekly Television and Radio Programs), Lakáskultúra (Homes Culture), and Party. AS-Budapest also publishes a Sunday paper called Vasárnap Reggel (Sunday Morning).
In twenty-first century Hungary there are few logistical problems with producing such a large output of print media. Most presses are modern offset presses, usually manufactured and imported from within Europe. News-print is readily available in adequate quantities. In a country that had a socialist history of trade union membership, there have been no strikes or work stoppages that have significantly affected newspaper production. The average print journalist's salary in Hungary in 2002 was around HUF 170,000 a month. Junior staff earn around HUF 120-150,000, more experiencedjournalists (staff members) around HUF 200-250,000, editors between HUF 250-400,000, senior editors up to 500,000, and editor-in-chiefs' salaries may go up to 1 million HUF. Television journalists are said to earn considerably more. Internet journalists earn less than the average, around 20-40 percent less than their newspaper colleagues.
Freelance journalists do not exist in Hungary in the Western sense of the term. That is, newspapers do not, or cannot, afford to pay a separate story the sum it would be worth and that helps explain why there is so little independent investigative journalism. There are journalists who do not have a single workplace and sell pieces to different publications, but their articles are public relations pieces. It is suspected that Playboy and similar magazines pay the largest sums for a piece, around HUF 10,000 (U.S. $39.50) per flekk, a Hungarian journalistic term for the length of the text, around 1,500 characters with spaces.
There also exists a strange phenomenon in Hungary because according to tax authorities, there are only a couple of journalists in the whole nation! This means that few of them are registered as being employed as a journalist in their medium, and even those who are official journalists receive only the minimum wage of HUF 50,000 per month. The remainder of their salary is paid according to an agreement with the small companies of the journalists. This way the employer can avoid paying Social Security and other taxes.
In a country the size of Hungary, the depth and extent of newspaper coverage can be viewed as remarkable. The Observer Budapest Media Watch Co. regularly examines 162 newspapers and periodicals in Hungary, although most have circulations of about 5,000 to 10,000 subscribers. The generally adverse economic climate is the major factor in the low percentage of advertising, with the result that subscriptions, circulation, market area and discretionary retail sales become major influences on newspaper viability. On the other hand, advertisers have very little influence on editorial policies. As the economy strengthens and full European Union integration brings more foreign investment, the importance of advertising to the newspaper industry can be expected to increase.
As a result of the almost homogeneous Hungarian population, most publications are printed in Hungarian. Major minority newspapers in Hungary and their ethnic audience are: Amaro Drom (Roma), Ararát (Hungarian and Armenian), Barátság—Prietenie (Hungarian and Romanian), Foaia Romaneasca (Romanian), Haemus (Bolgár), Hromada (Hungarian and Ukrainian), Hrvatski Glasnik (Croatian), Közös Út—Kethano Drom (Hungarian and Roma), Lungo Drom (Roma), Ludové Noviny (Slovakian), Neue Zeitung (German), Porabje (Slovenain) and Srpske Narodne Novine (Serbian).
The news media in Hungary is generally seen as having a left-wing bias, an accusation that the ruling political parties in the 1990s disliked and have attempted to counterbalance by political appointments in oversight bodies. This accusation is most prevalent in Budapest which, by nature of its population and political importance, is most affected by the political climate in Hungary. In smaller cities and towns, local news is just as important and the circumstances of individuals become more important than the political agenda. In some newspapers there have been instances of anti-Semitism that have found voice in the media, but the government moved quickly to silence such right-wing extremists.
Economic Framework
In the 10 years since the fall of the Soviet Union, the economy of Hungary has been one of the most successful in making the transition to a privatized, market economy. As Hungary entered the new millennium, inflation was at a manageable 9 percent, growth was at a robust 3.5-4 percent and productivity was among the highest of all Eastern European nations. Based on this successful economic transformation, Hungary was one of the first former communist nations to gain candidate status for entry into the European Union. Economically, the European Union has stressed that the Hungarian government needs to further reduce inflation, cut the budget deficit and reform the tax code.
The European Union also attaches considerable importance to the status of the press, with particular emphasis on freedom and independence. In addition, the European Union has used the question of the status of the Roma as a barometer upon which to judge Hungary's suitability to join the Union. In this regard the media has served in part as a barometer with which to judge Hungary's movement toward recognition and accommodation of its ethnic minorities, particularly the Roma. Some sections of the press have acted as watchdogs toward government mismanagement and discrimination, and acted to publicize and criticize racist acts directed against the Roma.
More than 80 percent of the print media and more than 70 percent of the broadcast media (in total, 30 radio stations and 29 television stations) are in private hands. The process started almost immediately after independence with the purchase of the existing media. Since independence there has been a veritable explosion of independent newspapers and magazines. Recently the print media has become highly competitive and of high quality. There is no direct control of the electronic media by the government, although there have been accusations that the government seeks to influence the media in its structuring and appointments to the Boards of Trustees.
Press Laws
The Constitution of the Hungarian Republic, written in 1949 but greatly amended upon independence in 1989, guarantees freedom of speech and freedom of the press under Act XX, Article 61, which states (paraphrased):
Part One: In the Republic of Hungary everybody has the right to freely express their opinion and have access to and disseminate data concerning the public.
Part Two: The Republic of Hungary acknowledges and protects the freedom of the press.
Part Three: The amendment of the Act on the publication of data of public concern and on the freedom of the press requires a two-thirds majority of Parliament.
Part Four: A two-thirds majority is needed for the appointment of the leaders of public radio, television and news agencies, the licensing of commercial radio and television stations and the passing of any act on the prevention of media monopolies.
These freedoms are generally respected. The most important subsequent legal qualifications were in 1994 when the Constitutional Court ruled that Article 232 of the criminal code was unconstitutional, thus removing the crime of libel from the criminal code and affirming the right of citizens/journalists to criticize public officials. In effect it meant that journalist harassment by means of libel lawsuits was no longer possible. This provision was never completely accepted by the government, and a 2000 law would permit journalists to be tried in criminal court if the journalist in question was continually charged with libel. This law has aroused much protest internally and by external media watchdogs. In 1996 a second landmark law affecting the media was passed. It was aimed specifically at the creation of commercial broadcast media and making the state public broadcasting system a separate public broadcasting service at more distance from the government. To date, the former has generally been successful while the latter has been only partially realized and is the cause of much discontent.
Finally, in 2000 the Constitutional Court removed another section of the criminal code forbidding "deliberately spreading panic" that in the past had been used against journalists.
It is worth noting that the Media Act (Act No. 1 of 1996 on Radio and Television services and passed by an 89 percent parliamentary majority in 1996) is one of the most problematic acts in Hungary. Reformation of this act has been on the political agenda many times since its passage with limited success. For example, Hungary is the only associate country of the European Union that has not closed negotiations with the European Union on the so-called "audiovisual chapter." As a consequence, the Hungarian film industry lost access to large amounts of European Union subsidy money, as it was not eligible for support. Both the former government and the former opposition (who in 2002 reversed their positions in government) blame it on the other side. The former government (now opposition) says that the then opposition (now government) consistently voted against amendments to the media law making it impossible to close the negotiations. The opposition said that it had no real influence on the amendment as the members of the Board of Trustees consisted only of the leading government party, and that is why it voted against the amendments.
In 2002 the Board of Trustees was constituted with members from both sides. Thus the prognosis is more positive for the Media Act to be amended and harmonized with European Union requirements. The issue was raised in parliament again in the summer of 2002 for the fourth time in as many years. Principal changes will be the re-regulation of broadcasting and urban county seat requirements, the introduction of the concept of "European program," the preference for programs made in Europe, stricter measures protecting youth (less violence on the screen) and the amendment of advertising rules.
There are laws codifying the privacy of individuals and these are generally respected. In Hungary the judiciary is independent under the constitution and a National Judicial Council nominates judicial appointments—other than the Supreme Court or the Constitutional court whose members are elected by parliament—at the local and county level. The Constitutional Court decides on all matters of legal interpretation and has been required to make decisions a number of times on matters affecting the media. All decisions emanating from this court have been seen as impartial and fair.
Censorship
There is no government body that monitors the press, either via pre-publication censorship or modes of compliance. However in view of the general adversarial relationship between the media and the government, the International Journalists Network (IJNET) claims that information from government officials is not readily forthcoming. This is despite an existing Freedom of Information Act that provides for press access to government activities. As a result, the IJNET suggests that the media has had "modest success" in uncovering alleged government wrongdoing, malfeasance or illicit activities. In 1998 the government passed a law limiting information that could be revealed about official meetings, banning recordings or transcripts, and limiting information to the proposed agenda and meeting attendees.
Overall the subject of censorship is a delicate issue. For example, although there is no "official" censorship in Hungary, many impartial observers have noted the blatant manner in which administrations since independence (ruling from 1998 to 2002) have tried to influence the media. The most egregious example seems to have occurred during the general elections in Hungary in May 2002. The fourth general election since independence in 1989, this generally was agreed to be the most virulent campaign ever waged, with accusations of lying and hatred from both sides. In particular, public opinion polls were published in the government newspapers predicting a clear government majority and saying that FIDESZ (Fiatal Demokraták Szövetsége or Federation of Young Democrats), the incumbent party, would win again. But exactly the opposite happened. After the first round of elections, the MSZP (Magyar Szocialista Párt or Hungarian Socialist Party) had a slight advantage of only 1 percent. However, its ally, the Alliance of Free Democrats had a better position than the MIÉP (Magyar Igazság és Élet Pártja or Party of Hungarian Justice and Life), the only potential partner of the government. MIÉP is considered as an extremist right-wing party and it they had made a coalition with FIDESZ, Hungary probably would have reduced chances for European Union accession.
Between the two election rounds, then Prime Minister Viktor Orbán delivered a 40-minute speech filled with hatred, scaremongering and raising populist topics such as fear of the Communists returning, possible loss of homes and children, and religion being threatened and in danger of abolition. State television broadcast the speech in its entirety, and then rebroadcast it free of charge, not as a political advertisement (in which case it would have cost FIDESZ a fortune) but as a program of public interest.
Two days before the second round of the elections, a program defaming the MSZP candidate for prime minister was broadcast at peak evening viewing time, and on every program between the elections one could see only Orbán opening factories, talking to the people, shaking hands, crowds supporting him and so on, whereas there was hardly any news about the opposition parties campaign.
Despite this, Orbán and his FIDESZ party did not come out on top, and in 2002 Hungary elected a new government. One of the first priorities of the new government was to restructure the Board of Trustees, which governs the broadcast media. The recent board has representatives from both the government and the opposition. It is too early to judge the relationship between the new government and the media, but there is hope that it will try to exert less influence than the former government. It might also be assumed that given the left-wing bias in much of the Hungarian media, apart from Magyar Nemzet and a few periodicals, the media will be probably be more tolerant of the mistakes and faults of the new government.
Attitude toward Foreign Media
The Hungarian government has sometimes had a rocky relationship with the foreign media. While there are no restrictions on foreign journalists, no accreditation required and no violence against foreign media, the government is suspicious of the role foreign media plays, probably because of a perceived influence of foreign media on the process of European Union accession. In particular, the government in the past has accused foreign media of "spreading lies about Hungary abroad," and in 2000 then Prime Minister Viktor Orbán took the unusual step of naming three foreign newspapers that he claimed were trying to discredit Hungary: the New York Times, Die Zeit and Le Monde, all amongst the most reputable newspapers in the world. Having said that, some commentators noted that the three are liberal in their orientation and hence their pronouncements were bound to rankle the conservative governments of that time.
As much of an irritant as foreign media are in Hungary, the oversight provided by other media watchers has proven to be effective—and mostly critical. The British Helsinki Human Rights Group, the Our Society Enlightenment Centre and domestic organizations such as the Openness Club have kept a constant commentary on press issues and freedoms in Hungary and are generally effective.
News Agencies
The official Hungarian news agency is MTI Co. (Magyar Távirati Iroda or Hungarian Telegraph Office). Founded in March 1881, then the news, reports and photographs of the MTI Co. since then have been the backbone of information released in the Hungarian press. The company has a staff of 400, including 19 county reporters and 14 reporters abroad, plus a number of photo reporters and journalists on 24-hour shifts, processing more than 10,000 pages of printed information daily. The fact that MTI produces some 700 news items per day shows how prolific it is in a country of only 10 million. As a result, there is extensive coverage of most issues in Hungary and those who use it generally see MTI Co. as fair and balanced. Almost all foreign news agencies are represented in Hungary, including Associated Press, Reuters, Inter-fax, Bloomberg and Dow Jones, as well as a number of European and Austrian newspapers that have offices in Budapest. The UK's Guardian and the Independent newspaper groups also have offices in Hungary.
In order to represent the Roma population more extensively and perhaps fairly, the Roma have their own news agency, the Roma Press center. In addition, Roma media television (Patrin TV News Magazine) and radio ("Roma 30 minutes") as well as Roma Print Media (Lungo Drom, Amaro Drom, Rom Som) have offices in the larger communities outside Budapest that distribute Roma news.
Broadcast Media
Television broadcasts are in Hungarian. However, there is minority language print media, and state-run radio broadcasts two-hour programs daily in Romany, Slovak, Romanian, German, Croatian and Serbian. State-run television also carries a 30-minute program for every major minority group. This programming is written and produced by the minority groups. Moreover, those minority groups without daily programming have weekly or monthly programs in their language. These programs may be repeated during off-hours on weekends. In February 2001 the radio station Radio C, took to the national airwaves with a seven-year license to broadcast in Romany for the Roma population.
The broadcast media has been the one area of concern in the transition to a free press. In 1989 the government controlled all electronic media, but plans for dismantling this system were put in place early in the life of an independent Hungary. Early difficulties in the privatization and regulatory agencies were solved by the media law of 1996 that was one of the most influential instruments of change for media in the former Soviet Bloc. At the turn of the twenty-first century only three electronic media outlets were government owned: Radio Hungary, Hungarian Television and Duna TV. Moreover, it was estimated that state television was watched by less than 10 percent of the viewing audience in the year 2000.
Notwithstanding this low market share, Hungarian television has been the focus of much of the discussion over the provision of a free press and the removal of government control and influence. Specifically, the state broadcast media have laid off a large number of journalists and administrative personnel, citing massive financial losses. This is almost certainly true but the government has been accused of selective layoffs, in particular firing journalists unsympathetic to the government. Moreover the Board of Trustees that governs executive positions, and ultimately programming, was weighted towards persons favoring the coalition government. Indeed, the board was incomplete with opposition seats remaining unfilled while they apparently fought amongst themselves for representation.
This infighting caused diplomats overseeing Hungary's accession into the European Union to strongly urge that this element of media affairs be resolved as it would hurt accession chances, a reprimand that is unusual and therefore indicative of a serious problem. Recently, Parliament and the Constitutional Court were embroiled in this dispute.
An example of the kind of interference in program content that has characterized Hungarian television and that has irked many Hungarians is a situation where one of Hungary's leading commercial televisions, RTL Klub, had a very popular weekly program called "Heti Hetes" (Weekly Seven), a talk show in which renowned Hungarian guest personalities (actors, writers, comedians) commented on the news of the week. It was among the two or three most popular and most watched shows on commercial television. Originally it was broadcast live, then after a few months it was filmed in a studio on Thursday night and broadcast Saturday night, starting quite late (about 10 p.m.). The program had a strong anti-government attitude but made fun of any politician, irrespective of his or her party. It was soon revealed in other media by the personalities that the best jokes were omitted from the program, notwithstanding their protests. A few weeks before the 2002 national elections, the RTL Klub announced it would cease broadcasting Heti Hetes for a few weeks until the election was over. There was a public uproar over this decision, and while the station announced that it would broadcast during the election, there was no Heti Hetes on the two Saturday nights before the elections.
Another example of government influence on the media was the case of the Hungarian writer, Péter Kende. He wrote a book called A Viktor about the former prime minister in which he exposed several negative characteristics of the former official. There was no formal government protest against the book nor was the writer sued, but the tax authority invaded his office the day after the book's release (the Hungarian tax authority has a history of use by the government to investigate and punish citizens) and a popular television program broadcast on state television in which Kende had an interest was taken off the air. Additionally, in many bookstores a few people were discovered wanting to buy all the books available, probably in an attempt to eliminate them from the market.
The potential for government interference in information dissemination is further exacerbated because Radio Hungary is the only radio station to cover the entire country and hence provides the opportunity for government to reach areas that television, through its limited appeal, does not. Radio Hungary also has come under much criticism as a government mouthpiece. In contrast, commercial radio stations have a limited local reach and provide little news.
Notwithstanding these problems with a state media that controls only 10 percent of the total viewing market, private electronic media flourish to the extent that Western private consortia have opened up television channels in Hungary. However, in 2000 during a sale of local radio stations to further privatize the media, buyers with ties to Hungary's right were favored by the licensing body over bidders such as the BBC, Radio France and Germany's Deutsche Welle—an occurence leading some to comment that Hungary was not as committed to a free international press as it has claimed.
Electronic News Media
There are a large number of electronic news media sites that may be accessed by the 20 percent of Hungarian households connected to the Internet. Of significance, eMarketer believes that academic users make up more than half of the estimated Internet users, suggesting that among educated Hungarians, Internet news access may be an important trend. This is reinforced when one considers that the average Hungarian Internet user is usually between 20 and 25 years of age. Moreover, for those without Internet access, the market economy has created a large number of Internet cafes that provide access to the Internet for those who are not online at home. The major areas without Internet access are more rural, and often are areas of greater poverty. News flow is both voluminous and freely available both domestically and from international sources.
Hungary's online magazines total around 440, with some of the more popular subjects being technical and natural sciences, culture and arts, local and municipal issues, politics and public life, portals, and health and lifestyle. Overall, there is a wide variety of online magazines covering many areas of interest.
Education & TRAINING
Since 1989 there has been dramatic growth in both the number of journalists graduating from higher education establishments and a large number of private institutions led by well-known journalists (for instance: Komlósi Stúdió) or founded by papers (Népszabadság Stúdió) that teach journalists. The problem is that most instructors teaching journalism in the institutions were trained during the socialist period and hence have little appreciation of the need and application of a free press and all that it entails. Thus graduating students are technically good, but lack an ability to discriminate in selection of media content or provide balance in their coverage. Moreover, they feel obliged to insert their own commentary (by liberal use of adjectives and long-winded impressions) while burying the facts.
The most prestigious journalist schools are in the communications departments in Budapest's Eötvös Lo-rand University and Szeged University (the latter also has a presence in Budapest). Smaller universities in the countryside have similar departments. In reality, working journalists indicate journalism schools have only one function and that is to assist students with the opportunity to practice journalism in a working editorial office for some months, and if they are good, they may have a job opportunity. Moreover, they add that with the knowledge of two Western languages a graduate of any discipline has a good chance to become a journalist regardless of writing ability.
Once employed, journalists have the benefit of ongoing training through a number of bilateral programs that bring in teachers from the BBC, major U.S. newspapers and the German media. The Independent Journalism Center in Budapest has been at the forefront of this training program, funded in the early days by the U.S. financier George Soros, who put significant financial resources into media development in his native Hungary.
Summary
The transformation of Hungary's media from a state-controlled, politically dominated institution in past years to a twenty-first-century competitive, uncensored market with the majority of print and electronic media in private hands—all in the space of 10 years—is a remarkable transformation. Moreover, the quality of journalism and programming is high. The only apparent impediment to a nearly flawless media role is the lingering tendency of government to see the press as an adversary, and thus try to mute its criticism. This situation is most apparent in the electronic media, and particularly in the regulation of state television companies. The regulating board has remained heavily politicized but the demand for change is strong, as shown in March 2001 when around 6,000 demonstrators marched in Budapest to demand an independent advisory board. The change of government in 2002 created the climate for such a change, and change must occur in order to facilitate Hungary's accession into the European Union.
Significant Dates
1989: Amendment to the Constitution of the Hungarian Republic, written in 1949, guarantees freedom of speech and freedom of the press under Act XX, Article 61.
1994: The Constitutional Court rules that Article 232 of the criminal code was unconstitutional, thus removing the crime of libel from the criminal code and affirming the right of citizens and journalists to criticize public officials.
1996: Passage of The Media Act (Act No. 1 of 1996 on Radio and Television services).
March 2001: Around 6,000 demonstrators march in Budapest to demand an independent advisory board for state electronic broadcasting.
Bibliography
Bajomi-Lázár, Péter. Media Policy Proposals for Hungary. The Center for Policy Studies, Open Society Institute. Available from http://www.osi.hu/ipf/pubs.html.
Country Ratings. Freedom House Media, 1999. Available from http://freedomhouse.org/pfs99/reports.html.
"Europa-Enlargement relations with Hungary." The European Commission. Available from http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/hungary/index.htm.
"Hungary 2001: The Hungarian Media Today." British Helsinki Human Rights Group. Available from http://www.bhhrg.org .
"Hungary." In World Press Freedom Review 2001. Available from http://freemedia.at/wpfr/hungary.htm.
"Hungary." U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. U.S. Department of State, 2001. Available from http://www.state.gov .
"Hungary Press Overview." International Journalists Network. Available from http://www.ijnet.org/profile/CEENIS/Hungary/media.html.
Richard W. Benfield
COUNTRY OVERVIEW
LOCATION AND SIZE.
Hungary is a landlocked country in eastern Central Europe bordered by Austria , Slovakia , the Ukraine , Romania , Serbia , Croatia , and Slovenia . Located in the Carpathian Basin, it is surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps , and the Dinaric Alps. It has a total area of 93,030 square kilometers (35,919 square miles), 690 square kilometers (266 square miles) of which is water. Comparatively, Hungary is slightly smaller than the state of Indiana . The capital, Budapest , is located in the central northern region on the Danube river, which runs from Austria to the Croatian-Serbian border.
POPULATION.
The population of Hungary was estimated at 10.04 million at the end of January 2000, a slight decrease compared to the 1990 population of 10.38 million. In 2000 the birth rate was estimated at 9.26 births per 1,000, and the death rate was 13.34 deaths per 1,000. The population growth rate estimate in 2000 was-.33 percent, making Hungary a country where population is declining. The majority religion in Hungary is Roman Catholic (67.5 percent), followed by Calvinist (20 percent), Lutheran (5 percent), and atheist and other (7.5 percent).
Some 60 percent of Hungarians live in urban areas. Compared to other European countries in population density, Hungary ranks in the middle with about 109.4 persons per square kilometer (283 per square mile). The most densely populated areas lie in the industrial axis areas, running southwest to northwest, that are rich in natural resources.
The Hungarian population is predominantly ethnic Hungarian (89.9 percent), descendants of the Finno-Ugric and Turkish tribes who merged with the Avars and Slavic tribes in the 9th century. The modern population also includes Roma (Gypsies, 4 percent), Germans (2.6 percent), Serbs (2 percent), Slovaks (0.8 percent), and Romanians (0.7 percent). An interesting feature of Hungary is that many ethnic Hungarians who identify themselves as Hungarians also live in bordering states and other countries, approximately 5 million in all. The largest Hungarian population outside Hungarian borders—approximately 2 million—lives in the Romanian region of Transylvania . Another 700,000 live in the Slovak and Czech Republics, and some 650,000 live in the former Yugoslavia .
OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY
Hungary has an advanced and diversified free-market economy. Economic growth is strong relative to other countries in Europe , and Hungary has its sights set clearly on accession to the European Union (EU) before 2010. It has been more than 10 years since the official end of state socialism and a semi-command economy, and over 85 percent of the economy has been privatized . Hungary has undergone significant economic reform since 1989 including privatization, reform of important state-supported sectors like health care, pensions, and social security, and housing supports. It has also experienced significant regional development and the encouragement of both foreign and domestic investment.
Hungary's economic output has been steadily growing, yet it continues to lag behind typical western countries, including those of the European Union. Still, its growth rates have been impressive by the standards of developed countries, in recent years exceeding the EU average. Hungary's growth in the gross domestic product ( GDP ) was 5.5 percent in 2000, up from 4 percent in the previous year.
Hungary is regarded as a converging economy approaching the ranks of developed countries in general. Hungary is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is currently an associate member of the European Union and has been preparing for full membership since 1997.
The most significant event affecting Hungary's economy after 1950 was the experiment of state socialism. When the communists took over in 1948, the economy of Hungary was based primarily on agriculture. That emphasis shifted under communist rule toward industrialization, especially heavy industry and manufacturing. In the late 1950s and 1960s the government retreated on this stance somewhat, emphasizing more consumer-oriented goods. As a consequence the Hungarian standard of living rose relative to that of other Eastern European countries under communist rule, but by the 1980s the Hungarian economy began to stagnate. As a consequence, Hungary became increasingly indebted to international lenders. At the same time, its ties with foreign governments, businesses, and organizations were gradually increasing. The combination of these financial and commercial trends contributed to the shift to a multiparty system in 1989.
The introduction of multiparty competition in 1990 was quickly followed by significant free market reforms, especially in the area of privatization. The new government was also particularly aggressive at attracting foreign investment, accounting for more than half of all direct foreign investment in Eastern Europe by 1993. Since 1989 more than US$20 billion in working capital has been invested by foreign companies. About 40 of the world's top 50 multinational companies are represented in Hungary. Hungary also has the most highly capitalized stock exchange in eastern Central Europe.
The growth potential of the Hungarian economy remains strong relative to both its neighbors and to the advanced economies of the European Union. Hungarian sovereign debt now rates as investment grade (debt low enough for investors to seriously consider putting money into the country). Hungary's economic growth in 2000 exceeded 5 percent, placing it above the EU average. Inflation , while high at just above 10 percent, is expected to drop to single digit levels in 2001 or 2002.
Organized crime has been a problem in Hungary since its political and economic transition in 1989, especially as a consequence of its geographic location and relative economic openness. Organized crime groups have used Hungary as a transit country for smuggling drugs, people, and weapons. Hungary has passed tough laws against such activities, however, and is rated much more highly as an attractive locale for foreign investment than many other post-communist countries. As it seeks to gain accession to the European Union, Hungary is actively seeking to eradicate the further influence of organized crime.
POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION
Since its transition to a multiparty system in 1989, Hungary has enjoyed a fully competitive and democratic political system. Hungary is a parliamentary democracy with the leader of the largest party as prime minister. There is also a president who acts as head of state and is elected by the legislature. The legislative branch consists of the single-chambered National Assembly, consisting of 386 representatives elected through a combination of proportional and direct representation. Elections are held every 4 years, taking place in 1990, 1994, and 1998.
The ruling coalition in 2001 consisted of the right-of-center Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party, in concert with the Hungarian Democratic Party and the Independent Smallholders' Party. The main opposition parties were the leftist Hungarian Socialist Party and the centrist Alliance of Free Democrats. A far-right nationalist party, the Hungarian Justice and Life Party, also received 14 seats for the first time in the 1998 election. The parties differ over the emphasis and content of some key economic policy issues. The Fidesz-based coalition, for example, supports a faster pace of economic reform than does the Socialist Party, which during its period in government from 1994-98 slowed the pace of reforms. Because all major parties are committed to Hungary's joining the European Union, however, economic policy differences are muted.
Hungary's judicial branch is headed by an independent Constitutional Court, established during the regime change of 1989 by the First Act of the Constitution. By law it is the responsibility of the Constitutional Court to guarantee that the constitution is adhered to in legal and political affairs. One important duty of the Constitutional Court is to reconcile the differences between national and international law, especially important in the economic and policy sphere as Hungary prepares its laws to conform to EU standards.
The Hungarian justice system is divided into 3 areas of jurisdiction, including criminal, civil, and administrative law. Administrative law includes reviewing the legality of administrative decisions, including economic policy decision, with regard to existing regulations. Hungary has a 3-tier justice system. At the lowest level are local courts (municipal district courts), superseded by county courts (in the 19 counties and the capital Budapest), and the Supreme Court. The office of the public prosecutor also plays an important role, used to investigate criminal activity and to represent the public interest. The public prosecutor supervises investigations, enforces punishments, and oversees court proceedings.
Hungary has a large centralized tax office, known in Hungarian as APEH. APEH monitors the financial activity of citizens and businesses, processing annual returns and value-added taxes , currently between 12 and 25 percent in Hungary depending on the category of good. APEH has fairly sweeping powers to investigate tax non-compliance, including its own police branch. Income tax on individuals is progressive (meaning the proportion of tax paid increases as income increases), ranging from 25 percent to 42 percent for the highest incomes. The general tax rate on businesses is 18 percent.
INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS
Like many former communist countries, Hungary possesses an excellent public transport system. The rail system, consisting of 7,606 kilometers (4,726 miles) of track, is state-owned and operated and connects all major cities in Hungary as well as a large number of international destinations. Hungary has 188,203 kilometers (116,944 miles) of highways, 81,680 kilometers (50,756 miles) of which are paved and 438 kilometers (272 miles) of which are expressways. Hungary also has 1,373 kilometers (853 miles) of permanently navigable waterways, including the Danube River flowing north to south through the center of the country. With its tributaries, the Danube provides a low-cost means to transport passengers and a large portion of domestic freight.
Communications
aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people.
bData are from the Internet Software Consortium ( http://www.isc.org ) and are per 10,000 people.
SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.
The completion of a canal between the Main River and the Danube River in 1992 allowed for goods to be shipped from the Black Sea to the North Sea . Finally, Hungary had 43 airports in 1999, including an international airport just outside Budapest. Hungary has a national airline, Malév, serving nearly all major European cities and several destinations in North America , Asia , the Middle East , and Africa. The airline was formerly state-owned but has now been partially privatized. The Ministry of Economic Affairs approved a large-scale program, the Széchényi Plan, designed to make massive national investments in highway and property development after 2000.
Power production in Hungary relies on a combination of domestically generated energy sources and imports. In 1999 Hungarian consumption of energy was 33.317 billion kilowatt hours (kWh), while production was 35.104 billion kWh. Hungary still has artificially low subsidized energy prices, but there are plans to allow prices to rise to western European market levels. At present Hungary's energy prices are between one-third and one-half of the prices in EU countries.
Like many other former Eastern bloc countries, Hungary relies heavily on fossil fuels to meet its energy needs. Hungary's estimated sources of primary energy supplies (1996, OECD/IEA) were 16.9 percent coal, 27.1 percent oil, and 40.4 percent natural gas. Of non-fossil fuel sources, 14.6 percent came from nuclear energy, 0.1 percent from hydroelectric sources, and 0.9 percent from other sources. Nuclear energy is produced in Hungary's 1 nuclear power plant, located near the city of Paks. Nuclear energy provides 38.9 percent of Hungary's electricity production, producing 13.969 billion kWh in 1998.
Hungary's telecommunication network has until recently been underdeveloped both from a technological and a service standpoint. But partial privatization of the state telephone company Matáv in 1993 and the planned introduction of competition for land-based telephone lines in 2002 has led to many important changes. Among these has been a spectacular growth in cellular phone services and ownership, with the number of mobile phone subscribers estimated at more than 3 million in 2000. (Official data put this number at 1.62 million in 1999, and 1.034 million in 1998.) There were 3 companies providing cellular service in 2001.
Under communism the telecommunication system was underdeveloped and poorly operated. Even in the first half of the 1990s, Hungarians often had to wait more than a year to have a fixed telephone line installed. This situation has changed quickly in recent years, however. The domestic phone network is now digitized and highly automated and is able to provide almost any telecommunication service need. Trunk services are carried by fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay. Subscribers have had the option of fiber-optic connections (using ISDN lines) since 1996. Hungary has fiber-optic cable connections with all neighboring countries. Total fixed-line telephones in use were 3.609 million in 1999 and estimated at over 4 million in 2000. The Hungarian state telecommunications company, Matáv, had a state-guaranteed monopoly on fixed-line communications, a monopoly that was scheduled to end in 2002.
Hungary has an extensive number of radio stations: 57 FM radio stations, 17 AM radio stations, and 3 shortwave radio stations in 1998. Total radio ownership in 1997 was 7.01 million. Hungary also had 39 television broadcast stations and some 4.42 million televisions in 1997. Internet activity has also grown significantly in Hungary, with 45 Internet service providers operating in 1999. Only 58.9 persons per 1,000 owned personal computers in 1998, a figure well behind the United States, although many more people use computers in school or at their workplaces. The number of Internet users in 1999 was 137,000, and estimates for 2000 put this figure at 733,000.
Since private ownership of publications was legalized in 1989, the print media in Hungary has blossomed. In 1999 there were 10 national daily newspapers, the most popular being Népszabadság and Metró, each with 207,000 copies printed per day. Népszabadság, meaning People's Freedom, was formerly controlled by the communist party but is now independent. Most of Hungary's daily newspapers are partially foreign owned. Hungary also has dozens of weekly and monthly magazines and papers, the largest exceeding 500,000 copies per week.
ECONOMIC SECTORS
Hungary's shift to a service-based economy, away from the agricultural and industry sectors, has been the most marked change in recent decades. Before World War II , Hungary's economy was based primarily on agriculture, and its industry was almost entirely destroyed by the war. During the communist period beginning in 1948, emphasis shifted toward the development of industry, although production goals were set unrealistically high and Hungary was not able to meet them. In the 1960s and 1970s economic reforms shifted some of the emphasis from industry and placed more focus on agriculture and consumer goods . More recently, services have come to dominate the economy. According to 1999 figures, services account for 65 percent of the GDP, compared to 30 percent in industry and only 5 percent in agriculture. The labor force of 4.2 million shows a similar distribution, with 65 percent employed in services, 27 percent in industry, and 8 percent in agriculture.
AGRICULTURE
Agricultural production is important to Hungary's economy although its role in the economy has steadily declined. In 1999 agriculture provided 5 percent of the GDP and 8 percent of employment, roughly similar to proportions observable in West European countries. As a share of exports, agricultural and food products constituted 10.5 percent of Hungary's exports in 1998. Hungary has 93,000 square kilometers (35,900 square miles) of cultivated land, covering 52 percent of Hungary's total area.
During the communist period about 90 percent of all farmland was organized into collective and state-owned farms. In collective farms, different families worked together on jointly owned land and shared the earnings from the farm's output. State farms were directly owned and managed by the government. Following the introduction of the multiparty system and the transition to a free market economy in 1990, the new government began returning farms to private hands, also introducing forms of compensation for lands that had been seized. The result is that currently about 90 percent of cultivated land in Hungary is privately owned. Severe droughts following privatization, combined with sharp drops in government subsidies for farming, caused a 30 percent drop in agricultural production during the past 10 years. Animal breeding has fallen by 50 percent in comparison with 1990. State subsidies for agriculture in Hungary tend to be comparatively low, an average of 5 to 7 times less per capita in Hungary than in the average European Union country.
Hungary's leading agricultural products are a combination of staple crops, famous specialty items such as wine and livestock products, and basic livestock. Hungary's most important crops include corn, wheat, sugar beets, barley, potatoes, and sunflower seeds. It also produces grapes and wine, including several famous wines such as those from the Tokaj region. Other well-known specialty items include salami, goose liver, and paprika. Livestock production is also important in Hungary, including cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and poultry. Important livestock products include milk, meat, butter, eggs, and wool. Finally, Hungary has some important freshwater fisheries, mostly located on the Danube and Tisza rivers, and on Lake Balaton. The commercial fish catch consists mainly of carp, pike, perch, sheatfish, and shad.
Hungary also has important forestry resources, although poor forestry management reduced Hungary's forestry resources under communism. The expansion of agriculture, a high rate of exploitation, and inadequate re-planting of trees contributed to a significant decline in the period following World War II. In response, the government reduced timber cutting and launched an extensive reforestation program in the 1960s. The timber cut in 1998 was 3.88 million cubic meters (137 million cubic feet).
INDUSTRY
Once a major component of the Hungarian economy under communist rule, industrial enterprises struggled in the early 1990s to come to terms with operating in a free market. By the late 1990s, however, investments in many industries and the expertise and education of Hungarian workers contributed to a resurgence in the industrial sector. From 1999 to 2000 alone, industry expanded 18.3 percent, the third straight year of double-digit growth in this sector.
MANUFACTURING.
Manufacturing forms an important component of the Hungarian economy and was responsible for 84.6 percent of Hungary's exported commodities in 1998, even though most of Hungary's industries must import the raw materials used in the manufacturing process. The engineering industry—which is dominated by automobile and automobile parts production—accounts for roughly one-third of industrial output. Other leading manufactured products include steel (both crude and rolled), cement, aluminum, textiles, paper products, and shoes. The manufacture and processing of agricultural products is also an important contributor to Hungary's manufacturing output.
CHEMICALS.
The chemical industry is an important component of the Hungarian economy. The plastic base materials and plastic processing industries were major components within this sector, contributing 2.1 and 2.6 percent of total industrial output, respectively. This sector is mainly concerned with producing goods for other companies within the industrial sector, and produces some goods for export. The pharmaceutical industry contributes 2.4 percent of industrial output and is primarily oriented toward producing human and veterinary medicines, fine chemicals, pesticides and insecticides, and other pharmaceuticals.
MINING.
Mining was an important component of Hungary's industry during the communist period but has declined considerably since the collapse of the communist regime in 1989. Under communism, the government owned all subsurface resources and held exclusive rights to extract and use them. The only exception was uranium ore, which was mined by an agency of the Soviet Union . In the mid-1990s Hungary's chief mineral products were hard coal, lignite, bauxite, petroleum, and natural gas.
SERVICES
TOURISM.
Tourism is an important and growing contributor to Hungary's economy. Not only does it directly fuel economic activity, but it has also in the past provided an important source of foreign currency. After agriculture, Hungary's second largest net foreign exchange earning source is tourism. The capital, Budapest, is a strong attraction for many tourists, with its many museums, churches, castles, and cultural events, including an annual spring festival of music and drama. In all, Hungary maintains more than 100 public museums throughout the country. Lake Balaton is also a popular vacation spot for summer recreation activities such as boating, fishing, and swimming. In 2000, according to the Hungarian Statistical Office, 31,141 foreigners visited Hungary, generating a total balance of revenues and expenditures of 2.5 billion euros.
RETAIL.
Retail commerce forms an important and growing part of Hungary's economy. At the end of 1999 some 103,000 economic associations and more than 150,000 retail businesses were in operation. This represents 149 retail stores for every 10,000 inhabitants. Nationwide, the most important players in the retail sector are involved in the sale of food and groceries, accounting for 35 percent of the retail trade. Leisure and other items come next at 24 percent, followed by textile and clothing retail at 17 percent. Total retail revenues have been steadily rising, at 4.3 trillion forints in 1999, compared to 3.8 trillion in 1998.
FINANCIAL SERVICES.
Financial services are provided by a competitive and largely privatized banking sector. The largest bank, the National Savings Bank or OTP, has branches nationwide and provides a full range of personal and business banking services. Many other banks exist, most private and wholly or partially foreign-owned. Bank services include personal accounts, credit and debit card accounts, mortgage and personal loans, business accounts and business loans, foreign currency accounts and currency exchange, insurance services, and safety deposits. Customer service in Hungarian banks lags behind United States standards but has been steadily improving as the sector becomes more competitive. Most banks now offer Internet and mobile phone account access, and all provide
Trade (expressed in billions of US$): Hungary
exports
SOURCE: International Monetary Fund. International Financial Statistics Yearbook 1999.
an extensive national network of automated teller machines.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Hungary's international trade made an important shift following the change of regime in 1990. Under the communist system, nearly half of Hungary's annual foreign trade was with the Soviet Union and other communist nations of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). Since the late 1980s and the collapse of the CMEA shortly thereafter, however, most of Hungary's international trade has taken place with western countries. Hungary's leading trade partners today are Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia , and the United States. In 1998 Hungary's exports went to Germany (37 percent), Austria (11 percent), Italy (6 percent), and the Netherlands (5 percent). The country's imports came mostly from Germany (28 percent), Austria (10 percent), Italy (8 percent), and Russia (7 percent). Exports in 1999 amounted to US$22.6 billion, and imports were valued at US$25.1 billion. Hungary's main exports are machinery and transport equipment, consumer goods, agricultural products, chemicals, apparel, textiles, iron and steel, and wine. Its main imports are machinery and transport equipment, crude petroleum, chemicals, metal ores, consumer goods, and agricultural products.
MONEY
Hungary's currency is currently linked to an exchange rate control mechanism known as the crawling peg , a mechanism used by the Hungarian National Bank to slowly devalue the currency. The objective has been to gradually make the transition between the forint, historically a non-convertible currency, to a currency that is fully convertible on world markets. Under communism, the currency was not convertible outside the communist bloc countries and an artificial exchange rate applied within Hungary, set by the government. Western currencies sold on the black market during this period typically
Exchange rates: Hungary
152.647
SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].
fetched a much higher conversion rate than the official government rate, and such activities were difficult for the government to control. The National Bank, therefore, sets and publishes a daily rate of exchange between the forint and the world's major currencies. This rate is determined by a combination of the market value of other currencies, the inflation rate of the forint, and decisions by the National Bank to change the value of the forint.
As in most economies emerging from communism, inflation in Hungary has been high relative to western economies. Despite concerted efforts by the government to bring inflation into single digits, inflation in 2000 was 10.1 percent. Hungary's inflation during the post-communist transition period, however, has remained much lower than in many other Eastern European countries where rates often rose into the triple digits.
The country's central bank is the National Bank of Hungary, which issues currency and maintains checking and savings accounts. Other financial institutions include the Foreign Trade Bank, which serves businesses trading outside of Hungary, and the State Development Institution, which finances large-scale investment projects. The Budapest Stock Exchange opened in 1990 and is today the most heavily capitalized exchange in the East European region.
POVERTY AND WEALTH
Despite the official ideology of equality during the communist period, incomes in Hungary during this period were far from equal. Incomes varied according to social class and place of residence, with incomes in Budapest typically higher than in villages. The situation was much worse during the period between World War I and World War II, however, when average per capita income was very low and income inequality very high. One measure often used to measure income inequality is the ratio of the richest 10 percent of the population to the poorest 10 percent. A survey taken in 1992 suggests that the ratio of incomes of the highest to lowest 10 percent was
GDP per Capita (US$)
30,869
SOURCE: United Nations. Human Development Report 2000; Trends in human development and per capita income.
more than 6, making it similar to the income distribution in France and Germany. This level rose to 7.5 in 1996, according to one source, although the official figures from the World Bank place it at 6.3. The differences between social and employment categories has also widened. The social groups who were more affluent before the change in regime were able to increase their incomes in the 1990s faster than inflation, while the poorer groups had incomes that generally lagged behind inflation. In addition, the poorer segments of society were those where unemployment struck the hardest.
A large portion of Hungarian society, about 30-40 percent, suffered a loss in income after 1989. About 30-40 percent, on the other hand, were able to maintain their income, while a smaller percentage, around 10 percent, were able to increase their incomes. This small category included the managers of state and private enterprises, former government officials, and some of the intellectual elite.
Poverty is a problem in Hungary, and one which has worsened since the transition in 1989. According to estimates based on the subsistence level calculated by the Hungarian Statistical Office, in 1996 the proportion of those living under the subsistence level was at least 35 percent. Using the European definition of poverty as being 50 percent lower than the per capita average wage, then 14 percent of the population was poor in 1996.
Distribution of Income or Consumption by Percentage Share: Hungary
Lowest 10%
24.8
Survey year: 1996
Note: This information refers to income shares by percentiles of the population and is ranked by per capita income.
SOURCE: 2000 World Development Indicators [CD-ROM].
Poverty in Hungary is disproportionately high among children, peasants and agricultural workers, housewives, and the handicapped. Geographically, poverty is higher in villages than in urban areas, with approximately 28 percent of the village population living in poverty, but only 18-19 percent of the city-based population and 5 percent of Budapest living in poverty. One social group where poverty is particularly high is the Gypsy ethnic grouping. The Gypsy population has been among the worst off in the transition to a market economy. Some 80 percent of Gypsies lived in poverty, compared to just 15 percent of non-Gypsies in 1996.
WORKING CONDITIONS
The single most significant factor affecting employment in Hungary has been the change in the early 1990s from a communist economy to a free market economy. The collapse of the communist system and the wide-scale privatization of the means of production led to a huge displacement of Hungarian workers, causing unemployment to reach 13 percent in 1993. But as the economy has continued to improve since the mid-1990s, employment has improved. Unemployment in 2000 was 6.4 percent, a respectable figure even lower than in many West
Household Consumption in PPP Terms
Country
Data represent percentage of consumption in PPP terms.
aExcludes energy used for transport.
bIncludes government and private expenditures.
SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000.
European countries such as France or Germany. This rate is down from approximately 10 percent in 1999. Unemployment varies regionally, being the highest in the eastern and rural areas. Most Hungarian employment is in the service industry, which accounted for 65 percent in 1996. Another 27 percent was employed in industry, and some 8 percent in agriculture.
Throughout the 20th century, Hungary has seen a net migration from rural to urban areas. Urbanization in Hungary's 5 major cities accelerated this process, even though, after Budapest, the 5 major cities have populations only between 127,000 and 210,000. Currently many workers commute to urban workplaces from rural areas. In 1996, some 25 percent of the nation's workforce commuted to and from their jobs in this manner.
A labor code was passed in 1992 which recognized the collective rights of workers, including the right to organize into unions and bargain collectively. This code includes the right to strike, extended to all workers except the police and the military. Following the passage of this code the number of strikes in Hungary increased dramatically, although most lasted for only a short time. The largest union is the National Confederation of Hungarian Trade Unions, with approximately 1 million members in 1993 (from a total labor force of 4.3 million). A number of other union federations also exist.
COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
1000. King Stephen of the Árpad dynasty rules the country. He is converted to Christianity and establishes Hungary as a Christian state.
1241. The Mongolian Tatars invade Hungary and occupy the territory for the year.
1526. Hungary is invaded by the Turks and the last Hungarian battle is lost in the southern town of Mohács. The Turkish occupation lasts for 150 years.
1686. Buda, the traditional seat of power on the western side of the Danube river dividing the cities of Buda and Pest, is recaptured from the Turks.
1703-11. Ferenc Rákóczi II, prince of Transylvania, leads a rebellion against the Habsburg Imperial army. The rebellion fails.
1848. A revolution against the Habsburg rule starting in Pest spreads to the whole country. Lajos Kossuth is elected governor after the Habsburg emperor is dethroned following several important Hungarian victories. The Hungarian revolutionary forces are defeated in 1849 by the Habsburgs, the ruling royal family of Austria, with the help of the Russian Army.
1867. A dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy begins following a compromise with the Habsburgs. A spectacular phase of industrial development begins.
1873. Pest, Buda, and Obuda are unified, and Budapest becomes a European metropolis, with the building of the Opera House, the National Gallery, and the Parliament. The first underground railway in continental Europe is put into operation.
1918. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy disintegrates following its defeat, along with Germany and its other allies, during World War I.
1920. The Treaty of Trianon is signed, redrawing the borders of Hungary. The new borders place one-third of Hungary's former population in other states and reduce its territory by two-thirds.
1944. The Nazis occupy Hungary in March during World War II. At the end of the war, fascists take over the country. In October, the Soviet Army liberates Hungary from fascist rule and occupies the country.
1947. The last relatively free election is followed by years of communist control, including show trials, executions, forced resettlements, forced industrial development, and a drop in living standards.
1956. Following the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, a revolution against Soviet rule takes place in Hungary. The uprising is defeated by Soviet troops. János Kádár assumes power with Soviet assistance. Hundreds of Hungarians are executed, thousands more imprisoned, and about 200,000 flee the country.
1965. Cautious economic reforms are launched, causing a rise in living standards and a loosening of some of the more harsh measures of the communist system. In 1968 the New Economic Mechanism is introduced, reducing central control of the economy and allowing for greater freedom among individual business managers.
1982. Hungary becomes a member of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
1988. A transition to democracy begins in Hungary, led by opposition parties demanding new institutions and the right to compete in legislative elections scheduled for 1990.
1989. The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party agrees with opposition parties to end one-party rule and hold free elections in 1990.
1990. The Soviet Army leaves Hungary and the opposition Hungarian Democratic Forum wins the legislative elections held in March and April, ending 45 years of communist rule. Hungary also gains accession to the Council of Europe.
1991. Hungary, Poland , and Czechoslovakia sign the Visegrad Cooperation Agreement, a declaration to cooperate in preparation for accession to the European Union. Hungary also signs an agreement on cooperation with the European Union.
1992. Central European Free Trade Agreement pledging open and cooperative trade is signed by Hungary, Poland, and the Czechoslovak Customs Union.
1994. The Hungarian Socialist Party wins a legislative majority in elections held in May. Hungary joins the Partnership for Peace Program.
1996. Hungary joins the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
1997. Hungary is formally invited by the European Union to begin accession talks.
1998. Hungary pays off its debts to the International Monetary Fund.The Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party assumes power following elections held in May.
1999. Hungary becomes a full member of NATO .
FUTURE TRENDS
The future looks positive for Hungary's economy, given the trend since the end of the communist system. Growth has been steadily increasing, inflation has been declining, and unemployment has stabilized. Relative to other countries in the region, Hungary's economic conditions have proved quite favorable. The key economic event in the near future affecting Hungary will be accession to the European Union, something Hungary hopes will happen between 2004 and 2008. This event will bring about a significant restructuring of trade, employment, agriculture, and financial services. Hungary has already begun to introduce major fiscal and financial changes in preparation for accession, following the detailed guidelines issued by the European Union. Among other changes that accession would bring, Hungary intends to join the euro states adopting a single European currency. Doing so would link Hungary's inflation and interest rates to the European Central Bank in Frankfurt and remove the independence currently enjoyed by the Hungarian National Bank.
Hungary's main challenges for the future will be to manage its workforce, including some structural sectors where unemployment remains significantly high. There are also regions, especially in the eastern portion of the country, where unemployment and poverty remain significantly higher than the national average. In addition, Hungary in 2000 and 2001 has experienced problems with flooding that have caused significant disruption to people and to agriculture. These problems and more will have to managed in the future to enable Hungary's economy to grow and develop further.
DEPENDENCIES
Hungary has no territories or colonies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Hungary. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.
Hungarian Statistical Office. Hungarian Statistical Yearbook 1999. Budapest: Statistical Office, 2000.
Ministry of Economic Affairs. <http://www.gm.hu/kulfold/index.htm>. Accessed September 2001.
Molnár, Éva, ed. Hungary: Essential Facts, Figures, and Pictures. Budapest: Media Data Bank, MTI Corporation, 1997.
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed August 2001.
U.S. Department of State. FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Hungary. <http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/europe/index.html> . Accessed September 2001.
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy. An Energy Overview of the Republic of Hungary. <http://www.fe.doe.gov/international/hungover.html>. Accessed September 2001.
Welcome to the Embassy of the Republic of Hungary. <http://www.hungaryemb.org> . Accessed September 2001.
—Kenneth Benoit
Budapest.
MONETARY UNIT:
Hungarian forint (Ft). One forint equals 100 fillérs. There are coins of 10, 20, and 50 fillérs and 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 forints, and notes of 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 forints.
CHIEF EXPORTS:
Machinery and equipment, other manufactures, agriculture and food products, raw materials, fuels and electricity.
CHIEF IMPORTS:
Machinery and equipment, other manufactures, fuels and electricity, agricultural and food products, raw materials.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:
US$79.4 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).
BALANCE OF TRADE:
Exports: US$22.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999). Imports: US$25.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999).
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Summer Cucumber Soup............................................ 57
1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT
Hungary is a landlocked country in the middle of Europe . It is a little smaller than Indiana , and is a land with fertile soil. Hungarian farmers grow enough wheat, corn, rye, potatoes, and some fruits, to feed its population. Even though many Hungarian farmers raise livestock, the quality of the animals they raise (and the meat they produce) is below the standard of Hungary's neighbors, mostly because there is not enough quality animal food available.
One of the largest challenges facing Hungary is the preservation of its environment. Hungary has huge problems with air and water pollution, but the government does not have enough money or technology to minimize pollution from factories.
Hungary's principal rivers are the Danube and Tisza, and the largest lake is Balaton. All three provide good fishing areas for Hungary's sport and commercial fishers.
2 HISTORY AND FOOD
The first people to live in present-day Hungary were nomads called the Magyars, who arrived in around A.D. 800. Hungary's national dish, a meat stew called goulash, can be traced to the Magyars' eating habits. They traveled with dried cubes of meat cooked with onions, and water could be added to make a stew.
The reign of King Matthias (1458–90) was a high point in Hungarian history, for both culture and food. Through his Italian wife, Queen Beatrice, King Matthias brought Italian cooking to Hungary. During this period, cooking was raised to a fine art.
When the Turks invaded Hungary in the sixteenth century, they brought their cooking customs with them. These included the use of the spice paprika and a thin, flaky pastry called filo (or phyllo ) dough. They also taught the Hungarians how to cook stuffed peppers and eggplants. The Turks introduced coffee to Hungary.
Austria 's Hapsburg monarchy gained control over Hungary from the seventeenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century. Under Austrian rule, German and Austrian cooking styles influenced Hungarian eating habits. During this period, Hungary became famous for its cakes and pastries.
3 FOODS OF THE HUNGARIANS
The best-known ingredient in Hungarian food is the red-powdered spice called paprika. It is used to flavor many dishes. Other staples of Hungarian cooking include onions, cabbage, potatoes, noodles, and caraway seeds. Both cream and sour cream are used heavily in Hungarian food. Dumplings (dough wrapped around different kinds of fillings) are very popular as are cabbages or green peppers stuffed with meat and rice. Another favorite is the pancake called a palacsinta. It is often rolled or wrapped around different kinds of fillings.
Hungarians eat a lot of meat, mostly pork or beef. Many meat dishes are dipped in bread and then baked or fried. Hungarians also prepare many different kinds of sausages. The Hungarian national dish is meat stew. People outside Hungary call it "goulash," but the Hungarians have several different names for it, including pörkölt and tokány. The dish they call goulash, or gulyás, is actually a soup made with meat and paprika. Paprika is also a key ingredient in another national dish; a fish soup called halaszle.
The Hungarians are known throughout the world for their elegant pastries and cakes. The flaky pastry dough called filo or phyllo was brought to Hungary by the Turks in the seventeenth century. Instead of the honey and nuts used in Turkish pastry, the Hungarians filled phyllo dough with their own ingredients to make a dessert known as strudel. Strudel fillings include apples, cherries, and poppy seeds. Hungary is known for its wines, especially the sweet wines of the Tokay region.
Pörkölt (National Hungarian Stew)
2 potatoes, cut into 1-inch cubes
2 carrots, cut into ½-inch slices
2 green peppers, cut into 1-inch pieces
Salt and pepper, to taste
Caraway seeds
Procedure
Heat oil in skillet or Dutch oven over medium heat, add beef, and cook, stirring continually, until brown (about 5 minutes).
Reduce heat to medium, add onions and garlic, and cook for 5 minutes more until onions are soft. Stir frequently.
Add water, beef broth, tomatoes, paprika, caraway seeds, and bay leaves, reduce to simmer, cover, and cook for 1 hour.
Add potatoes, carrots, green peppers, and salt and pepper to taste. Mix well, cover, and simmer for about 20 minutes more or until vegetables are tender.
Before serving, remove bay leaves and discard.
Serve in individual bowls with chunks of crusty bread for dunking. Both a fork and spoon are needed to eat gulyás.
Serves 6 to 8.
½ cup sour cream (optional)
Procedure
Sauté onion rings in butter in a medium pot or a Dutch oven until you can see through them.
Remove from heat and add paprika, chicken, half of the green pepper and half of the tomato.
Cover tightly with a lid and simmer slowly for 1½ hours.
Occasionally turn pieces over so they will cook evenly.
If necessary, add small amounts of water.
If mushrooms are used, add during last 15 minutes of cooking time.
When meat is tender, transfer to a baking dish.
Make pan gravy, scraping onion from the pan and adding a little water.
Pour over chicken.
Garnish with remaining green pepper and tomato.
Cover with foil and keep warm in the oven at a low temperature until ready to serve.
Sour cream can be added to the gravy.
Serves 4.
Pinch of caraway seeds, crushed with the back of a spoon
2 cloves garlic, peeled and stuck on toothpicks
1 medium green pepper, cored and cut in ½-inch strips
2 small peeled tomatoes, preferably canned
Procedure
Peel the potatoes and cut them into ¼-inch slices. Cover them with cold water and set them aside until ready to use.
Pat the cutlets dry and sprinkle them with salt, pepper, and flour.
Shake off any excess, the brown them quickly in hot oil in a pot large enough to hold them and the potatoes. After browning, remove the cutlets and set them aside.
Sauté the onion slices in the skillet until they go limp. Using a slotted spoon or spatula, remove the onions from the skillet and set them aside with the cutlets.
Pour ½ cup of water into the skillet, loosen up the pan juices with a wooden spoon, and then stir in 1 teaspoon of salt, the paprika, and caraway seeds.
Return the meat and onions to the skillet.
Add the garlic, green pepper, and tomatoes plus enough water to just cover the meat. Cover and simmer 10 minutes.
Add the potatoes, 1 more teaspoon of salt, and enough water to cover.
Simmer 25 minutes or until the potatoes are done.
Throw out the garlic, skim the grease off the sauce, and add more salt if needed.
Serves 6 to 8.
4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS
Christmas and New Year's are often celebrated with a roasted stuffed turkey or roasted pig. The turkey is usually stuffed with chestnut dressing. Eating roast pig on New Year's Day is supposed to bring good luck. On New Year's Eve, a spicy punch called Krambambuli is served. It is made from chopped fruit, candied orange peel, walnuts, sugar, rum, and brandy, to which even more ingredients are added.
Hungarian Butter Cookies
Mix flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt in large mixing bowl.
Add butter or margarine, and, using clean hands, blend until mixture resembles coarse meal.
Add egg and sour cream and mix until dough holds together. Cover and refrigerate for about 2 hours.
Preheat oven to 350°F.
Pinch off small egg-size pieces of dough and form into balls.
Place on buttered or nonstick cookie sheet about 2 inches apart. Use fingers to press to about ½-inch thick.
Make a crosshatch design by pressing the back of fork tines on top of each cookie.
Bake in oven for about 20 minutes or until pale golden. Continue baking in batches.
Makes 2 to 3 dozen cookies.
Ham and lamb are popular Easter dishes. Easter ham, boiled together with the Easter eggs, is served smoked, spiced, or pickled. Lamb may be served as chops or cutlets or be cooked in a stew with paprika. Pastries sprinkled with poppy seeds or walnuts and called horseshoe cakes are served for dessert. Breaded chicken is traditionally eaten on the Monday after the Easter. Chicken is often eaten on Sundays.
Almond Kisses
3½-ounce package slivered almonds
Procedure
Put egg whites, walnuts, and sugar in a double boiler and heat, stirring constantly, until ingredients are hot and melted together.
Remove from heat and mix in flour, vanilla, lemon rind, and almond extract.
Set side until mixture cools and thickens.
Grease two or three baking sheets and line them with waxed paper. Lightly grease the waxed paper.
Wet your hands and shape dough into little balls; roll in slivered almonds.
Place the cookies several inches apart on the baking sheets.
Let stand for several hours.
Preheat oven to 250°F; reduce heat to 200°F and bake for 30 minutes, or until easily removed from waxed paper.
5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS
Most people who live in the country eat a big breakfast. It may consist of eggs, ham or sausage, cheese, green peppers and tomatoes, and rolls and butter. Adults drink tea or coffee; children drink milk or cocoa. In the city, some people eat a lighter breakfast consisting of a beverage and rolls with honey or jam.
Sunday Dinner Menu
Hard-boiled eggs and cold vegetable appetizer
Chicken vegetable soup
Strudel
Coffee
Lunch, eaten between noon and 2:30 p.m., is the main meal of the day. Soup, vegetables, and dessert usually accompany a main meat dish. A light supper is eaten in the evening, between 5:30 and 8:00 P.M. Usually this is a one-course meal, consisting of soup, a vegetable dish, or a "Hungarian cold plate." This is a plate of cold meats, cheeses, vegetables, and hard-boiled eggs. It can be eaten for supper, as a snack, or even for breakfast. Hungarians eat salad as a side dish with the main part of the meal, not before or after. Most Hungarian meals end with something sweet, such as sweet noodles, pancakes, dumplings, or a dessert like strudel or cake. In addition to cold meat, popular snacks include dumplings, noodle dishes, and baked goods such as lángos, or fried dough.
Before each meal, Hungarians wish their friends or relatives a good appetite, saying Jó étvágyat kivánok (YO ATE-vah-dyat KEE-vah-nok). At the end of a meal, they express thanks to their host or hostess, saying Köszönöm (KOH-soh-nohm). The host responds, Váljék kedves egészségére (VAH-lyake KEHD-vesh EH-gase-shay-reh). This means "I wish you good health." Music is commonly played in Hungarian restaurants.
Hungarian Cold Plate
12 cups (3 quarts) water
Procedure
In a medium bowl, cream 1 Tablespoon butter and stir in egg, milk, and 1 teaspoon salt.
Add flour, a little at a time, stirring well after each addition, until mixture is the consistency of cookie dough.
If dough is too stiff, add 2 Tablespoons milk or water.
In a kettle, bring water and 1 teaspoon salt to a boil over medium-high heat.
Dip a teaspoon in hot water, scoop up small pieces of dough (about ¼ teaspoon each), and drop carefully into boiling water.
Dip spoon in hot water again if dough starts to stick.
Boil dumplings 2 to 3 minutes or until they rise to the surface.
Drain in a colander.
½ cup yellow seedless raisins
½ cup nuts, chopped (optional)
½ cup apricot jam (optional)
Vanilla confectioners' sugar
Procedure
Lightly grease a 1½-quart rectangle-shaped baking dish with some of the butter and sprinkle the bottom and sides with bread crumbs, shaking out the excess.
Cook the noodles according to the package directions, drain them, and toss them with the rest of the butter.
Beat the sugar and egg yolks together and add the lemon rind.
Stir in the sour cream, then the raisins and the nuts if you wish.
Add the noodles and turn them carefully so all are coated.
Preheat the oven to 350°F.
Beat the egg whites until stiff, and fold them into the noodles.
Pour them into the baking dish.
If you want to add jam, pour only half the noodles in, spread the layer with jam, then pour the rest on top.
Bake for 30 minutes or until the pudding is set and the top is golden brown.
Dust with vanilla confectioners' sugar and serve hot from the casserole.
Summer Cucumber Soup
1 Tablespoon paprika, for topping
1 Tablespoon fresh dill, minced
Procedure
Heat the butter in a skillet over medium heat and lightly sauté the shallots, leeks, and parsley. Do not let them get dark.
Bring the cucumbers and potatoes to a boil in the stock.
Lower heat, add salt and pepper, and simmer for 30 minutes.
Stir in leek mixture and remove from heat.
In a blender or food processor, process the soup to a coarse purée (mash or paste). Return to the soup pot and simmer for 10 minutes.
Place in a tureen or covered bowl and refrigerate overnight or until chilled through.
Stir in yogurt and garnish with paprika and dill.
Makes 8 servings.
6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION
Almost all Hungarians receive adequate nutrition. There is little scarcity of food, and, except for occasional years when there is not enough rainfall, Hungarian farms produce enough food to feed the people.
7 FURTHER STUDY
Albyn, Carole Lisa, and Lois Webb. The Multicultural Cookbook for Students. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1993.
Biro, Charlotte Slovak. Flavors of Hungary. San Ramon, Calif.: Ortho Information Services, 1989.
Chamberlain, Lesley. The Food and Cooking of Eastern Europe. New York : Penguin, 1989.
Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Derecskey, Susan. The Hungarian Cookbook. New York: Harper & Row, 1987.
Halvorsen, Francine. Eating Around the World in Your Neighborhood. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Hargittai, Magdolna. Cooking the Hungarian Way. Minneapolis : Lerner, 1986.
Segal, Ulrike, and Heinz Vestner. Insight Guides: Hungary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995.
Webb, Lois Sinaiko. Holidays of the World Cookbook for Students. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1995.
Web Sites
Epicurious. [Online] Available http://epicurious.com (accessed February 7, 2001).
SOAR (online recipe archive). [Online] Available http://soar.Berkeley.edu (accessed February 7, 2001).
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HUNGARY
HUNGARY. Hungary 's history from 1450 through 1790 can be divided into three periods. The century from 1450 was the last phase of the independent Hungarian Kingdom, whose major political concern was the Ottoman advance. Hungary lost her long struggle at the battle of Mohács in 1526 and was divided into three parts by the mid-sixteenth century. The second period (1541–1699) is often labeled as the era of the tripartite division of the country. Royal Hungary in the west was under Habsburg rule and Ottoman Hungary in the middle was ruled, at least partly, from Constantinople ( Istanbul ), whereas the Principality of Transylvania in the east, although an Ottoman satellite state, had considerable autonomy, especially in its domestic affairs. While hostilities and rivalries often divided the Hungarian political elite, with regard to socioeconomic, religious, cultural, and even political developments, the three parts were connected on many levels. The next era can be described as the integration of Hungary into the Habsburg Monarchy that reconquered the country from the Ottomans by the end of the 17th century. This period witnessed a new political compromise between Vienna and the Hungarian estates, as well as visible economic and demographic growth and cultural flourishing.
In the mid-fifteenth century, the Kingdom of Hungary was a regional power in Central Europe. It had an estimated territory of 300,000 square kilometers, a population of 3.1–3.5 million, and annual revenues of 500,000 gold florins under King Matthias (Mátyás) Corvinus of the Hunyadi family (1458–1490). Protected by the natural boundaries of the Carpathian Mountains in the north and in the east, Hungary was bordered by Poland in the north, Bohemia in the northwest, and Habsburg Austria in the west. In the south, the Danube and Sava Rivers—and the southern border defense system built along those rivers—separated the country from the Ottoman Empire .
The Ottoman threat fostered military reforms and centralization in Hungary. Relying on the towns and the lesser nobility, a reformed tax system, a secular bureaucracy, and a mercenary army of thirty thousand strong, King Matthias curtailed the influence of the aristocracy. Although the king strengthened and reorganized the country's southern defenses, vast resources were spent on his wars against Austria and Bohemia in pursuit of a Danubian monarchy, as well as on the king's lavish court and patronage of the arts and sciences.
During the rules of King Matthias's Jagiello successors (1490–1526), the power-hungry nobility strengthened its position vis-à-vis both the crown and the rest of the society. An influential compilation of Hungarian customary law, called the Tripartitum (1514), codified the rights and privileges of the nobility, including the right to resist the king. The book perceived the nobility, whose members supposedly enjoyed equal rights (una et aedem nobilitas), as "the mystical body" of the "holy crown" that is, the sole representatives of the "political nation." Following the rebellion of 1514, the nobility subjected the peasants to "eternal servitude." Although the Tripartitum was never promulgated and the decrees of the Diet of 1514 were often suspended, they provided the nobility with a legal framework until 1848 and were largely responsible for Hungary's unhealthy social structure.
The annihilation of the Hungarian army at the battle of Mohács (1526) not only meant the end of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary but also marked the beginning of Habsburg-Ottoman military confrontation in Central Europe. Following the Ottomans' withdrawal from Hungary in 1526, competing factions of the nobility elected two kings, János Szapolyai (John Zapolya, 1526–1540), the royal Hungarian governor (or vajda ) of Transylvania, and Ferdinand of Habsburg (1526–1564). With Ottoman military assistance, Szapolyai controlled the eastern parts of the country, while Ferdinand ruled the northern and western parts of Hungary. When the death of Szapolyai (1540) upset the military equilibrium between the Habsburgs and Ottomans, Sultan Suleiman I annexed central Hungary to his empire (1541). Hungary's strategically less significant eastern territories were left in the hands of Szapolyai's widow and were soon to become the Principality of Transylvania, an Ottoman vassal state. Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Habsburgs, who remained on the Hungarian throne until 1918, had to content themselves with northern and western Hungary, known as Royal Hungary.
Although the Ottomans launched multiple campaigns against Hungary and the Habsburgs (1529, 1532, 1541, 1543, 1551–1552, 1566, 1663–1564) and the two empires waged two exhausting wars in Hungary (1593–1606 and 1683–1699), the buffer-zone-turned-country saved Habsburg central Europe from Ottoman conquest. Successive peace treaties (1547, 1568, 1606, and 1664) maintained the tripartite division of the country, which ended only in 1699, when, in the treaty of Karlowitz, the Ottomans ceded most of Hungary and Transylvania to the Habsburgs. The country's unity was only partially restored, however, for Vienna administered Transylvania as a separate imperial territory until 1848.
The price of being the "bastion of Christendom" was the dismemberment of the country and constant warfare along the Muslim-Christian divide with severe economic and social consequences. However, the endurance of Hungarian society and its economy proved to be much stronger than expected. Despite continuous skirmishes and protracted wars, famine, and epidemics, Hungary's population had increased from 3.1 million in the 1490s to 4 million by the early 1680s. In spite of double taxation (Hungarian and Ottoman), many towns in the Great Plain (Alföld) under Ottoman rule profited from the Hungaro-Ottoman condominium and succeeded in strengthening their privileges and self-government. The sixteenth century was the golden age of manorial agriculture and cattle trade. From the 1570s, Hungary exported some eighty thousand to one hundred thousand head of cattle annually to Vienna and to the German and Italian cities through an elaborate chain of cattle keepers and merchants. While defending the border was a major burden on the society, many profited from feeding and supplying imperial armies and Ottoman and Hungarian garrisons.
The tripartite division of the country and the limits of Habsburg authority also fostered the spread of Protestant Reformation. In Transylvania, Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Unitarianism were declared accepted denominations (recepta religio) in 1568. In the 1580s, half of Hungary's population was Calvinist, another quarter followed the Augsburg Confession, and the remaining 25 percent belonged to the Unitarian, Catholic, and Orthodox churches.
Angered by Vienna's lukewarm Turkish policy and aggressive Counter-Reformation, Protestant Magyar nobles rebelled repeatedly against the Catholic Habsburgs in the seventeenth century. They were aided by the princes of Transylvania, which, under the able rule of Gábor Bethlen (1613–1629) and György Rákóczi I (1630–1648) flourished economically and culturally. Allied with the Protestant states in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the princes launched several campaigns against the Habsburgs and extended the principality's territories at the expense of Royal Hungary. When the Habsburgs conceded further Hungarian territories to the Ottomans in the treaty of Vasvár in 1664 in spite of the former's victory at St. Gotthard, even the loyal Catholic magnates of Royal Hungary were outraged and many joined the anti-Austrian "magnate conspiracy" of 1670–1671. The severe punishment of the members of the plot and Emperor Leopold's "confessional absolutism" triggered new waves of anti-Habsburg rebellions, of which the most serious was the revolt of Imre Thököly's kurucs (a group of Hungarian "national crusaders" or insurgents) in 1681–1683. Thököly's war led to the creation of yet another pro-Ottoman vassal state in Upper Hungary at a critical moment when the Ottomans' failed siege of Vienna (1683) set off an international counteroffensive, which, by the end of the century, had reconquered most of Hungary from the Ottomans.
After 1699, the Habsburgs treated Hungary as a conquered and subjugated province, thus provoking another revolt of the Magyars. The peace treaty of Szatmár (1711), which ended Ferenc Rákóczi's defeated War of Independence (1703–1711), was a wise compromise for both parties. It altered initial Habsburg designs regarding Hungary's incorporation into the monarchy, leaving the county-level administration and jurisdiction in the hands of the Hungarian nobility, which also retained many of its former privileges including tax exemption. On the other hand, Charles VI (Charles III as king of Hungary, 1711–1740) restored Habsburg rule over Hungary, whose Estates recognized his daughter's succession (the Pragmatic Sanction) in the Diet of 1722/23, making Hungary a hereditary Habsburg kingdom.
Within two generations, the population of the country (including Croatia and Transylvania) had doubled, reaching nine million by the late 1780s. This was partly due to voluntary immigration and state-organized settlement policy through which hundreds of thousands of Romanians, Croatians, Slovaks, and Germans arrived in Hungary. This significantly changed the ethnic composition of the country, where the Hungarians lost their absolute majority and comprised less than 40 percent of the inhabitants in the end of the century.
Led by ideas reflecting the Enlightenment and by absolutistic and physiocratic principles, Maria Theresa (ruled 1740–1780) and Joseph II (ruled 1780–1790) initiated important administrative, economic, legal, and cultural reforms, issued as royal patents and carried out by royal commissioners to avoid their blocking by the Estates in the Diet. Many of these reforms were beneficial for Hungary. The Urbarial Patent of 1767 regulated the size of peasant holdings and obligations in order to eliminate inequalities and overtaxation, whereas the Ratio educationis of 1777 reformed the educational system. Joseph II's Edict of Tolerance (1781) permitted the "free practice" of religion for all denominations, enabling their members to become guild masters, earn university diplomas in Hungary, and serve in state offices. However, Maria Theresa's discriminatory tariff regulations (1754), which separated Hungary from the rest of the monarchy and its traditional German and Italian markets, negatively affected Hungary, reinforcing the country's agrarian supplier status and hindering the development of domestic industries. Joseph II's decision to replace Latin with German as the official language of administration was perceived as "Germanization" and, along with his patents that abolished Hungary's old administrative structure, infuriated the Estates. By the end of Joseph II's rule, the country, which was feeling overwhelmed by the severe burden of a new Turkish war (1787–1790), was again on the brink of an insurrection. Facing possible armed rebellion in Hungary, growing Prussian pressure, a changing international order because of the French Revolution , and military defeat in his Turkish war, Joseph II decided to appease his Magyar nobility. In January 1790, the emperor revoked all his reforms, except for his Edict of Toleration and his decrees that benefited the peasantry and parishes.
After the compromise in 1711, loyal Hungarian magnates and the Catholic hierarchy were among the richest people in the monarchy. They were also instrumental in the cultural life of the country. The palaces built by the Esterházy, Károlyi, Pálffy, and Festetics families at Fertõd, Erdõd, Királyfalva, and Keszthely respectively are, along with magnificent churches, the best examples of Hungarian baroque. Many of the magnates were not only patrons of the arts and of literature, but were themselves active writers spreading the ideas of Enlightenment, the most radical of which were discussed in the twenty-some lodges of the Freemasons. While the eighteenth century saw spectacular population growth, solid, though uneven, economic development, and cultural revival, it also witnessed the preservation of the country's medieval and anachronistic "constitution" and social structure. All this, along with the radically changed ethnic composition of Hungary, would considerably complicate the country's history in the nineteenth century.
See also Habsburg Dynasty: Austria ; Hungarian Literature and Language ; Joseph II (Holy Roman Empire) ; Maria Theresa (Holy Roman Empire) ; Ottoman Empire ; Rákóczi Revolt ; Suleiman I .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balázs, Éva H. Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800. Budapest , 1997.
Ingrao, Charles. The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815. Cambridge, 1994.
Köpeczi, Béla, ed. History of Transylvania. Budapest, 1994.
Lendvai, Paul. The Hungarians. Princeton, 2003.
Sugar, Peter F., et al., eds. A History of Hungary. Bloomington, Ind., 1994.
GÁbor Ágoston
HUNGARY
Hungary , a country that was primarily agricultural until the mid-nineteenth century, entered the modern era in 1867 with the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. At the start of the twentieth century, in Budapest , which had become a center of cultural life, a group of radical intellectuals demanded the democratization of a country that had remained semi-feudal. Unable to compete in the political sphere, they created institutions like the Free School of Social Science, reviews like Huszadik Szàzad (Twentieth Century) and Nyugat (Occident), to achieve their goal by means of education. For psychoanalysis the Hungarian intelligentsia was fertile terrain, for it held that the liberation of the individual and the liberation of society went hand in hand.
Psychoanalysis was introduced to Hungary by Sándor Ferenczi, who was its leading exponent. A young neurologist, Ferenczi encountered Freudian theory through Carl Gustav Jung's word association test and through the literature of analysis. After his first visit to Freud in February 1908, he quickly became an integral part of the Vienna group and assumed the responsibility of bringing psychoanalysis to Hungary. His efforts were well received in literary and artistic circles, as shown in the writings of Géza Csáth, Dezsö Kosztolànyi, Mihály Babits, and Frigyes Karinthy, while most physicians remained reticent.
The Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association was founded by Ferenczi in 1913. In addition to Ferenczi, its members included the psychiatrist István Hollós, the physician Lajos Lévy, the medical student Sándor Radó, and the journalist and writer Hugó Ignotus (Hugó Veigelsberg), the editor-in-chief of Nyugat.
During World War I, Ferenczi, who had been mobilized, cared for soldiers who had suffered trauma during combat. The psychoanalytic treatment of war neuroses drew the attention of Hungarian officials, with the result that the Fifth Congress of Psychoanalysis, organized in Budapest on September 28 and 29, 1918, was held at the Academy of Sciences in the presence of government representatives. During the congress, Antal (Anton) von Freund, who ran a large beer hall, but also had a PhD in philosophy, a patient and friend of Freud, provided funding for the creation of a psychoanalytic clinic and publishing house. Ferenczi was elected president of the International Psychoanalytic Association, but the political upheavals that shook the country, especially Hungary's independence from Austria , the democratic revolution, the Bolshevik revolution in Budapest in 1919 and its brutal repression, forced him to yield the presidency to the Briton, Ernest Jones.
During the democratic government of Mihály Károlyi, students and progressives demanded that psychoanalysis be officially recognized. Their demand reached the Commune and Ferenczi was appointed professor of psychoanalysis at the university, the first in the world. When the right-wing government of Miklós Horthy came to power, the position was eliminated and, in 1920, Ferenczi was excluded from the Hungarian medical association.
The 1920s turned out to be a phase of expansion for psychoanalysis in Hungary. At the end of the war, Géza Róheim, Imre Hermann, Zsigmond Pfeifer, and other leading figures joined the Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association. Cut off from playing a role in Hungarian public life, psychoanalysts consulted, taught, and published. Róheim developed the notion of psychoanalytic anthropology, Hermann worked on the psychology of creativity, Pfeifer on children's games. This was also the period of the first wave of emigration. Sándor Radó and Jenö Hárnik moved to Berlin and participated in the creation of the Institute for Psychoanalytic Training. During the twenties, József Eisler, Sándor Feldmann, Erzsébet Révész, Béla Felszeghy, Vilma Kovács, and Alice and Mihály Bálint joined the association.
Efforts were made to organize the teaching of psychoanalysis. Seminars on theory were established in 1919, and in 1925 a training method specific to Hungary was developed by Ferenczi and Vilma Kovács.
In 1925, István Hollós was fired from his position as head physician at the psychiatric hospital of Lipótmezö because of his Jewish background. Two years later he published My Farewell from the Yellow House, in which he investigated psychosis from a new and innovative point of view.
In 1928, Géza Róheim traveled to central Australia , Normanby Island, and America. During his research, financed by Marie Bonaparte, he combined anthropological research with psychoanalytic theory.
In 1930, a psychoanalytic clinic for children was created under the direction of Margit Dubowitz. That same year Lilian Rotter and Fanny Hann joined the association. In 1931, in spite of several administrative problems, a polyclinic was opened at 12 Mészáros Street, with Ferenczi as director. The building and funding were provided by Vilma Kovács and her family; analysts from the association provided free consultations.
Ferenczi's students prepared Psychoanalytic Studies for his sixtieth birthday, but the book wasn't published until after his death in 1933. István Hollós then became president of the association and Mihály Bálint director of the polyclinic.
In 1935 and 1937 two meetings, known as the Four Nations, were organized by the psychoanalytic associations of Vienna, Prague , Italy, and Hungary, the first in Vienna, the second in Budapest, and devoted to the problems of psychoanalytic training. At the second meeting, Vilma Kovács detailed the characteristics of the Hungarian method and Anna Freud read a paper by Helene Deutsch criticizing the method.
Hungarian analysts also began a program to develop public awareness of psychoanalysis. Kata Lévy organized seminars with teachers, Alice Bálint with mothers, and Mihály Bálint held discussion groups with general practitioners. In 1933, Lilly Hajdu, a psychiatrist, joined the association.
During the late thirties, threatened by the rise of anti-Semitism and fascism, a number of analysts decided to emigrate. Among them were the Bálints, Géza Róheim, Sándor Feldmann, and Edit Gyömröi. The association continued to function under police surveillance and under the direction of its non-Jewish members, Endre Almássy and Tibor Rajka. In 1944, when German troops invaded Hungary and put Hungarian Nazis in power, several analysts, including Zsigmond Pfeifer, Géza Dukes, László Révész, Miklós Gimes, and József Eisler, became victims of persecution. Imre Hermann and István Hollós barely escaped with their lives.
After 1945, psychoanalysts in Hungary resumed their activities. They participated in the creation of a mental health institute and worked in dispensaries. But the Stalinist government, which came to power in 1948, forced the association to dissolve. From then on psychoanalysis survived in a semi-clandestine fashion, primarily through the help of Imre Hermann, who trained the new generation of analysts: György Vikár, Livia Nemes, Agnes Binét, Teréz Virág. The dark years after 1956 were marked by the suicide of Lilly Hajdu, whose husband was murdered by the Nazis and whose son, a friend of Imre Nagy, had been executed along with the prime minister. During the sixties, the Kádar government became more tolerant of psychoanalysis. István Székács, a member of the Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association since 1939, also began to train psychoanalysts, although not initially a member of Hermann's group.
During the seventies, Hungarian analysts still did not have an officially recognized association, but some public manifestations of recognition took place. In 1969, for example, Imre Hermann was decorated on his eightieth birthday and, in 1974, a commemorative celebration was organized for the Ferenczi centenary. In 1987 an international congress of psychoanalysis was held in Budapest.
After democracy was restored in 1989, the Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association was reconstituted and affiliated itself with the International Psychoanalytic Association. A new generation of analysts was able to practice, teach, and publish openly.
The Ferenczi Society, a broad-based group of people interested in psychoanalysis, began to publish the review Thalassa. While the first generation of analysts trained by Imre Hermann was affected primarily by his ideas, contemporary psychoanalysts were reevaluating the ideas of Ferenczi, which they were forced to read in foreign editions since his complete works had not yet been published in Hungarian because of a lack of funding. They also served as an inspiration for Otto Kernberg.
Hungarian psychoanalysts of the 1930s developed a number of specific ideas that justify referring to them collectively as the Budapest School. These include the importance of trauma in the etiology of mental pathology, the attention given to object relations, consideration of dyadic relations and regression, and insistence on the importance of experience in therapy. Hungarian training methods differed from other methods in that the candidate's first control analysis was undertaken by his own analyst to further an understanding of the counter-transference and better understand his own transference to the analyst.
Ferenczi's students demonstrated considerable creativity. Imre Hermann developed the theory of clinging, Géza Róheim the ontogenetic theory of culture, and Mihály Bálint the theory of primal love (and several others after his emigration). Lilian Rotter developed a body of original work on female sexuality and Alice Bálint on the mother-child relationship. István Hollós and Lilly Hajdu examined psychoses from a psychoanalytic point of view.
Éva Brabant-GerÖ
Bálint, Michael. (1968). The basic fault: Therapeutic aspects of regression. London: Tavistock Publications.
Brabant-Gerö,Éva. (1993). Ferenczi et L'école hongroise de psychanalyse. Paris: L'Harmattan.
Ferenczi, Sandor. (1955). Selected Papers of Sandor Ferenczi. (Vol. 3, Michael Bálint, Ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Haynal, André. (1988). The technique at issue: Controversies in psychoanalysis from Freud and Ferenczi to Michael Bálint. (Elizabeth Holder, Trans.). London: Karnac. (Original work published 1986)
Hermann, Imre. (1972). L'instinct filial. (G. Kassai, Trans.). Paris: Denoël.
Hungarian Psychoanalytic Association. (1933).Lélekelemzési Tanulmànyok (Psychoanalytic Studies). Budapest: Somló.
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Official name: Republic of Hungary
Area: 93,030 square kilometers (35,919 square miles)
Highest point on mainland: Mount Kékes (1,014 meters/3,327 feet)
Lowest point on land: Tisza River (78 meters/256 feet)
Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern
Time zone: 2 p.m. = noon GMT
Longest distances: 528 kilometers (328 miles) from east to west; 268 kilometers (167 miles) from north to south
Land boundaries: 2,009 kilometers (1,248 miles) total boundary length; Austria 366 kilometers (227 miles); Croatia 329 kilometers (204 miles); Romania 443 kilometers (275 miles); Serbia and Montenegro 151 kilometers (94 miles); Slovakia 515 kilometers (320 miles); Slovenia 102 kilometers (63 miles); Ukraine 103 kilometers (64 miles)
Coastline: None
Territorial sea limits: None
1 LOCATION AND SIZE
Located in the Carpathian Basin, in the heart of Central Europe, Hungary occupies one-third of the territory of the pre–World War I Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hungary is a landlocked, predominantly flat country, with more than four-fifths of its terrain at elevations below 656 feet (200 meters). It covers an area of 93,030 square kilometers (35,919 square miles), or slightly less than the state of Indiana .
2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Hungary has no territories or dependencies.
3 CLIMATE
Hungary has a continental climate, with Atlantic and Mediterranean influences. It has cold winters, warm summers, and abrupt seasonal transitions. The mean temperature ranges from -4°C to 0°C (25°F to 32°F) in January, and 18°C to 23°C (64°F to 73°F) in July. Temperatures as high as 43°C (109°F) have been recorded, however, while the record low is -34°C (-29°F). Rainfall decreases from west to east; the plains around the Tisza River depend on irrigation to prevent crop failure from summer drought. Average annual rainfall ranges from around 51 centimeters (20 inches) in the east to approximately 76 centimeters (30 inches) in the west.
4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Hungary can be divided into four major regions. To the north, a long system of low mountains and hills stretches across the country for 400 kilometers (250 miles) from southwest to northeast. East of the Danube River and south of this mountain system is the Great Alföld, Hungary's largest region and its agricultural heartland. The northern mountains divide the land west of the Danube into two regions. In the northeast corner of the country is the Little Alföld. To the south is the hilly region known as Transdanubia, between the mountains and the Danube.
5 OCEANS AND SEAS
Hungary is a landlocked country.
6 INLAND LAKES
Lake Balaton, 120 kilometers (75 miles) southwest of Budapest , is Hungary's largest lake; it is also the largest freshwater lake in Central Europe. About 72 kilometers (45 miles) long, its width varies, never exceeding 13 kilometers (8 miles). It averages a little more than 10 feet in depth. There are few other lakes in Hungary. Lake Fertõ (also known as Neusiedler See), on the northwestern border, is shared with Austria; Hungary's portion is only about one-fourth of the total. Lake Velence, between Lake Balaton and Budapest, is adjusted artificially to maintain water depths between 1 and 2 meters (3 and 6 feet). Hungary has many mineral springs, which are used for both health and recreational purposes.
7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS
Hungary's longest and most important river is the Danube (Duna), which enters the country in the northwest, where it forms the western portion of the border with Slovakia. It flows eastward until it bends north of Budapest and then flows south, roughly at the center of the country, until it crosses the border with Serbia and Montenegro. Altogether, about 386 kilometers (240 miles) of the Danube's total length of 2,776 kilometers (1,725 miles) border or flow through Hungary. The Rába River flows into the Danube on the Slovakian border, and the Drava joins it much farther south. The Tisza River, which drains much of eastern Hungary, is a tributary of the Danube. It rises in the Carpathian Mountains of Ukraine, enters Hungary in the northeast, and flows southward through the Great Plain, joining the Danube farther south in Serbia and Montenegro. Other notable rivers in Hungary include the Mura River, the Kapos River, the Sió River, and the Marcal River.
8 DESERTS
There are no desert regions in Hungary.
9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN
Hungary has two distinct plains regions. The larger and more important one is the Great Alföld, which spreads across central and eastern Hungary, occupying all of the land south of the northern mountain system. It is a fertile basin with average elevations of slightly more than 91 meters (300 feet). The Danube forms its western boundary, and it is traversed from north to south by the Tisza River.
In the northwest corner of the country is the Little Alföld, whose composition and elevation are similar to those of the larger plain to the south.
The hills of Hungary's northern uplands rise to elevations of 244 to 305 meters (800 to 1,000 feet). A few isolated parts of the Alpine foothills on the Austrian border rise to nearly 914 meters (3,000 feet). Farther south, the Transdanubia region is composed of rolling, hilly land that rises to elevations of 610 meters (2,000 feet).
10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
Reaching elevations of 400 to 700 meters (1,300 to 2,300 feet), the Bakony Mountains constitute the major geographical feature west of the Danube River. Farther east, the Pilis Mountains rise between the Bakony range and the Danube. The hills and mountains east of the Danube account for 4,988 square kilometers (3,100 square miles) of the country's area. They are the only uplands in the country that are part of the Carpathian system. The individual ranges in the group extend northeastward from the gorge of the Danube River near Esztergom for about 225 kilometers (140 miles). Their highest point—and the highest point in Hungary—is Mount Kékes (1,014 meters/ 3,327 feet) in the Mátra range.
11 CANYONS AND CAVES
The caverns of Aggteleki Park are small but fascinating.
12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS
There are no significant plateaus or monoliths in Hungary.
13 MAN-MADE FEATURES
An extensive series of levees have been built on Hungary's plains to prevent disastrous flooding of the Tisza and Danube Rivers. In the nineteenth century, floods around these rivers came close to destroying the two cities that currently combine to make up Budapest. The city is located on both banks of the Danube, and eight bridges across the river link its two sectors.
DID YOU KNOW?
Geothermal aquifers underlie nearly all of Hungary, sending large volumes of water between 40°C (104°F) and 70°C (158°F) to the earth's surface. Much of this water is used to heat greenhouses.
14 FURTHER READING
Dent, Bob. Hungary. 2nd ed. Blue Guides. New York : W.W. Norton, 1998.
Ivory, Michael. Essential Hungary. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books, 1998.
Richardson, Dan, and Charles Hebbert. Hungary: The Rough Guide. 3rd ed. London: Rough Guides, 1995.
Web Sites
Hungarian Home Page. http://www.fsz.bme.hu/hungary/homepage.html (accessed April 3, 2003).
Hungary: Introduction. http://www.fsz.bme.hu/hungary/intro.html (accessed April 3, 2003)
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Hungary
A kingdom of central Europe , established by the eastern nomads known as the Magyars in the tenth century. In the fourteenth century, Hungary was ruled by the foreign Anjou dynasty, whose kings presided over a time of peace and general prosperity. Silver and gold mines enriched the treasury, while the Anjou kings asserted effective control over Hungary's landowning nobles and allied Hungary with Naples and Poland through marriage. Under King Louis I, who ruled from 1342 until 1382, trade with the rest of Europe increased and the kingdom's artisans began forming craft guilds to standardize their production of goods and limit competition. Louis founded the first university in Hungary and also encouraged the work of scholars and manuscript copyists. The reign of Louis's son-in-law, Sigismund, turned out badly for the kingdom, however. Sigismund was opposed by many Hungarian nobles, who were angered by the king's arbitrary cruelty, his heavy taxes, his costly foreign wars, and his many absences from the kingdom after he was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor in 1410 and king of Bohemia in 1419.
In the meantime, Hungary was threatened from the east by the expansion of the Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman Turks had conquered Bulgaria and Serbia in the late fourteenth century. Determined to stop their advance, Sigismund led an army against them and was routed at the Battle of Nicopolis, barely escaping the field with his life. The two kings who followed Sigismund, Albrecht V and Vladislav III, both died while campaigning in the Balkans . The nobles then elected Laszlo V, an infant, and selected Janos Hunyadi to rule the kingdom as regent. A brilliant military leader, Hunyadi defeated the Turks in Serbia and in 1456 lifted the siege of Belgrade , but soon died of the plague. Hunyadi's son, Matthias Corvinus, succeeded as the king in 1458. Seeking the title of Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias campaigned in Bohemia and Austria , and proclaimed his intention to forge a Christian alliance to oppose the Turks.
Matthias was a capable and enlightened ruler who reformed the old legal system of Hungary and established one of Europe's finest libraries, known as the Corvina, for which he hired a small army of copyists and illuminators to create original manuscripts. He promoted scholarship and book publishing, and established Hungary's second university. Latin translations of Hungarian writings circulated, and Latin remained an important language of administration, law courts, and education. Matthias hired an Italian architect, Chimenti de Leonardo Camicia, to rebuild the royal palace of Buda.
The reign of Matthias represented a brief golden age in Hungary's turbulent Renaissance history. His successor, Vladislav II, was a Polish heir who was incapable of standing up to the demands of the Hungarian nobles. Abolishing the taxes opposed by the nobles, Vladislav also disbanded Hungary's large mercenary army as the Ottoman Empire was threatening. His son Louis II succeeded to the throne in 1516, at a time when the treasury was empty and border defenses abandoned, with the king unable to maintain fortresses or pay his soldiers. At the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 the Hungarians were defeated by an Ottoman army and Louis himself died after being thrown from his horse. After several years of conflict over the succession, the Turks seized the capital of Buda and occupied much of the kingdom.
Hungary's political turmoil and military conquest by the Turks limited the spread of Renaissance art and ideas. The library of the Corvina was closed, and its books sent to his own capital by the Ottoman sultan Suleiman. Many Hungarian scholars fled the occupied provinces, while others joined the courts of the Habsburg dynasty, which under Ferdinand I came to control the parts of Hungary free of Turkish control. Hungarian writers began creating a new national literature in the vernacular language, and translating the works of ancient authors. Balint Balassi was renowned for his poetry, and Faustus Verantius, an author and inventor, created a dictionary of eleven languages.
See Also: Corvinus, Matthias; Habsburg dynasty; Ottoman Empire
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Magyar
Orientation
Identification. Hungarian derives from Onogur, a Bulgarian-Turkish tribe's self-name. Between the sixth and eight centuries c.e., both the Hungarian tribes and the Onogurs lived just northeast of the Black Sea .
Location and Geography. Hungary is a landlocked country in central Europe . Covering an area of 35,934 square miles (93,030 square kilometers), the country is in the Carpathian Basin, surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps , and the Dinaric Alps. The Danube River divides Hungary and bisects the capital, Budapest . Hungary lies within the temperate zone and has four distinct seasons.
Demography. Hungary has lost population since the early 1980s. The population was 10,065,000 in 1999, 48,000 less than it had been a year earlier. As in several European countries, the population of the elderly is on the rise and that of children on the decrease.
The officially recognized minorities are Armenians, Bulgarians, Croats, Germans, Greeks, Poles, Romanians, Roma (Gypsy), Ruthenians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians. The largest minority is the Roma, who make up about 5 percent of the population, numbering approximately 500,000. The second largest minority are the Germans, who number an estimated 170,000. There are 80,000 to 110,000 Slovaks as well as about 35,000 Croatians, 15,000 to 25,000 Romanians, 80,000 to 100,000 Jews , and 5,000 Serbs.
Linguistic Affiliation. Hungarian belongs to the Ugor branch of the Finno-Ugric language family. Before World War II , German was the most important and frequently used second language. During the socialist period, Russian was mandatory in schools and universities. English has become the most valued second language, particularly for younger people with entrepreneurial ambitions and in academia, the sciences, and various businesses and services.
Symbolism. The Hungarian language constitutes one of the most significant national symbols. History also has a central meaning in national awareness and identity. Related to history is the national coat of arms, which depicts the House of Árpád's Árpád led the Hungarian conquest in 896 c.e. and his offspring founded the state and ruled until the male line died out in the early fourteenth century. On this family crest is the crown that national tradition connects with the person of King István (997–1038) (Saint Stephen), the country's first Christian king.
This crown, usually called Sacred Crown or Holy Crown, has always been endowed with a mystical and transcendent meaning. Historically, the crown validated and legitimated the ruler. Even though the kingdom of Hungary ceased to exist in 1918, the crown continues to hold deeply meaningful national significance.
The red, white, and green flag also is a powerful national symbol. The national anthem, written in 1823, is symbol of the eastern origins and history of the Hungarians in the form of a prayer that begs God to help the nation.
The gigantic painting entitled "The Arrival of the Hungarians" is another national symbol. Feszty originally painted it for the millennial celebration (1896).
The most significant manifestation of national unity is the sense of linguistic and cultural connection that includes the national language, literature, music, folk culture, folk literature, folk traditions, and history.
A deep, permeating consciousness is another integral element of national identity. It can be summarized as "we are all alone" and is based on historical reasons and the "otherness" of the language and the origins of Hungarians. While the consciousness of "we are all alone" was dormant during the socialist period (1948–1989), it still remained a recognizable and crucial part of the national identity.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. There is evidence that the Hungarian nation was a unit in the Middle Ages . In Latin chronicles dating back to the tenth century, there are colorful origin myths of the Hungarians "conquering" and occupying the Carpathian Basin and their conversion to Christianity under King Stephen. Many Hungarians consider their nation "the final fortress of Western Christianity and civilized Europe."
National Identity. In the Middle Ages, groups and nationalities that were not ethnically Hungarian lived in the nation. After the late Middle Ages, a dual national consciousness is demonstrable. On the one hand, there was a nation–state that ethnic Hungarians and non-Hungarians could share. On the other hand, there was a narrower sense of belonging to the Hungarian linguistic, cultural, and ethnic community.
In 1526, a young Hungarian king fell in a battle with the Ottoman Turks. On the basis of a marriage contract, the Habsburgs claimed the Hungarian throne. After conquering the Ottomans in 1686 and 1712, the Habsburgs ruled all of Hungary. The population accepted their right to rule but kept and observed their own laws, legislative powers, parliament, and administrative division. From time to time there were anti-Habsburg revolts, conspiracies, and political unrest.
In 1848, a revolution led by Lajos Kossuth demanded democratic reforms and more independence from Austria . However, Austria defeated the revolution. This was the first time that the general population, including the peasantry, experienced a sense of national unity. While some of the nationalities shared that experience, most turned against the Hungarians.
The Austrian tyranny that followed the revolution of 1848 ended with the 1867 Austrian-Hungarian Compromise. With this accord, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was established. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy ended after World War I. The Trianon Treaty of 1920 ended the territorial integrity of Hungary. Nearly 70 percent of its historical territory and 58 percent of its former population were ceded to neighboring countries. One-third of ethnic Hungarians came under foreign rule. With the assent of the Western powers, Hungary came under Soviet occupation after World War II. Under the leadership of Moscow and the Moscow-led Hungarian Communist Party, the "building of socialism" began. In 1956, the nation rose up against the Communist rule and occupation by the Soviet Union . The revolt was defeated and approximately two hundred thousand Hungarians, mostly young people, skilled workers, white-collar workers, professionals, and intellectuals, escaped to the West.
By 1968 Hungary had become the "happiest barrack in the lager" as a result of the economic reforms of the New Economic Mechanism and with some social and political liberalization. In 1989, Hungary was the first Socialist Bloc country to open the "Iron Curtain," providing a transit route for thousands people emigrating from East Germany to West Germany , precipitating the fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany.
The "softer" regime under János Kádár was successful in weakening traditional national consciousness, along with previously closely knit community networks and religious worldviews and values. After forty years of socialism, the general tendency among many in the population is to be individualistic, survival-oriented, and likely to work out strategies of compromise.
Ethnic Relations. After the 1989 change of regime, the Hungarian government assumed responsibility for the ethnic and linguistic maintenance of ethnic Hungarians living outside the nation's borders. The government tries to establish and maintain fair and friendly relations with the governments of neighboring countries. There are frequent complaints, however, that the Hungarian minorities' ethnic and cultural maintenance is made difficult by the host countries.
Hungary continues to strive for friendly relations with the surrounding countries. Ethnic and national minorities are encouraged to set up their own self-governing councils, and their cultural and educational institutions receive state support.
Among the minorities, the Roma are in an extremely difficult situation. Their high birth rate, disadvantageous economic position and social status, and the subjection to prejudice have worsened their economic circumstances and social integration.
Urbanism,Architecture, and the Use of Space
Until the middle of the nineteenth century, Hungary was a primarily rural agrarian society. Often Hungarian villages had large populations. The church was always in the center of the village. Many settlements were "two-church villages," indicating that two groups settled there at different periods.
On the Great Hungarian Plain instead of villages, there was a loose network of huge agrotowns that were located far from one another, each with a population from 20,000 to 100,000. Until recently, most Hungarians engaged in agriculture. The large agrotowns were administered as villages, with most of their inhabitants living like peasants. In the early eighteenth century, individual, isolated homesteads sprang up. Only seasonally occupied at first, they eventually became permanent residences of mostly extended families. However, even though about 50 percent of the people in the agrotowns lived and worked outside towns on these homesteads, they still considered themselves townspeople.
As a result of industrialization after the establishment of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867, a number of industrial-commercial-merchant cities sprang up. Between 1867 and the beginning of World War I, Budapest grew into a huge metropolis with a population of over a million.
In the center of cities there are city halls and other public buildings as well as churches, shopping districts, and remnants of traditional marketplaces. Some churchyards still have small cemeteries.
Until recently, it was customary to have a tiszta szoba (clean room) in peasant houses that was used mainly for special visits and particular rituals and occasions such as births, christenings, weddings, and funerals. There were also "sacred corners" that were decorated with pictures of various saints and pictures and statues brought back from Catholic pilgrimages. In Protestant households, the walls of those rooms depicted religious reformers and the heroes of the 1848 revolution.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Magyar kenyér (Hungarian bread) remains very important in the rural and urban cuisine. For the last one hundred fifty years, wheat has been one of the most important crops both for domestic use and exportation. Pig breeding became the most important type of animal breeding in the 1870s, and since then the meat and byproducts of pigs have predominated in the national diet.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. The cuisine at most village weddings includes chicken soup with special csiga noodles that were traditionally believed to have fertility-inducing properties, gulyás, stuffed cabbage, sweetened millet, sweetened rice and other rice dishes, and butter-cream tortes and other baked goods.
According to the national self-image, Hungarians are wine drinkers, but beer drinking is more common. Since the early 1990s there has been an attempt to familiarize the population with regional wines.
Basic Economy. Before World War II, Hungary was an agricultural country. During the socialist regime, forced industrialization took place. However, more than half the population does some agricultural work for household use and supplemental income.
Major Industries. Tourism continues to be a great Hungarian success. The production of barley, corn, potatoes, wheat, sugar beets, and sunflower seeds, along with grapes and wine making, is important. Mines are no longer subsidized by the government, and many mines have closed.
Trade. Imports include metal ores and crude petroleum, while exports include agricultural products, consumer goods, leather shoes, machinery, transport equipment, chemicals, textiles, wines, iron, and steel.
Between 1948 and 1989, more than half of foreign trade was with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. Since the early 1990s, foreign trading partners have been Germany, Italy, Austria, the United States , and some of the formerly socialist countries.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. Early in the socialist period, the nationalization of industries, commerce, and most services, along with the forced collectivization of agrarian landholding, brought about the end of private property. Communist Party leaders, secretaries, and members lived better and had access to more goods than did the rest of the population. Privatization of industry, commerce, and some services took place after 1990 as Western capital flowed into Hungary. As a result of a complex and controversial system of property compensation, most arable land and real properties were reprivatized after more than four decades. The income gap then widened between the rich and the poor. It increased in 1998 as 38 percent of the population earned below the minimum annual wage. In contrast, the rich seem to have increased their wealth at a rapid rate.
Upward social mobility still depends on the channeling of students into educational institutes. A disproportionate number of students in high schools, colleges, and universities come from intellectual, upper management, or otherwise "elite" families.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Western-style clothes, especially American jeans, are worn by the bulk of the younger population in both urban and rural areas. New clothes are very expensive and brand names such as Levi-Strauss can be bought only by a small segment of the population. Shiny polyester or nylon leisure suits worn with expensive, name-brand sports shoes are signs of new and successful entrepreneurs. Many of the new rich drive expensive foreign cars. The number of cell phones and their frequent and public uses are striking. There are numerous luxurious new or elaborately remodeled villas in Budapest that are owned by the new economic elite. Foreign travel has become a flaunted symbol of wealth and status.
Political Life
Government. All levels of government were under the control of the Communist Party between 1948 and 1989. The change of regime in 1989 brought in a multiparty government and a parliamentary democracy with elected representatives. At the end of the twentieth century, there were 182 officially registered political parties.
Leadership and Political Officials. There is a president, who is the head of the state and may be elected for two five-year terms. The prime minister is the leader of the party with the most seats. The parliament is called the National Assembly, with 386 deputies who are elected for four-year terms. The Constitutional Court was established in 1990. There is a Judicial Supreme Court that is essentially a final court of appeal.
Social Problems and Control. Alcoholism is a widespread and significant problem. In addition, drug abuse has increased since the end of the socialist regime. After the outbreak of the war in the former Yugoslavia in 1991, Hungary became a favorite place for international organized crime organizations that engage in drug, weapons, and people smuggling; prostitution rings; and money laundering. The crime rate is rapidly increasing. The population worries about the lack of public safety and generally blames crimes on the Roma as well as refugees and other foreigners. Psychological problems, particularly depression, increased significantly between 1988 and 1996, and, although the number of suicides has been declining, Hungary continues to have the highest rate of suicide in the world.
Military Activity. Modernization of the army began in the early transition period (1990–1994) and has continued since the country has become part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ). There is an ongoing process of integrating the Hungarian armed forces with NATO organizations and the filling of alliance posts. The army is being converted to a mixed structure that is composed of volunteers and conscripts. All males between ages 18 and 55 are required to serve in the armed forces, but conscription is selective. For example, students in universities serve for a very short time or not at all and conscientious objectors are given civilian jobs. There are 80,000 people serving in the army, air force, border guards, and the small fleet guarding the Danube River.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Men are expected to work, earn, and provide for their families, while women are expected to take care of the children and the domestic chores. These ideal roles are rarely achieved today. In the last couple of generations, the rate of divorce and remarriage has increased dramatically. Since the change of regime (in 1989), cohabitation of unmarried couples and the number of children born outside of marriage have grown. These patterns are more common among those with less formal education, money, and social prestige.
Most Hungarian men do not help with the housework, and few women object to this arrangement. Only among a small percentage of young, mostly urban couples and an even smaller segment of middle-aged intellectuals and professionals is there evidence of a changing pattern in the gendered division of labor in the domestic sphere.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. The images of the mother and motherland are expressed in the national literature and culture. Since the early nineteenth century, the centrality of the mother-son relationship has been idealized in literature and the public consciousness. The mother is often hailed as the core of the national identity, the guardian and cultivator of a "real" culture that is untouched by foreign influences.
Marriage,Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Marriages are no longer arranged. Young people usually marry for love or to have children. The perpetual shortage of apartments is a problem for married couples. Young married couples frequently move into the small apartment of either set of parents. While traditionally a young married couple lived near the parents of the groom, today, if a couple cannot set up an independent new household, they move in with the set of parents who will welcome them and has the most room. Most households consist of a married or unmarried couple and their children.
Even when a couple lives in a separate household, great value is placed on having the help of a grandmother or grandfather.
Kin Groups. Kin groups are often large in villages and smaller in urban centers. Godparenthood is still much valued. Extended families living in the same household are very rare.
Socialization
Infant Care. Traditionally, newborns were swaddled; today they are wrapped in warm blankets when they are very young, but swaddling is no longer practiced. Infants and toddlers are usually put into a separate space to sleep and play. Parents try to calm an active baby rather than stimulate it. There seems to be a growing child centeredness that is manifested in focusing on children and often giving them more material goods and privileges than the family can afford. Good children are obedient, mindful, diligent, respectful, industrious, quiet, and good students. In rural areas, more emphasis is placed on respect and industrious behavior. The actual behavior of children rarely approximates these expectations.
Child Rearing and Education. Formal education is compulsory between six and sixteen years of age. The rate of literacy is 98 percent. Traditionally, most people considered a high school diploma as the final formal educational goal.
Higher Education. Since the 1980s more value has been placed on college or university education. This is illustrated by a slightly increased enrollment in colleges and universities and in an expansion of educational opportunities in institutes of higher learning.
Etiquette
Hospitality entails an extraordinary effort to feed and care for guests. Guests are always encouraged to step into one's home first.
On the streets, it is customary for men to walk on the left side of women, ostensibly because in the past gentlemen kept their swords on the left side and women had to be on the opposite side of the sword. A Hungarian man enters first into a pub, restaurant, coffeehouse, or other public establishment.
Friends, family members, and close acquaintances who have not seen one another for a while greet and part from one another with pecks on both the left and right cheeks. Touching the hands, arms, and shoulders of partners in conversation is common. It is customary for a woman to offer her hand first both to men of all ages and to younger women and children.
Differentiated formal terms of address are seldom used among younger people. Informal styles of greeting and terms of address are used from the moment of initial meeting. Considerably less time is spent visiting and socializing in coffeehouses and on the streets than in the past.
Bodily contact is rather intimate on public transportation and in malls and shopping centers. In isolated rural settlements, villagers still stare at strangers.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. According to surveys in the early 1990s, 72 percent of Hungarians are Roman Catholic, 21 percent are Calvinist Reformed, 4 percent are Lutherans, nearly 1 percent are Jewish, and about 2 percent are "nondenominational" or "other."
After Russia , Hungary has the largest Jewish population in its region. About 80 percent of Hungarian Jews live in the capital city. About half the Jewish population is over the age of 65.
There was an official campaign against all religions during the socialist regime. Those who openly practiced a religion were discriminated against and often punished. The state closed most parochial schools and dissolved or disbanded religious orders and institutions. After 1989 and during the periods of privatization, many schools and other formerly parochial buildings were returned to the churches. As compensation for the confiscated properties, the state financially supports parochial schools and other religious institutions.
Among large segments of the population, religious indifference and often explicitly antireligious attitudes prevail. This is an outcome of the lax, individualist, atomizing policies of the last decade of socialism. Alongside the major denominations, there are an increasing number of small sects, religious movements, and Eastern religious practices, along with a growing number of followers of proselytizing Western missionaries.
Many Hungarians do not formally belong to or regularly practice any religion, but baptisms, weddings, and funerals tie them informally to churches.
Rituals and Holy Places. Among the sacred places of the Hungarian Roman Catholic Church are the city of Esztergom, where Saint Stephen was born; Pannonhalma, where the first Benedictine Order was founded in 996 c.e.; the city of Eger; and a number of provincial rural settlements and places of annual pilgrimage. Calvinists in eastern Hungary consider Debrecen the "Calvinist Rome." The religious centers for Lutherans are Budapest and Sopron. Budapest has the largest synagogue in Europe.
Death and the Afterlife. In addition to traditional in-ground burial, cremation with special places to put funerary urns has been practiced since before World War II. Because of a lack of cemetery space in the cities and the great expense of traditional funerals, cremation is widely practiced.
Medicine and Health Care
Western medicine is practiced, although many individuals have turned to alternative medicine such as acupuncture and herbal and homeopathic remedies. In addition to Western medical treatment, frequenting medicinal spas, getting professional deep tissue and other types of massage, and drinking mineral water continue to be very popular.
Secular Celebrations
Major national holidays include 20 August, commemorating the death of King Stephen. This day is also an ecclesiastical feast day. During the socialist regime (1948–1989), 20 August was renamed the Day of the Constitution and the Day of New Bread. Another major national holiday is 15 March, which commemorates the bloodless democratic civil revolution that broke out in 1848. Since the change of regime in 1989, 23 October has been a day of remembrance of the revolution of 1956, when Hungarians rose against the Soviet occupation. Though not an official holiday, the Day of the Martyrs of Arad (6 October) is a significant time of remembrance.
In addition, there are numerous local memorial celebrations, art festivals, and folk festivals. Among the many festivals and fairs are the southern Folklore Festival along the Danube , the northern region's annual Palóc Festival, and the annual Bridge Fair. In the annual Budapest Spring Festival, there are art exhibits and musical and theatrical events.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Support for the arts during the socialist period was provided primarily by the State. Since 1989, there has been much less governmental support and more private, individual, and corporate sponsors for artists.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
The physical and social sciences are taught on sophisticated and advanced levels in universities, research facilities, and other institutes. State funding continues to be a key resource, but it has decreased in the last decade. There has been a "brain drain" as younger and middle-aged scientists leave temporarily or permanently for better wages and opportunities and more advanced laboratories and instruments in Western Europe, the United States, Canada , and Australia .
Bibliography
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——. National Identity in Contemporary Hungary, 1997.
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Deák, István. "Uncovering Eastern Europe's Dark History." Orbis, Winter 1990.
——. Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps,, 1992.
Erõs, Ferenc. "The Construction of Jewish Identity in Hungary in the 1980s." In Ferenc Erõs, David Schers, and David Zisenwine, eds., Yitzak Kashti, A Quest for Identity: Post War Jewish Biographies. Studies in Jewish Culture, Identity and Community, School of Education, 1996.
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—Éva V. Huseby-Darvas
| Hungary |
Which comedy series, shown on Channel 4 in 2008 features four main characters called Will, Simon, Jay and Neil? | Europe (continent) | Article about Europe (continent) by The Free Dictionary
Europe (continent) | Article about Europe (continent) by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Europe+(continent)
See also: Indo-European Family of Languages, The (table) The Indo-European Family of Languages
Subfamily Group Subgroup Languages and Principal Dialects
Anatolian Hieroglypic Hittite*, Hittite (Kanesian)*, Luwian*, Lycian*, Lydian*, Palaic*
..... Click the link for more information.
Europe
(yo͝or`əp), 6th largest continent, c.4,000,000 sq mi (10,360,000 sq km) including adjacent islands (1992 est. pop. 512,000,000). It is actually a vast peninsula of the great Eurasian land mass. By convention, it is separated from Asia by the Urals and the Ural River in the east; by the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus in the southeast; and by the Black Sea, the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles in the south. The Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar separate it from Africa. Europe is washed in the north by the Arctic Ocean, and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, with which the North Sea and the Baltic Sea are connected.
Physical Geography
The huge Alpine mountain chain, of which the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans, and the Caucasus are the principal links, traverses the continent from west to east. The highest points are Mt. Elbrus (18,481 ft/5,633 m) in the Caucasus and Mont Blanc (15,771 ft/4,807 m) in the Alps. Europe's lowest point (92 ft/28 m below sea level) is the surface of the Caspian Sea. Between the mountainous Scandinavian peninsula in the north and the Alpine chain in the south lie the Central European Uplands surrounded by the great European plain, stretching from the Atlantic coast of France to the Urals.
A large part of this plain (which is interrupted by minor mountain groups and hills) has fertile agricultural soil; in the east and north there are vast steppe, forest, lake, and tundra regions. South of the Alpine chain extend the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas, which are largely mountainous. The Po plain, between the Alps and the Apennines, and the Alföld plain, between the Carpathians and the Alps, are fertile and much-developed regions. Among the chief river systems of Europe are, from east to west, those of the Volga, the Don, the Dnieper, the Danube, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine, the Rhône, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Tagus.
Climate
The climate of Europe varies from subtropical to polar. The Mediterranean climate of the south is dry and warm. The western and northwestern parts have a mild, generally humid climate, influenced by the North Atlantic Drift. In central and eastern Europe the climate is of the humid continental-type with cool summers. In the northeast subarctic and tundra climates are found. All of Europe is subject to the moderating influence of prevailing westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean and, consequently, its climates are found at higher latitudes than similar climates on other continents.
Regions
Europe can be divided into seven geographic regions: Scandinavia (Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark); the British Isles (the United Kingdom and Ireland); W Europe (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Monaco); S Europe (Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Italy, Malta, San Marino, and Vatican City); Central Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary); SE Europe (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, and the European part of Turkey); and E Europe (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, the European portion of Russia, and by convention the Transcaucasian countries of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan).
People
Indo-European languages (see The Indo-European Family of Languages The Indo-European Family of Languages
Subfamily Group Subgroup Languages and Principal Dialects
Anatolian Hieroglypic Hittite*, Hittite (Kanesian)*, Luwian*, Lycian*, Lydian*, Palaic*
..... Click the link for more information. , table) predominate in Europe; others spoken include Basque, Maltese, and the languages classified as Finno-Ugric, Samoyedic, Bulgaric, and Turkic. Roman Catholicism is the chief religion of S and W Europe and the southern part of central Europe; Protestantism is dominant in Great Britain, Scandinavia, and the northern part of Europe; the Orthodox Eastern Church predominates in E and SE Europe; and there are pockets of of Muslim predominance in the Balkan Peninsula and Transcaucasia. With the exception of the northern third of the continent, Europe is densely populated. Eleven cities have populations exceeding two million inhabitants; London, Moscow, and Paris are the largest cities.
Economy and Transportation
Europe is highly industrialized; the largest industrial areas are found in W central Europe, England, N Italy, Ukraine, and European Russia. Agriculture, forestry (in N Europe), and fishing (along the Atlantic coast) are also important. Europe has a large variety of minerals; coal, iron ore, and salt are abundant. Oil and gas are found in E Europe and beneath the North Sea. Coal is used to produce a significant, but declining amount of Europe's electricity; in Norway and Sweden and in the Alps hydroelectric plants supply a large percentage of the power. More than 25% of Europe's electricity is generated from nuclear power.
The transportation system in Europe is highly developed; interconnecting rivers and canals provide excellent inland water transportation in central and W Europe. The Channel Tunnel Channel Tunnel,
popularly called the "Chunnel," a three-tunnel railroad connection running under the English Channel, connecting Folkestone, England, and Calais, France. The tunnels are 31 mi (50 km) long. There are two rail tunnels, each 25 ft (7.
..... Click the link for more information. connects Great Britain to France. The countries of Europe engage heavily in foreign trade, and some of the world's greatest ports are found there. Rotterdam with the huge new Europort complex, London, Le Havre, Hamburg, Genoa, and Marseilles are the chief ports.
Outline of History
Historical Currents
The beginnings of civilization in Europe can be traced to very ancient times, but they are not as old as the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Roman and Greek cultures flourished in Europe, and European civilization—language, technology, political concepts, and the Christian religion—have been spread throughout the world by European colonists and immigrants. Throughout history, Europe has been the scene of many great and destructive wars that have ravaged both rural and urban areas. Once embraced by vast and powerful empires and kingdoms, successful nationalistic uprisings (especially in the 19th cent.) divided the continent into many sovereign states. The political fragmentation led to economic competition and political strife among the states.
Modern History
After World War II, Europe became divided into two ideological blocs (Eastern Europe, dominated by the USSR, and Western Europe, dominated by the United States) and became engaged in the cold war. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), established under the North Atlantic Treaty (Apr. 4, 1949) by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States.
..... Click the link for more information. (NATO) was formed as a military deterrent to the spread of Communism and sought to maintain a military balance with its eastern equivalent, the Warsaw Treaty Organization Warsaw Treaty Organization
or Warsaw Pact,
alliance set up under a mutual defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, in 1955 by Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
..... Click the link for more information. . Cold war tensions eased in the 1960s, and signs of normalization of East-West relations appeared in the 1970s.
In Western Europe, the European Economic Community European Economic Community
(EEC), organization established (1958) by a treaty signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany (now Germany); it was known informally as the Common Market.
..... Click the link for more information. (Common Market), the European Coal and Steel Community European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC), 1st treaty organization of what has become the European Union; established by the Treaty of Paris (1952). It is also known as the Schuman Plan, after the French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, who proposed it in 1950.
..... Click the link for more information. , and the European Atomic Energy Community European Atomic Energy Community
(Euratom or EAEC), economic organization that came into being as the 3d treaty organization of what has become the European Union; established by the Treaty of Rome (1958).
..... Click the link for more information. (Euratom) merged in 1967 to form the European Community. Known since 1993 as the European Union European Union
(EU), name given since the ratification (Nov., 1993) of the Treaty of European Union, or Maastricht Treaty, to the European Community (EC), an economic and political confederation of European nations, and other organizations (with the same member nations)
..... Click the link for more information. , the organization aims to develop economic and monetary union among its members, ultimately leading to political union. The Eastern European counterpart was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(COMECON or MEA), international organization active between 1956 and 1991 for the coordination of economic policy among certain nations then under Communist domination, including Albania (which did not participate after 1961), Bulgaria,
..... Click the link for more information. (COMECON), which, like the Warsaw Treaty Organization, dissolved with the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the early 1990s.
The loosening of political control sparked a revival of the long pent-up ethnic nationalism and a wave of democratization that led to an overthrow of the Communist governments in Eastern Europe. In the former Yugoslavia, ethnic tensions between Muslims, Croats, and Serbs were unleashed, leading to civil war and massacres of members of ethnic groups, or "ethnic cleansing," in areas where other groups won military control. During the early and mid-1990s most of the former Soviet bloc countries embarked on economic restructuring programs to transform their centralized economies into market-based ones. The pace of reform varied, especially as the hardships involved became increasingly evident. Meanwhile, in Western Europe the European Union, amid some tensions, continued working toward greater political and economic unity, including the creation of a common European currency.
Bibliography
See S. B. Clough et al., ed., The European Past (2 vol., 1964); Denis de Rougemont, The Idea of Europe (tr. 1966); John Bowle, The Unity of European History: A Political and Cultural Survey (rev. and enl. ed. 1970); Richard Mayne, The Europeans: Who Are We? (1972); Stephen Usherwood, Europe, Century by Century (1973); T. G. Jordan, The European Culture Area (2d ed. 1988); T. Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (2005); M. E. Sarotte, 1989: The Struggle to Create Post–Cold War Europe (2009); B. Simms, Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy from 1453 to the Present (2013); K. H. Jarausch, Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century (2015); I. Kershaw, To Hell and Back: Europe, 1914–1949 (2015).
Europe
(Greek:Eurōpē, from the Assyrian Ereb , “the West”; in ancient Greece, the name for territories located west of the Aegean Sea), a part of the world; the western part of the continent of Eurasia.
Europe is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean and its seas—the Kara, Barents, White, and Norwegian seas. In the west and south it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and its seas—the Baltic, North, Irish, Mediterranean, and Black seas and the seas of Marmara and Azov. In the east and southeast the border between Europe and Asia is most commonly accepted as passing through the eastern foothills of the Urals and along the Emba River to the Caspian Sea and along the Kuma and Manych rivers to the mouth of the Don. The extreme continental points of Europe are in the north, North Cape, 71°08’ N lat., in the south, Point Marroqui, 36° N lat, in the west, Capa da Roca, 9°34’ W long., and in the east, the eastern foothills of the polar Urals near Baidaratak Bay, 67°20’ E long. Europe also has islands and archipelagoes, the largest of which are Novaia Zemlia, Franz Josef Land (Cape Fligeli on Rodol’f Island is the northernmost point of Europe, at 81°49’ N lat.), Svalbard, Iceland, the British Isles, Zeeland, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and Crete. Within the borders defined above, the area of Europe, including its islands, is approximately 10 million sq km. The area of the islands alone is approximately 730,000 sq km.
In some geographic as well as statistical and economic works, the Caucasus (including Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as far as the state borders of the USSR) are treated as part of Europe.
It is a commonly accepted practice to divide Europe into two major parts: Eastern Europe (most of the European territory of the USSR) and Western Europe (most of the non-Soviet area of Europe).
Coastline. Compared to other parts of the world, Europe is outstanding for the great diversity of its coastline: for every 1 km of coastline there is about 246 sq km of territory. The total length of the coastline is approximately 38,000 km, and the maximum distance of the interior regions of Europe from the sea is 1,600 km. Peninsulas account for about 25 percent of Europe’s area. The major peninsulas are the Kanin, Kola, Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian, Balkan, and Crimean peninsulas, Jutland, and Brittany.
Smooth, regular, eroded coasts prevail, formed primarily by the wave action of the sea (for example, the eastern shores of the White Sea and the southeastern shores of the Barents Sea, the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, the western coast of the North Sea, the eastern coast of the Bay of Biscay, and much of the coastlines of the Mediterranean and Black seas). The southern and southeastern shores of the North Sea and parts of the southern shore of the Barents Sea are marshy, formed by the action of the tides on lowland’s.
In the remaining regions of the continent, relatively high, extremely dissected tectonic shores prevail, such as the faulted coasts of the Kola Peninsula and the folded coasts in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The fiord and cliff coasts of the Norwegian Sea, the northern part of the Baltic Sea, and the shores of Scotland and Iceland were formed by glaciers. A number of European coasts were changed by intrusions of the sea (the ria coasts of the peninsulas of Brittany, Wales, and western Ireland, the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula, and the Dalmatian coast in the western Balkan Peninsula).
Basic orography. In its average elevation (about 300 m) and its maximum elevation (4,807 m, Mont Blanc, the Alps), Europe lags behind the other continents, with the exception of Australia. Approximately 60 percent of Europe’s surface is located at an elevation of less than 200 m. (In many instances, the surface of the continent is below sea level. The shores of the Caspian Sea are at −28 m, and several portions of the shores of the North and Baltic seas are below sea level.) Of the remaining surface, 24 percent is from 200 to 500m above sea level, 10 percent is from 500 to 1,000m, and 6 percent is at elevations of more than 1,000 m (including 1.5 percent at elevations higher than 2,000 m).
The distribution of surface elevations indicates the prevalence of plains in Europe. Almost all of Eastern Europe and the northern part of Central Europe are occupied by the Eastern European (Russian) Plain and its extension in the west—the Central European Plain. A considerable portion of Fennoscandia is also occupied by plains, and in the remaining regions of the continent, plains are scattered between the mountains (for example, the Central Danubian and Lower Danubian plains).
In the extreme east lie the Ural Mountains, and in the northwest, the Scandinavian uplands. The southern part of Central Europe is ringed by belts of mountains that are small in area and low in elevation: the French Massif Central, the Vosges, the Black Forest, and the Rhenish Slate Mountains. From the south these belts are framed by the highest mountains in Europe—the Alps—as well as by the Carpathians. Mountainous relief prevails in southern Europe: the Pyrenees, the Andalusian Mountains, the Apennines, the Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains), and the Dinaric, Rhodope, and Pindus mountains.
Origin and development of topography. The predominance in Europe of platform structures is manifested in the wide distribution of plains, which are especially characteristic of Eastern Europe. Located in the northwestern part of the Eastern European Platform are the socle plains of Fennoscandia, which were formed as a result of a prolonged denudation (beginning in the Paleozoic period) of the surface of the Baltic Shield. During the Pleistocene epoch the Fennoscandian terrain was made more complex by the action of glaciers that covered the area. Socle plains are also found in the southern and eastern parts of Scandinavia, Finland, the Kola Peninsula, and Karelia. Low plains (elevations up to 100–150 m) prevail, with thick but shallow tectonic dissection, frequent drops in elevation, and widely distributed morainic ridges, eskers, kames, and depressions, many of which are filled with lakes.
Individual uplands and ridges (Småland, Suomenselkä, Maanselkä, and Western Karelian highlands, the Vetrenyi Poias, and the Keivy) and low and medium-height hills (the Lovozerok Tundras and the Khibiny) correspond to the zones of the greatest tectonic uplifts or to outcroppings of very dense rocks. There are stratified and accumulation plains on the European Platform and on the syneclises of the Epipaleozoic platforms adjacent to it (in the south, the Scythian Plain, and in the west, the Western European Plain). These plains were formed by the prolonged accumulation of sedimentary rocks of the platform bed, whose stratification is primarily horizontal or monoclinal (the latter type is found chiefly in the northwest).
In addition to overall flatness and low average elevation (approximately 170 m), the surface of Europe is characterized by a combination of uplands up to 300–400 m (the Central Russian Valdai, Volga Region, Verkhniaia Kama, Bugul’-ma-Belebei, and Severnye Uvaly uplands) and lowlands (the Oka-Don Plain, the Black Sea Region, the Pechora, and the Caspian Lowland, as well as the Trans-Volga Region and the Central European Plain). The tectonic diversity of the platform’s base and the varying direction and scope of neotectonic movements are reflected in the combination of uplands and lowlands.
The northern regions of the stratified plains, which were altered by Pleistocene glaciers, have numerous glacial and aqueoglacial plains and glacial forms of terrain that were laid down on the preglacial surface of ancient river valleys, water divides, and cuesta ridges. In general, fewer glacial forms are encountered as one moves south toward the boundaries of maximum glaciation (Dnieper glaciation). Glacial terrain is especially well preserved in the regions of the most recent (Valdai) glaciation, which are characterized by recent morainic ridges (for example, the Baltic ridges of the Valdai Hills), basal morainic hills, and glacial lake lowlands. Plains that lie between the boundaries of the maximal and the most recent glaciation have a glacial terrain that has been extensively reworked by erosion and denudation. In these areas gently rolling morainic plains and almost flat, sandy outwash plains prevail (Poles’e, the Oka-Don Plain, and the southern regions of the Central European Plain). The remnants of ancient morainic ridges are also found in northern Byelorussia and on the Smolensk-Moscow Upland.
Most of the nonglaciated regions of Europe are occupied by stratified plains, with water-eroded reliefs characterized by mature, broad, terraced, asymmetrical river valleys, as well as by ravines, gullies, and comparatively flat water divides. Particularly deep dissection caused by erosion characterizes the Central Russian, Volga Region, Podolian, and Dnieper Region uplands, most of which are covered by a thick layer of loess and loessial loams. The Trans-Volga Region, considerable areas of which lack loose top soil deposits, are less dissected. Associated with the geologic youth, low absolute elevation, and arid climate of the Caspian Lowland (a marine accumulation plain that recently emerged from below sea level) are predominantly flat surfaces. Small sinkholes (1–5 m deep) and hollows are encountered in the north. In the south, the terrain is more complex, with clays and low sandy ridges (2–8 m high) and hillocks. Located among the stratified plains of the Donetsk, Timansk, and Chernyshev ridges are eroded and denuded uplands, which are related to outcrops of the folded base. The Dnieper and Azov uplands are socle plains partially buried under a sedimentary cover.
Located in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, framing the Fennoscandian socle plains, are the regenerated folded block and block Scandinavian mountains, which were formed on the site of the structures of the Caledonian Region and (in the south and southeast) the Baltic Shield, which were uplifed and became peneplains during the Cenozoic era. Flat-topped massifs— fjelds— prevail, dissected by deep, trough-shaped valleys with steep western and more gently sloping eastern sides. Topographical features formed by glacial exaration are widespread on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The highest peaks have an alpine relief. The lower mountains in the northern part of Great Britain have similar characteristics (the Scottish Highlands and the Southern Uplands of Scotland).
Regions where Hercynian folded structures are widespread have primarily rejuvenated, folded block mountains of medium elevation. The best example of this type of terrain is the Ural Mountains. Located in the Ural-Tien-Shan folded region, they are a system of parallel ranges extending meridionally and divided by longitudinal and lateral depressions, which are occupied by river valleys. Prolonged, intensive denudation resulted in the formation of a series of pene-plains in the Urals, and only neotectonic movements have rejuvenated the mountainous terrain. Mountain ranges of low and medium elevations prevail, with flat or domed peaks and gently contoured slopes. The polar Urals and the Urals below the arctic circle have mountain-glacial forms of terrain and small glaciers.
In the Western European Hercynian Zone the low and medium-height folded-block and block mountains and uplands, which correspond to the anteclises of the folded foundation (for example, the Massif Central of France, the Armorican Massif, the Cambrian Mountains, the Vosges, the Black Forest, the Rhenish Slate Mountains, the Bohemian Massif, including the Ore Mountains, the Sudetes, and the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands) underwent intensive tectonic disintegration. In many places, these mountains alternate with plains on grabens (the Upper Rhine and Rhone lowlands) and with stratified, stepped cuesta plains, which are primarily related to syneclises of a folded foundation (the Paris, London, and Thuringian basins and the Swabian-Franconian Plain).
A diverse topography distinguishes the Alpine geosynclinal folded region, whose mountainous relief is characterized by folded and block-folded, alpine, medium-height and high, linearly extended or arch-shaped curved mountain ranges, with sharp watershed crests and well-developed slopes and foothills. The highest of these mountains are the Alps, whose orographic continuation in the northwest is the Jura and in the northeast, the Carpathians, which subsequently form a transition to the Stara Planina. In the south-east the Alps run into the Dinaric and Pindus mountains and the mountains of the Peloponnese and the island of Crete, and in the south, they join the Apennine Mountains. Also included in this type of mountainous relief are the Pyrenees and the Andalusian and Crimean mountains. Water erosion, the development of karst, and other geologic processes played a considerable role in forming the terrain of these mountains. A number of Pleistocene glaciers affected the terrain of the highest mountains, and glaciers still cause significant changes in the Alps. Karst forms are most typical in the limestone regions of the Alps, the Jura, and the Dinaric and Crimean mountains.
Also characteristic of European orography are regions of medium-height and low block ranges and plateaus, which are confined to the intermediate massifs of the Paleozoic era and have a relatively level peak surface, deep tectonic dissection, and steep slopes. (Examples of this type of relief include the Rhodope and Rila mountains, the mountains of Macedonia and eastern Greece, the Calabrian Apennines, most of the mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, the Sierra de Credos and Sierra de Guadarrama of the Iberian Peninsula, and the Cantabrian Mountains.)
A considerable part of Europe is occupied by stratified and accumulation plains and plateaus of intermontane and piedmont downwarps, in which geologic forms caused by water erosion and accumulation prevail (the Central Danubian, Lower Danubian, Padanus, Andalusian, and Portuguese plains and the plateaus of New and Old Castile). Karst relief is frequently encountered on these types of plains and plateaus (the Karst and Dobruja plateaus).
The topography of Iceland is unique, characterized by a series of basalt plateaus of varying elevations, which are topped by the domes and cones of extinct and active volcanoes, often buried under glaciers. Glacial forms of terrain are widespread.
R. A. E
RAMOV
Geologic structure and minerals. Europe is distinguished by the high level and great complexity of the studies on its geologic structure. It is located within the boundaries of the Eastern European (Russian) or European Platform, which has a folded foundation dating from the Precambrian era. In the east (within the area of the Russian Platform), where it is deeply submerged, and in the eastern part of the Baltic Shield, where it protrudes on the surface, the foundation is composed of Archean and early Proterozoic rocks. In the west (southern Scandinavia, Denmark, and Great Britain) late Proterozoic metamorphic rocks are widely developed.
After the consolidation of the foundation, which occurred during the last 1.2–1.6 billion years, individual sections of the platform were covered for long periods by seas and lagoons. This led to the formation of a thick platform sheath, which consists of sedimentary series from the end of the Proterozoic era (Jotnian and Riphean), sandy clay strata of the Cambrian and Ordovician periods and Silurian limestones. Other components of the sheath include red saliferous and limestone rocks of the Devonian period and thick continental strata (with coal-bearing series) from the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic periods. The late Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous deposits, as well as the Paleocene and Neocene deposits that fill the deep depressions, usually to the edges of the platform, are sometimes several kilometers thick. (The Hamburg Depression is approximately 6 km thick.)
During specific tectonically active epochs (the Wendian Devonian, Permian, and part of the Jurassic), volcanic activity occurred on the Eastern European Platform, causing the formation of basalts and other eruptive rocks. The Precambrian platform of the Barents Sea lies north of the Eastern European Platform, occupying the northern shelf of the continent from Franz Josef Land to the Pechora Lowland. Analogous to the Barents platform is the ancient platform (Eria), which forms the edge of the shelf north of the British Isles. Iceland and the island of Jan Mayen are heterogeneous volcanic uplifts that originated during the Cenozoic era on top of the northern part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The northeastern part of Europe (the Timansk Ridge, the Pechora Lowland, and the northern framework of the Kola Peninsula), which is made up of Riphean schistose series, belongs to the region of Baikal folding.
Extending through the northwestern part of the continent (from Svalbard through Bear Island, the Scandinavian mountains, and the northern and western islands of Great Britain and Ireland) is the Caledonian folded system, which originated from deep geosynclinal downwarps during the early Paleozoic and Prepaleozoic eras. Within this system thick volcanogenic and sedimentary Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian strata developed, whose cross-section is topped by thick red Devonian molasse. The system is characterized by complex folding and an abundance of magmatic formations. Scotland and Norway have well-known overthrust sheets with a horizontal displacement as high as 100–120 km. In Scotland the overthrusts extend toward the northwest, in the direction of the Eria Platform, whereas in Norway they stretch to the southwest toward the Baltic Shield.
South of the Caledonian folded system extend the Hercynian folded structures, which are partly covered by a sheath of slightly faulted Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. The Hercynian structures protrude on the surface of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as in the Massif Central and the Armorican Massif in France, the mountains of southern Wales, the Ardennes, the Vosges, the Black Forest, the Harz and Ore mountains, the Bohemian Massif, the Sudetes, the Silesian mountains, and the Svientokrzyz Mountains. A great number of massifs are located within the Hercynian zone, including the Bohemian Massif and the Massif Central. They consist primarily of Precambrian metamorphic strata. Around these ancient nuclei extend thick eugeosynclinal and miogeosynclinal zones. In areas of Variscan folding there are large horizontal and sloping overthrust sheets (the Ardennes and the Iberian Peninsula), as well as complex dome-shaped (sometimes fan-shaped) folds.
Also part of the Hercynian zone consists of the folded structures of the Urals and Novaia Zemlia, which adjoin the European Platform from the east. The Paleozoic folded strata of the Urals extend toward the west. In the east they are penetrated by thick intrusions of ultrabasites and granitoids. The Ural folded system consists of a number of parallel anticlinal uplifts and synclinal downwarps. The structure of the eastern parts of this mountain area are eugeosynclinal, whereas the western regions are miogeosynclinal.
As a rule, foredeeps extend along the boundaries of the ancient platforms (for example, the “coal channel” between France and Belgium and the Cisural downwarp). They are filled with coal-bearing, petroleum-bearing, and saliferous molasse. The Eastern European Platform is bounded on the east by the Paleozoic folded region of the Urals.
The mountain structures in southern Europe (the Andalusian Mountains, the Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula and the Crimea) belong to the Alpine geosynclinal (folded) region. The northern part of the Alpine geosynclinal downwarps was formed on the Paleozoic folded structures of Western and Southern Europe. In these zones were formed primarily schistose, flysch, and thick carbonaceous series, which make up the Alps and Carpathians. Very little magmatism occurred in the region. A thick cover and foredeeps originated during the Alpine tectonic period. The southern part of the Alpine folded region arose on the site of the Epibaikal Platform, which had disintegrated as a result of alpine movements. During the Paleozoic the Epibaikal Platform encircled the Precambrian African-Arabian Platform from the north in the form of an extended mobile shelf. In this region many stable, ancient blocks have been preserved—intermediate massifs and traces of extensive alpine magmatism (in the form of ultrabasites).
Within the Alpine folded system unique depressions originated, characterized by an earth-crust structure that resembles the ocean’s (for example, part of the depression of the southern Caspian, the Black Sea, and the Tyrrhenian Sea). According to data from geophysical investigations the “granitic” stratum in these areas is either sharply reduced or absent, and the earth’s crust is generally 20–30 km thick.
The mineral resources of Europe include petroleum and natural gas deposits, which are confined to the platform’s Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits (the Volga-Ural petroleum and gas region, the Northern Caspian, the Dnieper-Donets avlakogene, deposits in Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany [FRG], the Netherlands, and Great Britain, the Paris and Aquitanian basins, and the underwater deposits of the North Sea). A number of the petroleum deposits are related to Neocene deposits in the piedmont and inter-montane downwarps of the Alpine folded region in countries such as Rumania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Italy. Among the deposits of anthracite and bituminous coals that are being worked are the Donets, L’vov-Volynsk, Moscow, and Pechora basins in the USSR, the Upper Silesian Basin (Poland), basins in the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the FRG (the Ruhr, Aachen, and the Saar), Belgium, and Great Britain (Wales and Newcastle).
Thick deposits of iron ores are being mined in the USSR in the Urals, the Ukraine, and Voronezh and Kursk oblasts and on Kola Peninsula. In Western Europe the iron deposits of Sweden are very important, as well as the Jurassic sedimentary oolitic ores of the Lorraine basin in France and Luxemburg. A major deposit of manganese ore is located in the Ukrainian SSR (Nikopol’ Raion). Bauxite deposits have been found in the Urals as well as in other regions of the Eastern European Platform and in Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, Italy, and Greece. Nonferrous metals such as copper, nickel, cobalt, lead, and silver are distributed primarily in the Hercynian zone in the GDR, the FRG, Spain, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria and in the Upper Silesian Basin in Poland. Deposits of rock salt and potash salts are widespread in the Devonian and Permian sediments of the Ukraine, Byelorussia, the Caspian region, and the foothills of the Urals. Rich deposits of apatite-nepheline ores are mined on the Kola Peninsula. Major saliferous deposits dating from the Permian and Triassic ages are confined to the territories of Denmark, the FRG, the GDR, and Poland. Also of great importance are the potash salt deposits in the GDR, the FRG, and France.
A. A. B
OGDANOV
Climate. The geography of Europe determines the predominance in it of a temperate climate, but the westward movement of air from the Atlantic over the continent results in the prevalence of a marine climate, as well as climates that are transitional between marine and continental. The average annual magnitudes of the radiation balance are positive everywhere and increase from north to south. On the arctic islands they are approximately 10, near the 50th parallel, approximately 40, and in the southern regions of Europe, up to 250–290 kilojoules per cm2 (kJ/cm2) (60–70 kilocalories per cm2 [kcal/cm2]). In January the entire continent, with the exception of the Mediterranean Sea and most of France, has a radiation balance that varies from −17 to −4.2 kJ/cm− (between −4 and −1 kcal/cm2). In July the variations between the northern and southern regions is practically eliminated, because the days become longer in the north in summer. The radiation balance in most of Europe in July is about 34 kJ/cm2 (8 kcal/cm2).
The displacement of air masses in the system of atmospheric circulation causes the redistribution of heat, especially during the winter. The thawing effect of the west-ward shift of air, which is intensified by the warm North Atlantic Drift, is manifested in the divergence of the winter isotherms from the latitudinal direction and in the significant amount by which average winter temperatures in most of Europe (except the southeast) exceed average latitudinal temperatures. (Examples include the positive anomaly of January temperatures on Novaia Zemlia, the Kola Peninsula, Svalbard, and the British Isles, which is 8°–18°C, and that of temperatures in western Scandinavia and Iceland, which is 18°–24°C.)
Radiation and circulation, which affect the formation of the European climate, undergo sharp seasonal changes. During the winter the lowest atmospheric pressure occurs over the North Atlantic, where the Icelandic depression is located. From there the pressure increases toward the east and south-east up to the Caspian region and the Southern Urals, to which a branch of the Asian anticyclone extends. The westward shift in the air mass is extremely intense over the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, which is located within the zone affected by the Azores anticyclone. In this system, cyclones that originate on the atmospheric fronts move from west to east, swerving toward the higher latitudes. Polar air masses prevail over almost all of Europe, and bursts of arctic air masses may reach the Alps, the Balkan Peninsula, and the Crimea. In the Mediterranean region polar air is sometimes replaced by tropical air.
The winter isotherms generally pass from northwest to southeast. The highest average monthly temperatures in January (10°–12°C) are encountered in the Mediterranean region, as well as in the maritime regions of Europe, where the 0°C isotherm extends to 70° N lat. The lowest average monthly temperatures occur in the northeastern regions of Europe, reaching −24°C in Franz Josef Land and −20°C in the Pechora basin, where the minimum absolute temperature in Europe has been recorded (−52°C). In general, Western Europe has mild winters, whereas Eastern Europe has freezing winters with a constant snow cover and a duration ranging from one month in the south to seven to nine months in the north.
During the summer the pressure gradients decrease. In July the pressure remains low near Iceland as well as over most of Eastern Europe. The highest pressure occurs in the region of the Azores anticyclone, which affects the entire Mediterranean region and parts of Central Europe. Cyclonic activity is less intense in summer than in winter. Tropical air prevails in the Mediterranean region, arctic air over the arctic regions, and polar air over the remaining regions. The sea air that comes from the Atlantic has a lower temperature than the continental air. Thus, maritime areas are generally somewhat cooler in the summer than areas located inland at the same latitudes. Although the July isotherms run approximately in a latitudinal direction, as they approach the Atlantic Ocean they bend toward the south, and in the east, they bend to the north. The average July temperature is highest along the Mediterranean (28°–30°C) and in the Caspian region (24°–26°C). The lowest average July temperatures have been recorded on the arctic islands (2°–4°C). A maximum absolute temperature of 48°C was recorded on the Iberian Peninsula.
In general, the total annual atmospheric precipitation decreases from west to east. The Atlantic regions and the windward slopes of the mountains receive 1,000–2,000 mm of precipitation per year. (Individual stations located in the maritime regions of Yugoslavia have recorded a total annual precipitation of more than 4,000 mm.) In Eastern Europe, particularly in the southeastern and southern regions, the total annual precipitation decreases to 300–500 mm per year, and in the Caspian region it is usually 200 mm or less. Most of the arctic islands and the southern shore of the Barents Sea receive 300–400 mm of precipitation per year. Data on total annual precipitation in the Mediterranean region and on the southern coast of the Crimea clearly show that maximum precipitation occurs in the winter and minimum precipitation in the summer. The Atlantic regions of Central and Northern Europe have a rather even seasonal distribution of precipitation; nonetheless, the maximum figure is likely to occur in the winter. Inland the maximum precipitation figures occur during the summer.
Throughout most of Europe the total annual precipitation exceeds the total annual evaporation. Hence, there is sufficient or even excessive moisture. In the southern and southeastern regions of Eastern Europe as well as in a number of intermontane depressions in Western Europe, the annual precipitation does not compensate for the annual evaporation, resulting in insufficient moisture. In the Mediterranean area there is an acute deficiency of moisture during the summer. Where precipitation does not compensate for evaporation, irrigation is necessary.
Europe encompasses the arctic, subarctic, temperate, and subtropical climate belts. In the arctic belt, which includes the islands in the European part of the Arctic Ocean, the climate is severe, with a long, freezing winter, frequent storms and blizzards, and a brief, cold summer (as a rule, the average July temperature, does not rise above 5°C). The chief form of precipitation is snow, and there is little evaporation. In the subarctic belt (Iceland, northern Fennoscandia, and the East European Plain), the summer is longer and warmer than in the arctic belt (up to 10° or 12°C in July). The winter is mild in the western regions and freezing in the east. The total annual precipitation is 1,000 mm in the west and 400 mm in the east, and evaporation is less than precipitation.
The temperate belt (the remaining regions of Europe, with the exception of the Mediterranean region and the southern
Table 1. Basic climatic indexes of Europe
Type of climate and
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Alisov, B. P., I. A. Berlin, and V. M. Mikhel’. Kurs klimatologii, part 3. Leningrad, 1954.
Vlasova, T. V. Fizicheskaia geografiia chastei sveta, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1966.
Ganssen, R. Geografiia pochv. Moscow, 1962. (Translated from German.)
Gerasimov, I. P. “Novaia pochvennaia karta Evropy.” Povchvovedenie, 1968, no. 1.
Dobrynin, B.F. Fizicheskaia geografiia Zapadnoi Evropy. Moscow, 1948.
Eramov, R. A. Zapadnaia Evropa. Moscow, 1960. (Fizicheskaia geogiafiia materikov i okeanov, vol. 1.)
Karandeeva, M. V. Geomorfologiia Evropeiskoi chasti SSSR. Moscow, 1957.
Magidovich, I. P., and V. I. Magidovich. Istoriia otkrytiia i issledovaniia Evropy. Moscow, 1970.
Martonhe, E. Tsentral’naia Evropa. Moscow, 1938. (Translated from French.)
Mil’kov, F. N., and N. A. Gvozdetskii. Fizicheskaia geografiia SSSR: Obshchii obzor: Evropeiskaia chast’ SSSR: Kavkaz. Moscow, 1969.
Pochvy SSSR: Evropeiskaia chast’ SSSR, vols. 1-3. Moscow-Leningrad, 1939.
Rastitel’nyi pokrov SSSR: Poiasnitel’nyi tekst k “Geobotanicheskoi karte SSSR” masshtaba 1:4,000,000, vols. 1-2. Moscow-Leningrad, 1956.
Rel’efZemli. Moscow, 1967.
Sokolov, A. A. Gidrografiia SSSR (Vody sushi). Leningrad, 1964.
Bengston, N. A., et al. A Geography of Europe. Edited by G. W. Hoffman. London, 1954.
Kubiena, W. L. The Soils of Europe. London, 1953.
Lamorlette, L. L’Europe, vols. 1-2. Paris, 1957.
Lehmann, H. Europe, 16th ed. Frankfurt am Main-Berlin-Munich [1955].
Narody Evropeiskoi chasti SSSR, vols. 1-2. Moscow, 1964.
Narody zarubezhnoi Evropy, vols. 1-2. Moscow, 1964-65.
Europe
a French monthly journal dealing with social and political affairs, literature, and art. Its editor since 1966 has been P. Gamarra.
Europe was founded in 1923 by a group of progressive writers headed by R. Rolland and J.-R. Bloch. By the mid-1930’s it had switched from an abstract humanist orientation to active support of the struggle for socialism. The journal seeks to establish broad international cultural ties, and it draws attention to the construction of a new way of life in the socialist countries.
Europe has published special numbers devoted to such subjects as science fiction, television, cybernetics, and the theater. Other special numbers have been devoted to the literature of a specific country, such as the German Democratic Republic, Bulgaria, and Algeria, or to a particular author, artist, work, or literary trend. Russian and Soviet writers who have been the subjects of special numbers include N. V. Gogol, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, Sholom Aleichem, M. Gorky, S. A. Esenin, and M. A. Sholokhov. In honor of the 40th and 50th anniversaries of the October Revolution of 1917, Europe published separate issues that contained selected literary works and critical articles by Soviet writers.
Europe contains analyses of problems of materialist aesthetics. The journal has sections devoted to literary history, criticism, and bibliography.
REFERENCE
[′yu̇r·əp]
(geography)
A great western peninsula of the Eurasian landmass, usually called a continent; its eastern limits are arbitrary and are conventionally drawn along the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus watershed to the Black Sea.
Europe
1. the second smallest continent, forming the W extension of Eurasia: the border with Asia runs from the Urals to the Caspian and the Black Sea. The coastline is generally extremely indented and there are several peninsulas (notably Scandinavia, Italy, and Iberia) and offshore islands (including the British Isles and Iceland). It contains a series of great mountain systems in the south (Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, Caucasus), a large central plain, and a N region of lakes and mountains in Scandinavia. Pop.: 724 722 000 (2005 est.). Area: about 10 400 000 sq. km (4 000 000 sq. miles)
2. Brit the European Union
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The A12 road connects London to which coastal resort in Norfolk? | On the Road: Cruising Coastal East Anglia - British Heritage Travel
You are at: Home » Destinations »On the Road: Cruising Coastal East Anglia
The residents of 12th-century Leiston Abbey were Premonstratensian canons.
On the Road: Cruising Coastal East Anglia
Destinations , Feature , Featured , On the Road
Leisurely and Eclectic Under the Painters’ Sky
For as close as East Anglia’s proximity is to London, the region remains often overlooked by American heritage travelers. Yet, the fascinating counties of Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk have a distinctive character and history, expressed in architecture and language, geography and custom. Follow a road rarely taken on this easy coastal adventure from the Thames to The Wash.
Day 1: East Through Essex to Southend
From the M25 or central London, take the A31 east along the northern side of the Thames. Make for Southend-on-Sea where the river opens into the North Sea. One of England’s oldest working-class seaside resorts, Southend has became the last refuge of East London Cockneys. Take a train to the end of the longest pier in England and enjoy the sights of the estuary.
If you’re a confident UK driver, thread across the flats on the back roads north through Maldon and Tiptree to the A12 and Colchester. If you would rather stick to the A roads, route via the A130 and Chelmsford. The oldest town in Britain, Colchester was the first Roman capital, settled by Emperor Claudius and his legion back in ad 49. Two-thirds of the 1st-century Roman town wall remains standing—the oldest in Britain. Check out the museum at Colchester Castle, rich in history and built on the foundations of the Temple of Claudius. Just a few miles north of Colchester, between the A137 and A12, sits Dedham Vale. This is Constable Country, the river valley setting made famous by landscape painter John Constable. Visit Flatford Mill scene of some of his most famous paintings. From here, art lovers might want to detour west to the market town of Sudbury for overnight. This is Thomas Gainsborough’s hometown. Or continue north for the overnight at nearby (and larger) Ipswich. There are plenty of options in both towns.
Artists and art lovers alike regularly pay homage to John Constable at Flatford Mill.
Day 2: Along the Suffolk Coast
In Sudbury this morning, visit the Gainsborough Museum at his home. In Ipswich, visit Tudor brick Christchurch Mansion, whose art collection includes both Constable and Gainsborough paintings. Eventually, rejoin the A12, which follows north just inland from the North Sea coast. Turn coastal on the A1094 to Aldeburgh. This is the weird Suffolk Coast (British Heritage, January 2015. p.26 ). Do make a stop at Snapes Maltings on the River Alde. The old malting complex is now a bevy of shops and concert site of the annual Aldeburgh Festival founded by composer Benjamin Britten, who made his home here. To the south, you might visit Orford Castle, once owned by the original of Shakespeare’s Falstaff. To the north, check out the House in the Clouds in Thorpeness (on the cover of our January 2015 issue). Nearby, Leiston Abbey’s complete and tidy ruins offer a particularly good perspective on medieval communal life. Compact and personable, with plenty of dining and accommodation options, Aldeburgh makes a good overnight—perhaps at the classic Went-worth Hotel right on the beach. Or return to the A12 and continue about 25 miles north on the coast to slightly livelier Southwold, replete with appropriate travel services.
Unlike most royal residences, Sandringham Estate is the personal home of The Queen.
Day 3: Southwold to Great Yarmouth
At the home of Adnam’s Brewery, fans can take a morning brewery tour (one of Southwold’s popular draws). The beach town is known for its colorful beach huts and its working lighthouse. At a return to the A12, the parish church at Blytheburgh is an unsung gem, a surprisingly large and light medieval parish church, and open to visit. Then, it’s a dozen miles north to the harbor town of Lowestoft, most easterly point of Great Britain. Once a major fishing port, now the town is known for its beach, seaside holidays and shopping. Continue on into Norfolk for overnight in Great Yarmouth, part working port, part faded seaside resort. Wander the beachfront where Dickens wrote and set part of David Copperfield, or visit Anna Sewall’s home, author of Black Beauty and St. Nicholas, another of the country’s grandest parish churches. There are a range of seaside accommodation and traditional entertainments.
Day 4: Over the Norfolk Broads
Over the northeast corner of East Anglia threads the waterway system known as the Norfolk Broads. This interconnecting system of six rivers, shallow peat ponds and linking canals gathers more than 300 miles of navigable waters—once used for moving goods and materials to and from the ports of Great Yarmouth and Lowestoft. Now, The Broads are a popular venue for leisure travel, from day-trippers to holiday cruisers on a week’s exploration. The lowlands and marshes are replete with waterfowl and conservation centers. Rent a riverboat (Broads Cruiser) and set off. There are plenty of riverside pubs and boatyards for tie-ups at night, or just anchor on a sheltered riverbank. Follow the A149 across Broadlands. Stop at Hickling Broad to find the story of these shallow, medieval lakes. Detour to the small towns of Horning and Wroxham, “Capital of the Broads.” Alternatively, you might choose to route inland, following the A47 through the River Yare valley 20 miles to Norwich, Norfolk’s ancient cathedral city. Visit majestic 13th-century Norwich Cathedral, the medieval warren of Tombland and Elm Hill and England’s largest open air market. Turn north to the coast on the A140. Either way, the overnight destination is Cromer, a seaside resort town since the early 1800s with a classic Victorian pier and plenty of accommodation.
Jutting off the North Norfolk coast, Victorian Cromer Pier is a classic of the genre.
Day 5: Across North Norfolk to King’s Lynn
The A149 is now the coast road west today. Four miles along from Cromer is neighboring Sheringham, similar in size, trim and more sedate. Then a succession of pretty villages trail along the coast. You might plan a visit to Holkham Hall; the 18th-century stately home is regarded as one of the finest Palladian mansions in the country. Another colorful stop is the workshops and fields of Norfolk Lavendar in Heacham. Or visit the Queen’s own estate and home, Sandringham. You’ll find plenty of other detours and diversions along the way. That’s the glory of a roadtrip!
Day 6: Into the East Midlands?
The natural conclusion to the East Anglia coast is the old port town of King’s Lynn, where the River Ouse drains the fens into The Wash. You might take a stay in King’s Lynn, or continue around The Wash into Lincolnshire to Boston. Turning inland, take the A47 across the fens to Peterborough and a visit to historic Peterborough Cathedral.
Online Extra: Spectacular Holiday on the Norfolk Broads
It’s a relatively small percentage of overseas visitors that make their way to East Anglia, despite the region’s riches of wildlife and history. If there is such a thing as an undiscovered treasure in Britain, however, it surely must be the Norfolk Broads. One of the most memorable family holidays we spent when my now young adult children were kids was a week on the waterways of this fascinating network of rivers and canals. More than 300 miles of navigable water in a network of six rivers left plenty of Norfolk to explore by boat.
Broads Cruisers, specially built for these waters, are comfortable cabin cruisers sleeping anywhere from two to a dozen. We set out from Wroxham on the River Bure in a fully-equipped boat complete with galley, three cabins and a Great Room with a sliding canopy to cruise open to the sky. The gentle pace of 4-6 mph makes it very easy to handle the boat. My twins, Taylor and Miranda, were nine at the time, and both took turns at the helm (under Dad’s watchful eye, of course). Ducks and coots swam blissfully in the rippling wake as we passed fields and farms, marshes and the Broads themselves – shallow lakes created centuries ago by the digging of peat.
Despite that idyllic backdrop, the days are as full and active as you choose. Pull up to visit Berney Arms Windmill ; stop to explore a Norman village and resupply at the village shop. Sail into the Norwich Yacht Basin just behind Norwich Cathedral for a day in this lovely medieval city. At night, moor up at one of the many boatyards, or at Reedham Ferry (among many other spots) for an evening in the pub. Or just hook up along the river bank to watch the stars descend over East Anglia’s Painters Sky.
It’s a warm memory, and an experience I would love to do again. And it’s a lot less work and more comfortable than the better known waterway adventure with a narrowboat on the canals.
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Which ex heavyweight boxing champion's last ever fight took place on June 11th 2006 and ended in a defeat by Ireland's Kevin McBride in Washington DC? | Great Yarmouth Travel / Tourism. - YouTube
Great Yarmouth Travel / Tourism.
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Published on Mar 6, 2015
Great Yarmouth Travel / Tourism.
Great Yarmouth, often known to locals as Yarmouth, is a coastal town in Norfolk, England. It is located at the mouth of the River Yare, 20 miles (30 km) east of Norwich.
It has been a seaside resort since 1760, and is the gateway from the Norfolk Broads to the North Sea. For hundreds of years it was a major fishing port, depending mainly on the herring fishery, but its fishing industry suffered a steep decline in the second half of the 20th century, and has now all but disappeared. The discovery of oil in the North Sea in the 1960s led to a flourishing oil rig supply industry, and today it services offshore natural gas rigs. More recently, the development of renewable energy sources, especially offshore wind power, has created further opportunities for support services. A wind farm of 30 generators is within sight of the town on the Scroby Sands.
The town has a beach and two piers.
In 2003 and 2004 T4 hosted their T4 on the Beach music festival in the town. It attracted around 20,000 people to the town but was moved to Weston-super-Mare in 2005.
The Tollhouse, with dungeons, dates from the late 13th century and is said to be the oldest civic building in Britain. It backs on to the central library.
The market place is one of the largest in England, and has been operating since the 13th century. It is also home to the town's shopping sector and the famous Yarmouth chip stalls. The smaller area south of the market is used as a performance area for community events and for access to the town's shopping centre, Market Gates. In November 2008, a new section of Market Gates opened, including high street retailers such as Debenhams, New Look and Starbucks.
Great Yarmouth railway station, which serves the town, is the terminus of the Wherry Lines from Norwich. Before the Beeching Axe the town had a number of railway stations and a direct link to London down the east coast. The only remaining signs of these stations is the coach park where Beach Station once was and the A12 relief road which follows the route of the railway down into the embankment from Breydon Bridge.
Britannia Pier, May 2012
Yarmouth has two piers, Britannia Pier (which is Grade II listed) and Wellington Pier. The theatre building on the latter of the two was demolished in 2005 and reopened in 2008 as a family entertainment centre including a ten pin bowling alley with floor to ceiling windows overlooking the beach. Britannia Pier is home to the Britannia Theatre which during the summer months features well known acts including; Jim Davidson, Jethro, Basil Brush, Cannon and Ball, Chubby Brown, Chuckle Brothers and The Searchers. The theatre is one of a few end of the pier theatres left in England.
The Grade II listed Winter Gardens building sits next to the Wellington Pier. The cast iron framed glass structure was shipped by barge from Torquay in 1903. It is said this was done without the loss of a single pane of glass. Over the years, it has been used as ballroom, roller skating rink and beer garden. In the 1990s it was converted into a nightclub by Jim Davidson and has since been used as a family leisure venue. It is currently closed.
Marine Parade in August 2013, with the derelict Empire Building in the foreground and the Atlantis Tower in the background
Great Yarmouth's seafront, known as "The Golden Mile" attracts millions of visitors each year to its sandy beaches, indoor and outdoor attractions and amusement arcades. Great Yarmouth's Marine Parade has twelve Amusement Arcades located within 2 square miles (5.2 km2), including: Atlantis, The Flamingo, Circus Circus, The Golden Nugget, The Mint, Leisureland, The Majestic, The Silver Slipper, The Showboat, Magic City, Quicksilver and The Gold Rush, opened in 2007. In addition to the two piers, tourist attractions on Marine Parade include Joyland, Pirates Cove Adventure Golf, Yesterday's World, the Marina Centre, retroskate, Arnold Palmer Putting Green, the Sea Life Centre, Merrivale Model Village and the Pleasure Beach and Gardens.
All images are either in the Public Domain or on Google images labeled for reuse.
All music is credited to with kind permission to Kevin MacLeod and his website incompetech - Royalty free music - http://incompetech.com/music/royalty-...
Text by wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Ya...
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"What was the name of the boy in the book ""The Railway Children"" who was brother to Roberta and Phillys?" | The Railway Children (1970) - IMDb
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After the enforced absence of their father, three children move with their mother to Yorkshire, where during their adventures they attempt to discover the reason for his disappearance.
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Nominated for 2 BAFTA Film Awards. Another 1 nomination. See more awards »
Photos
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Director: Lionel Jeffries
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Edit
Storyline
The film opens in a happy, comfortable upper middle-class home in Edwardian London. One night in 1905, the three children see their father usher two strangers into his study. After an argument he leaves with them and does not return. They and their mother fall on hard times and eventually move to a cottage in the country. Yet they keep their spirits up and find ways to help others. Fascinated by the nearby railway, they wave to the passengers faithfully every day, and their vigilance and courage prevent an accident. Their kindness makes friends of some important people who can help solve the mystery of their missing father. Written by Paul Emmons <[email protected]>
A film for adults to take their children, too! See more »
Genres:
26 December 1970 (UK) See more »
Also Known As:
Did You Know?
Trivia
The British Film Institute ranks this film as the 66th Best British Film of all time, the only children's film to make the list. See more »
Goofs
This movie is set in 1905, yet after Perks opens the crossing gates to let an express train through, it's hauled by an 0-6-2 N2 class locomotive, a type of locomotive not built until the early 1920s. See more »
Quotes
Bobbie Waterbury : It's Perks's birthday, he's 42, he says he got other things to keep than his birthday, not rabbits and secrets but the kids and the bloomin' missus.
Bobbie Waterbury : Same thing isn't it?
Phyllis Waterbury : Bloomin' missus is a sort of a germ of endearment isn't it?
See more »
Crazy Credits
As the end credit captions are displayed the shot tracks towards a steam locomotive, in front of which are gathered the principal cast. They are surrounded by extras portraying local townspeople, who wave and say goodbye to the audience. All the while, Jenny Agutter is preoccupied with writing something on a slate. As the camera reaches her, she holds it up to display the words "The End". See more »
Connections
The Man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo
(uncredited)
Romanticised nostalgia for the days of steam
7 December 2003 | by Filmtribute
(United Kingdom) – See all my reviews
Such is the impact of Lionel Jeffries magical 1970 film version of `The Railway Children' that I can well recall the time my grandfather dragged me from my play to watch one of his favourite movies when it was first screened on television. A quarter of a century later as a father of a small boy my interest has been revived and I find myself becoming something of a railway child once more. The number of privately restored railways that exist conveniently to hand, as though to undermine Dr Richard Beeching's efficiency cuts of the 1960's, further help this pastime. Most notable of these is the Bluebell Railway in Sussex, one of the first and best known revived lines, used by Catherine Morshead for Carlton TV's remake of this movie in 2000. The actual location used for this first film was in Bronte country with the Haworth Parsonage passing for the doctor's house, though the true star was the Keighly and Worth Valley Railway which had been reopened by volunteers six years after its closure in 1962. This film was well liked by the younger generation besotted with all things `Thomas the Tank Engine', including `Thomas and the Magic Railway' an all American reworking of Rev W Awdry's creation starring Alec Baldwin and Henry Fonda, serving to add to the ever growing collectable models now available.
A middle class family lose their government official of a father on spying charges and are forced to adjourn to the country in reduced circumstances to a wonderful house that many would dream of living in. Being spared incarceration in a school, the fate of most of today's children, they fully enjoy their privileged freedom and have some adventure through befriending the neighbouring railway line. A word of caution should however be issued regarding the landslide and near train crash, which had a disturbing effect on the younger viewer, though undoubtedly in a different sense to that imprinted on the minds of some older fans. The moment when Jenny Agutter as the pristine heroine Bobby faints dead away after powerfully arresting the train is matched in the lump-in-the-throat stakes when she runs along the platform for the reunion with her father with her immortal cry of "Daddy, my Daddy".
Before returning to the UK to star in The Railway Children, Agutter had spent three months touring the Australian Outback for the filming of Walkabout and being disconsolate about where society was going was unsure of doing the film, but fortunately she was charmed by the director's vitality. He had been encouraged by his daughter to turn the book into a film and Agutter was a natural choice having already played the part of Bobbie two years earlier for a BBC serial. The film provided Agutter her breakthrough first part in the National Theatre four years later as Shakespeare's Miranda, opposite Sir John Gielgud's Prospero, in `The Tempest'. This in turn led to an eighteen year career in the US, with such memorable films as the cult sci-fi `Logan's Run' and the successful horror and humour cross in `An American Werewolf in London', as well as one of her personal favourite creations as the ill-used Ann in Beryl Bainbridge's strangely unromantic `Sweet William'. As well as being official patron of the Edith Nesbit and The Railway Children website, Agutter has been working on a dramatisation of the author's life, and would seem the obvious choice for the role having such a deep professional connection. Sally Thomsett winsomely squeezes her notoriously corseted twenty-year-old frame into the role of the younger sister Phyllis, some six years her junior, and her brother Peter is an ably suited Gary Warren. A very graceful Dinah Sheridan is Mrs Waterbury, the mother, whilst Bernard Cribbins creates a manic porter in Perks.
As a teenager Edith Nesbit lived for three years at Halstead Hall, near Knockholt Station in Kent with its deep railway cuttings and tunnels and about half an hour from London, which is believed to have given her the inspiration for her famed novel. Nesbit's use of her plain initial for her writing disguised her gender back in 1906 and whether or not this was a conscious intention it led to her occasionally being thought a male writer. Why J K Rowling of Harry Potter fame should chose to do the same nearly a century later escapes me especially as the identity behind any pseudonym is easily uncovered today? Possibly it is to do with the tradition of male fantasy writers using only their initials, as in such luminaries as J M Barrie, C S Lewis, and J R R Tolkein. Women writers today surely don't face the same difficulties and social barriers that the Bronte sisters and George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) had, being forced to take masculine nom de plumes in order to get their work published, but do they fear that male readers will automatically be deterred if the work is obviously by a girl'? Conversely it is a man, who coyly disguises his gender presumably for a female market, that has written the romantic novels of Emma Blair. Curiously, whilst the Brontes have subsequently been published under their own names rather than their Bell aliases, George Eliot's work has not been liberated in this way. If literature, that previously anonymous and faceless industry, enabling women to compete on an equal footing, continues the current invidious marketing trend of promoting works by beautiful and youthful authors rather than on the merits of the works alone, then how can any other industry ever stand a hope of breaking the sexist and ageist glass ceilings?
The legacy of this film and the book continues with its name being used by a Wigan based pop group in 1984, and in 1995 for the very worthy charity for vulnerable youngsters arriving alone at railway stations in some of the world's poorest countries. The film still represents family entertainment at its best with nostalgia for another time and place enhancing the tale.
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Which famous event that occurred on 30th January 1972 is sometimes called The Bogside massacre? | Detailed Review Summary of The Railway Children by Edith Nesbit
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Detailed plot synopsis reviews of The Railway Children
This is a story of three children, Roberta, Phyllis, and Peter, who live in a respectable suburban villa with a wonderful mother and father and a cook and servants, until one day great disgrace and poverty befalls them. Father is taken away to prison (but they do not know this at first), and they have to move to a poor cottage in the country near a railway line. Mother writes stories to earn what little they live on and they get used to being poor and have to learn not to steal coal from the railway station, even if they have so little to keep warm by. Sometimes they argue and have crises, as one does, but in time they make many new friends, and amusing adventures aplenty happen near the railway and the canal. They develop the habit of waving to the train as it goes past and sometimes the people in the coaches wave back. Their friendly habits makes them one special friend in particular, who although he mostly just goes by in the train, eventually gets to know them, and helps them out in various ways. And somehow all the good things that they do add up together and end up coming back to them, and there is happy ending to it all.
The review of this Book prepared by Michael JR Jose
Roberta, Peter, and Phyllis are London schoolchildren aged 12, 10, and 8, respectively. One day their father leaves with two men and does not come back, and mother packs them off to a small house in the country. The kids become familiar with the passing trains, the workers at the train station and signal-box, and life in a small town while their mother struggles to make ends meet writing stories. They have various adventures -- stopping a train when a landslide covers the tracks, preventing a scraggly and penniless foreigner from arrest and taking him home, saving an infant and dog from a barge canal on fire, finding an injured older boy in the train tunnel and getting help -- while the mystery of their father's disappearance and the war between Russia and Japan percolates in the background. Sweet, charming, and imbued with all the author's wisdom and skill, this 1906 book is a gem for older children and grownups.
The review of this Book prepared by David Loftus
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Which ex heavyweight boxing champion's last ever fight took place on November 22nd 1998 and ended in a defeat by American Shannon Briggs in Atlantic City? | Boxing Champs | | Page 3
Floyd Mayweather, Professional Boxer 3 comments
Floyd Joy Mayweather, Jr. (born Floyd Sinclair; February 24, 1977) is an American professional boxer.[1] He is a five-division world champion, where he has won seven world titles, as well as the lineal championship in three different weight classes.[2] He is a two-time The Ring “Fighter of the Year” winning the award in 1998 and 2007,[3] and also won the Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA) “Fighter of the Year” award in 2007.[4] He is undefeated as a professional boxer.
Currently, Mayweather is the WBC welterweight champion.[5] He is also rated as the best pound for pound boxer in the world by most sporting news and boxing websites, including Sports Illustrated, ESPN, Fox Sports, Yahoo! Sports and About.com.
Early lifeMayweather was born in Grand Rapids, Mich., into a family of boxers. His father Floyd Mayweather Sr. was a former welterweight contender who fought Hall of Famer Sugar Ray Leonard and his uncles Jeff Mayweather and Roger Mayweather were all professional boxers, with Roger – Floyd’s current trainer – winning two world championships. Mayweather was born with his mother’s last name,[11] but his last name would change to Mayweather shortly thereafter. Mayweather’s father, Floyd Sr., had a side job – selling drugs[citation needed]. According to Mayweather Jr., his father was often a harsh disciplinarian[citation needed]. Mayweather says that when he was a baby, his father used him as a shield to keep his brother-in-law from shooting him. “It depends on which side of the family you talk to,” Mayweather Jr. says. “My father said he was holding me and he said, ‘If you’re going to shoot me, you’re going to shoot the baby, too.’ But my mother said he used me as a shield to keep from getting shot. “Either way, I’m just happy I didn’t get shot and I’m still here.”
Boxing has been a part of Mayweather’s life since his childhood. He never seriously considered any other profession. “I think my grandmother saw my potential first,” Mayweather said, smiling. “When I was young, I told her, ‘I think I should get a job.’ She said, ‘No, just keep boxing.’ “[12]”When I was about 8 or 9, I lived in New Jersey with my mother and we were seven deep in one bedroom and sometimes we didn’t have electricity”, Mayweather says. “When people see what I have now, they have no idea of where I came from and how I didn’t have anything growing up.”
It was not uncommon for young Floyd to come home from school and find used heroin needles in his front yard[citation needed]. His mother was also addicted to drugs and he had an aunt who died from AIDS because of her drug use. “People don’t know the hell I’ve been through,” he says.
The most time that his father spent with him was taking him to the gym to train and work on his boxing, according to Mayweather. “I don’t remember him ever taking me anywhere or doing anything that a father would do with a son, going to the park or to the movies or to get ice cream”, he says. “I always thought that he liked his daughter (Floyd’s older stepsister) better than he liked me because she never got whippings and I got whippings all the time.”
Floyd Sr. says Mayweather is not telling the truth about their early relationship. “Even though his daddy did sell drugs, I didn’t deprive my son,” Floyd Sr. says. “The drugs I sold he was a part of it. He had plenty of food. He had the best clothes and I gave him money. He didn’t want for anything. Anybody in Grand Rapids can tell you that I took care of my kids.”[13]
Floyd Sr. says he did all of his hustling at night and spent his days with his son, taking him to the gym and training him to be a boxer. “If it wasn’t for me he wouldn’t be where he is today,” Floyd Sr. says.
“I basically raised myself,” Mayweather says. “My grandmother did what she could. When she got mad at me I’d go to my mom’s house. My life was ups and downs.” Floyd Sr. says he knows how much pain his incarceration caused his son, but insists he did the best he could. “I sent him to live with his grandmother,” he says. “It wasn’t like I left him with strangers.”
Boxing became Mayweather’s outlet – a way to deal with the absence of his father[citation needed]. As his father served his time, Mayweather, with speed and an uncanny ring sense, put all his energies into boxing. He even dropped out of high school. “I knew that I was going to have to try to take care of my mom and I made the decision that school wasn’t that important at the time and I was going to have to box to earn a living,” Mayweather says.[13]
Amateur career and OlympicsMayweather had an amateur record of 84–6[14] and won national Golden Gloves championships in 1993 (at 106 lb), 1994 (at 114 lb), and 1996 (at 125 lb).[15] He was given the nickname “Pretty Boy” by his amateur teammates because he had relatively few scars, a result of the defensive techniques that his father (Floyd Mayweather, Sr.) and uncle (Roger Mayweather) had taught him.[16] In his orthodox defensive stance, Mayweather often utilizes the ‘shoulder roll’. The shoulder roll is an old-school boxing technique in which the right hand is held normally or slightly higher than normal, the left hand is down around the midsection, and the lead shoulder is raised high on the cheek in order to cover the chin and block punches. The right hand (from orthodox stance) is used as it normally would be to block punches coming from the other side, such as left hooks. From this stance, Mayweather blocks, slips, and deflects most of his opponents’ punches, even when cornered, by twisting left and right to the rhythm of their punches.[17]
At the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Mayweather won a bronze medal by reaching the semi-finals of the featherweight (57 kg)[18] division.
In the opening round, Mayweather led 10–1 on points over Bakhtiyar Tileganov of Kazakhstan before he won in Round 2 by referee stoppage. In the second round, Mayweather outpointed Artur Gevorgyan of Armenia 16–3. In the quarterfinals, the 19-year-old Mayweather, narrowly defeated the 22-year-old, Lorenzo Aragon of Cuba in an all-action bout to win 12–11, becoming the first U.S boxer to defeat a Cuban in 20 years.[19] The last time this had occurred was at 1976 Summer Olympics when the U.S Olympic boxing team captured five gold medals, among its recipients was boxing great Sugar Ray Leonard. In his semifinal bout against the eventual silver medalist, Serafim Todorov of Bulgaria, Mayweather lost by a controversial decision similarly to the Roy Jones Jr.’s decision.[20] Referee, Hamad Hafaz Shouman of Egypt, mistakenly raised Mayweather’s hand, thinking he had won, as the decision was announced giving the bout to the Bulgarian.[21]
The U.S team filed a protest over the Mayweather bout, claiming the judges were intimated by Bulgaria’s Emil Jetchev, head of the boxing officials, into favoring Bulgarian Serafim Todorov by a 10-9 decision in the 125-pound semifinal bout. Three of Jetchev’s countrymen were in gold medal bouts. Judge Bill Waeckerle, one of the four U.S judges working the games for the International Amateur Boxing Federation, quit both as an Olympic judge and as a federation judge after Mayweather lost a decision loudly booed by the crowd at the Alexander Memorial Coliseum.[22][23]
“I refuse to be part of an organisation that continues to conduct its officiating in this manner,” Waeckerle wrote in a letter of resignation to federation President Anwar Chowdhry.[24]
In the official protest, U.S team manager Gerald Smith said Mayweather landed punches that were not counted, while Todorov was given points without landing a punch.[25] “The judging was totally incompetent,” Waeckerle said. The judges failed to impose a mandatory two-point deduction against Todorov after he was warned five times by the referee for slapping.[21]
“Everybody knows Floyd Mayweather is the gold-medal favorite at 57 kilograms,” Mayweather said afterward. “In America, it’s known as 125 pounds. You know and I know I wasn’t getting hit. They say he’s the world champion. Now you all know who the real world champion is.”
James (Buster) Douglas, Heavyweight Boxing Champ Leave a comment
James “Buster” Douglas (born April 7, 1960) is a former undisputed world heavyweight boxing champion who scored a stunning upset when he knocked out previously undefeated champion Mike Tyson on February 11, 1990 in Tokyo, Japan. At the time, Tyson was considered to be the best boxer in the world and one of the most feared heavyweight champions in history due to his utter domination of the division. The Mirage Casino in Las Vegas, the only Las Vegas casino to make odds on the fight, had Douglas as a 42 to 1 underdog for the fight.
Douglas held the title for eight months and two weeks, losing on October 25, 1990, to 28-year-old, 6-foot-2-inch, 208-pound Evander Holyfield, via third-round KO, in his only title defense.
Growing upThe son of professional boxer William “Dynamite” Douglas, Douglas grew up in Columbus, Ohio, in the predominantly black Linden-area neighborhood, Windsor Terrace. He attended Linden McKinley High School where he played football and basketball, even leading Linden to a Class AAA state basketball championship in 1977. After high school, Douglas played basketball for the Coffeyville Community College Red Ravens in Coffeyville, Kansas from 1977 to 1978 where the seventeen year old was a 6 feet 0 inch Power forward. He is in the Coffeyville Red Ravens Men’s Basketball Hall of Fame.[1]He also played basketball at Sinclair Community College from 1979 to 1980 in Dayton, Oh before he moved back to Columbus to focus on boxing.[2]
Boxing careerDouglas made his debut on May 31, 1981 and defeated Dan O’Malley in a four round bout. He won his first five fights before coming into a fight with David Bey twenty pounds heavier than he usually did in his early fights. Bey knocked Douglas out in the second round to hand him his first defeat.
After six more fights, all wins, Douglas fought Steffen Tangstad to a draw on October 16, 1982. He was penalized two points during the course of the fight which proved to be the difference.
After the draw Douglas went on to beat largely journeyman fighters over the next fourteen months. Two of his wins were against Jesse Clark, who never won a fight in his career; Douglas fought him a total of three times and knocked him out all three times. In his last fight of 1983 Douglas was dominating opponent Mike White, only to lose the fight when White knocked him out in the ninth round.
On November 9, Douglas was scheduled to fight heavyweight contender Trevor Berbick in Las Vegas. Berbick pulled out of the bout three days before it was scheduled and Randall “Tex” Cobb elected to take the fight in Berbick’s place. Douglas defeated the former heavyweight contender by winning a majority decision. The next year he fought up and coming contender Jesse Ferguson, but was beaten by majority decision.
Douglas fought three times in 1986, defeating former champion Greg Page and fringe contender David Jaco in two of the fights. This earned him a shot at the International Boxing Federation championship that Michael Spinks was stripped of for refusing to defend it. Douglas did not perform well against Tony Tucker and was knocked out in ten rounds.
After the Tucker defeat Douglas won four consecutive fights and went on to fight Trevor Berbick in 1989, winning by a unanimous decision. He followed that up with a unanimous decision victory over future heavyweight champion Oliver McCall, and earned a shot at the undisputed heavyweight championship held by Mike Tyson, who became the universally recognized champion after knocking out Spinks in one round in 1988. (Douglas fought on the undercard of the event and defeated Mike Williams by TKO in seven rounds.)
Championship fight against Mike TysonMain article: Tyson vs. Douglas
The fight was scheduled for February 11, 1990 and took place in Tokyo at the Tokyo Dome. Almost everyone assumed that Douglas’ fight versus Mike Tyson was going to be another quick knockout for the champion. Only one betting parlor in Las Vegas would hold odds for the bout, and many thought it was just an easy tune-up for Tyson before a future mega-fight with undefeated Evander Holyfield, who had recently moved up to heavyweight from cruiserweight where he became the first boxer to be the undisputed champion of the weight class.
Douglas’ mother, Lula Pearl, died 23 days before the title bout.[3] Douglas, who had trained hard, surprised the world by dominating the fight from the beginning, using his 12-inch reach advantage to perfection. He seemingly hit Tyson at will with powerful jabs and right hands and skillfully danced out of range of Tyson’s own punches. The champion had not taken Douglas seriously, expecting another quick and easy knockout victory. He was slow, refusing to move his head and slip his way in (his usual effective strategy) but rather setting his feet and throwing big, lunging hooks, repeatedly trying to beat Douglas with single punches. By the fifth round, Tyson’s left eye was swelling shut from Douglas’ many right hands, and ringside HBO announcers proclaimed it was the most punishment they had ever seen the champion absorb.
Tyson’s cornermen appeared to be unprepared for the suddenly dire situation. They had not brought an endswell to the fight, so they were forced to put tap water into a latex glove to hold over Tyson’s swelling eye. By the end of the fight, Tyson’s eye had swollen almost completely shut. In the eighth round, Tyson landed a right uppercut that knocked Douglas down. The referee’s count engendered controversy as Douglas was on his feet when the referee reached nine, although the official knockdown timekeeper was two seconds ahead. In the ring the final arbiter of the knockdown seconds is the referee and a comparison with Douglas’s winning knockdown count issued to Tyson two rounds later revealed that both fighters had received long counts.[4]
Tyson came out aggressively in the dramatic ninth round and continued his attempts to end the fight with one big punch hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the 8th round knockdown. Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a multi-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes. With Tyson hurt along the ropes Douglas unleashed a vicious attack to try to finish off a dazed Tyson but, amazingly, Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the 9th round. Douglas dominated the tenth round from the outset. While setting Tyson up with his jab Douglas scored a huge uppercut, followed by a rapid combination, and knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career, making boxing history. Tyson struggled to his knees and picked up his mouthpiece lying on the mat next to him. He awkwardly attempted to place it back into his mouth. The image of Tyson with the mouthpiece hanging crookedly from his lips would become an enduring image from the fight. He was unable to beat the referee’s count, and Douglas was the new heavyweight champion of the world. As Buster Douglas said in an interview years later ‘“I thought Tyson was getting up until I had seen him looking for that mouth piece and then I knew that he was really hurt. So anytime you know you only got ten seconds to get up so you aren’t going to worry about anything but just getting up first. So when I had seen him looking around for that mouth piece I knew he was really hurt.”[5]
[edit] After the upsetWhile still Champion, Douglas appeared on the February 23, 1990 episode of the World Wrestling Federation’s “WWF The Main Event”, as special guest referee for a rematch between Hulk Hogan and Randy “Macho Man” Savage. Originally, Mike Tyson was scheduled to be the guest referee, but following the upset, the WWF scrambled to sign on Douglas for the event. At the end of the match, Douglas was provoked into a ‘storyline’ punch and knockout of Savage, who was the ‘heel’ wrestler in the match.
The defeated Tyson clamored for a rematch and Douglas was offered more money than he had ever made before for a fight. Not wanting to deal with Tyson’s camp or his promoter Don King, Douglas decided to make his first defense against #1 contender Evander Holyfield, who had watched the new champion dethrone Tyson from ringside in Tokyo. Douglas came into the October 25, 1990 fight at 246 pounds, 15 pounds heavier than he was for the Tyson and also the heaviest he’d weighed in for a fight since a 1985 bout with Dion Simpson, in which he tipped the scale at. just over 247 pounds.
In the third round of the fight, Douglas attempted to hit Holyfield with a hard uppercut that he telegraphed. Holyfield avoided the uppercut and hit an off-balance Douglas with a straight right to the chin to knock him down. Douglas did not get up from the punch and lost his championship, electing to retire after the fight.
[edit] Later careerDouglas vs Holyfield was a reported $24.6 million payday for Buster, though years later he said on the Howard Stern show he walked away with $1.5 million after taxes, managers, trainers, etc. In that same interview he said he received $1.3 million for the Tyson win, but for the same reasons netted $15,000. Doing little for the next several years, Buster gained weight, reaching nearly 400 pounds. It was only after Douglas nearly died during a diabetic coma that he decided to attempt a return to the sport. He went back into training and made a comeback. He was successful at first, winning 6 straight fights, but his comeback almost came to a halt in a 1997 disqualification win over journeyman Louis Monaco. In a bizarre ending, Monaco landed a right hand, just after the bell ending round one, that knocked Douglas to the canvas. Douglas was unable to continue after a five-minute rest period and was consequently awarded the win by disqualification (on account of Monaco’s illegal punch).
A fight with light-heavyweight champion Roy Jones, Jr. was touted in the late 1990s, although ultimately fell through.[6] In 1998 Douglas was knocked out in the first round of a fight with heavyweight contender Lou Savarese. Douglas subsequently had two more fights, winning both, and retired in 1999 with a final record of 38-6-1.
[edit] Film and gameDouglas made his feature film acting debut in the Artie Knapp science fiction comedy film Pluto’s Plight.
Douglas was the star of the video game James ‘Buster’ Douglas Knockout Boxing for the Sega Master System and Sega Genesis. (In reality, Sega took a pre-existing game, Final Blow, changed the name, and changed one of the character’s names to Douglas’). This game is considered as a response to Nintendo’s Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out!!, especially since Tyson lost to Douglas, which Sega took advantage in order to promote their early “Genesis does what Nintendon’t” advertisements.
In 1995, HBO aired Tyson, a television movie based upon the life of Mike Tyson. Douglas was portrayed by actor Duane Davis.
Jack Johnson, First African American Heavyweight Champ Leave a comment
John Arthur (“Jack”) Johnson (March 31, 1878 – June 10, 1946), nicknamed the “Galveston Giant,” was an American boxer. At the height of the Jim Crow era, Johnson became the first African American world heavyweight boxing champion (1908–1915). In a documentary about his life, Ken Burns notes, “for more than thirteen years, Jack Johnson was the most famous and the most notorious African-American on Earth.”[1] Johnson attests that his success in boxing came from the coaching he received from Joe Choynski, who became his cellmate after the pair were arrested for fighting in Texas, where boxing was illegal at the time.[2][3] The aging Choynski saw natural talent and determination in Johnson and taught him the nuances of defense, stating “A man who can move like you should never have to take a punch”.[4] He is considered a boxing legend and was the first person ever to knock down James J. Jeffries in a professional boxing bout. Their fight is to this day considered a seminal moment in boxing history.
Early life Johnson was born in Galveston, Texas, the second child and first son of Henry and Tina “Tiny” Johnson, former slaves who worked at blue-collar jobs to raise six children and taught them how to read and write. Henry Johnson traced his ancestry back to the Coromantees who came from modern-day Ghana.[5] Johnson dropped out of school after just five or six years of education to get a job as a dock worker in Galveston.
Johnson fought Joe Choynski, who knocked him out, but whilst they spent time after the fight in prison together, talked much about boxing. There is a photo existing of them both behind bars. Joe, who also became his friend and sparring partner, taught him a lot. Johnson’s boxing style was very distinctive. He developed a more patient approach than was customary in that day, basically playing with his opponents, often carrying on a conversation with ringsiders at the same time as he was fighting. Johnson would begin a bout cautiously, slowly building up over the rounds into a more aggressive fighter. When annoyed, he often fought to punish his opponents rather than knock them out, endlessly avoiding their blows and striking with swift counters. He always gave the impression of having much more to offer and, if pushed, he could punch powerfully. There are films of some of his fights in which he can be seen holding up his opponent, who otherwise might have fallen, until he recovered. Those were the days when the (mostly white) patrons liked value for money, and it was a habit, especially for black boxers, to make the fight last a respectable time. With the many bouts a fighter engaged in, it was commonplace to have fought the same opponent as many as a dozen or even more times. So it is highly likely that the results of many of these fights were “pre-arranged,” and also pre-determined to last a goodly number of rounds.
Johnson’s style was very effective, but it was criticized in the press as being cowardly and devious. By contrast, world heavyweight champion “Gentleman” Jim Corbett had used many of the same techniques a decade earlier, and was praised by the press as “the cleverest man in boxing.”[1]
By 1902, Johnson had won at least 50 fights against both white and black opponents. Johnson won his first title on February 3, 1903, beating “Denver” Ed Martin over 20 rounds for the World Colored Heavyweight Championship. His efforts to win the full title were thwarted, as world heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries refused to face him then. Black and white boxers could meet in other competitions, but the world heavyweight championship was off limits to them. However, Johnson did fight former champion Bob Fitzsimmons in July 1907, and knocked him out in two rounds.[1] There is a report that Johnson even fought and KO’d Jim Jeffries’ brother Jack, and taunted him about it to force a fight, with no success.
Johnson finally won the world heavyweight title on December 26, 1908, a full six years after lightweight champion Joe Gans became the first African American boxing champion. Johnson’s victory over the reigning world champion, Canadian Tommy Burns, in Sydney, Australia, came after stalking Burns around the world for two years and taunting him in the press for a match.[6] The fight lasted fourteen rounds[7] before being stopped by the police in front of over 20,000 spectators. The title was awarded to Johnson on a referee’s decision as a knockout.
After Johnson’s victory over Burns, racial animosity among whites ran so deep that it was called out for a “Great White Hope” to take the title away from Johnson.[8] As title holder, Johnson thus had to face a series of fighters each billed by boxing promoters as a “great white hope,” often in exhibition matches. In 1909, he beat Frank Moran, Tony Ross, Al Kaufman, and the middleweight champion Stanley Ketchel. The match with Ketchel was originally thought to have been an exhibition, and in fact it was fought by both men that way, until the 12th round, when Ketchel threw a right to Johnson’s head, knocking him down. Quickly regaining his feet, and very annoyed, Johnson immediately dashed straight at Ketchell and threw a single punch, an uppercut, a punch for which he was famous, to Ketchel’s jaw, knocking him out. Several of Ketchell’s teeth were also knocked out with some sticking in Johnson’s glove. The filmed fight shows Johnson wiping the teeth off his glove with a smirk. His fight with Philadelphia Jack O’Brien was a disappointing one for Johnson: though weighing 205 pounds (93 kg) to O’Brien’s 161 pounds (73 kg), he could only achieve a six-round draw with the great middleweight.
The “Fight of the Century”
James J. Jeffries fights Johnson in 1910In 1910, former undefeated heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries came out of retirement and said, “I feel obligated to the sporting public at least to make an effort to reclaim the heavyweight championship for the white race. . . I should step into the ring again and demonstrate that a white man is king of them all.”[9] Jeffries had not fought in six years and had to lose well over 100 pounds to get back to his championship fighting weight. Indeed, initially Jeffries had no interest in the fight being quite happy as he was. But those who wanted to see Johnson ground into the dirt badgered him unmercifully for months, and also offered him an unheard sum of money, reputed to be about $120,000.
The fight took place on July 4, 1910 in front of 20,000 people, at a ring built just for the occasion in downtown Reno, Nevada. Johnson proved stronger and more nimble than Jeffries. In the 15th round, after Jeffries had been knocked down twice for the first time in his career, the referee stopped the fight before Jeffries could be knocked out.
The “Fight of the Century” earned Johnson $65,000 and silenced the critics, who had belittled Johnson’s previous victory over Tommy Burns as “empty,” claiming that Burns was a false champion since Jeffries had retired undefeated.
Riots and aftermathThe outcome of the fight triggered race riots that evening—the Fourth of July—all across the United States, from Texas and Colorado to New York and Washington, D.C. Johnson’s victory over Jeffries had dashed white dreams of finding a “great white hope” to defeat him. Many whites felt humiliated by the defeat of Jeffries.[1]
Blacks, on the other hand, were jubilant, and celebrated Johnson’s great victory as a victory for racial advancement. Black poet William Waring Cuney later highlighted the black reaction to the fight in his poem “My Lord, What a Morning.” Around the country, blacks held spontaneous parades and gathered in prayer meetings.
Some “riots” were simply blacks celebrating in the streets. In certain cities, like Chicago, the police did not disturb the celebrations. But in other cities, the police and angry white citizens tried to subdue the revelers. Police interrupted several attempted lynchings. In all, “riots” occurred in more than 25 states and 50 cities. About 23 blacks and two whites died in the riots, and hundreds more were injured.[10]
[edit] Film of the boutA number of leading American film companies joined forces to shoot footage of the Jeffries-Johnson fight and turn it into a feature-length documentary film, at the cost of $250,000. The film was distributed widely in the U.S. and was exhibited interna tionally as well. As a result, Congress banned prizefight films from being distributed across state lines in 1912; the ban was lifted in 1940. In 2005, the film of the Jeffries-Johnson “Fight of the Century” was entered into the United States National Film Registry as being worthy of preservation.[11]
In the United States, many states and cities banned the exhibition of the Johnson-Jeffries film. The movement to censor Johnson’s victory took over the country within three days after the fight.[9] It was a spontaneous movement. Two weeks after the match former President Theodore Roosevelt, an avid boxer and fan, wrote an article for The Outlook in which he supported banning not just moving pictures of boxing matches, but a complete ban on all prize fights in America. He cited the “crookedness” and gambling that surrounded such contests and that moving pictures have “introduced a new method of money getting and of demoralization.”[9]
Loss of the title
Panorama of Willard – Johnson fight, Havana, CubaOn April 5, 1915, Johnson lost his title to Jess Willard, a working cowboy from Kansas who started boxing when he was twenty-seven years old. With a crowd of 25,000 at Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana, Cuba, Johnson was knocked out in the 26th round of the scheduled 45 round fight. Johnson, although having won almost every round, began to tire after the 20th round, and was visibly hurt by heavy body punches from Willard in rounds preceding the 26th round knockout. Johnson is said by many to have spread rumors that he took a dive,[12] but Willard is widely regarded as having won the fight outright. Willard said, “If he was going to throw the fight, I wish he’d done it sooner. It was hotter than hell out there.”
Personal life
Johnson was an early example of the celebrity athlete in the modern era, appearing regularly in the press and later on radio and in motion pictures. He earned considerable sums endorsing various products, including patent medicines, and indulged several expensive hobbies such as automobile racing and tailored clothing, as well as purchasing jewelry and furs for his wives.[13] He even challenged champion racer Barney Oldfield to a match auto race at the Sheepshead Bay, New York one mile (1.6 km) dirt track. Oldfield, far more experienced, easily out-distanced Johnson, ending any thoughts the boxer might have had about becoming a professional driver.[14] Once, when he was pulled over for a $50 speeding ticket (a large sum at the time), he gave the officer a $100 bill; when the officer protested that he couldn’t make change for that much, Johnson told him to keep the change, as he was going to make his return trip at the same speed.[1] Johnson was also interested in opera (his favorite being Il Trovatore) and in history — he was an admirer of Napoleon Bonaparte, believing him to have risen from a similar origin to his own. In 1920, Johnson opened a night club in Harlem; he sold it three years later to a gangster, Owney Madden, who renamed it the Cotton Club.
Johnson constantly flouted conventions regarding the social and economic “place” of blacks in American society. As a black man, he broke a powerful taboo in consorting with white women, and would constantly and arrogantly verbally taunt men (both white and black) inside and outside the ring. Johnson was pompous about his affection for white women, and imperious about his physical prowess, both in and out of the ring. Asked the secret of his staying power by a reporter who had watched a succession of women parade into, and out of, the champion’s hotel room, Johnson supposedly said “Eat jellied eels and think distant thoughts”.[15]
Johnson was married three times. All of his wives were white, a fact that caused considerable controversy at the time. In January 1911, Johnson married Etta Terry Duryea. A Brooklyn socialite and former wife of businessman Charles Duryea, she met Johnson at a car race in 1909. Their romantic involvement was very turbulent. Beaten many times by Johnson and suffering from severe depression, she committed suicide in September 1912, shooting herself with a revolver.[16]
Less than three months later, on December 4, 1912, Johnson married Lucille Cameron. After Johnson married Cameron, two ministers in the South recommended that Johnson be lynched. Cameron divorced him in 1924 because of infidelity.
The next year, Johnson married Irene Pineau. When asked by a reporter at Johnson’s funeral what she had loved about him, she replied, “I loved him because of his courage. He faced the world unafraid. There wasn’t anybody or anything he feared.”[16]
Johnson had no children.
Prison sentenceOn October 18, 1912, Johnson was arrested on the grounds that his relationship with Lucille Cameron violated the Mann Act against “transporting women across state lines for immoral purposes” due to her being an alleged prostitute and due to Johnson being black. Cameron, soon to become his second wife, refused to cooperate and the case fell apart. Less than a month later, Johnson was arrested again on similar charges. This time, the woman, another alleged prostitute named Belle Schreiber, with whom he had been involved in 1909 and 1910, testified against him. In the courtroom of Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the future Commissioner of Baseball who perpetuated the baseball color line until his death, Johnson was convicted by an all-white jury in June 1913,[17] despite the fact that the incidents used to convict him took place prior to passage of the Mann Act.[1] He was sentenced to a year and a day in prison.
Johnson skipped bail and left the country, joining Lucille in Montreal on June 25, before fleeing to France. For the next seven years, they lived in exile in Europe, South America and Mexico. Johnson returned to the U.S. on July 20, 1920. He surrendered to Federal agents at the Mexican border and was sent to the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth to serve his sentence September 1920 as Inmate #15461.[18]
While incarcerated, Johnson found need for a tool that would help tighten loosened fastening devices, and modified a wrench for the task. He patented his improvements on April 18, 1922, as US Patent 1,413,121.[19][20] He was released on July 9, 1921.[1]
There have been recurring proposals to grant Johnson a posthumous presidential pardon. A bill requesting President George W. Bush to pardon Johnson in 2008, passed the House,[21] but failed to pass in the Senate.[22] In April 2009, Senator John McCain, along with Representative Peter King, filmmaker Ken Burns and Johnson’s great-niece, Linda Haywood, requested a presidential pardon for Johnson from President Barack Obama.[23] On July 29, 2009, Congress passed a resolution calling on President Obama to issue a pardon.[24]
Later lifeJohnson continued fighting, but age was catching up with him. He fought professionally until 1938 at age 60 when he lost 7 of his last 9 bouts, losing his final fight to Walter Price by a 7th-round TKO. It is often suggested that any bouts after the age of 40 -which was a very venerable age for boxing in those days- be not counted on his actual record, since he was basically performing to make a living, for money. He also indulged in what was known as “cellar” fighting, where the bouts, unadvertised, were fought for private audiences, usually in cellars, or other unrecognised places. There are photographs existing of one of these fights. Johnson made his final ring appearance at age 67 on November 27, 1945, fighting three one minute exhibition rounds against two opponents, Joe Jeanette and John Ballcort, in a benefit fight card for U.S. War Bonds. [25][26]
On June 10, 1946, Johnson died in a car crash on U.S. Highway 1 near Franklinton, North Carolina, a small town near Raleigh, after racing angrily from a diner that refused to serve him.[27] He was taken to the closest black hospital, Saint Agnes Hospital in Raleigh. He was 68 years old at the time of his death. He was buried next to Etta Duryea Johnson at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.[28] His grave was initially unmarked, but a stone that bears only the name “Johnson” now stands above the plots of Jack, Etta, and Irene Pineau.[28]
LegacyJohnson was inducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954, and is on the roster of both the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame. In 2005, the United States National Film Preservation Board deemed the film of the 1910 Johnson-Jeffries fight “historically significant” and put it in the National Film Registry.
Johnson’s skill as a fighter and the money that it brought made it impossible for him to be ignored by the establishment. In the short term, the boxing world reacted against Johnson’s legacy. But Johnson foreshadowed one of the most famous boxers of all time, Muhammad Ali. In fact, Ali often spoke of how he was influenced by Jack Johnson. Ali identified with Johnson because he felt America ostracized him in the same manner because of his opposition to the Vietnam War and affiliation with the Nation of Islam.[29]
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Jack Johnson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans
“Sugar” Shane Mosley (born September 7, 1971) is an American professional boxer from Pomona, California who has held world titles in three weight divisions.
Amateur careerMosley was an amateur standout, capturing various amateur titles, including:
1989 United States Amateur Champion at Lightweight 132 lb (60 kg)
1989 World Junior Championships Silver Medalist in San Juan (PUR) 132 lb (60 kg)
1990 United States Amateur Champion at Lightweight 132 lb (60 kg)
1990 Goodwill Games Bronze Medalist in Seattle (USA) 132 lb (60 kg)
1992 United States Amateur Champion at Light Welterweight 139 lb (63 kg) he also had an amateur record of 96–3
[edit] Professional career[edit] Undefeated lightweight championSugar Shane started his pro career in 1993, By 2000 he had fought 34 times amassing a 34–0 (32) record, beating undefeated Phillip Holiday to win the IBF lightweight title. He made 9 title defenses with all inside the distance, but never unified belts. Mosley relinquished his lightweight title to move up 2 divisions, facing Oscar De La Hoya for his welterweight title.
[edit] De La Hoya vs. Sugar Shane MosleyOn June 17, 2000, Mosley met De La Hoya in Los Angeles for the WBC welterweight title. After twelve rounds, Mosley emerged with a split decision victory. During the fight neither man was in danger of going down, but both had badly swollen faces at the end and De La Hoya was bleeding from the nose for several rounds. Mosley earned a minimum of $15 million, while De La Hoya was guaranteed $35 million. It was later that Mosley was accused of using illegal performance enhancing drugs prior to his 2003 bout with Oscar De La Hoya.[1]
[edit] Mosley vs. Vernon Forrest I & IIHe ran a successful string of defenses of his Welterweight titles but against three unheralded fighters. When he finally did step up his competition, it was against former Olympian Vernon Forrest. Early in the second round, the fighters clashed heads and both staggered backward as referee Steve Smoger called time. Mosley sustained a cut on the hairline. When action resumed, Forrest knocked Mosley down twice in the round. It was the first time Mosley had ever been down in a bout. The final scorecards read 115–110, 117–108, 118–108, in favor of Forrest.
They had a rematch six months later at Conseco Fieldhouse in Indiana, and Mosley once again lost by a unanimous decision.
[edit] Bouncing back after ForrestOn February 8, 2003, Mosley’s bout with former IBF light middleweight title holder Raúl Márquez ended in a no contest when Mosley accidentally head butted Marquez twice in round three, which caused two very bad cuts above the eyes of Marquez.
He and De La Hoya faced each other for the second time on September 13, this time with De La Hoya’s The Ring, WBC and WBA light middleweight belts on the line. Mosley defeated De La Hoya by a close 12 round unanimous decision, and joined the exclusive group of world boxing champions that have reigned in three or more divisions. Mosley testified in 2003 that he injected himself with the notorious doping agent EPO as he prepared for his light middleweight title fight against Oscar De La Hoya, according to grand jury transcripts and doping calendars.[2]
[edit] Mosley vs. Wright I & IIOn March 13, 2004, Mosley lost his The Ring, WBC & WBA light middleweight titles in a unification bout with IBF champion Winky Wright by a unanimous twelve-round decision.
On November 20, Mosley and Wright fought their rematch, and although it was scored much closer by the three judges (115–113 twice for Wright and a 114–114 tie), Mosley lost by a twelve-round majority decision.
[edit] Mosley vs. Vargas I & IIOn September 17, he beat another previously undefeated fighter, Jose Luis Cruz, by a ten-round decision.
Mosley then defeated Fernando Vargas on February 25, 2006 by TKO in the tenth round at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino, due to a massive swelling which closed Fernando’s left eye. At the time of the stoppage, Mosley was winning on two scorecards 86–85, while Vargas held an 86–85 advantage on the other scorecard. A rematch was announced almost immediately.
Mosley defeated Fernando Vargas in the rematch on July 15, 2006. Mosley dominated Vargas from start to finish, eventually ending the fight via a sixth-round TKO.
Shane defeated Luis Collazo on February 11, 2007, with a unanimous decision after 12 rounds, knocking Collazo down once, to capture the WBC interim Welterweight title.
[edit] Fight with Miguel CottoMosley and undefeated WBA welterweight Champion Miguel Cotto met on Nov. 10, 2007, at Madison Square Garden in a fight broadcasted on HBO Pay-Per-View. Cotto beat Mosley in a close fight. Soon after that match, Mosley was scheduled to face Zab Judah in a Welterweight bout in Las Vegas, Nevada on May 31. Due to an arm injury suffered by Judah, the fight was cancelled.
[edit] Mosley vs. MayorgaMosley–Mayorga was originally scheduled for Oct. 11 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, Golden Boy Promotions CEO Richard Schaefer and Mosley’s wife and advisor, Jin Mosley, told ESPN.com.
On July 18, 2008, it was reported on ESPN.com’s quick hits that The fight between Mayorga and Mosley was moved to the Home Depot Center in Carson, California and set for September 27 because of the Pavlik-Hopkins fight agreement for October 18 on HBO PPV. And the good news for fight fans was that the Mayorga-Mosley bout was not to be on HBO PPV, instead it was shown on HBO at no cost.
Shane Mosley stopped Ricardo Mayorga with one second left in the 12th round of their junior middleweight bout, Mosley led by one point on judge Nelson Vasquez’s scorecard and five on Tony Crebs’ entering the 12th round. Mayorga had a one point lead on judge Pat Russell’s card. The Associated Press had “Sugar” Shane Mosley ahead by three points entering the 12th.
[edit] Mosley vs. MargaritoPrior to one of the biggest fights of his career, Mosley began training with Naazim Richardson. Mosley regained the WBA Welterweight “Super” championship from Antonio Margarito on January 24, 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. Mosley, now 37 years old, came in to the fight as a 4–1 underdog with the bookies[3] after Margarito had spectacularly stopped Cotto 6 months earlier. Prior to the bout nobody gave Mosley a chance of prevailing- everybody believing that Margarito was too strong and that Mosley was too old. The conventional wisdom was that this was a mismatch, which would end in a brutal retirement-forcing stoppage for Sugar Shane. A comparison of their last fights- the aforementioned destruction of Cotto by Margarito and a last-gasp knockout by Mosley in a hard twelve round struggle against Mayorga- did not bode well for Sugar Shane. Some predicted a massacre. And it was – only it was Margarito that was ruthlessly clubbed about the ring, unable to land any meaningful shots.
Mosley eventually TKO’d Margarito in the ninth round, after appearing to win every round up until then, in a massive upset. Sugar Shane utterly dominated Margarito, using his superior hand speed, pinpoint accuracy, consistent body punching, countless huge right hands to the jaw, and tying up whenever Margarito backed him into the ropes, to wear Margarito down and stop him—something that many seasoned boxing observers thought was nigh-on impossible. After knocking him down with a series of heavy overhand rights at the end of the eighth round, Margarito was unable to avoid punches during a heavy barrage from Mosley early on in the ninth, forcing the referee to step in as Margarito slumped to the canvas a second time. Margarito had never previously been stopped. It was a sensational win for Sugar Shane and propelled him back to the top of the tree in the welterweight division.
The fight was marred in a controversy after Mosley’s trainer diligently spotted an illegal plaster accessory being added to Margarito’s hand wraps, which had to be redone three times before the commission’s officials were satisfied.[4]
The fight was for Margarito’s WBA title and the vacant Lineal Welterweight championships of Lineal Champs and Cyber Boxing Zone (CBZ).[5][6] The Ring did not recognize this bout for its vacant Welterweight championship despite the fact, it pitted The Ring #1 ranked welterweight, Antonio Margarito vs. The Ring #3 ranked welterweight, Shane Mosley. Coming in the bout, Margarito had just TKO’d, the previous The Ring #1 ranked welterweight and current The Ring #2 ranked welterweight, Miguel Cotto.[7] After the fight, Mosley would be The Ring #1 ranked Welterweight and seen by experts and fans alike, the true champion of the division.
[edit] Mosley vs. MayweatherMain article: Floyd Mayweather vs. Shane Mosley
On May 1, 2010, Mosley fought undefeated Floyd Mayweather. Boxing purists had called for the fight for over ten years. On the night Mosley stunned Mayweather with two right-hand shots in the second round. Mayweather recovered well and dominated the remainder of the fight with superior reflexes, eventually winning a wide decision on the scorecards to hand Mosley the sixth defeat of his professional career.
On May 22, 2010, Shane Mosley was stripped of his WBA “Super” welterweight title, which in turn made WBA champion Vyacheslav Senchenko the sole WBA titlist in the welterweight division.
[edit] Mora vs. Mosley
Mosley at the Club Nokia in September 2010Main article: Shane Mosley vs. Sergio Mora
Mosley fought Sergio Mora on September 18 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles.[8][9] The bout ended up in a split draw. Scores (Mora 115–113, Mosley 116–112, 114–114).[10] On whether he would like to have a rematch with Mora or whether he will move on and put it behind him:
“Actually, there’s no need for a rematch. It was a fight. I took it. It wasn’t crowd pleasing and I don’t want to be in a fight like that again. That’s the type of fight that I don’t want to be in. There are a lot of great fights out there. There’s Cotto. You know all these mover type of guys, I’m not sure whether I should stay away from them if I could. You know the guys who like to move around a lot and try to outbox you, and it’s good to box but I want to be in a fight where I’m in a real fight, like the Miguel Cottos, the Pacquiaos, and the Margaritos. Sergio Martinez, he’s a mover. He likes to box so it could be an ugly fight. He’s a real mover and he’s a big mover. So these moving types of fighters, I don’t know that that’s well suited for me. I don’t like to put that on the fans with those types of fights. So we’ll see what happens.”[citation needed]
[edit] Mosley vs. PacquiaoMain article: Manny Pacquiao vs. Shane Mosley
On May 7, 2011, Mosley lost the fight to Manny Pacquiao for the WBO welterweight title at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. Due to Mosley’s defeat, Pacquiao looked at a November 12th, 2011 match-up, a third fight with Juan Manuel Marquez which he won.[11]
[edit] Alvarez vs. MosleyMosley agreed to terms for a return to the MGM on May 5 against WBC 154-pound beltholder Saul “Canelo” Alvarez, a man 19 years younger than he is.
George Foreman, Heavyweight Boxing Champ 2 comments
George Edward Foreman (nicknamed “Big George”[2]) (born January 10, 1949) is an American two-time former World Heavyweight Boxing Champion, Olympic gold medalist, ordained Baptist minister, author and successful entrepreneur.
A gold medalist at the 1968 Olympics, Foreman won the world heavyweight title with a second round knockout of then-undefeated Joe Frazier in Kingston, Jamaica in 1973. He made two successful title defenses before losing to Muhammad Ali in “The Rumble in the Jungle” in 1974. He fought on but was unable to secure another title shot and retired following a loss to Jimmy Young in 1977 and became an ordained Christian minister. Ten years later Foreman announced a comeback, and in November 1994, at age 45, he regained the heavyweight championship by knocking out Michael Moorer. He remains the oldest heavyweight champion in history. He retired in 1997 at the age of 48, with a final record of 76-5, including 68 knockouts.
Foreman has been inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame and the International Boxing Hall of Fame. The International Boxing Research Organization (IBRO) currently rates Foreman as the eighth greatest heavyweight of all-time.[3] In 2002, he was named one of the 25 greatest fighters of the past eighty years by Ring magazine.[4] The Ring also ranked him as the 9th greatest puncher of all-time.[5] He was a ringside analyst for HBO’s boxing coverage for twelve years, leaving in 2004.[6] Outside of boxing, he is a successful entrepreneur and is known for his promotion of the George Foreman Grill, which has sold over 100 million units worldwide.[7] In 1999 he sold the naming rights to the grill for $138 million.[8]
Early lifeGeorge Foreman was born in Marshall, Texas. He grew up in the Fifth Ward, Houston, Texas, with six siblings.[9] Although reared by J.D. Foreman, whom his mother had married when George was a small child, his biological father was Leroy Moorehead. Foreman was interested in football and idolized Jim Brown, but gave it up for boxing. He won a gold medal in the boxing/heavyweight division at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. By his own admission in his autobiography George was a troubled youth.
[edit] Professional boxing careerForeman had an amateur record of 22-4, losing twice to Clay Hodges (also defeated by Max Briggs in his first ever fight). Foreman turned professional in 1969 with a three-round knockout of Donald Walheim in New York. He had a total of 13 fights that year, winning all of them (11 by knockout).
In 1970, Foreman continued his march toward the undisputed heavyweight title, winning all 12 of his bouts (11 by knockout). Among the opponents he defeated were Gregorio Peralta, whom he decisioned at Madison Square Garden although Peralta gave a very good account of himself and showed George was vulnerable to fast counter punching mixed with an assertive boxing style. But the boxing world shuddered when George Chuvalo was defeated by technical knockout (TKO) in three rounds. After this impressive win, Foreman defeated Charlie Polite in four rounds and Boone Kirkman in three.
In 1971, Foreman won seven more fights, winning all of them by knockout, including a rematch with Peralta, whom he defeated by knockout in the tenth and final round in Oakland, California, and a win over Leroy Caldwell, who was knocked out in the second round. After amassing a record of 32–0 (29 KO), Foreman was ranked as the number one challenger by the WBA and WBC.
[edit] The Sunshine Showdown vs. Joe FrazierIn 1972, still undefeated, and with an impressive knockout record, Foreman was set to challenge undefeated and undisputed world heavyweight champion Joe Frazier. Despite boycotting a title elimination caused by the vacancy resulting from the championship being stripped from Muhammad Ali, Frazier had won the title from Jimmy Ellis and defended his title four times since, including a 15-round unanimous decision over the previously unbeaten Ali in 1971 after Ali had beaten Oscar Bonavena and Jerry Quarry. Despite Foreman’s superior size and reach, he was not expected to beat Frazier[10] and was a 3:1 underdog going into the fight.
The Sunshine Showdown took place on January 22, 1973, in Kingston, Jamaica, with Foreman dominating the fight to win the championship by technical knockout in one of boxing’s biggest upsets. In HBO Boxing’s first broadcast, the call made by Howard Cosell became one of the most memorable in all of sports: “Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier!” Before the fight Frazier was 29–0 (25 KO) and Foreman was 37–0 (34 KO). Frazier was knocked down six times by Foreman within two rounds, with the three knockdowns rule being waived for this bout. After the second knockdown, Frazier’s balance and mobility were impaired to the extent that he was unable to evade Foreman’s combinations. Frazier managed to get to his feet for all six knockdowns, but referee Arthur Mercante eventually called an end to the one-sided bout.
Foreman was sometimes characterized by the media as an aloof and antisocial champion.[11] According to them, he always seemed to wear a sneer and was not often available to the press. Foreman would later attribute his demeanor during this time as an emulation of Sonny Liston, for whom he had been an occasional sparring partner.
Nevertheless, Foreman went on to defend his title successfully twice during his initial reign as champion. His first defense, in Tokyo, pitted him against Puerto Rican heavyweight champion José Roman. Roman was not regarded as a top contender, and it took Foreman only 2 minutes to end the fight, one of the fastest knockouts in a heavyweight championship bout.
[edit] Title defense versus Ken NortonForeman’s next defense was against a much tougher opponent. In 1974, in Caracas, Venezuela, he faced the highly regarded hall-of-famer Ken Norton who was 30–2, a boxer notorious for his awkward crossed-arm boxing style with crab-like defense plus heavy punch (a style Foreman would emulate in his second comeback), who had broken the jaw of Muhammad Ali while defeating Ali on points a year earlier. Norton had a good chin, never in trouble as such against Ali in two matches. He’d nearly won the second. Although nerves were known to make his determination suspect at times against really heavy hitters. But in an astonishing display of controlled aggression and punching power, Foreman picked his moment after staying out of range of a long offense and decked Ken with more or less his first real big punch he threw near the end of the first round. Norton rose on wobbly legs but clearly wasn’t recovered for round two whereby he was down three times and stopped. “Ken was awesome when he got going. I didn’t want him to get into the fight,” George said when interviewed years later.
George had cruised past two of the top names in the rankings. The stunning win made Foreman an impressive 40–0 with 37 knockouts.
[edit] “Rumble in the Jungle”Main article: The Rumble in the Jungle
This article appears to contradict the article The Rumble in the Jungle. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. Please do not remove this message until the contradictions are resolved. (April 2010)
Foreman’s next title defense, against Muhammad Ali, was historic. During the summer of 1974, Foreman traveled to Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to defend his title against Ali. The bout was promoted as The Rumble in the Jungle.
During training in Zaire, Foreman suffered a cut above his eye, forcing postponement of the match for a month. The injury affected Foreman’s training regimen, as it meant he couldn’t spar in the build-up to the fight and risk the cut being re-opened. He later commented: “That was the best thing that happened to Ali when we were in Africa—the fact that I had to get ready for the fight without being able to box.”[12] Foreman would later also claim he was drugged by his trainer prior to the bout.[13] Ali used this time to tour Zaire, endearing himself to the public while taunting Foreman at every opportunity. Foreman was favored, having knocked out both Joe Frazier and Ken Norton within two rounds.
When Foreman and Ali finally met in the ring, Ali began more aggressively than expected, outscoring Foreman with superior punching speed. However, he quickly realized that this approach required him to move much more than Foreman and would cause him to tire. In the second round, Ali retreated to the ropes, shielding his head and hitting Foreman in the face at every opportunity. Foreman dug vicious body punches into Ali’s sides; however, Foreman was unable to land many big punches to Ali’s head. The ring ropes, being much looser than usual (Foreman would later charge that Angelo Dundee had loosened them), allowed Ali to lean back and away from Foreman’s wild swings and then grab Foreman behind the head, forcing Foreman to expend much extra energy untangling himself. Ali also constantly pushed down on Foreman’s neck, but was never warned about doing so. To this day, it is unclear whether Ali’s pre-fight talk of using speed and movement against Foreman had been just a diversionary tactic, or whether his use of what became known as the “Rope-a-dope” tactic was an improvisation necessitated by Foreman’s constant pressure.
In either case, Ali was able to occasionally counter off the ropes with blows to the face, and was able to penetrate Foreman’s defense. Ali continued to take heavy punishment to the body, and occasionally a hard jolt to the head. Ali would later say he was “out on his feet” twice during the bout. Eventually, Foreman began to tire and his punches became increasingly wild, losing power in the process. An increasingly confident Ali taunted Foreman throughout the bout. Late in the eighth round, Foreman was left off balance by a haymaker and Ali sprang off the ropes with a flurry to Foreman’s head, punctuated by a hard right cross that landed flush on Foreman’s jaw putting Foreman down for the first time in his career. He managed to regain his feet by the count of 8 but the fight was nonetheless waved off by the referee.[citation needed]. It was Foreman’s first defeat, and Muhammad Ali remains the only boxer ever to defeat him by knockout.
Foreman would later reflect that “it just wasn’t my night.” Though he sought one, he was unable to secure a rematch with Ali. It has been suggested in some quarters that Ali was ducking Foreman, as had rematches Joe Frazier and Ken Norton, and also fought low ranked opponents such as Chuck Wepner, Richard Dunn and Jean Pierre Coopman.[14] Ali on the other hand would never commit to a rematch, preferring to talk about retirement or make fights with lowly ranked fighters like Richard Dunn or Alfredo Evaneglista.
[edit] First comebackForeman remained inactive during 1975. In 1976, he announced a comeback and stated his intention of securing a rematch with Ali. His first opponent was to be Ron Lyle, who had been defeated by Muhammad Ali in 1975, via 11-th round TKO. At the end of the first round, Lyle landed a hard left that sent Foreman staggering across the ring. In the second round, Foreman pounded Lyle against the ropes and might have scored a KO, but due to a timekeeping error the bell rang with a minute still remaining in the round, and Lyle survived. In the third, Foreman pressed forward, with Lyle waiting to counter off the ropes. In the fourth, a brutal slugfest erupted. A cluster of power punches from Lyle sent Foreman to the canvas. When Foreman got up, Lyle staggered him again, but just as Foreman seemed finished he retaliated with a hard right to the side of the head, knocking down Lyle. Lyle beat the count, then landed another brutal combination, knocking Foreman down for the second time. Again, Foreman beat the count. Foreman said later that he had never been hit so hard in a fight and remembered looking down at the canvas and seeing blood. In the fifth round, both fighters continued to ignore defense and traded their hardest punches looking crude. Each man staggered the other and each seemed almost out on his feet. Then, as if finally tired, Lyle stopped punching and Foreman delivered a dozen unanswered blows until Lyle collapsed. Lyle remained on the canvas and was counted out giving Foreman the KO victory. The fight was named by The Ring as “The Fight Of The Year.”
For his next bout, Foreman chose to face Joe Frazier in a rematch. Because of the one-sided Foreman victory in their first fight, and the fact that Frazier had taken a tremendous amount of punishment from Ali in Manila a year earlier, few expected him to win. Frazier at this point was 32–3 and Foreman was 41–1. Surprisingly, the 2nd Foreman-Frazier fight was fairly competitive for its duration, as Frazier used quick head movements to make Foreman miss with his hardest punches. Frazier’s health was deteriorating at this point and was wearing a contact lens for his vision which was knocked loose during the bout. After being unable to mount a significant offense, however, Frazier was eventually floored twice by Foreman in the fifth round and the fight was stopped. Next, Foreman knocked out Scott Ledoux in three and Dino Dennis in four to finish the year.
[edit] Retirement and rebirth1977 would prove to be a life changing year for Foreman. After knocking out Pedro Agosto in four rounds at Pensacola, Florida, Foreman flew to Puerto Rico a day before the fight without giving himself time to acclimatise. His opponent was the skilled boxer Jimmy Young, who had beaten Ron Lyle and lost a very controversial decision to Muhammad Ali the previous year. Foreman fought cautiously early on, allowing Young to settle into the fight. Young constantly complained about Foreman pushing him, for which Foreman eventually had a point deducted by the referee, although Young was never warned for his persistent holding. Foreman badly hurt Young in round 7 but was unable to land a finishing blow. Foreman tired during the second half of the fight and even suffered a flash knockdown in round 12 en route to losing a decision.
Foreman became ill in his dressing room after the fight. He was suffering from exhaustion and heatstroke and believed he had a near death experience. He claimed he found himself in a hellish, frightening place of nothingness and despair. He began to plead with God to help him. He explained that he sensed God asking him to change his life and ways. After this experience, Foreman became a born-again Christian, dedicating his life for the next decade to God. Although he did not formally retire from boxing, Foreman stopped fighting, became an ordained minister of a church[15] in Houston, Texas, and devoted himself to his family and his congregation. He also opened a youth center[16] that bears his name. Foreman continues to share his conversion experience on Christian television broadcasts such as The 700 Club and the Trinity Broadcasting Network, and would later joke that Young had knocked the devil out of him.
[edit] Second comebackIn 1987, after 10 years away from the ring, Foreman surprised the boxing world by announcing a comeback at the age of 38. In his autobiography he stated that his primary motive was to raise money to fund the youth center he had created. His stated ambition was to fight Mike Tyson.[17] For his first fight, he went to Sacramento, California, where he beat journeyman Steve Zouski by a knockout in four rounds. Foreman weighed 267 lb (121 kg) for the fight, and looked badly out of shape. Although many thought his decision to return to the ring was a mistake, Foreman countered that he had returned to prove that age was not a barrier to people achieving their goals (as he would say later, he wanted to show that age 40 is not a “death sentence”). He won four more bouts that year, gradually slimming down and improving his fitness. In 1988, he won nine times. Perhaps his most notable win during this period was a seventh round knockout of former light heavyweight and cruiserweight champion Dwight Muhammad Qawi.
Having always been a deliberate fighter, Foreman had not lost much mobility in the ring since his first “retirement”, although he found it harder to keep his balance after throwing big punches and could no longer throw rapid combinations. He was still capable of landing heavy, single blows, however. Ironically, the late-rounds fatigue that had plagued him in the ring as a young man now seemed to be gone, and he could comfortably compete for 12 rounds. Foreman attributed this to his new, relaxed fighting style (he has spoken of how, earlier in his career, his lack of stamina came from an enormous amount of nervous tension).
By 1989, while continuing his comeback, Foreman had sold his name and face for the advertising of various products, selling everything from grills to mufflers on TV. For this purpose his public persona was reinvented and the formerly aloof, ominous Foreman had been replaced by a smiling, friendly George. He and Ali had become friends, and he followed in Ali’s footsteps by making himself a celebrity outside the boundaries of boxing.
Foreman continued his string of victories, winning five more fights, the most impressive being a three-round win over Bert Cooper, who would go on to contest the undisputed heavyweight title against Evander Holyfield.
In 1990, Foreman met former title challenger Gerry Cooney in Atlantic City. Cooney was coming off a long period of inactivity, but was well regarded for his punching power. Cooney wobbled Foreman in the first round, but Foreman landed several powerful punches in the second round. Cooney was knocked down twice, and Foreman had scored a devastating KO. Foreman went on to win four more fights that year.
Then, in 1991, Foreman was given the opportunity to challenge undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield, who was in tremendous shape at 208 pounds, for the world title in a Pay Per View boxing event. Very few boxing experts gave the 42-year-old Foreman a chance of winning. Foreman, who weighed in at 257 pounds, began the contest by marching forward, absorbing several of Holyfield’s best combinations and occasionally landing a powerful swing of his own. Holyfield proved too tough and agile to knock down, and was well ahead on points throughout the fight, but Foreman surprised many by lasting the full 12 rounds, losing his challenge on points. Round 7, in which Foreman knocked Holyfield off balance before being staggered by a powerful combination, was Ring Magazine’s “Round of the Year.”
A year later, Foreman fought journeyman Alex Stewart, who had previously been stopped in the first round by Mike Tyson. Foreman knocked down Stewart twice in the second round, but expended a lot of energy in doing so. He subsequently tired, and Stewart rebounded. By the end of the 10th and final round, Foreman’s face was bloodied and swollen, but the judges awarded him a majority decision win.
In 1993, Foreman received another title shot, although this was for the vacant WBO championship, which most fans at the time saw as a second-tier version of the “real” heavyweight title, then being contested between Holyfield and Riddick Bowe. Foreman’s opponent was Tommy Morrison, a young prospect known for his punching power. To the frustration of Foreman, and the disappointment of the booing crowd, Morrison retreated throughout the fight, refusing to trade toe-to-toe, and sometimes even turned his back on Foreman. The strategy paid off, however, as he outboxed Foreman from long range. Foreman was competitive throughout the match, but after 12 rounds Morrison won a unanimous decision. Though it seemed unlikely at the time, one more chance at the legitimate heavyweight crown was just around the corner for Foreman.
[edit] Regaining the TitleIn 1994, Foreman once again sought to challenge for the world championship after Michael Moorer had beaten Holyfield for the IBF and WBA titles.
Having lost his last fight against Morrison, Foreman was unranked and in no position to demand another title shot. However, his relatively high profile made a title defense against Foreman, who was 19 years older than Moorer, a lucrative prospect at seemingly little risk for champion Moorer.
Foreman’s title challenge against Moorer took place on November 5 in Las Vegas, Nevada, with Foreman wearing the same red trunks he had worn in his title loss to Ali 20 years earlier. This time, however, Foreman was a substantial underdog. For nine rounds, Moorer easily outboxed him, hitting and moving away, while Foreman chugged forward, seemingly unable to “pull the trigger” on his punches. Entering the tenth round, Foreman was trailing on all scorecards. However, Foreman launched a comeback in the tenth round, and hit Moorer with a number of punches. Then a short right hand caught Moorer on the tip of his chin, gashing open his bottom lip, and he collapsed to the canvas. He lay flat on his back as the referee counted him out.
In an instant, Foreman had regained the title he had lost to Muhammad Ali two decades before. He went back to his corner and knelt in prayer as the arena erupted in cheers. With this historic victory, Foreman broke three records: he became, at age 45, the oldest fighter ever to win the world heavyweight crown; and, 20 years after losing his title for the first time, he broke the record for the fighter with the longest interval between his first and second world championships. The age spread of 19 years between the champion and challenger was also the largest of any heavweight boxing championship fight.
Shortly after the Moorer fight, Foreman began talking about a potential superfight against Mike Tyson (the youngest ever heavyweight champ). The WBA organization, however, demanded he fight their No. 1 challenger, who at the time was the competent but aging Tony Tucker. For reasons not clearly known, Foreman refused to fight Tucker, and allowed the WBA to strip him of that belt. He then went on to fight mid-level prospect Axel Schulz of Germany in defense of his remaining IBF title. Schulz was a major underdog. Schulz jabbed strongly from long range, and grew increasingly confident as the fight progressed. Foreman finished the fight with a swelling over one eye, but was awarded a controversial majority decision (two judges scored for Foreman, one called it even). The IBF ordered an immediate rematch to be held in Germany, but Foreman refused the terms and found himself stripped of his remaining title. However, Foreman continued to be recognized as the lineal heavyweight champion.
In 1996, Foreman returned to Tokyo, scoring an easy win over the unrated Crawford Grimsley by a 12-round decision. In 1997, he faced contender Lou Savarese, winning a close decision in a grueling, competitive encounter. Then, yet another opportunity came Foreman’s way as the WBC decided to match him against Shannon Briggs in a 1997 “eliminator bout” for the right to face WBC champion Lennox Lewis. After 12 rounds, in which Foreman consistently rocked Briggs with power punches, almost everyone at ringside saw Foreman as the clear winner.[18] Once again there was a controversial decision—but this time it went in favor of Foreman’s opponent, with Briggs awarded a points win. Foreman had fought for the last time, at the age of 48.
[edit] Second retirementForeman was gracious and philosophical in his loss to Briggs, but announced his “final” retirement shortly afterward. However, he did plan a return bout against Larry Holmes in 1999, scheduled to take place at the Houston Astrodome on pay per view. The fight was to be billed as “The Birthday Bash” due to both fighters’ upcoming birthdays. Foreman was set to make $10 million and Holmes was to make $4 million, but negotiations fell through and the fight was cancelled. With a continuing affinity for the sport, Foreman became a respected boxing analyst for HBO.
Foreman said he had no plans to resume his career as a boxer, but then announced in February 2004 that he was training for one more comeback fight to demonstrate that the age of 55, like 40, is not a “death sentence.” The bout, against an unspecified opponent (rumored to be the now late Trevor Berbick), never materialized (it was widely thought that Foreman’s wife had been a major factor in the change of plans). Having severed his relationship with HBO to pursue other opportunities, George Foreman and the sport of boxing finally went their separate ways.
[edit] Family
Foreman speaking in Houston, Texas in September 2009Foreman has 11 children, and each of his five sons is named George: George Jr., George III, George IV, George V, and George VI. His four younger sons are distinguished from one another by the nicknames “Monk”, “Big Wheel”, “Red”, and “Little Joey”. Also of issue in his marriage are two daughters named Natalia and Leola. He also has three daughters from a separate relationship: Michi, Freeda, and Georgetta. He also adopted a daughter, Isabella Brandie Lilja (Foreman), in 2009.[citation needed]
[edit] EntrepreneurshipWhen Foreman came back from retirement he argued that his success was due to his healthy eating which made him a perfect fit for Russell Hobbs Inc. who were looking for a spokesperson for their fat-reducing grill.
The George Foreman grill has resulted in sales of over 100 million units since it was first launched, a feat that was achieved in a little over 15 years. Although Foreman has never confirmed exactly how much he has earned from the endorsement, what is known is that Salton Inc paid him $137 million in 1999 in order to buy out the right to use his name. Previous to that he was being paid about 40% of the profits on each grill sold (earning him $4.5 million a month in payouts at its peak) so it is estimated he has made a total of over $200 million from the endorsement, a sum that is substantially more than he earned as a boxer
Mike Tyson, Heavyweight Boxing Champion Leave a comment
Michael Gerard “Mike” Tyson (also known as Malik Abdul Aziz) (born June 30, 1966) is a retired American professional boxer . Tyson is a former undisputed heavyweight champion of the world and holds the record as the youngest boxer to win the WBC , WBA and IBF heavyweight titles, he was 20 years, 4 months and 22 days old. Tyson won his first 19 professional bouts by knockout, with 12 of them occurring in the first round. He won the WBC title in 1986 after defeating Trevor Berbick by a TKO in the second round. In 1987, Tyson added the WBA and IBF titles after defeating James Smith and Tony Tucker . He was the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold and only Heavyweight to individually unify the WBA, WBC and IBF titles.
In 1988, Tyson became the lineal champion when he knocked out Michael Spinks in the first 91 seconds of the fight. Tyson successfully defended the world heavyweight championship nine times, including victories over Larry Holmes and Frank Bruno . Tyson lost his titles to 42-to-1 underdog James “Buster” Douglas on February 11, 1990, in Tokyo, Japan, by a knockout in round 10. Tyson continued in his quest to regain the titles, defeating Donovan Ruddock twice in 1991. Tyson was then scheduled to take on the undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield but pulled out due to injury.
In 1992, Tyson was convicted of raping Desiree Washington, for which he was sentenced to six years in prison [2] but was released after serving three years. After being released from prison in 1995, he engaged in a series of comeback fights. In 1996, Tyson won the WBC and WBA titles after defeating Frank Bruno and Bruce Seldon by knockout. After being stripped of the WBC title, Tyson lost his WBA crown to Evander Holyfield in November, 1996 by an 11th round TKO. Their 1997 rematch ended when Tyson was disqualified for biting off part of Holyfield’s ear.
In 2002, he fought for the world heavyweight title at the age of 35, losing by knockout to Lennox Lewis . Tyson retired from professional boxing in 2006 after he was knocked out in consecutive matches against Danny Williams and Kevin McBride . Tyson declared bankruptcy in 2003, despite receiving over US$30 million for several of his fights and $300 million during his career.
Throughout his career, Tyson became well known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior both inside and outside the ring. Tyson is considered to have been one of the best heavyweight boxers of all time. [3] He is ranked No. 16 on The Ring ‘s list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. [4]
Early years
Tyson was born in Brooklyn , New York City. He has a brother, Rodney, who is five years older than he. His sister, Denise, died of a heart attack at age 25 in 1991. [5] Tyson’s father, Jimmy Kirkpatrick, abandoned his family when Tyson was 2, leaving his mother, Lorna Smith Tyson, to care for them on her own. [6] The family lived in Bedford-Stuyvesant until their financial burdens necessitated a move to Brownsville when Tyson was 10 years old. [7] Tyson’s mother died six years later, leaving 16-year-old Tyson in the care of boxing manager and trainer Cus D’Amato , who would become his legal guardian. Tyson has been quoted saying, “I never saw my mother happy with me and proud of me for doing something: She only knew me as being a wild kid running the streets, coming home with new clothes that she knew I didn’t pay for. I never got a chance to talk to her or know about her. Professionally, it has no effect, but it’s crushing emotionally and personally.” [8]
Throughout his childhood, Tyson lived in and around high-crime neighborhoods. According to an interview in Details his first fight was with a bigger youth who had pulled the head off one of Tyson’s pigeons. [9] He was repeatedly caught committing petty crimes and fighting those who ridiculed his high-pitched voice and lisp . By the age of 13, he had been arrested 38 times. [10] He ended up at the Tryon School for Boys in Johnstown , New York. It was at the school that Tyson’s emerging boxing ability was discovered by Bobby Stewart, a juvenile detention center counselor and former boxer. [6] Stewart considered Tyson to be an outstanding fighter and trained him for a few months before introducing him to Cus D’Amato . [6]
Tyson was later removed from the reform school by Cus D’Amato. [11] Kevin Rooney also trained Tyson, and he was occasionally assisted by Teddy Atlas , although he was dismissed by D’Amato when Tyson was 15. Rooney eventually took over all training duties for the young fighter.
Tyson’s brother is a physician assistant in the trauma center of the Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center . [12] He has always been very supportive of his brother’s career and was often seen at Tyson’s boxing matches in Las Vegas , Nevada . When asked about their relationship, Mike has been quoted saying, “My brother and I see each other occasionally and we love each other,” and “My brother was always something and I was nothing.” [13]
Education
Although Mike Tyson dropped out of high school as a junior and never graduated, in 1989, along with Don King , he was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Humane letters from Central State University , in Wilberforce, Ohio by university President Arthur E. Thomas. [14]
Career
Amateur career
Tyson competed at the 1981 and 1982 Junior Olympic Games, and won the gold medal twice: in 1981 against Joe Cortez and in 1982 against Kelton Brown, whose corner threw in the towel within the first round. He holds the Junior Olympic quickest knockout record with 8 seconds. In addition he won every bout at the Junior Olympic Games by knockout.
He fought Henry Tillman twice as an amateur losing both bouts by close decision. Tillman went on to win heavyweight Gold at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.
Rise to stardom
Tyson made his professional debut as an 18 year old on March 6, 1985, in Albany , New York. He defeated Hector Mercedes via a first round knockout . [6] He had 15 bouts in his first year as a professional. Fighting frequently, Tyson won 26 of his first 28 fights by KO/TKO – 16 in the first round. [15] The quality of his opponents gradually increased to journeyman fighters and borderline contenders, [15] like James Tillis , David Jaco , Jesse Ferguson , Mitch Green and Marvis Frazier . His win streak attracted media attention, leading to his being billed as the next great heavyweight champion. D’Amato died in November 1985, relatively early into Tyson’s professional career; some speculate that his death was the genesis of many of the troubles Tyson was to experience later as his life and career progressed. [16]
Tyson’s first nationally televised bout took place on February 16, 1986, at Houston Field House in Troy , New York against journeyman heavyweight Jesse Ferguson . Tyson knocked down Ferguson with an uppercut in the fifth round that broke Ferguson’s nose. [17] During the sixth round, Ferguson began to hold and clinch Tyson in an apparent attempt to avoid further punishment. After admonishing Ferguson several times to obey his commands to box, the referee finally stopped the fight near the middle of the sixth round. Initially ruled a win for Tyson by disqualification (DQ) of his opponent, the ruling was subsequently “adjusted” as a win by technical knockout (TKO) after Tyson’s corner protested that a DQ win would end Tyson’s string of knockout victories, and that a knockout would have been the inevitable result. The rationale offered for the revised outcome was that the fight was actually stopped because Ferguson could not (rather than would not) continue boxing.
On November 22, 1986, Tyson was given his first title fight against Trevor Berbick for the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight championship. Tyson won the title by second round TKO, and at the age of 20 years and 4 months became the youngest heavyweight champion in history. [18] Tyson’s dominant performance brought many accolades. Donald Saunders wrote: “The noble and manly art of boxing can at least cease worrying about its immediate future, now [that] it has discovered a heavyweight champion fit to stand alongside Dempsey, Tunney, Louis, Marciano and Ali.” [19]
Because of Tyson’s strength, many fighters were intimidated by him. [20] This was backed up by his outstanding hand speed, accuracy, coordination, power, and timing. Tyson was also noted for his defensive abilities. [21] Holding his hands high in the Peek-a-Boo style taught by his mentor Cus D’Amato , he slipped and weaved out of the way of the opponent’s punches while closing the distance to deliver his own punches. [21] One of Tyson’s trademark combinations was to throw a right hook to his opponent’s body, then follow it up with a right uppercut to his opponent’s chin; very few boxers would remain standing if caught by this combination. Boxers knocked down with this combination include Jesse Ferguson and Jose Ribalta.
Undisputed champion
See also: Mike Tyson vs. Michael Spinks
Expectations for Tyson were extremely high, and he embarked on an ambitious campaign to fight all the top heavyweights in the world. Tyson defended his title against James Smith on March 7, 1987, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He won by unanimous decision and added Smith’s World Boxing Association (WBA) title to his existing belt. [22] ‘Tyson mania’ in the media was becoming rampant. [23] He beat Pinklon Thomas in May with a knockout in the sixth round. [24] On August 1 he took the International Boxing Federation (IBF) title from Tony Tucker in a twelve round unanimous decision. [25] He became the first heavyweight to own all three major belts – WBA, WBC, and IBF – at the same time. Another fight, in October of that year, ended with a victory for Tyson over 1984 Olympics Super Heavyweight gold medalist Tyrell Biggs by knockout in the seventh round. [26]
During this time, Tyson came to the attention of gaming company Nintendo : after witnessing one of Tyson’s fights, Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa was impressed by the fighter’s “power and skill”, prompting him to suggest Tyson be included in the upcoming Nintendo Entertainment System port of the Punch Out!! arcade game. The idea was implemented, and in 1987 Nintendo released Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out!! , which was well-received and sold more than a million copies. [27]
Tyson had three fights in 1988. He faced Larry Holmes on January 22, 1988, and defeated the legendary former champion by a fourth round KO. [28] This was the only knockout loss Holmes suffered in 75 professional bouts. In March, Tyson then fought contender Tony Tubbs in Tokyo, Japan, fitting in an easy two-round victory amid promotional and marketing work. [29]
On June 27, 1988, Tyson faced Michael Spinks . Spinks, who had taken the heavyweight championship from Larry Holmes via a 15-round decision in 1985, had not lost his title in the ring but was not recognized as champion by the major boxing organizations. Holmes had previously given up all but the IBF title, and that was eventually stripped from Spinks after he elected to fight Gerry Cooney (winning by a 5th-round TKO) rather than IBF Number 1 Contender Tony Tucker, as the Cooney fight provided him a larger purse. However, Spinks did become the lineal champion by beating Holmes and many (including Ring magazine) considered him to have a legitimate claim to being the true heavyweight champion. The bout was, at the time, the richest fight in history and expectations were very high. Boxing pundits were predicting a titanic battle of styles, with Tyson’s aggressive infighting conflicting with Spinks’ skillful outfighting and footwork. The fight ended after 91 seconds when Tyson knocked Spinks out in the first round; many consider this to be the pinnacle of Tyson’s fame and boxing ability. [30] Spinks, previously unbeaten, would never fight professionally again.
Controversy and upset
Main article: Tyson vs. Douglas
During this period, Tyson’s problems outside boxing were also starting to emerge. His marriage to Robin Givens was heading for divorce, [31] and his future contract was being fought over by Don King and Bill Cayton . [32] In late 1988, Tyson parted with manager Bill Cayton and fired longtime trainer Kevin Rooney , the man many credit for honing Tyson’s craft after the death of D’Amato. [21] Without Rooney, Tyson’s personal discipline declined. [33] In 1989, Tyson had only two fights amid personal turmoil. He faced the popular British boxer Frank Bruno in February in a fight where Bruno managed to stun Tyson at the end of the 1st round, [34] although Tyson went on to knock out Bruno in the fifth round. Tyson then knocked out Carl “The Truth” Williams in one round in July. [35] In 1989, Tyson was granted an Honorary Doctorate in Humane Letters from Central State University in Ohio. [36]
By 1990, Tyson seemed to have lost direction, and his personal life and training habits were in disarray. In a fight on February 11, 1990, he lost the undisputed championship to Buster Douglas in Tokyo. [37] Tyson was a huge betting favorite, but Douglas (priced at 42/1) was at an emotional peak after losing his mother to a stroke 23 days prior to the fight, and fought the fight of his life. [37] Tyson failed to find a way past Douglas’s quick jab that had a 12-inch (30 cm) reach advantage over his own. Tyson did send Douglas to the floor in the eighth round, catching him with an uppercut, but Douglas recovered sufficiently to hand Tyson a heavy beating in the subsequent two rounds (after the fight, the Tyson camp would complain that the count was slow and that Douglas had taken longer than ten seconds to get to his feet). [38] Just 35 seconds into the 10th round, Douglas unleashed a brutal combination of hooks that sent Tyson to the canvas for the first time in his career. He was counted out by referee Octavio Meyran . [37] Though Tyson has been reputed to have been out of shape for this fight, in fact he weighed in at 220 and 1/2 pounds, only 2 pounds more than he had weighed when he beat Michael Spinks 20 months earlier. Mentally, however, he was not prepared for the inspired Douglas. [39]
The knockout victory by Douglas over Tyson, the previously undefeated “baddest man on the planet” and arguably the most feared boxer in professional boxing at that time, has been described as one of the most shocking upsets in modern sports history. [40]
After Douglas
After the loss, Tyson recovered by knocking out Henry Tillman [41] and Alex Stewart [42] in the first round in his next two fights. Tyson’s victory over the 1984 Olympics Boxing Heavyweight gold medalist (and 1983 Boxing Heavyweight silver medalist of the Pan American Games ) Tillman enabled Tyson to avenge his early career amateur losses at Tillman’s hands. These bouts set up an elimination match for another shot at the undisputed world heavyweight championship, which Evander Holyfield had taken from Douglas in his first defense of the title.
Tyson, who was the No.1 contender, faced No.2 contender Donovan “Razor” Ruddock on March 18, 1991, in Las Vegas. Ruddock at the time was seen as the most dangerous heavyweight around and was thought of as one of the hardest punching heavyweights. Tyson and Ruddock went back and forth for most of the fight, until referee Richard Steele controversially stopped the fight during the seventh round in favor of Tyson. This decision infuriated the fans in attendance, sparking a post-fight melee in the audience and the referee had to be escorted from the ring. [43]
Tyson and Ruddock met again on June 28 that year, with Tyson knocking down Ruddock twice and winning a 12 round unanimous decision. [44] A fight between Tyson and Holyfield for the undisputed championship was arranged for the autumn of 1991.
The match between Tyson and reigning champion Holyfield did not occur, with Tyson pulling out of the scheduled November 8, 1991 title fight at Caesars Palace , Las Vegas, with a rib cartilage injury sustained during training.
Rape conviction, prison, and conversion
Tyson was arrested in July 1991 for the rape of 18-year-old Desiree Washington, Miss Black Rhode Island , in an Indianapolis hotel room. Tyson’s rape trial took place in the Indianapolis courthouse from January 26 to February 10, 1992. As part of its case, the prosecution documented Tyson’s history of problems with attractive young women. Tyson’s defense contended that Tyson was the victim and that Washington was a cold and calculated vixen out to hurt Tyson for publicity.
Desiree Washington testified that she received a phone call from Tyson at 1:36 am on July 19, 1991 inviting her to a party. Having joined Tyson in his limousine, Washington testified that Tyson made sexual advances towards her. She testified that upon arriving at his hotel room, Tyson pinned her down on his bed and raped her despite her pleas to stop. She afterwards ran out of the room and asked Tyson’s chauffeur to drive her back to her hotel.
Partial corroboration of Washington’s story came via testimony from Tyson’s chauffeur, Virginia Foster, who confirmed Desiree Washington’s state of shock. Further testimony came from Thomas Richardson, the emergency room physician who examined Washington more than 24 hours after the incident and confirmed that Washington’s physical condition was consistent with rape. [45]
Taking the witness stand, under Tyson’s lead defense lawyer Vincent Fuller ‘s direct examination, Tyson claimed that everything had taken place with Washington’s full cooperation and he claimed not to have forced himself upon her. When he was cross-examined by the lead prosecutor, Gregory Garrison, Tyson denied claims that he had misled Washington and insisted that she wanted to have sex with him. Because of Tyson’s hostile and defensive responses to the questions during cross-examination, some have speculated that his behavior made him unlikable to the jury who saw him as brutish and arrogant. [46]
Tyson was convicted on the rape charge on February 10, 1992 after the jury deliberated for nearly 10 hours. [47]
Alan Dershowitz filed an appeal on Tyson’s behalf alleging that the victim had a history of at least one false accusation of rape [48] and that the judge had blocked testimony from witnesses who would have contradicted Washington. The Indiana Court of Appeals ruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote. [49]
Under Indiana law, a defendant convicted of a felony must begin serving his prison sentence immediately after the sentence is imposed. On March 26, he was given a sentence of 10 years, six in prison and four on probation. [50] He was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now the Plainfield Correctional Facility ) in April 1992, [51] and he was released in March 1995 after serving three years. [52] During his incarceration, Tyson converted to Islam. [53] On July 2, 2010 he visited Mecca to perform the Umrah (Minor Islamic pilgrimage). [54]
Comeback
Tyson did not fight again until later in 1995 after he was paroled from prison. He had two comeback bouts against Peter McNeeley and Buster Mathis Jr. , which he won easily. Interest in Tyson’s first comeback fight since his incarceration was high enough that it grossed more than US$96 million worldwide, including a United States record $63 million for PPV television. The fight was purchased by 1.52 million homes, setting both PPV viewership and revenue records for that time. [55] The brief, 89-second fight wherein McNeeley swiftly crumpled on facing Tyson, elicited criticism that Tyson’s management lined up “ Tomato Cans “, easily defeatable and unworthy boxers for his return. [56] TV Guide included the Tyson-McNeeley fight in their list of the 50 Greatest TV Sports Moments of All Time in 1998. [57]
He regained one belt by easily winning the WBC title from Frank Bruno (their second fight) in March 1996 by knocking him out in the third round. [58] Tyson added the WBA belt by defeating champion Bruce Seldon in one round in September that year. Seldon was severely criticized and mocked in the popular press for seemingly collapsing to innocuous punches from Tyson in the fight. [59]
Tyson–Holyfield fights
Main article: Tyson-Holyfield I
Tyson attempted to defend the WBA title against Evander Holyfield . Holyfield was in the fourth fight of his own comeback after retiring in 1994 following the loss of his championship to Michael Moorer (who subsequently lost to George Foreman by knockout during his first defense). It was said that Don King and others saw Holyfield, the former champion, who was 34 at the time of the fight and a huge underdog, as a washed-up fighter. [60]
On November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tyson faced Holyfield in a title bout dubbed ‘Finally.’ In a surprising turn of events, Holyfield, who was given virtually no chance to win by numerous commentators, [61] defeated Tyson by TKO when referee Mitch Halpern stopped the bout in round 11. [62] Holyfield made history with the upset win by being the second person ever to win a heavyweight championship belt three times, after Muhammad Ali. However Holyfield’s victory was marred by allegations from Tyson’s camp of Holyfield’s frequent headbutts [63] during the bout. Although the headbutts were ruled accidental by the referee, [63] they would become a point of contention in the subsequent rematch. [64]
Tyson vs. Holyfield II and aftermath
Poster publicizing the June 28, 1997, Holyfield–Tyson II fight, dubbed The Sound and The Fury
Main article: Holyfield-Tyson II
Tyson and Holyfield fought again on June 28, 1997. Originally, Halpern was supposed to be the referee, but after Tyson’s camp protested, Halpern stepped aside in favor of Mills Lane . [65] The highly anticipated rematch was dubbed The Sound and the Fury, and was held at the Las Vegas MGM Grand Garden Arena , site of the first bout. It was a lucrative event, drawing even more attention than the first bout and grossing $100 million. Tyson received $30 million and Holyfield $35 million—the highest paid professional boxing purses ever until 2007. [66] [67] The fight was purchased by 1.99 million households, setting a pay-per-view buy rate record that stood until the May 5, 2007, De La Hoya-Mayweather boxing match . [67] [68]
Soon to become one of the most controversial events in modern sports, [69] the fight was stopped at the end of the third round, with Tyson disqualified [70] for biting Holyfield on both ears. The first time he bit him the match was temporarily stopped. Referee Mills Lane deducted two points from Tyson and the fight resumed. However, after the match resumed, Tyson did it again: this time Tyson was disqualified and Holyfield won the match. One bite was severe enough to remove a piece of Holyfield’s right ear, which was found on the ring floor after the fight. [71] Tyson later stated that his actions were retaliation for Holyfield repeatedly headbutting him without penalty. [64] In the confusion that followed the ending of the bout and announcement of the decision, a near riot erupted in the arena and several people were injured in the ensuing melee. [72]
Tyson’s former trainer, Teddy Atlas , had predicted that Tyson would be disqualified. “He planned this,” Atlas said. “That’s the only reason he went through with this fight. This was a charade so he could get out and live with himself as long as in his world he would be known as savage and brutal. In his world, he was the man who attacked like an animal and people would say he was trying to annihilate Holyfield, trying to kill him, when nothing could be further from the truth.” [73]
As a subsequent fallout from the incident, US$3 million was immediately withheld from Tyson’s $30-million purse by the Nevada state boxing commission (the most it could legally hold back at the time). [74] Two days after the fight, Tyson issued a statement, [75] apologizing to Holyfield for his actions and asked not to be banned for life over the incident. [76] Tyson was roundly condemned in the news media but was not without defenders. Novelist and commentator Katherine Dunn wrote a column that criticized Holyfield’s sportsmanship in the controversial bout and charged the news media with being biased against Tyson. [77]
On July 9, 1997, Tyson’s boxing license was rescinded by the Nevada State Athletic Commission in a unanimous voice vote; he was also fined US$3 million and ordered to pay the legal costs of the hearing. [78] As most state athletic commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this effectively made Tyson unable to box in the United States. The revocation was not permanent, as a little more than a year later on October 18, 1998, the commission voted 4–1 to restore Tyson’s boxing license. [79]
During his time away from boxing in 1998, Tyson made a guest appearance at WrestleMania XIV as an enforcer for the main event match between Shawn Michaels and Steve Austin . During this time, Tyson was also an unofficial member of D-Generation X . Tyson was paid $3 million for being guest enforcer of the match at WrestleMania XIV. [80]
1999 to 2005
After Holyfield
In January 1999, Tyson returned to the ring to fight the South African Francois Botha , in another fight that ended in controversy. While Botha initially controlled the fight, Tyson allegedly attempted to break Botha’s arms during a tie-up and both boxers were cautioned by the referee in the ill-tempered bout. Botha was ahead on points on all scorecards and was confident enough to mock Tyson as the fight continued. Nonetheless, Tyson landed a straight right-hand in the fifth round that knocked out Botha. [81]
Legal problems caught up with Tyson once again. On February 5, 1999, Tyson was sentenced to a year’s imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve two years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for assaulting two motorists after a traffic accident on August 31, 1998. [82] He served nine months of that sentence. After his release, he fought Orlin Norris on October 23, 1999. Tyson knocked down Norris with a left hook thrown after the bell sounded to end the first round. Norris injured his knee from the off-the-clinch-punch when he went down and said he was unable to continue the fight. Consequently, the bout was ruled a no contest . [83]
“I’m the best ever. I’m the most brutal and vicious, the most ruthless champion there has ever been. No one can stop me. Lennox is a conqueror? No! I’m Alexander ! He’s no Alexander! I’m the best ever. There’s never been anyone as ruthless as me. I’m Sonny Liston . I’m Jack Dempsey . There’s no one like me. I’m from their cloth. There is no one who can match me. My style is impetuous, my defense is impregnable, and I’m just ferocious. I want his heart! I want to eat his children! Praise be to Allah!”
Tyson’s post fight interview after knocking out Lou Savarese 38 seconds into the bout in June 2000. [84]
In 2000, Tyson had three fights. The first was staged at the MEN Arena , Manchester, England against Julius Francis . Following controversy as to whether Tyson should be allowed into the country, he took four minutes to knock out Francis, ending the bout in the second round. [85] He also fought Lou Savarese in June 2000 in Glasgow , winning in the first round; the fight lasted only 38 seconds. Tyson continued punching after the referee had stopped the fight, knocking the referee to the floor as he tried to separate the boxers. [86] In October, Tyson fought the similarly controversial Andrzej Gołota , [87] winning in round three after Gołota refused to continue after his jaw was broken. The result was later changed to no contest after Tyson refused to take a pre-fight drug test and then tested positive for marijuana in a post-fight urine test. [88] Tyson fought only once in 2001, beating Brian Nielsen in Copenhagen with a seventh round TKO. [89]
Lewis vs. Tyson
Main article: Lennox Lewis vs. Mike Tyson
The Lewis -Tyson fight that took place on June 8, 2002, was one of the most anticipated heavyweight fights in years.
Tyson once again had the opportunity to fight for a heavyweight championship in 2002, against Lennox Lewis , who held the WBC, IBF, IBO & Lineal titles at the time. As promising amateurs, Tyson and Lewis had sparred together at a training camp, in a meeting arranged by Cus D’Amato in 1984. [90] Tyson sought to fight Lewis in Nevada for a more lucrative box-office venue, but the Nevada boxing commission refused him a license to box as he was facing possible sexual assault charges at the time. [91]
Two years prior to the bout, in a post-fight interview following the Savarese fight, Tyson had made several inflammatory remarks to Lewis, “I want your heart, I want to eat your children.” [92] On January 22, 2002, a brawl involving the two boxers and their entourages occurred at a press conference held in New York to publicize the planned event. [93] The melee put to rest any chance of a Nevada fight and alternative arrangements had to be made, with the fight eventually occurring on June 8 at the Pyramid Arena in Memphis , Tennessee. Lewis dominated the fight and knocked out Tyson with a right hook in the eighth round. Tyson was magnanimous after the fight and praised Lewis on his victory. [94] This fight was the highest-grossing event in pay-per-view history at that time, generating $106.9 million from 1.95 million buys in the USA. [67] [68]
Late career, bankruptcy and retirement
On February 22, 2003, Tyson beat fringe contender Clifford Etienne 49 seconds into round one, once again in Memphis. The pre-fight was marred by rumors of Tyson’s lack of fitness and that he took time out from training to party in Las Vegas and get a new facial tattoo . [95] This would be Tyson’s final professional victory in the ring.
In August 2003, after years of financial struggles, Tyson finally filed for bankruptcy. [96] In 2003, amid all his economic troubles, he was named by Ring Magazine at number 16, right behind Sonny Liston , among the 100 greatest punchers of all time.
On August 13, 2003, Tyson entered the ring for a face to face confrontation against then K-1 fighting phenom Bob Sapp immediately after Sapp’s win against Kimo Leopoldo in Las Vegas . K-1 signed Tyson to a contract with the hopes of making a fight happen between the two, but Tyson’s status as a convicted felon made him unable to obtain a visa to enter Japan, where the fight would have been most profitable. Alternate locations were discussed, but the fight never came to fruition. [97] It is unknown if he actually profited from this arrangement.
On July 30, 2004, Tyson faced the British boxer Danny Williams in another comeback fight, this time staged in Louisville , Kentucky. Tyson dominated the opening two rounds. The third round was even, with Williams getting in some clean blows and also a few illegal ones, for which he was penalized. In the fourth round, Tyson was unexpectedly knocked out. After the fight, it was revealed that Tyson was trying to fight on one leg, having torn a ligament in his other knee in the first round. This was Tyson’s fifth career defeat. [98] He underwent surgery for the ligament four days after the fight. His manager, Shelly Finkel, claimed that Tyson was unable to throw meaningful right-hand punches after the knee injury. [99]
On June 11, 2005, Tyson stunned the boxing world by quitting before the start of the seventh round in a close bout against journeyman Kevin McBride . After losing the third of his last four fights, Tyson said he would quit boxing because he no longer had “the fighting guts or the heart anymore.” [100]
Exhibition tour
To help pay off his debts, Tyson returned to the ring on a world tour in a series of four-round exhibitions against journeyman heavyweight Corey “T-Rex” Sanders in Youngstown, Ohio 2006. [101] Tyson, without headgear at 5 ft 10.5 in and 216 pounds, was in great shape, but far from his prime against Sanders, with headgear at 6 ft 8 in and 293 pounds, a loser of his last seven pro bouts and nearly blind from a detached retina in his left eye. Tyson appeared to be “holding back” in these exhibitions to prevent an early end to the “show”. “If I don’t get out of this financial quagmire there’s a possibility I may have to be a punching bag for somebody. The money I make isn’t going to help my bills from a tremendous standpoint, but I’m going to feel better about myself. I’m not going to be depressed,” explained Tyson about the reasons for his “comeback”. [102]
Legacy
A 1998 ranking of “The Greatest Heavyweights of All-Time” by Ring magazine placed Tyson at No.14 on the list. [103]
In Ring Magazine’s list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years, released in 2002, Tyson was ranked at No. 72. [104] He is ranked No. 16 on Ring Magazine’s 2003 list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. [105]
After professional boxing
Tyson in the ring at Las Vegas in October 2006
On the front page of USA Today on June 3, 2005, Tyson was quoted as saying: “My whole life has been a waste – I’ve been a failure.” He continued: “I just want to escape. I’m really embarrassed with myself and my life. I want to be a missionary . I think I could do that while keeping my dignity without letting people know they chased me out of the country. I want to get this part of my life over as soon as possible. In this country nothing good is going to come of me. People put me so high; I wanted to tear that image down.” [106] Tyson began to spend much of his time tending to his 350 pigeons in Paradise Valley , an upscale enclave near Phoenix , Arizona. [107]
Tyson has stayed in the limelight by promoting various websites and companies. [108] In the past Tyson had shunned endorsements, accusing other athletes of putting on a false front to obtain them. [109] He has also done entertainment boxing shows at a casino in Las Vegas [110] and started a tour of exhibition bouts to pay off his numerous debts. [111]
On December 29, 2006, Tyson was arrested in Scottsdale , Arizona, on suspicion of DUI and felony drug possession after he nearly crashed into a police SUV shortly after leaving a nightclub. According to a police probable-cause statement, filed in Maricopa County Superior Court, “[Tyson] admitted to using [drugs] today and stated he is an addict and has a problem.” [112] Tyson pleaded not guilty on January 22, 2007, in Maricopa County Superior Court to felony drug possession and paraphernalia possession counts and two misdemeanor counts of driving under the influence of drugs. On February 8 he checked himself into an in-patient treatment program for “various addictions” while awaiting trial on the drug charges. [113]
On September 24, 2007, Mike Tyson pleaded guilty to possession of cocaine and driving under the influence. He was convicted of these charges in November 2007 and sentenced to 24 hours in jail, 360 hours community service and 3 years probation. Prosecutors had requested a year-long jail sentence, but the judge praised Tyson for seeking help with his drug problems. [114]
On November 11, 2009, Mike Tyson was arrested after getting into a scuffle at Los Angeles International airport with a photographer. [115] No charges were filed.
Tyson appeared on WWE Monday Night Raw as the guest host on January 11, 2010 and even made his return to the ring in a tag team match with Chris Jericho against D-Generation X . At first, the duo had their way until Tyson revealed a DX T-shirt he was wearing underneath a black shirt he was wearing and knocked-out Jericho, which allowed Shawn Michaels to pin Jericho, giving DX the win.
On June 12, 2011, Tyson was inducted to the International Boxing Hall of Fame , alongside legendary Mexican champion Julio César Chávez , light welterweight champion Kostya Tszyu , and actor/screenwriter Sylvester Stallone . [116]
On August 7, 2011, CBS aired an episode of The Same Name, featuring Mike Tyson. [117]
On the Janurary 30, 2012 edition of Monday Night Raw, after ESPN, TMZ, and others had leaked the news earlier in the day, it was confirmed that Tyson will be inducted into the celebrity wing of the WWE Hall of Fame .
Personal life
Tyson has been legally married three times and he had eight children with several different women.
His first marriage was to actress Robin Givens from February 7, 1988 to February 14, 1989. [31] Givens was known for her work on the sitcom Head of the Class . Tyson’s marriage to Givens was especially tumultuous with allegations of violence, spousal abuse and mental instability on Tyson’s part. [118] Matters came to a head when Tyson and Givens gave a joint interview with Barbara Walters on the ABC TV newsmagazine show 20/20 in September 1988, in which Givens described life with Tyson as “torture, pure hell, worse than anything I could possibly imagine.” [119] Givens also described Tyson as “ manic depressive ” on national television while Tyson looked on with an intent and calm expression. [118] A month later, Givens announced that she was seeking a divorce from the allegedly abusive Tyson. [118] They had no children but she claims to have had a miscarriage while Tyson claims she was never pregnant and only used that to get him to marry her. [118] [120] During their marriage, the couple lived in a mansion in Bernardsville , New Jersey. [121] [122]
His second marriage was to Monica Turner from April 19, 1997 to January 14, 2003. [123] At the time of the divorce filing, Turner worked as a pediatric resident at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington DC. [124] She is also the sister of Michael Steele , the former Lieutenant Governor of Maryland and former Republican National Committee Chairman. [125] Turner filed for divorce from Tyson in January 2002, claiming that he committed adultery during their five-year marriage, an act that “has neither been forgiven nor condoned.” [124] The couple had two children: Rayna and Amir.
On May 25, 2009, Tyson’s 4-year-old daughter, Exodus, was found by her 7-year-old brother, Miguel, unconscious and tangled in a cord, dangling from an exercise treadmill. The child’s mother untangled her, administered CPR and called for medical attention. Exodus was listed in “extremely critical condition” and was on life support at Phoenix ‘s St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center . She subsequently died of her injuries on May 26, 2009. [126] [127] Ten days later, Tyson wed for the third time, to girlfriend Lakiha Spicer, age 32, exchanging vows on Saturday, June 6, 2009, in a short, private ceremony, at the La Bella Wedding Chapel at the Las Vegas Hilton hotel-casino. [128] Spicer was a resident of nearby suburban Henderson , Nevada. County marriage records in Las Vegas show the couple got a marriage license 30 minutes before their ceremony. Spicer is the mother of Tyson’s daughter, Milan and son, Morocco. His other children include Mikey (born 1990), Miguel (born 2002) and D’Amato (born 1990). He has a total of eight children including the deceased Exodus.
While on the American talk show The View in early May 2010, Tyson revealed that he is now forced to live paycheck to paycheck. [129] He went on to say: “I’m totally destitute and broke. But I have an awesome life, I have an awesome wife who cares about me. I’m totally broke. I had a lot of fun. It (losing his money) just happened. I’m very grateful. I don’t deserve to have the wife that I have; I don’t deserve the kids that I have, but I do, and I’m very grateful.”
In March 2011, Tyson appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to discuss his new Animal Planet reality series Taking on Tyson. In the interview with DeGeneres, Tyson discussed some of the ways he had improved his life in the past two years, including sober living and a vegan diet. [130]
Also, in March 2011, Mike Tyson appeared at the SXSW Screenburn Arcade for the launch of his new iPhone app Mike Tyson: Main Event . [131]
In May 2011, Tyson sent an autographed boxing gloves to soccer superstar Cristiano Ronaldo . ‘To Cristiano’ is what written on the gloves, along with Tyson’s signature. [132]
Also, in May 2011, Tyson was a contestant in the Argentinian dance contest Bailando 2011 , and he was paired with his wife, Lahika Spicer. The couple withdrew from the competition after the second round.
In September 2011, Tyson gave an interview in which he made comments about former Alaska governor Sarah Palin that included crude and violent descriptions of interracial sex. These comments were then reprinted on the Daily Caller website. Journalist Greta van Susteren criticized Tyson and the Daily Caller over the comments, which she described as “smut” and “violence against women”. [133]
Popular culture
For more details on this topic, see Mike Tyson in popular culture .
At the height of his fame and career in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, Tyson was one of the most recognized sports personalities in the world. Apart from his many sporting accomplishments, his outrageous and controversial behavior in the ring and in his private life has kept him in the public eye and in the courtroom. [134] As such, Tyson has appeared in myriad popular media in cameo appearances in film and television. He has also been featured in video games and as a subject of parody or satire .
Published in 2007, author Joe Layden’s book The Last Great Fight: The Extraordinary Tale of Two Men and How One Fight Changed Their Lives Forever, chronicled the lives of Tyson and Douglas before and after their heavyweight championship fight. The book received positive reviews and claimed the fight was essentially the beginning of the end of boxing’s popularity in mainstream sports.
In 2008, the documentary Tyson premiered at the annual Cannes Film Festival in France. The film was directed by James Toback and has interviews with Tyson and clips of his fights and from his personal life. It received high critical praise, scoring an 86% approval rating on the website Rotten Tomatoes from a pool of over 100 film critics.
Joe Lewis, The Brown Bomber, Boxing Heavyweight Champion Leave a comment
Joseph Louis Barrow (May 13, 1914 – April 12, 1981), better known as Joe Louis, was the world heavyweight boxing champion from 1937 to 1949. He is considered to be one of the greatest heavyweights of all time. Nicknamed the Brown Bomber, Louis helped elevate boxing from a nadir in popularity in the post- Jack Dempsey era by establishing a reputation as an honest, hardworking fighter at a time when the sport was dominated by gambling interests. [1] [2] Louis’s championship reign lasted 140 consecutive months, during which he participated in 27 championship fights, 26 championship fights during his reign; the 27th, against Ezzard Charles , was a challenge to Charles’ heavyweight title and so is not included in Louis’ reign. All in all, Joe was victorious in 25 successful title defenses, a record for the heavyweight division. In 2005, Louis was ranked as the #1 heavyweight of all-time by the International Boxing Research Organization, [3] and was ranked #1 on The Ring ‘s list of the 100 Greatest Punchers of All-Time.
Louis’s cultural impact was felt well outside the ring. He is widely regarded as the first African American to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II . [4] He also was instrumental in integrating the game of golf, breaking the sport’s color barrier in America by appearing under a sponsor’s exemption in a PGA event in 1952. [5]
Early life
A statue honoring Joe Louis now stands in Chambers County Courthouse Square in his hometown, LaFayette , Alabama .
Louis was born on May 13, 1914 in a ramshackle dwelling on Bell Chapel Road, located about a 1.6 km (1 mile) off Alabama’s Route 50 and roughly 10 km (six miles) north of Lafayette in rural Chambers County, Alabama . Louis was the son of Munroe Barrow and Lillie (Reese) Barrow, the seventh of eight children. [6] [7] He weighed 5.5 kg (11 pounds) at birth. [6] Both Louis’s parents were the children of former slaves, alternating between sharecropping and rental farming. [8] Munroe was predominantly African American with some white ancestry, while Lillie was half Cherokee. [8]
Louis spent twelve years growing up in rural Alabama, where little is known of his childhood. He suffered from a speech impediment , and spoke very little until about the age of six. [9] Munroe Barrow was committed to a mental institution in 1916, and as a result Joe knew very little of his biological father. [10] Around 1920, Louis’s mother married Pat Brooks, a local construction contractor, having received word that Munroe Barrow had died while institutionalized (in reality, Munroe Barrow lived until 1938, unaware of his son’s fame). [11]
In 1926, shaken by a gang of white men in the Ku Klux Klan , Louis’s family moved to Detroit, Michigan , forming part of the post- World War I Great Migration . [12] [13] Joe’s brother worked for Ford Motor Company (where Joe would himself work for a time at the River Rouge Plant [14] ) and the family settled into a home at 2700 Catherine (now Madison) Street in Detroit’s Black Bottom neighborhood. [15]
Louis attended Bronson Vocational School for a time to learn cabinet-making, [14] and his mother attempted to get him interested in playing the violin. [16]
Amateur career
The Depression hit the Barrow family hard, but as an alternative to gang activity, Joe began to spend time at a local youth recreation center at 637 Brewster Street in Detroit. [17] Legend has it that he tried to hide his pugilistic ambitions from his mother by carrying his boxing gloves inside his violin case. [18]
Louis’s amateur debut, at age 17, probably in early 1932, [19] came as a light-heavyweight. A legend exists that before the fight Louis, only barely literate, wrote his name so large that there was no room for his last name “Barrow” – as a result becoming known as “Joe Louis” for the remainder of his boxing career. [20] More likely, Louis simply omitted his last name to keep his boxing pursuits a secret from his mother. [21] After this debut (a loss to future Olympian Johnny Miller [22] ), Louis compiled numerous amateur victories – eventually winning the club championship of his Brewster Street recreation center, the home of many aspiring Golden Gloves fighters. [23]
In 1933, Louis won the Detroit-area Golden Gloves Novice Division championship for the light heavyweight classification against Joe Biskey, later losing in the Chicago Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions. [24] The next year, competing in the Golden Gloves’ Open Division, he won the light heavyweight classification, this time also winning the Chicago Tournament of Champions. Although a hand injury forced Louis to miss the New York/Chicago Champions’ cross-town bout for the ultimate Golden Gloves championship in 1934, he followed up his Chicago performance by winning the National AAU tournament in St. Louis, Missouri in April of that year. [25] By the end of his amateur career, Louis’s record was 50 wins against 4 losses, with 43 knockouts. [26]
Professional career
In his time as a fighter, Joe Louis had 71 fights. He knocked out 54 victims, endured three defeats, and held the championship from 1937 until March 1949, the longest span of a heavyweight titleholder. Louis failed to regain the championship when he returned to the ring in 1950, and when Rocky Marciano knocked him out in 1951, the man who had been called the Brown Bomber was finished. [27]
Early years
Louis’s impressive amateur performances attracted the interest of professional promoters. Rather than sign with an established promoter, Louis agreed to be represented by a black Detroit-area bookmaker named John Roxborough. As Louis explained it in his autobiography, Roxborough convinced Louis that white managers would have no real interest in seeing a black boxer work his way up to title contention:
[Roxborough] told me about the fate of most black fighters, ones with white managers, who wound up burned-out and broke before they reached their prime. The white managers were not interested in the men they were handling but in the money they could make from them. They didn’t take the proper time to see that their fighters had a proper training, that they lived comfortably, or ate well, or had some pocket change. Mr. Roxborough was talking about Black Power before it became popular. [28]
Roxborough knew a Chicago-area boxing promoter named Julian Black, who already had a stable of mediocre boxers against which Louis could hone his craft – this time in the more lucrative heavyweight division. [28] Once he was part of the management team, Black solicited Jack “Chappy” Blackburn , another Chicago native, as Louis’s trainer. [28] As a result, Louis’ initial professional fights were all located in the Chicago area. His professional debut came on July 4, 1934 against Jack Kracken in the Bacon Casino on Chicago’s south side. [29] Louis earned $59 for knocking out Kracken in the first round. [30] Louis won all 12 professional fights that year, 10 by way of knockout .
In September 1934, while promoting a Detroit-area “coming home” bout for Louis against Canadian Alex Borchuk, Roxborough was pressured by members of the Michigan State Boxing Commisision to have Louis sign with white management. [31] Roxborough refused, and continued advancing Louis’s career with bouts against heavyweight contenders Art Sykes and Stanley Poreda .
When training for a fight against Lee Ramage, Louis noticed a young female secretary for the black newspaper Chicago Defender at the gym. After defeating Ramage, the secretary, Marva Trotter, was invited to the celebration party at Chicago’s Grand Hotel. [32] Trotter would later become Louis’s first wife in 1935.
During this time, Louis also met a longtime associate who would eventually become his personal lawyer, Truman Gibson . As a young associate at a law firm hired by Julian Black, Gibson was charged with personally entertaining Louis during the pendency of business deals. [33]
Title contention
Although Louis’ management was finding him bouts against legitimate heavyweight contenders, no path to the title was forthcoming. Although boxing was not officially segregated, white Americans had become wary of the prospect of another black champion in the wake of Jack Johnson ‘s highly unpopular “reign of terror” atop the heavyweight division, [1] and an informal barrier existed that kept black boxers out of title contention. [1] [34] Biographer Gerald Astor stated that “Joe Louis’ early boxing career was stalked by the spectre of Jack Johnson.” [1] [35]
A change in management was inevitable. In 1935, boxing promoter Mike Jacobs sought out Louis’ handlers. After Louis’ narrow defeat of Natie Brown on March 29, 1935, Jacobs and the Louis team met at the Frog Club, a colored nightclub, and negotiated a three-year exclusive boxing promotion deal. [36] The contract, however, did not keep Roxborough and Black from attempting to cash in as Louis’ managers; when Louis turned 21 on May 13, 1935, Roxborough and Black each signed Louis to an onerous long-term contract that collectively dedicated half of Louis’ future income to the pair. [28]
Black and Roxborough did, however, shape Louis’ media image carefully and deliberately. Seeking to ensure that Louis did not meet the same fate as Johnson, who suffered tremendous public backlash for his flamboyant lifestyle, they drafted seven “commandments” for Louis’ personal conduct. These included:
Never have his picture taken with a white woman (though he once was photographed with a white teenaged girl for a local paper in Michigan who was doing a story on Louis for her high school newspaper).
Never gloat over a fallen opponent
Never engage in fixed fights
Live and fight clean [21] [37]
As a result, Louis was generally portrayed in the white media as a clean-living, modest person, which facilitated his burgeoning celebrity status. [38] With the backing of major promotion, Louis fought 13 times in 1935. The bout that helped put him in the media spotlight occurred on June 25, when Louis knocked out a former world heavyweight champion, the 6’6″, 265-pound Primo Carnera , in six rounds. Foreshadowing the Louis-Schmeling rivalry to come, the Carnera bout featured a political dimension. Louis’ defeat of Carnera, who symbolized Benito Mussolini ‘s regime in the popular eye, was seen as a victory for the international community, particularly among African Americans, who were sympathetic to Ethiopia, which was undergoing a territorial dispute with Italy. [39] [40] [41] America’s white press began promoting Louis’ image in as positive a manner as was possible for the times; nicknames created for Louis included the “mahogany mauler,” “chocolate chopper,” “coffee-colored KO king,” “saffra sandman,” and one that stuck, “The Brown Bomber.” [41] [42] Helping the white press to overcome any reluctance to feature a black contender was the fact that boxing, in the mid-1930s, was in desperate need of a marketable hero. Since the retirement of Jack Dempsey in 1929, boxing had devolved into a sordid mixture of poor athletes, gambling, fixed fights, thrown matches, and control of the sport by organized crime. [1] New York Times columnist Edward VanNess wrote, “Louis … is a boon to boxing. Just as Dempsey led the sport out of the doldrums … so is Louis leading the boxing game out of a slump.” [1] Likewise, biographer Bill Libby asserted that “The sports world was hungry for a great champion when Louis arrived in New York in 1935.” [1] [2] Although the mainstream press was beginning to embrace Louis, there remained some fear at the prospect of another black heavyweight champion. In September 1935, on the eve of Louis’ fight with the former title holder Max Baer , Washington Post sportswriter Shirley Povich expressed American hopes for the white contender; “They say Baer will surpass himself in the knowledge that he is the lone white hope for the defense of Nordic superiority in the prize ring.” [1] It was not to be. Although Baer had been knocked down only once before in his professional career (by Frankie Campbell ), Louis dominated Baer, knocking him out in four rounds. Unknowingly, Baer suffered from a unique disadvantage in the fight; earlier that evening, Louis had married Marva Trotter at a friend’s apartment, and was eager to end the fight in order to consummate the relationship. [43] Later that year, Louis also knocked out Paolino Uzcudun , who had never been knocked down or out before.
Louis vs. Schmeling I
Main article: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling
By this time, Louis was ranked as the No. 1 contender in the heavyweight division, [44] and had won the Associated Press’ “Athlete of the Year” award for 1935. [41] What was considered to be a final tune-up bout before an eventual title shot was scheduled for June 1936 against former world heavyweight champion Max Schmeling . Although a former champion, Schmeling was not considered a threat to Louis, then with an undefeated professional record of 27-0. [45] Schmeling had won his title on a technicality when Jack Sharkey was disqualified after giving Schmeling a low blow in 1930. Schmeling was also 30 years old at the time of the Louis bout, and allegedly past his prime. [45] Louis’s training retreat was located at Lakewood, New Jersey , where Louis was first able to practice the game of golf , which later became a lifelong passion. [46] Noted entertainer Ed Sullivan had initially sparked Louis’s interest in the sport by giving an instructional book to Joe’s wife, Marva. [47] Louis spent significant time on the golf course rather than training for the Schmeling match. [28] [48]
Conversely, Schmeling prepared intently for the bout. Schmeling had thoroughly studied Louis’s style, and believed he had found a weakness. [49] By exploiting Louis’s habit of dropping his left hand low after a jab, Schmeling handed Louis his first professional loss by knocking him out in Round 12 at Yankee Stadium on June 19, 1936. [50]
World Championship
After defeating Louis, Schmeling expected a title shot against James J. Braddock , who had unexpectedly defeated Max Baer for the heavyweight title the previous June. Madison Square Garden (MSG) had a contract with Braddock for the title defense and also sought a Braddock-Schmeling title bout. But Jacobs and Braddock’s manager Joe Gould had been planning a Braddock-Louis matchup for months. [51] Schmeling’s victory gave Gould tremendous leverage, however; if he were to offer Schmeling the title chance instead of Louis, there was a very real possibility that Nazi authorities would never allow Louis a shot at the title. [51] Gould’s demands were therefore onerous: Jacobs would have to pay 10% of all future boxing promotion profits (including any future profits from Louis’s future bouts) for ten years. [52] Braddock and Gould would eventually receive more than $150,000 from this arrangement. [52] Well before the actual fight, Jacobs and Gould publicly announced that their fighters would face for the heavyweight title on June 22, 1937. [52] Figuring that the New York State Athletic Commission would not sanction the fight in deference to MSG and Schmeling, Jacobs scheduled the fight for Chicago. [52]
Each of the parties involved worked to facilitate the controversial Braddock-Louis matchup. Louis did his part by knocking out former champion Jack Sharkey on August 18, 1936. Meanwhile, Gould trumped up anti-Nazi sentiment against Schmeling, [53] and Jacobs defended a lawsuit by MSG to halt the Braddock-Louis fight. A federal court in Newark, New Jersey eventually ruled that Braddock’s contractual obligation to stage his title defense at MSG was unenforceable for lack of mutual consideration. [53]
The stage was set for Louis’s title shot. On the night of the fight, June 22, 1937, Braddock was able to knock Louis down in Round 1, but afterward could accomplish little. After inflicting constant punishment, Louis defeated the “Cinderella Man” by knockout in Round 8. Louis’s ascent to the world heavyweight title was complete.
Louis’s victory was a seminal moment in African American history. Thousands of African Americans stayed up all night across the country in celebration. [4] Noted author and member of the Harlem Renaissance Langston Hughes described Louis’s effect in these terms:
Each time Joe Louis won a fight in those depression years, even before he became champion, thousands of black Americans on relief or W.P.A. , and poor, would throng out into the streets all across the land to march and cheer and yell and cry because of Joe’s one-man triumphs. No one else in the United States has ever had such an effect on Negro emotions – or on mine. I marched and cheered and yelled and cried, too. [54]
Initial title defenses
Despite now being heavyweight champion, Louis was haunted by the earlier defeat to Schmeling. Shortly after winning the title, he was quoted as saying, “I don’t want to be called champ until I whip Max Schmeling.” [45] Louis’s manager Mike Jacobs attempted to arrange a rematch with Schmeling in 1937, but negotiations broke down when Schmeling demanded 30% of the gate. [55] When Schmeling instead attempted to arrange for a fight against British Empire Champion Tommy Farr , known as the “Tonypandy Terror,”—ostensibly for a world championship to rival the claims of American boxing authorities—Jacobs outmaneuvered him, offering Farr a guaranteed $60,000 to fight Louis instead. The offer was too lucrative for Farr to turn down. [56]
On August 30, 1937, after a postponement of four days due to rain, Louis and Farr finally touched gloves at New York’s Yankee Stadium before a crowd of approximately 32,000. [57] Louis fought one of the hardest battles of his life. The bout was closely contested and went the entire 15 rounds, with Louis being unable to knock Farr down. Referee Arthur Donovan was even seen shaking Farr’s hand after the bout, in apparent congratulation. [58]
Nevertheless, after the score was announced, Louis had won a controversial unanimous decision. [58] [59] Time described the scene thus: “After collecting the judges’ votes, referee Arthur Donovan announced that Louis had won the fight on points. The crowd of 50,000…amazed that Farr had not been knocked out or even knocked down, booed the decision. It seems the crowd believed that referee Arthur Donovan, Sr. had raised Farr’s glove in victory. Seven years later, in his published account of the fight, Donovan spoke of the ‘mistake’ that may have led to this confusion. He wrote As Tommy walked back to his corner after shaking Louis’ hand, I followed him and seized his glove. ‘Tommy, a wonderful perform—” I began . . . Then I dropped his hand like a red-hot coal! He had started to raise his arm. He thought I had given him the fight and the world championship! I literally ran away, shaking my head and shouting. ‘No! No! No!’ realising how I had raised his hopes for a few seconds only to dash them to the ground . . . That’s the last time my emotions will get the better of me in a prize fight! There was much booing at the announced result, but, as I say it, it was all emotional. I gave Tommy two rounds and one even— and both his winning rounds were close.. [60] Speaking over the radio after the fight, Louis admitted that he had been hurt twice.” [61]
In preparation for the inevitable rematch with Schmeling, Louis tuned up with bouts against Nathan Mann and Harry Thomas .
Louis vs. Schmeling II
The rematch between Louis and Schmeling is one of the most famous boxing matches of all time, and is remembered as one of the major sports events of the 20th century. [45] Following his defeat of Louis in 1936, Schmeling became a national hero in Germany. Schmeling’s victory over an African American was touted by Nazi officials as proof of their doctrine of Aryan superiority . When the rematch was scheduled, Louis retreated to his boxing camp in New Jersey and trained incessantly for the fight. A few weeks before the bout, Louis visited the White House, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt told him, “Joe, we need muscles like yours to beat Germany.” [45] Louis later admitted: “I knew I had to get Schmeling good. I had my own personal reasons and the whole damned country was depending on me.” [62]
When Schmeling arrived in New York in June 1938 for the rematch, he was accompanied by a Nazi party publicist who issued statements that a black man could not defeat Schmeling, and that when Schmeling won, his prize money would be used to build tanks in Germany. Schmeling’s hotel was picketed by anti-Nazi protesters in the days before the fight. [45]
On the night of June 22, 1938, Louis and Schmeling met for the second time in the boxing ring. The fight was held in Yankee Stadium before a crowd of 70,043. It was broadcast by radio to millions of listeners throughout the world, with radio announcers reporting on the fight in English, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. Before the bout, Schmeling weighed in at 193 pounds; Louis weighed in at 198¾ pounds. [45]
The fight lasted two minutes and four seconds. [63] Louis battered Schmeling with a series of swift attacks, forcing Schmeling against the ropes and giving him a paralyzing body blow (Schmeling later claimed it was an illegal kidney punch). Schmeling was knocked down three times, and only managed to throw two punches in the entire bout. On the third knockdown, Schmeling’s trainer threw in the towel and referee Arthur Donovan stopped the fight. [45]
“Bum of the Month Club”
In the 29 months from January 1939 through May 1941, Louis defended his title thirteen times, a frequency unmatched by any heavyweight champion since the end of the bare-knuckle era. The pace of his title defenses, combined with his convincing wins, earned Louis’ opponents from this era the collective nickname “Bum of the Month Club”. [21] Notables of this lambasted pantheon include:
World light-heavyweight champion John Henry Lewis who, attempting to move up a weight class, was knocked out in the first round by Louis on January 25, 1939. [64]
“Two Ton” Tony Galento , who was able to push Louis to the canvas in the third round of their bout on June 28, 1939, before letting his guard down and being knocked out in the fourth. [64]
Chilean Arturo Godoy , who Louis fought twice in 1940, on February 9 and June 20. Louis won the first bout by a decision, and the rematch by a knockout in the eighth round. [64]
Al McCoy , putative New England heavyweight champion, whose fight against Louis is probably best known for being the first heavyweight title bout held in Boston , Massachusetts (at the Boston Garden on December 16, 1940). The popular local challenger dodged his way around Louis before being unable to respond to the sixth-round bell. [64]
Clarence “Red” Burman , who pressed Louis for nearly five rounds at Madison Square Garden on January 31, 1941 before succumbing to a series of body blows. [64]
Gus Dorazio, of whom Louis remarked, “At least he tried,” after being leveled by a short right hand in the second round at Philadelphia ‘s Convention Hall on February 17. [64]
Abe Simon, who endured thirteen rounds of punishment before 18,908 at Olympia Stadium in Detroit on March 21 before referee Sam Hennessy declared a TKO.
Tony Musto, who, at 5’7½” and 198 pounds, was known as the “baby tank”. Despite a unique crouching style, Musto was slowly worn down over eight and a half rounds in St. Louis on April 8. [64]
Buddy Baer (brother of former champion Max), who was leading the May 23, 1941, bout in Washington, D.C., until an eventual barrage by Louis, capped by a hit at the sixth round bell. Referee Arthur Donovan disqualified Baer before the beginning of the seventh round as a result of stalling by Baer’s manager. [64]
Despite its derogatory nickname, most of the group were top-ten heavyweights. Of the twelve fighters Louis faced during this period, five were rated by The Ring as top-ten heavyweights in the year they fought Louis: Galento (overall #2 heavyweight in 1939), Bob Pastor (#3, 1939), Godoy (#3, 1940), Simon (#6, 1941), and Baer (#8, 1941); four others (Musto, Dorazio, Burman, and Johnny Paycheck) were ranked in the top ten in a different year. [65]
Billy Conn fight
“Joe Louis vs. Billy Conn” redirects here.
Louis’ string of lightly regarded competition ended with his bout against Billy Conn , the light-heavyweight champion and a highly regarded contender. The fighters met on June 18, 1941, in front of a crowd of 54,487 fans at the Polo Grounds in New York City. [66] The fight turned out to be one of the greatest heavyweight boxing fights of all time.
Conn would not gain weight for the challenge against Louis, saying instead that he would rely on a “hit and run” strategy. Louis’s famous response: “He can run, but he can’t hide.” [14] [67]
However, Louis had clearly underestimated Conn’s threat. In his autobiography, Joe Louis said, “I made a mistake going into that fight. I knew Conn was kinda small and I didn’t want them to say in the papers that I beat up on some little guy so the day before the fight I did a little roadwork to break a sweat and drank as little water as possible so I could weigh in under 200 pounds. Chappie was as mad as hell. But Conn was a clever fighter, he was like a mosquito, he’d sting and move.” [66]
Conn had the better of the fight through twelve rounds, although Louis was able to stun Conn with a left hook in the fifth, cutting his eye and nose. By the eighth round, Louis began suffering from dehydration. By the twelfth round, Louis was exhausted, with Conn ahead on two of three boxing scorecards. But against the advice of his corner, Conn continued to closely engage Louis in the later stages of the fight. Louis made the most of the opportunity, knocking Conn out with two seconds left in the thirteenth round. [66]
The contest created an instant rivalry that Louis’s career had lacked since the Schmeling era, and a rematch with Conn was planned for late 1942. The rematch had to be abruptly canceled, however, after Conn broke his hand in a much-publicized fight with his father-in-law, major league ballplayer “Greenfield” Jimmy Smith. [68] By the time Conn was ready for the rematch, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, detouring Louis’s heavyweight career.
World War II
World War II recruiting poster featuring Louis
Louis fought a charity bout for the Navy Relief Society against his former opponent Buddy Baer on January 9, 1942, which generated $47,000 for the fund. [14] The next day, he volunteered to enlist as a private in the United States Army at Camp Upton, Long Island. [69] [70] Newsreel cameras recorded his induction, including a staged scene in which a soldier-clerk asked, “What’s your occupation?” and Louis replied in a nervous rush, “Fighting and let us at them Japs.” [71]
Another military charity bout on March 27, 1942, (against another former opponent, Abe Simon) netted $36,146. [14] Before the fight, Louis had spoken at a Relief Fund dinner, saying of the war effort: “We’ll win, ’cause we’re on God’s side.” [1] The media widely reported the comment, instigating a surge of popularity for Louis. Slowly, the press would begin to eliminate its stereotypical racial references when covering Louis, and instead treat him as an unqualified sports hero. [1] Despite the public relations boon, Louis’s charitable fights would prove financially costly. Although Louis saw none of the roughly $90,000 raised by these and other charitable fights, the IRS would later credit these amounts as taxable income paid to Louis. [72] After the war, the IRS would pursue the issue.
For basic training, Louis was assigned to a segregated cavalry unit based in Fort Riley , Kansas. The assignment was at the suggestion of his friend and lawyer Truman Gibson , who knew of Louis’s love for horsemanship. [69] Gibson had previously become a civilian advisor to the War Department, in charge of investigating claims of harassment against black soldiers. Accordingly, Louis used this personal connection to help the cause of various black soldiers with whom he came in to contact. In one noted episode, Louis contacted Gibson in order to facilitate the Officer Candidate School (OCS) applications of a group of African Americans at Fort Riley, which had been inexplicably delayed for several months. [73] [74] Among the OCS applications Louis facilitated turned out to be that of a young Jackie Robinson , later to break the baseball color barrier . [73] [75] The episode would spawn a personal friendship between the two men. [76]
Louis in army
Realizing Louis’s potential for elevating esprit de corps among the troops, the Army placed him in its Special Services Division rather than deploying him into combat. [70] Louis would go on a celebrity tour with other notables including fellow boxer Sugar Ray Robinson . [71] Louis traveled more than 35,000 km (21,000 miles) and staged 96 boxing exhibitions before two million soldiers. [14] In England during 1944, he was reported to have enlisted as a player for Liverpool Football Club as a publicity stunt. [77]
In addition to his travels, Louis was the focus of a media recruitment campaign encouraging African-American men to enlist in the Armed Services, despite the military’s racial segregation. When asked about his decision to enter the racially-segregated U.S. Army, Louis’ explanation was simple: “Lots of things wrong with America, but Hitler ain’t going to fix them.” In 1943, Louis made an appearance in the wartime Hollywood musical This Is the Army , directed by Michael Curtiz . Louis appears as himself in a musical number, “The Well-Dressed Man In Harlem,” which emphasizes the importance of African-American soldiers and promotes their enlistment.
Louis’s celebrity power was not, however, merely directed toward African Americans. In a famous wartime recruitment slogan, Louis echoed his prior comments of 1942: “We’ll win, because we’re on God’s side.” The publicity of the campaign made Louis widely popular stateside, even outside the world of sports. [4] Never before had white Americans embraced a black man as their representative to the world. [4]
Although Louis never saw combat, his military service would see challenges of its own. During his travels he would often experience blatant racism. On one occasion, a military policeman (MP) ordered Louis and Ray Robinson to move their seats to a bench in the rear of an Alabama Army camp bus depot. “We ain’t moving,” said Louis. The MP tried to arrest them, but Louis forcefully argued the pair out of the situation. [78] In another incident, Louis allegedly had to resort to bribery to persuade a commanding officer to drop charges against Jackie Robinson for punching a captain who had called Robinson a “nigger”. [74]
Louis was eventually promoted to the rank of Sergeant , and was awarded the Legion of Merit medal for “incalculable contribution to the general morale.” [70] [79] Receipt of the honor qualified Louis for immediate release from military service on October 1, 1945. [14] [80]
Later career and retirement
Louis emerged from his wartime service significantly in debt. In addition to his looming tax bill — which had not been finally determined at the time, but was estimated at greater than $100,000 [71] — Jacobs claimed that Louis owed him $250,000. [81]
Despite the financial pressure on Louis to resume boxing, his long-awaited rematch against Billy Conn had to be postponed to the summer of 1946, when weather conditions could accommodate a large outdoor audience. On June 19, a disappointing 40,000 saw the rematch at Yankee Stadium, [71] in which Louis was not seriously tested. Conn, whose skills had deteriorated during the long layoff, largely avoided contact until being dispatched by knockout in the eighth round. Although the attendance did not meet expectations, the fight was still the most profitable of Louis’s career to date. His share of the purse was $600,000, of which Louis’ managers got $140,000, his ex-wife $66,000, and the state of New York $30,000. [71]
After trouble finding another suitable opponent, on December 5, 1947, Louis met Jersey Joe Walcott , a 33-year-old veteran with a 44-11-2 record. Walcott entered the fight as a 10-to-1 underdog. Nevertheless, Walcott knocked down Louis twice in the first four rounds. Most observers in Madison Square Garden felt Walcott dominated the 15-round fight; when Louis was declared the winner in a split decision, the crowd booed. [71]
Louis was under no delusion about the state of his boxing skills, yet he was too embarrassed to quit after the Walcott fight. Determined to win and retire with his title intact, Louis signed on for a rematch. On June 25, 1948, about 42,000 people came to Yankee Stadium to see the aging champion, who weighed 213½, the heaviest of his career to date. Walcott knocked down Louis in the third round, but Louis survived to knock out Walcott in the eleventh. [71]
Louis would not defend his title again before announcing his retirement from boxing on March 1, 1949. [82] In his bouts with Conn and Walcott, it had become apparent that Louis was no longer the fighter he once had been. As he had done earlier in his career, however, Louis would continue to appear in numerous exhibition matches worldwide. [14] [82]
Post-retirement comeback
At the time of Louis’s initial retirement, the IRS was still completing its investigation of his prior tax returns, which had always been handled by Mike Jacobs’s personal accountant. [83] In May 1950, the IRS finished a full audit of Louis’s past returns and announced that, with interest and penalties, he owed the government more than $500,000. [71] Louis had no choice but to return to the ring.
After asking Gibson to take over his personal finances and switching his management from Jacobs and Roxborough to Marshall Miles, [63] [84] the Louis camp negotiated a deal with the IRS under which Louis would come out of retirement, with all Louis’s net proceeds going to the IRS. A match with Ezzard Charles – who had acquired the vacant heavyweight title in June 1949 by outpointing Walcott – was set for September 27, 1950. By then, Louis was 36 years old, and had been away from competitive boxing for two years. Weighing in at 218, Louis was still strong, but his reflexes were gone. Charles repeatedly beat him to the punch. By the end of the fight, Louis was cut above both eyes, one of which was shut tight by swelling. [63] He knew he had lost even before Charles was declared the winner. The result was not the only disappointing aspect of the fight for Louis; only 22,357 spectators paid to witness the event at Yankee Stadium, and his share of the purse was a mere $100,458. [63] Louis had to continue fighting.
After facing several club-level opponents, the International Boxing Club guaranteed Louis $300,000 to face undefeated heavyweight contender Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951. [71] Despite his being a 6-to-5 favorite, few boxing insiders believed Louis had a chance. [85] Marciano himself was reluctant to participate in the bout, but was understanding of Louis’s position: “This is the last guy on earth I want to fight.” [86] It was feared, particularly among those who had witnessed Marciano’s punching power first hand, that Louis’s unwillingness to quit would result in serious injury. Fighting back tears, Ferdie Pacheco said in the SportsCentury documentary about his bout with Marciano, “He [Louis] wasn’t just going to lose. He was going to take a vicious, savage beating. Before the eyes of the nation, Joe Louis, an American hero if ever there was one, was going to get beaten up.” Louis was dropped in the eighth round by a Marciano left, and knocked out of the ring less than thirty seconds later.
In the dressing room after the fight, Louis’s Army touring companion, Sugar Ray Robinson, wept. Marciano also attempted to console Louis, saying, “I’m sorry, Joe.” [71] “What’s the use of crying?” Louis said. “The better man won. I guess everything happens for the best.” [71]
After facing Marciano, with the prospect of another significant payday all but gone, Louis retired for good from professional boxing. He would, as before, continue to tour on the exhibition circuit, with his last contest taking place on December 16, 1951, in Taipei, Taiwan , against Corporal Buford J. deCordova. [14] [82]
Taxes and financial troubles
Despite Louis’s lucrative purses over the years, most of the proceeds went to his handlers. Of the over $4.6 million earned during his boxing career, Louis himself received only about $800,000. [14] Louis was nevertheless extremely generous to his family, paying for homes, cars and education for his parents and siblings, [87] often with money fronted by Jacobs. [88] He invested in a number of businesses, all of which eventually failed, [87] including the Joe Louis Restaurant, the Joe Louis Insurance Company, a softball team called the Brown Bombers, Joe Louis Milk Company, Joe Louis Punch (a drink), the Louis-Rower P.R. firm, a horse farm, and the Rhumboogie Café in Chicago. [89] He gave liberally to the government as well, paying back the city of Detroit for any welfare money his family had received. [87]
Louis and Schmeling, 1971. The former rivals became close friends in later life
A combination of this largesse and government intervention eventually put Louis in severe financial straits. His entrusting of his finances to former manager Mike Jacobs haunted him. After the $500,000 IRS tax bill was assessed, with interest accumulating every year, the need for cash precipitated Louis’s post-retirement comeback. [71] [90] Even though his comeback earned him significant purses, the incremental tax rate in place at the time (90%) meant that these boxing proceeds did not even keep pace with interest on Louis’s tax debt. As a result, by the end of the 1950s, he owed over $1 million in taxes and interest. [90] In 1953, when Louis’s mother died, the IRS appropriated the $667 she had willed to Louis. [71] To bring in money, Louis engaged in numerous activities outside the ring. He appeared on various quiz shows , [90] and an old Army buddy, Ash Resnick, gave Louis a job welcoming tourists to the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas , where Resnick was an executive. [90] For income, Louis even became a professional wrestler in the 1950s and 1960s, and again as late as 1972. [71] [91]
Louis remained a popular celebrity in his twilight years. His friends included former rival Max Schmeling—who provided Louis with financial assistance during his retirement [92] —and mobster Frank Lucas , who, disgusted with the government’s treatment of Louis, once paid off a $50,000 tax lien held against him. [93] These payments, along with an eventual agreement in the early 1960s by the IRS to limit its collections to an amount based on Louis’s current income, [71] allowed Louis to live comfortably toward the end of his life. [87]
[ edit ] Professional golf
One of Louis’s other passions was the game of golf, in which he also played a historic role. He was a long-time devotee of the sport since being introduced to the game before the first Schmeling fight in 1936. Similar to subsequent black athletes such as Michael Jordan and Charles Barkley , Louis was also known to mix gambling with his golf game. [47] In 1952, Louis was invited to play in the San Diego Open on a sponsor’s exemption, becoming the first African American to play a PGA Tour event. [47] Initially, the PGA of America was reluctant to allow Louis to enter the event, having a bylaw at the time limiting PGA participation to Caucasians. [5] However, Louis’s celebrity eventually pushed the PGA toward removing the bylaw, paving the way for the first generation of African-American professional golfers such as Calvin Peete . [5] Louis himself financially supported the careers of several other early black professional golfers, such as Bill Spiller , Ted Rhodes , Howard Wheeler, Clyde Martin and Charlie Sifford . [47] He was also instrumental in founding The First Tee, a charity helping underprivileged children become acquainted with the game of golf. [5] His son, Joe Louis Barrow, Jr., currently oversees the organization. [47]
In 2009, the PGA of America granted posthumous membership to Ted Rhodes , John Shippen , and Bill Spiller , who were denied the opportunity to become PGA members during their professional careers. The PGA also has granted posthumous honorary membership to Louis. [94]
Personal life and death
Joe Louis with Jean Anderson , Chicago , 1947
Louis had two children by wife Marva Trotter (daughter Jacqueline in 1943 and son Joseph Louis Barrow Jr. in 1947) and adopted three others. They divorced in March 1945 only to remarry a year later, but were again divorced in February 1949. [71] [95] Marva moved on to an acting and modeling career. [79] [96] On Christmas Day 1955, Louis married Rose Morgan, a successful Harlem businesswoman; their marriage was annulled in 1958. [95] Louis’s final marriage – to Martha Jefferson, a lawyer from Los Angeles, on St. Patrick’s Day 1959 – lasted until his death. They had a child and also named him Joe Jr. The younger Joe Louis Barrow Jr. lives in New York city and is involved in boxing. [87] [95]
Though married four times, Louis discreetly enjoyed the company of both African-American and white women, including Lena Horne , Sonja Henie , and Lana Turner . [21] [87]
Joe Louis’ headstone in Arlington National Cemetery , Virginia
In 1953, Robert Gordon directed a movie about Louis’s life, The Joe Louis Story . The movie, filmed in Hollywood , starred Golden Gloves fighter Coley Wallace in the role of Louis. [97]
Starting in the 1960s, Louis was frequently mocked by segments of the African-American community (including Muhammad Ali) for being an Uncle Tom .
Drugs took a toll on Louis in his later years. In 1969, he was hospitalized after collapsing on a New York City street. While the incident was at first credited to “physical breakdown,” [95] underlying problems would soon surface. In 1970, he spent five months at the Colorado Psychiatric Hospital and the Veterans Administration Hospital in Denver, hospitalized by his wife, Martha, and his son, Joe Louis Barrow Jr., for paranoia. [95] In a 1971 book, Brown Bomber, by Barney Nagler, Louis disclosed the truth about these incidents, stating that his collapse in 1969 had been caused by cocaine, and that his subsequent hospitalization had been prompted by his fear of a plot to destroy him. [95] Strokes and heart ailments caused Louis’s condition to deteriorate further later in the decade. He had surgery to correct an aortic aneurysm in 1977 and thereafter used an Amigo POV/scooter for a mobility aid. [14] [98]
Louis died of a heart attack in Desert Springs Hospital near Las Vegas on April 12, 1981, just hours after his last public appearance viewing the Larry Holmes – Trevor Berbick heavyweight championship. Ronald Reagan waived the eligibility rules for burial at Arlington National Cemetery, and Louis was buried there with full military honors on April 21, 1981. [99] [100] His funeral was paid for in part by former competitor and friend, Max Schmeling, [101] who also acted as a pallbearer.
Legacy
Congressional Gold Medal in 1982
In all, Louis made 25 defenses of his heavyweight title from 1937 to 1948, and was a world champion for 11 years and 10 months. Both are still records in the heavyweight division, the former in any division. [102] His most remarkable record is that he knocked out 23 opponents in 27 title fights, including 5 world champions. [103] In addition to his accomplishments inside the ring, Louis uttered two of boxing’s most famous observations: “He can run, but he can’t hide” and “Everyone has a plan until they’ve been hit.” [14] [104]
Louis is also remembered in sports outside of boxing. An indoor sports venue is named after him in Detroit, the Joe Louis Arena , where the Detroit Red Wings play their NHL games. [105] In 1936, a beat writer for the Winnipeg Tribune used Joe Louis’s nickname to refer to the Winnipeg Football Club after a game. From that point, the team became known popularly as the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . [106]
His recognition also transcends the sporting world. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Joe Louis on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans . [107] On August 26, 1982, Louis was posthumously approved for the Congressional Gold Medal , the highest award given to civilians by the U.S. legislative branch. [108] Congress stated that he “did so much to bolster the spirit of the American people during one of the most crucial times in American history and which have endured throughout the years as a symbol of strength for the nation.” [109] Following Louis’ death, President Ronald Reagan said, “Joe Louis was more than a sports legend — his career was an indictment of racial bigotry and a source of pride and inspiration to millions of white and black people around the world.” [110]
Detroit Monument
A memorial to Louis was dedicated in Detroit (at Jefferson Avenue & Woodward) on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Time, Inc. and executed by Robert Graham , is a 24-foot-long (7.3 m) arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24-foot-high (7.3 m) pyramidal framework. It represents the power of his punch both inside and outside the ring. Because of his efforts to fight Jim Crow laws, the fist was symbolically aimed toward the south. [111]
In an interview with Arsenio Hall in the late 1980s, Muhammad Ali, stated that his two biggest influences in boxing were Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Louis. [112]
On February 27, 2010, an 8-foot (2.4 m) bronze statue of Louis was unveiled in his Alabama hometown. The statue sits on a base of red granite outside the Chambers County Courthouse. [113]
In 1993, he became the first boxer to be honored on a postage stamp issued by the U.S. Postal Service. [114]
Various other facilities have been named after Joe Louis. A street near Madison Square Garden is named in his honor. The former Pipe O’ Peace Golf Course in Riverdale, Illinois , (a Chicago suburb) was in 1986 renamed “Joe Louis The Champ Golf Course”. [115] American Legion Post 375 in Detroit is also named after Joe Louis.
In one of the most widely-quoted tributes to Louis, New York Post sportswriter Jimmy Cannon was known for the following statement (interjecting to another person’s characterization of Louis as “a credit to his race”); “Yes, Joe Louis is a credit to his race—the human race.” [116]
In 2009, the band Yeasayer came out with a song titled “Ambling Alp” which imagines what advice Joe Louis’s father might have given him prior to becoming a prizefighter. The song references adversities and opponents, including Max Schmeling and Primo Carnera, Louis had to overcome in his career. [117]
[ edit ] Professional record
66 Wins (52 knockouts, 13 decisions, 1 disqualification), 3 Losses (2 knockouts, 1 decision), 1 No Contest Source: BoxRec.com
Result
[ edit ] Cultural references
In his heyday, Louis was the subject of many musical tributes, including a number of blues songs. [118]
Louis played a boxer in the 1938 race film Spirit of Youth.
In the 1988 movie Coming to America , Eddie Murphy ‘s character Clarence states that Frank Sinatra once told him that Joe Louis was 137 years old, supposedly his age when he lost to Rocky Marciano. [119]
Louis is also mentioned in the song “Save me Joe Louis” by Curtis Eller’s American Circus from the album Wirewalkers and Assassins.
Louis is played by actor Bari K. Willerford in the film American Gangster .
In 2009, the Brooklyn band Yeasayer debuted the single “Ambling Alp” from their forthcoming album Odd Blood. The song makes reference to Louis’ boxing career and his famous rivalry with Schmeling in the first person, with the lyrics such as “Oh, Max Schmeling was a formidable foe / The Ambling Alp was too, at least that’s what I’m told / But if you learn one thing, you’ve learned it well / It’s true, you must give fascists hell.” [120]
An opera based on his life, Shadowboxer , premiered on 17 April 2010. [121]
The aforementioned sculpture of Louis’s fist (see Legacy above) was one of several Detroit landmarks depicted in “Imported from Detroit”, a two-minute commercial for the Chrysler 200 featuring Eminem that aired during Super Bowl XLV in 2011.
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Floyd Mayweather, Professional Boxer 3 comments
Floyd Joy Mayweather, Jr. (born Floyd Sinclair; February 24, 1977) is an American professional boxer.[1] He is a five-division world champion, where he has won seven world titles, as well as the lineal championship in three different weight classes.[2] He is a two-time The Ring “Fighter of the Year” winning the award in 1998 and 2007,[3] and also won the Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA) “Fighter of the Year” award in 2007.[4] He is undefeated as a professional boxer.
Currently, Mayweather is the WBC welterweight champion.[5] He is also rated as the best pound for pound boxer in the world by most sporting news and boxing websites, including Sports Illustrated, ESPN, Fox Sports, Yahoo! Sports and About.com.
Early lifeMayweather was born in Grand Rapids, Mich., into a family of boxers. His father Floyd Mayweather Sr. was a former welterweight contender who fought Hall of Famer Sugar Ray Leonard and his uncles Jeff Mayweather and Roger Mayweather were all professional boxers, with Roger – Floyd’s current trainer – winning two world championships. Mayweather was born with his mother’s last name,[11] but his last name would change to Mayweather shortly thereafter. Mayweather’s father, Floyd Sr., had a side job – selling drugs[citation needed]. According to Mayweather Jr., his father was often a harsh disciplinarian[citation needed]. Mayweather says that when he was a baby, his father used him as a shield to keep his brother-in-law from shooting him. “It depends on which side of the family you talk to,” Mayweather Jr. says. “My father said he was holding me and he said, ‘If you’re going to shoot me, you’re going to shoot the baby, too.’ But my mother said he used me as a shield to keep from getting shot. “Either way, I’m just happy I didn’t get shot and I’m still here.”
Boxing has been a part of Mayweather’s life since his childhood. He never seriously considered any other profession. “I think my grandmother saw my potential first,” Mayweather said, smiling. “When I was young, I told her, ‘I think I should get a job.’ She said, ‘No, just keep boxing.’ “[12]”When I was about 8 or 9, I lived in New Jersey with my mother and we were seven deep in one bedroom and sometimes we didn’t have electricity”, Mayweather says. “When people see what I have now, they have no idea of where I came from and how I didn’t have anything growing up.”
It was not uncommon for young Floyd to come home from school and find used heroin needles in his front yard[citation needed]. His mother was also addicted to drugs and he had an aunt who died from AIDS because of her drug use. “People don’t know the hell I’ve been through,” he says.
The most time that his father spent with him was taking him to the gym to train and work on his boxing, according to Mayweather. “I don’t remember him ever taking me anywhere or doing anything that a father would do with a son, going to the park or to the movies or to get ice cream”, he says. “I always thought that he liked his daughter (Floyd’s older stepsister) better than he liked me because she never got whippings and I got whippings all the time.”
Floyd Sr. says Mayweather is not telling the truth about their early relationship. “Even though his daddy did sell drugs, I didn’t deprive my son,” Floyd Sr. says. “The drugs I sold he was a part of it. He had plenty of food. He had the best clothes and I gave him money. He didn’t want for anything. Anybody in Grand Rapids can tell you that I took care of my kids.”[13]
Floyd Sr. says he did all of his hustling at night and spent his days with his son, taking him to the gym and training him to be a boxer. “If it wasn’t for me he wouldn’t be where he is today,” Floyd Sr. says.
“I basically raised myself,” Mayweather says. “My grandmother did what she could. When she got mad at me I’d go to my mom’s house. My life was ups and downs.” Floyd Sr. says he knows how much pain his incarceration caused his son, but insists he did the best he could. “I sent him to live with his grandmother,” he says. “It wasn’t like I left him with strangers.”
Boxing became Mayweather’s outlet – a way to deal with the absence of his father[citation needed]. As his father served his time, Mayweather, with speed and an uncanny ring sense, put all his energies into boxing. He even dropped out of high school. “I knew that I was going to have to try to take care of my mom and I made the decision that school wasn’t that important at the time and I was going to have to box to earn a living,” Mayweather says.[13]
Amateur career and OlympicsMayweather had an amateur record of 84–6[14] and won national Golden Gloves championships in 1993 (at 106 lb), 1994 (at 114 lb), and 1996 (at 125 lb).[15] He was given the nickname “Pretty Boy” by his amateur teammates because he had relatively few scars, a result of the defensive techniques that his father (Floyd Mayweather, Sr.) and uncle (Roger Mayweather) had taught him.[16] In his orthodox defensive stance, Mayweather often utilizes the ‘shoulder roll’. The shoulder roll is an old-school boxing technique in which the right hand is held normally or slightly higher than normal, the left hand is down around the midsection, and the lead shoulder is raised high on the cheek in order to cover the chin and block punches. The right hand (from orthodox stance) is used as it normally would be to block punches coming from the other side, such as left hooks. From this stance, Mayweather blocks, slips, and deflects most of his opponents’ punches, even when cornered, by twisting left and right to the rhythm of their punches.[17]
At the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Mayweather won a bronze medal by reaching the semi-finals of the featherweight (57 kg)[18] division.
In the opening round, Mayweather led 10–1 on points over Bakhtiyar Tileganov of Kazakhstan before he won in Round 2 by referee stoppage. In the second round, Mayweather outpointed Artur Gevorgyan of Armenia 16–3. In the quarterfinals, the 19-year-old Mayweather, narrowly defeated the 22-year-old, Lorenzo Aragon of Cuba in an all-action bout to win 12–11, becoming the first U.S boxer to defeat a Cuban in 20 years.[19] The last time this had occurred was at 1976 Summer Olympics when the U.S Olympic boxing team captured five gold medals, among its recipients was boxing great Sugar Ray Leonard. In his semifinal bout against the eventual silver medalist, Serafim Todorov of Bulgaria, Mayweather lost by a controversial decision similarly to the Roy Jones Jr.’s decision.[20] Referee, Hamad Hafaz Shouman of Egypt, mistakenly raised Mayweather’s hand, thinking he had won, as the decision was announced giving the bout to the Bulgarian.[21]
The U.S team filed a protest over the Mayweather bout, claiming the judges were intimated by Bulgaria’s Emil Jetchev, head of the boxing officials, into favoring Bulgarian Serafim Todorov by a 10-9 decision in the 125-pound semifinal bout. Three of Jetchev’s countrymen were in gold medal bouts. Judge Bill Waeckerle, one of the four U.S judges working the games for the International Amateur Boxing Federation, quit both as an Olympic judge and as a federation judge after Mayweather lost a decision loudly booed by the crowd at the Alexander Memorial Coliseum.[22][23]
“I refuse to be part of an organisation that continues to conduct its officiating in this manner,” Waeckerle wrote in a letter of resignation to federation President Anwar Chowdhry.[24]
In the official protest, U.S team manager Gerald Smith said Mayweather landed punches that were not counted, while Todorov was given points without landing a punch.[25] “The judging was totally incompetent,” Waeckerle said. The judges failed to impose a mandatory two-point deduction against Todorov after he was warned five times by the referee for slapping.[21]
“Everybody knows Floyd Mayweather is the gold-medal favorite at 57 kilograms,” Mayweather said afterward. “In America, it’s known as 125 pounds. You know and I know I wasn’t getting hit. They say he’s the world champion. Now you all know who the real world champion is.”
James (Buster) Douglas, Heavyweight Boxing Champ Leave a comment
James “Buster” Douglas (born April 7, 1960) is a former undisputed world heavyweight boxing champion who scored a stunning upset when he knocked out previously undefeated champion Mike Tyson on February 11, 1990 in Tokyo, Japan. At the time, Tyson was considered to be the best boxer in the world and one of the most feared heavyweight champions in history due to his utter domination of the division. The Mirage Casino in Las Vegas, the only Las Vegas casino to make odds on the fight, had Douglas as a 42 to 1 underdog for the fight.
Douglas held the title for eight months and two weeks, losing on October 25, 1990, to 28-year-old, 6-foot-2-inch, 208-pound Evander Holyfield, via third-round KO, in his only title defense.
Growing upThe son of professional boxer William “Dynamite” Douglas, Douglas grew up in Columbus, Ohio, in the predominantly black Linden-area neighborhood, Windsor Terrace. He attended Linden McKinley High School where he played football and basketball, even leading Linden to a Class AAA state basketball championship in 1977. After high school, Douglas played basketball for the Coffeyville Community College Red Ravens in Coffeyville, Kansas from 1977 to 1978 where the seventeen year old was a 6 feet 0 inch Power forward. He is in the Coffeyville Red Ravens Men’s Basketball Hall of Fame.[1]He also played basketball at Sinclair Community College from 1979 to 1980 in Dayton, Oh before he moved back to Columbus to focus on boxing.[2]
Boxing careerDouglas made his debut on May 31, 1981 and defeated Dan O’Malley in a four round bout. He won his first five fights before coming into a fight with David Bey twenty pounds heavier than he usually did in his early fights. Bey knocked Douglas out in the second round to hand him his first defeat.
After six more fights, all wins, Douglas fought Steffen Tangstad to a draw on October 16, 1982. He was penalized two points during the course of the fight which proved to be the difference.
After the draw Douglas went on to beat largely journeyman fighters over the next fourteen months. Two of his wins were against Jesse Clark, who never won a fight in his career; Douglas fought him a total of three times and knocked him out all three times. In his last fight of 1983 Douglas was dominating opponent Mike White, only to lose the fight when White knocked him out in the ninth round.
On November 9, Douglas was scheduled to fight heavyweight contender Trevor Berbick in Las Vegas. Berbick pulled out of the bout three days before it was scheduled and Randall “Tex” Cobb elected to take the fight in Berbick’s place. Douglas defeated the former heavyweight contender by winning a majority decision. The next year he fought up and coming contender Jesse Ferguson, but was beaten by majority decision.
Douglas fought three times in 1986, defeating former champion Greg Page and fringe contender David Jaco in two of the fights. This earned him a shot at the International Boxing Federation championship that Michael Spinks was stripped of for refusing to defend it. Douglas did not perform well against Tony Tucker and was knocked out in ten rounds.
After the Tucker defeat Douglas won four consecutive fights and went on to fight Trevor Berbick in 1989, winning by a unanimous decision. He followed that up with a unanimous decision victory over future heavyweight champion Oliver McCall, and earned a shot at the undisputed heavyweight championship held by Mike Tyson, who became the universally recognized champion after knocking out Spinks in one round in 1988. (Douglas fought on the undercard of the event and defeated Mike Williams by TKO in seven rounds.)
Championship fight against Mike TysonMain article: Tyson vs. Douglas
The fight was scheduled for February 11, 1990 and took place in Tokyo at the Tokyo Dome. Almost everyone assumed that Douglas’ fight versus Mike Tyson was going to be another quick knockout for the champion. Only one betting parlor in Las Vegas would hold odds for the bout, and many thought it was just an easy tune-up for Tyson before a future mega-fight with undefeated Evander Holyfield, who had recently moved up to heavyweight from cruiserweight where he became the first boxer to be the undisputed champion of the weight class.
Douglas’ mother, Lula Pearl, died 23 days before the title bout.[3] Douglas, who had trained hard, surprised the world by dominating the fight from the beginning, using his 12-inch reach advantage to perfection. He seemingly hit Tyson at will with powerful jabs and right hands and skillfully danced out of range of Tyson’s own punches. The champion had not taken Douglas seriously, expecting another quick and easy knockout victory. He was slow, refusing to move his head and slip his way in (his usual effective strategy) but rather setting his feet and throwing big, lunging hooks, repeatedly trying to beat Douglas with single punches. By the fifth round, Tyson’s left eye was swelling shut from Douglas’ many right hands, and ringside HBO announcers proclaimed it was the most punishment they had ever seen the champion absorb.
Tyson’s cornermen appeared to be unprepared for the suddenly dire situation. They had not brought an endswell to the fight, so they were forced to put tap water into a latex glove to hold over Tyson’s swelling eye. By the end of the fight, Tyson’s eye had swollen almost completely shut. In the eighth round, Tyson landed a right uppercut that knocked Douglas down. The referee’s count engendered controversy as Douglas was on his feet when the referee reached nine, although the official knockdown timekeeper was two seconds ahead. In the ring the final arbiter of the knockdown seconds is the referee and a comparison with Douglas’s winning knockdown count issued to Tyson two rounds later revealed that both fighters had received long counts.[4]
Tyson came out aggressively in the dramatic ninth round and continued his attempts to end the fight with one big punch hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the 8th round knockdown. Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a multi-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes. With Tyson hurt along the ropes Douglas unleashed a vicious attack to try to finish off a dazed Tyson but, amazingly, Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the 9th round. Douglas dominated the tenth round from the outset. While setting Tyson up with his jab Douglas scored a huge uppercut, followed by a rapid combination, and knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career, making boxing history. Tyson struggled to his knees and picked up his mouthpiece lying on the mat next to him. He awkwardly attempted to place it back into his mouth. The image of Tyson with the mouthpiece hanging crookedly from his lips would become an enduring image from the fight. He was unable to beat the referee’s count, and Douglas was the new heavyweight champion of the world. As Buster Douglas said in an interview years later ‘“I thought Tyson was getting up until I had seen him looking for that mouth piece and then I knew that he was really hurt. So anytime you know you only got ten seconds to get up so you aren’t going to worry about anything but just getting up first. So when I had seen him looking around for that mouth piece I knew he was really hurt.”[5]
[edit] After the upsetWhile still Champion, Douglas appeared on the February 23, 1990 episode of the World Wrestling Federation’s “WWF The Main Event”, as special guest referee for a rematch between Hulk Hogan and Randy “Macho Man” Savage. Originally, Mike Tyson was scheduled to be the guest referee, but following the upset, the WWF scrambled to sign on Douglas for the event. At the end of the match, Douglas was provoked into a ‘storyline’ punch and knockout of Savage, who was the ‘heel’ wrestler in the match.
The defeated Tyson clamored for a rematch and Douglas was offered more money than he had ever made before for a fight. Not wanting to deal with Tyson’s camp or his promoter Don King, Douglas decided to make his first defense against #1 contender Evander Holyfield, who had watched the new champion dethrone Tyson from ringside in Tokyo. Douglas came into the October 25, 1990 fight at 246 pounds, 15 pounds heavier than he was for the Tyson and also the heaviest he’d weighed in for a fight since a 1985 bout with Dion Simpson, in which he tipped the scale at. just over 247 pounds.
In the third round of the fight, Douglas attempted to hit Holyfield with a hard uppercut that he telegraphed. Holyfield avoided the uppercut and hit an off-balance Douglas with a straight right to the chin to knock him down. Douglas did not get up from the punch and lost his championship, electing to retire after the fight.
[edit] Later careerDouglas vs Holyfield was a reported $24.6 million payday for Buster, though years later he said on the Howard Stern show he walked away with $1.5 million after taxes, managers, trainers, etc. In that same interview he said he received $1.3 million for the Tyson win, but for the same reasons netted $15,000. Doing little for the next several years, Buster gained weight, reaching nearly 400 pounds. It was only after Douglas nearly died during a diabetic coma that he decided to attempt a return to the sport. He went back into training and made a comeback. He was successful at first, winning 6 straight fights, but his comeback almost came to a halt in a 1997 disqualification win over journeyman Louis Monaco. In a bizarre ending, Monaco landed a right hand, just after the bell ending round one, that knocked Douglas to the canvas. Douglas was unable to continue after a five-minute rest period and was consequently awarded the win by disqualification (on account of Monaco’s illegal punch).
A fight with light-heavyweight champion Roy Jones, Jr. was touted in the late 1990s, although ultimately fell through.[6] In 1998 Douglas was knocked out in the first round of a fight with heavyweight contender Lou Savarese. Douglas subsequently had two more fights, winning both, and retired in 1999 with a final record of 38-6-1.
[edit] Film and gameDouglas made his feature film acting debut in the Artie Knapp science fiction comedy film Pluto’s Plight.
Douglas was the star of the video game James ‘Buster’ Douglas Knockout Boxing for the Sega Master System and Sega Genesis. (In reality, Sega took a pre-existing game, Final Blow, changed the name, and changed one of the character’s names to Douglas’). This game is considered as a response to Nintendo’s Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out!!, especially since Tyson lost to Douglas, which Sega took advantage in order to promote their early “Genesis does what Nintendon’t” advertisements.
In 1995, HBO aired Tyson, a television movie based upon the life of Mike Tyson. Douglas was portrayed by actor Duane Davis.
Jack Johnson, First African American Heavyweight Champ Leave a comment
John Arthur (“Jack”) Johnson (March 31, 1878 – June 10, 1946), nicknamed the “Galveston Giant,” was an American boxer. At the height of the Jim Crow era, Johnson became the first African American world heavyweight boxing champion (1908–1915). In a documentary about his life, Ken Burns notes, “for more than thirteen years, Jack Johnson was the most famous and the most notorious African-American on Earth.”[1] Johnson attests that his success in boxing came from the coaching he received from Joe Choynski, who became his cellmate after the pair were arrested for fighting in Texas, where boxing was illegal at the time.[2][3] The aging Choynski saw natural talent and determination in Johnson and taught him the nuances of defense, stating “A man who can move like you should never have to take a punch”.[4] He is considered a boxing legend and was the first person ever to knock down James J. Jeffries in a professional boxing bout. Their fight is to this day considered a seminal moment in boxing history.
Early life Johnson was born in Galveston, Texas, the second child and first son of Henry and Tina “Tiny” Johnson, former slaves who worked at blue-collar jobs to raise six children and taught them how to read and write. Henry Johnson traced his ancestry back to the Coromantees who came from modern-day Ghana.[5] Johnson dropped out of school after just five or six years of education to get a job as a dock worker in Galveston.
Johnson fought Joe Choynski, who knocked him out, but whilst they spent time after the fight in prison together, talked much about boxing. There is a photo existing of them both behind bars. Joe, who also became his friend and sparring partner, taught him a lot. Johnson’s boxing style was very distinctive. He developed a more patient approach than was customary in that day, basically playing with his opponents, often carrying on a conversation with ringsiders at the same time as he was fighting. Johnson would begin a bout cautiously, slowly building up over the rounds into a more aggressive fighter. When annoyed, he often fought to punish his opponents rather than knock them out, endlessly avoiding their blows and striking with swift counters. He always gave the impression of having much more to offer and, if pushed, he could punch powerfully. There are films of some of his fights in which he can be seen holding up his opponent, who otherwise might have fallen, until he recovered. Those were the days when the (mostly white) patrons liked value for money, and it was a habit, especially for black boxers, to make the fight last a respectable time. With the many bouts a fighter engaged in, it was commonplace to have fought the same opponent as many as a dozen or even more times. So it is highly likely that the results of many of these fights were “pre-arranged,” and also pre-determined to last a goodly number of rounds.
Johnson’s style was very effective, but it was criticized in the press as being cowardly and devious. By contrast, world heavyweight champion “Gentleman” Jim Corbett had used many of the same techniques a decade earlier, and was praised by the press as “the cleverest man in boxing.”[1]
By 1902, Johnson had won at least 50 fights against both white and black opponents. Johnson won his first title on February 3, 1903, beating “Denver” Ed Martin over 20 rounds for the World Colored Heavyweight Championship. His efforts to win the full title were thwarted, as world heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries refused to face him then. Black and white boxers could meet in other competitions, but the world heavyweight championship was off limits to them. However, Johnson did fight former champion Bob Fitzsimmons in July 1907, and knocked him out in two rounds.[1] There is a report that Johnson even fought and KO’d Jim Jeffries’ brother Jack, and taunted him about it to force a fight, with no success.
Johnson finally won the world heavyweight title on December 26, 1908, a full six years after lightweight champion Joe Gans became the first African American boxing champion. Johnson’s victory over the reigning world champion, Canadian Tommy Burns, in Sydney, Australia, came after stalking Burns around the world for two years and taunting him in the press for a match.[6] The fight lasted fourteen rounds[7] before being stopped by the police in front of over 20,000 spectators. The title was awarded to Johnson on a referee’s decision as a knockout.
After Johnson’s victory over Burns, racial animosity among whites ran so deep that it was called out for a “Great White Hope” to take the title away from Johnson.[8] As title holder, Johnson thus had to face a series of fighters each billed by boxing promoters as a “great white hope,” often in exhibition matches. In 1909, he beat Frank Moran, Tony Ross, Al Kaufman, and the middleweight champion Stanley Ketchel. The match with Ketchel was originally thought to have been an exhibition, and in fact it was fought by both men that way, until the 12th round, when Ketchel threw a right to Johnson’s head, knocking him down. Quickly regaining his feet, and very annoyed, Johnson immediately dashed straight at Ketchell and threw a single punch, an uppercut, a punch for which he was famous, to Ketchel’s jaw, knocking him out. Several of Ketchell’s teeth were also knocked out with some sticking in Johnson’s glove. The filmed fight shows Johnson wiping the teeth off his glove with a smirk. His fight with Philadelphia Jack O’Brien was a disappointing one for Johnson: though weighing 205 pounds (93 kg) to O’Brien’s 161 pounds (73 kg), he could only achieve a six-round draw with the great middleweight.
The “Fight of the Century”
James J. Jeffries fights Johnson in 1910In 1910, former undefeated heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries came out of retirement and said, “I feel obligated to the sporting public at least to make an effort to reclaim the heavyweight championship for the white race. . . I should step into the ring again and demonstrate that a white man is king of them all.”[9] Jeffries had not fought in six years and had to lose well over 100 pounds to get back to his championship fighting weight. Indeed, initially Jeffries had no interest in the fight being quite happy as he was. But those who wanted to see Johnson ground into the dirt badgered him unmercifully for months, and also offered him an unheard sum of money, reputed to be about $120,000.
The fight took place on July 4, 1910 in front of 20,000 people, at a ring built just for the occasion in downtown Reno, Nevada. Johnson proved stronger and more nimble than Jeffries. In the 15th round, after Jeffries had been knocked down twice for the first time in his career, the referee stopped the fight before Jeffries could be knocked out.
The “Fight of the Century” earned Johnson $65,000 and silenced the critics, who had belittled Johnson’s previous victory over Tommy Burns as “empty,” claiming that Burns was a false champion since Jeffries had retired undefeated.
Riots and aftermathThe outcome of the fight triggered race riots that evening—the Fourth of July—all across the United States, from Texas and Colorado to New York and Washington, D.C. Johnson’s victory over Jeffries had dashed white dreams of finding a “great white hope” to defeat him. Many whites felt humiliated by the defeat of Jeffries.[1]
Blacks, on the other hand, were jubilant, and celebrated Johnson’s great victory as a victory for racial advancement. Black poet William Waring Cuney later highlighted the black reaction to the fight in his poem “My Lord, What a Morning.” Around the country, blacks held spontaneous parades and gathered in prayer meetings.
Some “riots” were simply blacks celebrating in the streets. In certain cities, like Chicago, the police did not disturb the celebrations. But in other cities, the police and angry white citizens tried to subdue the revelers. Police interrupted several attempted lynchings. In all, “riots” occurred in more than 25 states and 50 cities. About 23 blacks and two whites died in the riots, and hundreds more were injured.[10]
[edit] Film of the boutA number of leading American film companies joined forces to shoot footage of the Jeffries-Johnson fight and turn it into a feature-length documentary film, at the cost of $250,000. The film was distributed widely in the U.S. and was exhibited interna tionally as well. As a result, Congress banned prizefight films from being distributed across state lines in 1912; the ban was lifted in 1940. In 2005, the film of the Jeffries-Johnson “Fight of the Century” was entered into the United States National Film Registry as being worthy of preservation.[11]
In the United States, many states and cities banned the exhibition of the Johnson-Jeffries film. The movement to censor Johnson’s victory took over the country within three days after the fight.[9] It was a spontaneous movement. Two weeks after the match former President Theodore Roosevelt, an avid boxer and fan, wrote an article for The Outlook in which he supported banning not just moving pictures of boxing matches, but a complete ban on all prize fights in America. He cited the “crookedness” and gambling that surrounded such contests and that moving pictures have “introduced a new method of money getting and of demoralization.”[9]
Loss of the title
Panorama of Willard – Johnson fight, Havana, CubaOn April 5, 1915, Johnson lost his title to Jess Willard, a working cowboy from Kansas who started boxing when he was twenty-seven years old. With a crowd of 25,000 at Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana, Cuba, Johnson was knocked out in the 26th round of the scheduled 45 round fight. Johnson, although having won almost every round, began to tire after the 20th round, and was visibly hurt by heavy body punches from Willard in rounds preceding the 26th round knockout. Johnson is said by many to have spread rumors that he took a dive,[12] but Willard is widely regarded as having won the fight outright. Willard said, “If he was going to throw the fight, I wish he’d done it sooner. It was hotter than hell out there.”
Personal life
Johnson was an early example of the celebrity athlete in the modern era, appearing regularly in the press and later on radio and in motion pictures. He earned considerable sums endorsing various products, including patent medicines, and indulged several expensive hobbies such as automobile racing and tailored clothing, as well as purchasing jewelry and furs for his wives.[13] He even challenged champion racer Barney Oldfield to a match auto race at the Sheepshead Bay, New York one mile (1.6 km) dirt track. Oldfield, far more experienced, easily out-distanced Johnson, ending any thoughts the boxer might have had about becoming a professional driver.[14] Once, when he was pulled over for a $50 speeding ticket (a large sum at the time), he gave the officer a $100 bill; when the officer protested that he couldn’t make change for that much, Johnson told him to keep the change, as he was going to make his return trip at the same speed.[1] Johnson was also interested in opera (his favorite being Il Trovatore) and in history — he was an admirer of Napoleon Bonaparte, believing him to have risen from a similar origin to his own. In 1920, Johnson opened a night club in Harlem; he sold it three years later to a gangster, Owney Madden, who renamed it the Cotton Club.
Johnson constantly flouted conventions regarding the social and economic “place” of blacks in American society. As a black man, he broke a powerful taboo in consorting with white women, and would constantly and arrogantly verbally taunt men (both white and black) inside and outside the ring. Johnson was pompous about his affection for white women, and imperious about his physical prowess, both in and out of the ring. Asked the secret of his staying power by a reporter who had watched a succession of women parade into, and out of, the champion’s hotel room, Johnson supposedly said “Eat jellied eels and think distant thoughts”.[15]
Johnson was married three times. All of his wives were white, a fact that caused considerable controversy at the time. In January 1911, Johnson married Etta Terry Duryea. A Brooklyn socialite and former wife of businessman Charles Duryea, she met Johnson at a car race in 1909. Their romantic involvement was very turbulent. Beaten many times by Johnson and suffering from severe depression, she committed suicide in September 1912, shooting herself with a revolver.[16]
Less than three months later, on December 4, 1912, Johnson married Lucille Cameron. After Johnson married Cameron, two ministers in the South recommended that Johnson be lynched. Cameron divorced him in 1924 because of infidelity.
The next year, Johnson married Irene Pineau. When asked by a reporter at Johnson’s funeral what she had loved about him, she replied, “I loved him because of his courage. He faced the world unafraid. There wasn’t anybody or anything he feared.”[16]
Johnson had no children.
Prison sentenceOn October 18, 1912, Johnson was arrested on the grounds that his relationship with Lucille Cameron violated the Mann Act against “transporting women across state lines for immoral purposes” due to her being an alleged prostitute and due to Johnson being black. Cameron, soon to become his second wife, refused to cooperate and the case fell apart. Less than a month later, Johnson was arrested again on similar charges. This time, the woman, another alleged prostitute named Belle Schreiber, with whom he had been involved in 1909 and 1910, testified against him. In the courtroom of Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the future Commissioner of Baseball who perpetuated the baseball color line until his death, Johnson was convicted by an all-white jury in June 1913,[17] despite the fact that the incidents used to convict him took place prior to passage of the Mann Act.[1] He was sentenced to a year and a day in prison.
Johnson skipped bail and left the country, joining Lucille in Montreal on June 25, before fleeing to France. For the next seven years, they lived in exile in Europe, South America and Mexico. Johnson returned to the U.S. on July 20, 1920. He surrendered to Federal agents at the Mexican border and was sent to the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth to serve his sentence September 1920 as Inmate #15461.[18]
While incarcerated, Johnson found need for a tool that would help tighten loosened fastening devices, and modified a wrench for the task. He patented his improvements on April 18, 1922, as US Patent 1,413,121.[19][20] He was released on July 9, 1921.[1]
There have been recurring proposals to grant Johnson a posthumous presidential pardon. A bill requesting President George W. Bush to pardon Johnson in 2008, passed the House,[21] but failed to pass in the Senate.[22] In April 2009, Senator John McCain, along with Representative Peter King, filmmaker Ken Burns and Johnson’s great-niece, Linda Haywood, requested a presidential pardon for Johnson from President Barack Obama.[23] On July 29, 2009, Congress passed a resolution calling on President Obama to issue a pardon.[24]
Later lifeJohnson continued fighting, but age was catching up with him. He fought professionally until 1938 at age 60 when he lost 7 of his last 9 bouts, losing his final fight to Walter Price by a 7th-round TKO. It is often suggested that any bouts after the age of 40 -which was a very venerable age for boxing in those days- be not counted on his actual record, since he was basically performing to make a living, for money. He also indulged in what was known as “cellar” fighting, where the bouts, unadvertised, were fought for private audiences, usually in cellars, or other unrecognised places. There are photographs existing of one of these fights. Johnson made his final ring appearance at age 67 on November 27, 1945, fighting three one minute exhibition rounds against two opponents, Joe Jeanette and John Ballcort, in a benefit fight card for U.S. War Bonds. [25][26]
On June 10, 1946, Johnson died in a car crash on U.S. Highway 1 near Franklinton, North Carolina, a small town near Raleigh, after racing angrily from a diner that refused to serve him.[27] He was taken to the closest black hospital, Saint Agnes Hospital in Raleigh. He was 68 years old at the time of his death. He was buried next to Etta Duryea Johnson at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.[28] His grave was initially unmarked, but a stone that bears only the name “Johnson” now stands above the plots of Jack, Etta, and Irene Pineau.[28]
LegacyJohnson was inducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954, and is on the roster of both the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame. In 2005, the United States National Film Preservation Board deemed the film of the 1910 Johnson-Jeffries fight “historically significant” and put it in the National Film Registry.
Johnson’s skill as a fighter and the money that it brought made it impossible for him to be ignored by the establishment. In the short term, the boxing world reacted against Johnson’s legacy. But Johnson foreshadowed one of the most famous boxers of all time, Muhammad Ali. In fact, Ali often spoke of how he was influenced by Jack Johnson. Ali identified with Johnson because he felt America ostracized him in the same manner because of his opposition to the Vietnam War and affiliation with the Nation of Islam.[29]
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Jack Johnson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans
“Sugar” Shane Mosley (born September 7, 1971) is an American professional boxer from Pomona, California who has held world titles in three weight divisions.
Amateur careerMosley was an amateur standout, capturing various amateur titles, including:
1989 United States Amateur Champion at Lightweight 132 lb (60 kg)
1989 World Junior Championships Silver Medalist in San Juan (PUR) 132 lb (60 kg)
1990 United States Amateur Champion at Lightweight 132 lb (60 kg)
1990 Goodwill Games Bronze Medalist in Seattle (USA) 132 lb (60 kg)
1992 United States Amateur Champion at Light Welterweight 139 lb (63 kg) he also had an amateur record of 96–3
[edit] Professional career[edit] Undefeated lightweight championSugar Shane started his pro career in 1993, By 2000 he had fought 34 times amassing a 34–0 (32) record, beating undefeated Phillip Holiday to win the IBF lightweight title. He made 9 title defenses with all inside the distance, but never unified belts. Mosley relinquished his lightweight title to move up 2 divisions, facing Oscar De La Hoya for his welterweight title.
[edit] De La Hoya vs. Sugar Shane MosleyOn June 17, 2000, Mosley met De La Hoya in Los Angeles for the WBC welterweight title. After twelve rounds, Mosley emerged with a split decision victory. During the fight neither man was in danger of going down, but both had badly swollen faces at the end and De La Hoya was bleeding from the nose for several rounds. Mosley earned a minimum of $15 million, while De La Hoya was guaranteed $35 million. It was later that Mosley was accused of using illegal performance enhancing drugs prior to his 2003 bout with Oscar De La Hoya.[1]
[edit] Mosley vs. Vernon Forrest I & IIHe ran a successful string of defenses of his Welterweight titles but against three unheralded fighters. When he finally did step up his competition, it was against former Olympian Vernon Forrest. Early in the second round, the fighters clashed heads and both staggered backward as referee Steve Smoger called time. Mosley sustained a cut on the hairline. When action resumed, Forrest knocked Mosley down twice in the round. It was the first time Mosley had ever been down in a bout. The final scorecards read 115–110, 117–108, 118–108, in favor of Forrest.
They had a rematch six months later at Conseco Fieldhouse in Indiana, and Mosley once again lost by a unanimous decision.
[edit] Bouncing back after ForrestOn February 8, 2003, Mosley’s bout with former IBF light middleweight title holder Raúl Márquez ended in a no contest when Mosley accidentally head butted Marquez twice in round three, which caused two very bad cuts above the eyes of Marquez.
He and De La Hoya faced each other for the second time on September 13, this time with De La Hoya’s The Ring, WBC and WBA light middleweight belts on the line. Mosley defeated De La Hoya by a close 12 round unanimous decision, and joined the exclusive group of world boxing champions that have reigned in three or more divisions. Mosley testified in 2003 that he injected himself with the notorious doping agent EPO as he prepared for his light middleweight title fight against Oscar De La Hoya, according to grand jury transcripts and doping calendars.[2]
[edit] Mosley vs. Wright I & IIOn March 13, 2004, Mosley lost his The Ring, WBC & WBA light middleweight titles in a unification bout with IBF champion Winky Wright by a unanimous twelve-round decision.
On November 20, Mosley and Wright fought their rematch, and although it was scored much closer by the three judges (115–113 twice for Wright and a 114–114 tie), Mosley lost by a twelve-round majority decision.
[edit] Mosley vs. Vargas I & IIOn September 17, he beat another previously undefeated fighter, Jose Luis Cruz, by a ten-round decision.
Mosley then defeated Fernando Vargas on February 25, 2006 by TKO in the tenth round at the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino, due to a massive swelling which closed Fernando’s left eye. At the time of the stoppage, Mosley was winning on two scorecards 86–85, while Vargas held an 86–85 advantage on the other scorecard. A rematch was announced almost immediately.
Mosley defeated Fernando Vargas in the rematch on July 15, 2006. Mosley dominated Vargas from start to finish, eventually ending the fight via a sixth-round TKO.
Shane defeated Luis Collazo on February 11, 2007, with a unanimous decision after 12 rounds, knocking Collazo down once, to capture the WBC interim Welterweight title.
[edit] Fight with Miguel CottoMosley and undefeated WBA welterweight Champion Miguel Cotto met on Nov. 10, 2007, at Madison Square Garden in a fight broadcasted on HBO Pay-Per-View. Cotto beat Mosley in a close fight. Soon after that match, Mosley was scheduled to face Zab Judah in a Welterweight bout in Las Vegas, Nevada on May 31. Due to an arm injury suffered by Judah, the fight was cancelled.
[edit] Mosley vs. MayorgaMosley–Mayorga was originally scheduled for Oct. 11 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, Golden Boy Promotions CEO Richard Schaefer and Mosley’s wife and advisor, Jin Mosley, told ESPN.com.
On July 18, 2008, it was reported on ESPN.com’s quick hits that The fight between Mayorga and Mosley was moved to the Home Depot Center in Carson, California and set for September 27 because of the Pavlik-Hopkins fight agreement for October 18 on HBO PPV. And the good news for fight fans was that the Mayorga-Mosley bout was not to be on HBO PPV, instead it was shown on HBO at no cost.
Shane Mosley stopped Ricardo Mayorga with one second left in the 12th round of their junior middleweight bout, Mosley led by one point on judge Nelson Vasquez’s scorecard and five on Tony Crebs’ entering the 12th round. Mayorga had a one point lead on judge Pat Russell’s card. The Associated Press had “Sugar” Shane Mosley ahead by three points entering the 12th.
[edit] Mosley vs. MargaritoPrior to one of the biggest fights of his career, Mosley began training with Naazim Richardson. Mosley regained the WBA Welterweight “Super” championship from Antonio Margarito on January 24, 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. Mosley, now 37 years old, came in to the fight as a 4–1 underdog with the bookies[3] after Margarito had spectacularly stopped Cotto 6 months earlier. Prior to the bout nobody gave Mosley a chance of prevailing- everybody believing that Margarito was too strong and that Mosley was too old. The conventional wisdom was that this was a mismatch, which would end in a brutal retirement-forcing stoppage for Sugar Shane. A comparison of their last fights- the aforementioned destruction of Cotto by Margarito and a last-gasp knockout by Mosley in a hard twelve round struggle against Mayorga- did not bode well for Sugar Shane. Some predicted a massacre. And it was – only it was Margarito that was ruthlessly clubbed about the ring, unable to land any meaningful shots.
Mosley eventually TKO’d Margarito in the ninth round, after appearing to win every round up until then, in a massive upset. Sugar Shane utterly dominated Margarito, using his superior hand speed, pinpoint accuracy, consistent body punching, countless huge right hands to the jaw, and tying up whenever Margarito backed him into the ropes, to wear Margarito down and stop him—something that many seasoned boxing observers thought was nigh-on impossible. After knocking him down with a series of heavy overhand rights at the end of the eighth round, Margarito was unable to avoid punches during a heavy barrage from Mosley early on in the ninth, forcing the referee to step in as Margarito slumped to the canvas a second time. Margarito had never previously been stopped. It was a sensational win for Sugar Shane and propelled him back to the top of the tree in the welterweight division.
The fight was marred in a controversy after Mosley’s trainer diligently spotted an illegal plaster accessory being added to Margarito’s hand wraps, which had to be redone three times before the commission’s officials were satisfied.[4]
The fight was for Margarito’s WBA title and the vacant Lineal Welterweight championships of Lineal Champs and Cyber Boxing Zone (CBZ).[5][6] The Ring did not recognize this bout for its vacant Welterweight championship despite the fact, it pitted The Ring #1 ranked welterweight, Antonio Margarito vs. The Ring #3 ranked welterweight, Shane Mosley. Coming in the bout, Margarito had just TKO’d, the previous The Ring #1 ranked welterweight and current The Ring #2 ranked welterweight, Miguel Cotto.[7] After the fight, Mosley would be The Ring #1 ranked Welterweight and seen by experts and fans alike, the true champion of the division.
[edit] Mosley vs. MayweatherMain article: Floyd Mayweather vs. Shane Mosley
On May 1, 2010, Mosley fought undefeated Floyd Mayweather. Boxing purists had called for the fight for over ten years. On the night Mosley stunned Mayweather with two right-hand shots in the second round. Mayweather recovered well and dominated the remainder of the fight with superior reflexes, eventually winning a wide decision on the scorecards to hand Mosley the sixth defeat of his professional career.
On May 22, 2010, Shane Mosley was stripped of his WBA “Super” welterweight title, which in turn made WBA champion Vyacheslav Senchenko the sole WBA titlist in the welterweight division.
[edit] Mora vs. Mosley
Mosley at the Club Nokia in September 2010Main article: Shane Mosley vs. Sergio Mora
Mosley fought Sergio Mora on September 18 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles.[8][9] The bout ended up in a split draw. Scores (Mora 115–113, Mosley 116–112, 114–114).[10] On whether he would like to have a rematch with Mora or whether he will move on and put it behind him:
“Actually, there’s no need for a rematch. It was a fight. I took it. It wasn’t crowd pleasing and I don’t want to be in a fight like that again. That’s the type of fight that I don’t want to be in. There are a lot of great fights out there. There’s Cotto. You know all these mover type of guys, I’m not sure whether I should stay away from them if I could. You know the guys who like to move around a lot and try to outbox you, and it’s good to box but I want to be in a fight where I’m in a real fight, like the Miguel Cottos, the Pacquiaos, and the Margaritos. Sergio Martinez, he’s a mover. He likes to box so it could be an ugly fight. He’s a real mover and he’s a big mover. So these moving types of fighters, I don’t know that that’s well suited for me. I don’t like to put that on the fans with those types of fights. So we’ll see what happens.”[citation needed]
[edit] Mosley vs. PacquiaoMain article: Manny Pacquiao vs. Shane Mosley
On May 7, 2011, Mosley lost the fight to Manny Pacquiao for the WBO welterweight title at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. Due to Mosley’s defeat, Pacquiao looked at a November 12th, 2011 match-up, a third fight with Juan Manuel Marquez which he won.[11]
[edit] Alvarez vs. MosleyMosley agreed to terms for a return to the MGM on May 5 against WBC 154-pound beltholder Saul “Canelo” Alvarez, a man 19 years younger than he is.
George Foreman, Heavyweight Boxing Champ 2 comments
George Edward Foreman (nicknamed “Big George”[2]) (born January 10, 1949) is an American two-time former World Heavyweight Boxing Champion, Olympic gold medalist, ordained Baptist minister, author and successful entrepreneur.
A gold medalist at the 1968 Olympics, Foreman won the world heavyweight title with a second round knockout of then-undefeated Joe Frazier in Kingston, Jamaica in 1973. He made two successful title defenses before losing to Muhammad Ali in “The Rumble in the Jungle” in 1974. He fought on but was unable to secure another title shot and retired following a loss to Jimmy Young in 1977 and became an ordained Christian minister. Ten years later Foreman announced a comeback, and in November 1994, at age 45, he regained the heavyweight championship by knocking out Michael Moorer. He remains the oldest heavyweight champion in history. He retired in 1997 at the age of 48, with a final record of 76-5, including 68 knockouts.
Foreman has been inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame and the International Boxing Hall of Fame. The International Boxing Research Organization (IBRO) currently rates Foreman as the eighth greatest heavyweight of all-time.[3] In 2002, he was named one of the 25 greatest fighters of the past eighty years by Ring magazine.[4] The Ring also ranked him as the 9th greatest puncher of all-time.[5] He was a ringside analyst for HBO’s boxing coverage for twelve years, leaving in 2004.[6] Outside of boxing, he is a successful entrepreneur and is known for his promotion of the George Foreman Grill, which has sold over 100 million units worldwide.[7] In 1999 he sold the naming rights to the grill for $138 million.[8]
Early lifeGeorge Foreman was born in Marshall, Texas. He grew up in the Fifth Ward, Houston, Texas, with six siblings.[9] Although reared by J.D. Foreman, whom his mother had married when George was a small child, his biological father was Leroy Moorehead. Foreman was interested in football and idolized Jim Brown, but gave it up for boxing. He won a gold medal in the boxing/heavyweight division at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. By his own admission in his autobiography George was a troubled youth.
[edit] Professional boxing careerForeman had an amateur record of 22-4, losing twice to Clay Hodges (also defeated by Max Briggs in his first ever fight). Foreman turned professional in 1969 with a three-round knockout of Donald Walheim in New York. He had a total of 13 fights that year, winning all of them (11 by knockout).
In 1970, Foreman continued his march toward the undisputed heavyweight title, winning all 12 of his bouts (11 by knockout). Among the opponents he defeated were Gregorio Peralta, whom he decisioned at Madison Square Garden although Peralta gave a very good account of himself and showed George was vulnerable to fast counter punching mixed with an assertive boxing style. But the boxing world shuddered when George Chuvalo was defeated by technical knockout (TKO) in three rounds. After this impressive win, Foreman defeated Charlie Polite in four rounds and Boone Kirkman in three.
In 1971, Foreman won seven more fights, winning all of them by knockout, including a rematch with Peralta, whom he defeated by knockout in the tenth and final round in Oakland, California, and a win over Leroy Caldwell, who was knocked out in the second round. After amassing a record of 32–0 (29 KO), Foreman was ranked as the number one challenger by the WBA and WBC.
[edit] The Sunshine Showdown vs. Joe FrazierIn 1972, still undefeated, and with an impressive knockout record, Foreman was set to challenge undefeated and undisputed world heavyweight champion Joe Frazier. Despite boycotting a title elimination caused by the vacancy resulting from the championship being stripped from Muhammad Ali, Frazier had won the title from Jimmy Ellis and defended his title four times since, including a 15-round unanimous decision over the previously unbeaten Ali in 1971 after Ali had beaten Oscar Bonavena and Jerry Quarry. Despite Foreman’s superior size and reach, he was not expected to beat Frazier[10] and was a 3:1 underdog going into the fight.
The Sunshine Showdown took place on January 22, 1973, in Kingston, Jamaica, with Foreman dominating the fight to win the championship by technical knockout in one of boxing’s biggest upsets. In HBO Boxing’s first broadcast, the call made by Howard Cosell became one of the most memorable in all of sports: “Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier!” Before the fight Frazier was 29–0 (25 KO) and Foreman was 37–0 (34 KO). Frazier was knocked down six times by Foreman within two rounds, with the three knockdowns rule being waived for this bout. After the second knockdown, Frazier’s balance and mobility were impaired to the extent that he was unable to evade Foreman’s combinations. Frazier managed to get to his feet for all six knockdowns, but referee Arthur Mercante eventually called an end to the one-sided bout.
Foreman was sometimes characterized by the media as an aloof and antisocial champion.[11] According to them, he always seemed to wear a sneer and was not often available to the press. Foreman would later attribute his demeanor during this time as an emulation of Sonny Liston, for whom he had been an occasional sparring partner.
Nevertheless, Foreman went on to defend his title successfully twice during his initial reign as champion. His first defense, in Tokyo, pitted him against Puerto Rican heavyweight champion José Roman. Roman was not regarded as a top contender, and it took Foreman only 2 minutes to end the fight, one of the fastest knockouts in a heavyweight championship bout.
[edit] Title defense versus Ken NortonForeman’s next defense was against a much tougher opponent. In 1974, in Caracas, Venezuela, he faced the highly regarded hall-of-famer Ken Norton who was 30–2, a boxer notorious for his awkward crossed-arm boxing style with crab-like defense plus heavy punch (a style Foreman would emulate in his second comeback), who had broken the jaw of Muhammad Ali while defeating Ali on points a year earlier. Norton had a good chin, never in trouble as such against Ali in two matches. He’d nearly won the second. Although nerves were known to make his determination suspect at times against really heavy hitters. But in an astonishing display of controlled aggression and punching power, Foreman picked his moment after staying out of range of a long offense and decked Ken with more or less his first real big punch he threw near the end of the first round. Norton rose on wobbly legs but clearly wasn’t recovered for round two whereby he was down three times and stopped. “Ken was awesome when he got going. I didn’t want him to get into the fight,” George said when interviewed years later.
George had cruised past two of the top names in the rankings. The stunning win made Foreman an impressive 40–0 with 37 knockouts.
[edit] “Rumble in the Jungle”Main article: The Rumble in the Jungle
This article appears to contradict the article The Rumble in the Jungle. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. Please do not remove this message until the contradictions are resolved. (April 2010)
Foreman’s next title defense, against Muhammad Ali, was historic. During the summer of 1974, Foreman traveled to Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to defend his title against Ali. The bout was promoted as The Rumble in the Jungle.
During training in Zaire, Foreman suffered a cut above his eye, forcing postponement of the match for a month. The injury affected Foreman’s training regimen, as it meant he couldn’t spar in the build-up to the fight and risk the cut being re-opened. He later commented: “That was the best thing that happened to Ali when we were in Africa—the fact that I had to get ready for the fight without being able to box.”[12] Foreman would later also claim he was drugged by his trainer prior to the bout.[13] Ali used this time to tour Zaire, endearing himself to the public while taunting Foreman at every opportunity. Foreman was favored, having knocked out both Joe Frazier and Ken Norton within two rounds.
When Foreman and Ali finally met in the ring, Ali began more aggressively than expected, outscoring Foreman with superior punching speed. However, he quickly realized that this approach required him to move much more than Foreman and would cause him to tire. In the second round, Ali retreated to the ropes, shielding his head and hitting Foreman in the face at every opportunity. Foreman dug vicious body punches into Ali’s sides; however, Foreman was unable to land many big punches to Ali’s head. The ring ropes, being much looser than usual (Foreman would later charge that Angelo Dundee had loosened them), allowed Ali to lean back and away from Foreman’s wild swings and then grab Foreman behind the head, forcing Foreman to expend much extra energy untangling himself. Ali also constantly pushed down on Foreman’s neck, but was never warned about doing so. To this day, it is unclear whether Ali’s pre-fight talk of using speed and movement against Foreman had been just a diversionary tactic, or whether his use of what became known as the “Rope-a-dope” tactic was an improvisation necessitated by Foreman’s constant pressure.
In either case, Ali was able to occasionally counter off the ropes with blows to the face, and was able to penetrate Foreman’s defense. Ali continued to take heavy punishment to the body, and occasionally a hard jolt to the head. Ali would later say he was “out on his feet” twice during the bout. Eventually, Foreman began to tire and his punches became increasingly wild, losing power in the process. An increasingly confident Ali taunted Foreman throughout the bout. Late in the eighth round, Foreman was left off balance by a haymaker and Ali sprang off the ropes with a flurry to Foreman’s head, punctuated by a hard right cross that landed flush on Foreman’s jaw putting Foreman down for the first time in his career. He managed to regain his feet by the count of 8 but the fight was nonetheless waved off by the referee.[citation needed]. It was Foreman’s first defeat, and Muhammad Ali remains the only boxer ever to defeat him by knockout.
Foreman would later reflect that “it just wasn’t my night.” Though he sought one, he was unable to secure a rematch with Ali. It has been suggested in some quarters that Ali was ducking Foreman, as had rematches Joe Frazier and Ken Norton, and also fought low ranked opponents such as Chuck Wepner, Richard Dunn and Jean Pierre Coopman.[14] Ali on the other hand would never commit to a rematch, preferring to talk about retirement or make fights with lowly ranked fighters like Richard Dunn or Alfredo Evaneglista.
[edit] First comebackForeman remained inactive during 1975. In 1976, he announced a comeback and stated his intention of securing a rematch with Ali. His first opponent was to be Ron Lyle, who had been defeated by Muhammad Ali in 1975, via 11-th round TKO. At the end of the first round, Lyle landed a hard left that sent Foreman staggering across the ring. In the second round, Foreman pounded Lyle against the ropes and might have scored a KO, but due to a timekeeping error the bell rang with a minute still remaining in the round, and Lyle survived. In the third, Foreman pressed forward, with Lyle waiting to counter off the ropes. In the fourth, a brutal slugfest erupted. A cluster of power punches from Lyle sent Foreman to the canvas. When Foreman got up, Lyle staggered him again, but just as Foreman seemed finished he retaliated with a hard right to the side of the head, knocking down Lyle. Lyle beat the count, then landed another brutal combination, knocking Foreman down for the second time. Again, Foreman beat the count. Foreman said later that he had never been hit so hard in a fight and remembered looking down at the canvas and seeing blood. In the fifth round, both fighters continued to ignore defense and traded their hardest punches looking crude. Each man staggered the other and each seemed almost out on his feet. Then, as if finally tired, Lyle stopped punching and Foreman delivered a dozen unanswered blows until Lyle collapsed. Lyle remained on the canvas and was counted out giving Foreman the KO victory. The fight was named by The Ring as “The Fight Of The Year.”
For his next bout, Foreman chose to face Joe Frazier in a rematch. Because of the one-sided Foreman victory in their first fight, and the fact that Frazier had taken a tremendous amount of punishment from Ali in Manila a year earlier, few expected him to win. Frazier at this point was 32–3 and Foreman was 41–1. Surprisingly, the 2nd Foreman-Frazier fight was fairly competitive for its duration, as Frazier used quick head movements to make Foreman miss with his hardest punches. Frazier’s health was deteriorating at this point and was wearing a contact lens for his vision which was knocked loose during the bout. After being unable to mount a significant offense, however, Frazier was eventually floored twice by Foreman in the fifth round and the fight was stopped. Next, Foreman knocked out Scott Ledoux in three and Dino Dennis in four to finish the year.
[edit] Retirement and rebirth1977 would prove to be a life changing year for Foreman. After knocking out Pedro Agosto in four rounds at Pensacola, Florida, Foreman flew to Puerto Rico a day before the fight without giving himself time to acclimatise. His opponent was the skilled boxer Jimmy Young, who had beaten Ron Lyle and lost a very controversial decision to Muhammad Ali the previous year. Foreman fought cautiously early on, allowing Young to settle into the fight. Young constantly complained about Foreman pushing him, for which Foreman eventually had a point deducted by the referee, although Young was never warned for his persistent holding. Foreman badly hurt Young in round 7 but was unable to land a finishing blow. Foreman tired during the second half of the fight and even suffered a flash knockdown in round 12 en route to losing a decision.
Foreman became ill in his dressing room after the fight. He was suffering from exhaustion and heatstroke and believed he had a near death experience. He claimed he found himself in a hellish, frightening place of nothingness and despair. He began to plead with God to help him. He explained that he sensed God asking him to change his life and ways. After this experience, Foreman became a born-again Christian, dedicating his life for the next decade to God. Although he did not formally retire from boxing, Foreman stopped fighting, became an ordained minister of a church[15] in Houston, Texas, and devoted himself to his family and his congregation. He also opened a youth center[16] that bears his name. Foreman continues to share his conversion experience on Christian television broadcasts such as The 700 Club and the Trinity Broadcasting Network, and would later joke that Young had knocked the devil out of him.
[edit] Second comebackIn 1987, after 10 years away from the ring, Foreman surprised the boxing world by announcing a comeback at the age of 38. In his autobiography he stated that his primary motive was to raise money to fund the youth center he had created. His stated ambition was to fight Mike Tyson.[17] For his first fight, he went to Sacramento, California, where he beat journeyman Steve Zouski by a knockout in four rounds. Foreman weighed 267 lb (121 kg) for the fight, and looked badly out of shape. Although many thought his decision to return to the ring was a mistake, Foreman countered that he had returned to prove that age was not a barrier to people achieving their goals (as he would say later, he wanted to show that age 40 is not a “death sentence”). He won four more bouts that year, gradually slimming down and improving his fitness. In 1988, he won nine times. Perhaps his most notable win during this period was a seventh round knockout of former light heavyweight and cruiserweight champion Dwight Muhammad Qawi.
Having always been a deliberate fighter, Foreman had not lost much mobility in the ring since his first “retirement”, although he found it harder to keep his balance after throwing big punches and could no longer throw rapid combinations. He was still capable of landing heavy, single blows, however. Ironically, the late-rounds fatigue that had plagued him in the ring as a young man now seemed to be gone, and he could comfortably compete for 12 rounds. Foreman attributed this to his new, relaxed fighting style (he has spoken of how, earlier in his career, his lack of stamina came from an enormous amount of nervous tension).
By 1989, while continuing his comeback, Foreman had sold his name and face for the advertising of various products, selling everything from grills to mufflers on TV. For this purpose his public persona was reinvented and the formerly aloof, ominous Foreman had been replaced by a smiling, friendly George. He and Ali had become friends, and he followed in Ali’s footsteps by making himself a celebrity outside the boundaries of boxing.
Foreman continued his string of victories, winning five more fights, the most impressive being a three-round win over Bert Cooper, who would go on to contest the undisputed heavyweight title against Evander Holyfield.
In 1990, Foreman met former title challenger Gerry Cooney in Atlantic City. Cooney was coming off a long period of inactivity, but was well regarded for his punching power. Cooney wobbled Foreman in the first round, but Foreman landed several powerful punches in the second round. Cooney was knocked down twice, and Foreman had scored a devastating KO. Foreman went on to win four more fights that year.
Then, in 1991, Foreman was given the opportunity to challenge undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield, who was in tremendous shape at 208 pounds, for the world title in a Pay Per View boxing event. Very few boxing experts gave the 42-year-old Foreman a chance of winning. Foreman, who weighed in at 257 pounds, began the contest by marching forward, absorbing several of Holyfield’s best combinations and occasionally landing a powerful swing of his own. Holyfield proved too tough and agile to knock down, and was well ahead on points throughout the fight, but Foreman surprised many by lasting the full 12 rounds, losing his challenge on points. Round 7, in which Foreman knocked Holyfield off balance before being staggered by a powerful combination, was Ring Magazine’s “Round of the Year.”
A year later, Foreman fought journeyman Alex Stewart, who had previously been stopped in the first round by Mike Tyson. Foreman knocked down Stewart twice in the second round, but expended a lot of energy in doing so. He subsequently tired, and Stewart rebounded. By the end of the 10th and final round, Foreman’s face was bloodied and swollen, but the judges awarded him a majority decision win.
In 1993, Foreman received another title shot, although this was for the vacant WBO championship, which most fans at the time saw as a second-tier version of the “real” heavyweight title, then being contested between Holyfield and Riddick Bowe. Foreman’s opponent was Tommy Morrison, a young prospect known for his punching power. To the frustration of Foreman, and the disappointment of the booing crowd, Morrison retreated throughout the fight, refusing to trade toe-to-toe, and sometimes even turned his back on Foreman. The strategy paid off, however, as he outboxed Foreman from long range. Foreman was competitive throughout the match, but after 12 rounds Morrison won a unanimous decision. Though it seemed unlikely at the time, one more chance at the legitimate heavyweight crown was just around the corner for Foreman.
[edit] Regaining the TitleIn 1994, Foreman once again sought to challenge for the world championship after Michael Moorer had beaten Holyfield for the IBF and WBA titles.
Having lost his last fight against Morrison, Foreman was unranked and in no position to demand another title shot. However, his relatively high profile made a title defense against Foreman, who was 19 years older than Moorer, a lucrative prospect at seemingly little risk for champion Moorer.
Foreman’s title challenge against Moorer took place on November 5 in Las Vegas, Nevada, with Foreman wearing the same red trunks he had worn in his title loss to Ali 20 years earlier. This time, however, Foreman was a substantial underdog. For nine rounds, Moorer easily outboxed him, hitting and moving away, while Foreman chugged forward, seemingly unable to “pull the trigger” on his punches. Entering the tenth round, Foreman was trailing on all scorecards. However, Foreman launched a comeback in the tenth round, and hit Moorer with a number of punches. Then a short right hand caught Moorer on the tip of his chin, gashing open his bottom lip, and he collapsed to the canvas. He lay flat on his back as the referee counted him out.
In an instant, Foreman had regained the title he had lost to Muhammad Ali two decades before. He went back to his corner and knelt in prayer as the arena erupted in cheers. With this historic victory, Foreman broke three records: he became, at age 45, the oldest fighter ever to win the world heavyweight crown; and, 20 years after losing his title for the first time, he broke the record for the fighter with the longest interval between his first and second world championships. The age spread of 19 years between the champion and challenger was also the largest of any heavweight boxing championship fight.
Shortly after the Moorer fight, Foreman began talking about a potential superfight against Mike Tyson (the youngest ever heavyweight champ). The WBA organization, however, demanded he fight their No. 1 challenger, who at the time was the competent but aging Tony Tucker. For reasons not clearly known, Foreman refused to fight Tucker, and allowed the WBA to strip him of that belt. He then went on to fight mid-level prospect Axel Schulz of Germany in defense of his remaining IBF title. Schulz was a major underdog. Schulz jabbed strongly from long range, and grew increasingly confident as the fight progressed. Foreman finished the fight with a swelling over one eye, but was awarded a controversial majority decision (two judges scored for Foreman, one called it even). The IBF ordered an immediate rematch to be held in Germany, but Foreman refused the terms and found himself stripped of his remaining title. However, Foreman continued to be recognized as the lineal heavyweight champion.
In 1996, Foreman returned to Tokyo, scoring an easy win over the unrated Crawford Grimsley by a 12-round decision. In 1997, he faced contender Lou Savarese, winning a close decision in a grueling, competitive encounter. Then, yet another opportunity came Foreman’s way as the WBC decided to match him against Shannon Briggs in a 1997 “eliminator bout” for the right to face WBC champion Lennox Lewis. After 12 rounds, in which Foreman consistently rocked Briggs with power punches, almost everyone at ringside saw Foreman as the clear winner.[18] Once again there was a controversial decision—but this time it went in favor of Foreman’s opponent, with Briggs awarded a points win. Foreman had fought for the last time, at the age of 48.
[edit] Second retirementForeman was gracious and philosophical in his loss to Briggs, but announced his “final” retirement shortly afterward. However, he did plan a return bout against Larry Holmes in 1999, scheduled to take place at the Houston Astrodome on pay per view. The fight was to be billed as “The Birthday Bash” due to both fighters’ upcoming birthdays. Foreman was set to make $10 million and Holmes was to make $4 million, but negotiations fell through and the fight was cancelled. With a continuing affinity for the sport, Foreman became a respected boxing analyst for HBO.
Foreman said he had no plans to resume his career as a boxer, but then announced in February 2004 that he was training for one more comeback fight to demonstrate that the age of 55, like 40, is not a “death sentence.” The bout, against an unspecified opponent (rumored to be the now late Trevor Berbick), never materialized (it was widely thought that Foreman’s wife had been a major factor in the change of plans). Having severed his relationship with HBO to pursue other opportunities, George Foreman and the sport of boxing finally went their separate ways.
[edit] Family
Foreman speaking in Houston, Texas in September 2009Foreman has 11 children, and each of his five sons is named George: George Jr., George III, George IV, George V, and George VI. His four younger sons are distinguished from one another by the nicknames “Monk”, “Big Wheel”, “Red”, and “Little Joey”. Also of issue in his marriage are two daughters named Natalia and Leola. He also has three daughters from a separate relationship: Michi, Freeda, and Georgetta. He also adopted a daughter, Isabella Brandie Lilja (Foreman), in 2009.[citation needed]
[edit] EntrepreneurshipWhen Foreman came back from retirement he argued that his success was due to his healthy eating which made him a perfect fit for Russell Hobbs Inc. who were looking for a spokesperson for their fat-reducing grill.
The George Foreman grill has resulted in sales of over 100 million units since it was first launched, a feat that was achieved in a little over 15 years. Although Foreman has never confirmed exactly how much he has earned from the endorsement, what is known is that Salton Inc paid him $137 million in 1999 in order to buy out the right to use his name. Previous to that he was being paid about 40% of the profits on each grill sold (earning him $4.5 million a month in payouts at its peak) so it is estimated he has made a total of over $200 million from the endorsement, a sum that is substantially more than he earned as a boxer
Mike Tyson, Heavyweight Boxing Champion Leave a comment
Michael Gerard “Mike” Tyson (also known as Malik Abdul Aziz) (born June 30, 1966) is a retired American professional boxer . Tyson is a former undisputed heavyweight champion of the world and holds the record as the youngest boxer to win the WBC , WBA and IBF heavyweight titles, he was 20 years, 4 months and 22 days old. Tyson won his first 19 professional bouts by knockout, with 12 of them occurring in the first round. He won the WBC title in 1986 after defeating Trevor Berbick by a TKO in the second round. In 1987, Tyson added the WBA and IBF titles after defeating James Smith and Tony Tucker . He was the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold and only Heavyweight to individually unify the WBA, WBC and IBF titles.
In 1988, Tyson became the lineal champion when he knocked out Michael Spinks in the first 91 seconds of the fight. Tyson successfully defended the world heavyweight championship nine times, including victories over Larry Holmes and Frank Bruno . Tyson lost his titles to 42-to-1 underdog James “Buster” Douglas on February 11, 1990, in Tokyo, Japan, by a knockout in round 10. Tyson continued in his quest to regain the titles, defeating Donovan Ruddock twice in 1991. Tyson was then scheduled to take on the undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield but pulled out due to injury.
In 1992, Tyson was convicted of raping Desiree Washington, for which he was sentenced to six years in prison [2] but was released after serving three years. After being released from prison in 1995, he engaged in a series of comeback fights. In 1996, Tyson won the WBC and WBA titles after defeating Frank Bruno and Bruce Seldon by knockout. After being stripped of the WBC title, Tyson lost his WBA crown to Evander Holyfield in November, 1996 by an 11th round TKO. Their 1997 rematch ended when Tyson was disqualified for biting off part of Holyfield’s ear.
In 2002, he fought for the world heavyweight title at the age of 35, losing by knockout to Lennox Lewis . Tyson retired from professional boxing in 2006 after he was knocked out in consecutive matches against Danny Williams and Kevin McBride . Tyson declared bankruptcy in 2003, despite receiving over US$30 million for several of his fights and $300 million during his career.
Throughout his career, Tyson became well known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior both inside and outside the ring. Tyson is considered to have been one of the best heavyweight boxers of all time. [3] He is ranked No. 16 on The Ring ‘s list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. [4]
Early years
Tyson was born in Brooklyn , New York City. He has a brother, Rodney, who is five years older than he. His sister, Denise, died of a heart attack at age 25 in 1991. [5] Tyson’s father, Jimmy Kirkpatrick, abandoned his family when Tyson was 2, leaving his mother, Lorna Smith Tyson, to care for them on her own. [6] The family lived in Bedford-Stuyvesant until their financial burdens necessitated a move to Brownsville when Tyson was 10 years old. [7] Tyson’s mother died six years later, leaving 16-year-old Tyson in the care of boxing manager and trainer Cus D’Amato , who would become his legal guardian. Tyson has been quoted saying, “I never saw my mother happy with me and proud of me for doing something: She only knew me as being a wild kid running the streets, coming home with new clothes that she knew I didn’t pay for. I never got a chance to talk to her or know about her. Professionally, it has no effect, but it’s crushing emotionally and personally.” [8]
Throughout his childhood, Tyson lived in and around high-crime neighborhoods. According to an interview in Details his first fight was with a bigger youth who had pulled the head off one of Tyson’s pigeons. [9] He was repeatedly caught committing petty crimes and fighting those who ridiculed his high-pitched voice and lisp . By the age of 13, he had been arrested 38 times. [10] He ended up at the Tryon School for Boys in Johnstown , New York. It was at the school that Tyson’s emerging boxing ability was discovered by Bobby Stewart, a juvenile detention center counselor and former boxer. [6] Stewart considered Tyson to be an outstanding fighter and trained him for a few months before introducing him to Cus D’Amato . [6]
Tyson was later removed from the reform school by Cus D’Amato. [11] Kevin Rooney also trained Tyson, and he was occasionally assisted by Teddy Atlas , although he was dismissed by D’Amato when Tyson was 15. Rooney eventually took over all training duties for the young fighter.
Tyson’s brother is a physician assistant in the trauma center of the Los Angeles County-University of Southern California Medical Center . [12] He has always been very supportive of his brother’s career and was often seen at Tyson’s boxing matches in Las Vegas , Nevada . When asked about their relationship, Mike has been quoted saying, “My brother and I see each other occasionally and we love each other,” and “My brother was always something and I was nothing.” [13]
Education
Although Mike Tyson dropped out of high school as a junior and never graduated, in 1989, along with Don King , he was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Humane letters from Central State University , in Wilberforce, Ohio by university President Arthur E. Thomas. [14]
Career
Amateur career
Tyson competed at the 1981 and 1982 Junior Olympic Games, and won the gold medal twice: in 1981 against Joe Cortez and in 1982 against Kelton Brown, whose corner threw in the towel within the first round. He holds the Junior Olympic quickest knockout record with 8 seconds. In addition he won every bout at the Junior Olympic Games by knockout.
He fought Henry Tillman twice as an amateur losing both bouts by close decision. Tillman went on to win heavyweight Gold at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.
Rise to stardom
Tyson made his professional debut as an 18 year old on March 6, 1985, in Albany , New York. He defeated Hector Mercedes via a first round knockout . [6] He had 15 bouts in his first year as a professional. Fighting frequently, Tyson won 26 of his first 28 fights by KO/TKO – 16 in the first round. [15] The quality of his opponents gradually increased to journeyman fighters and borderline contenders, [15] like James Tillis , David Jaco , Jesse Ferguson , Mitch Green and Marvis Frazier . His win streak attracted media attention, leading to his being billed as the next great heavyweight champion. D’Amato died in November 1985, relatively early into Tyson’s professional career; some speculate that his death was the genesis of many of the troubles Tyson was to experience later as his life and career progressed. [16]
Tyson’s first nationally televised bout took place on February 16, 1986, at Houston Field House in Troy , New York against journeyman heavyweight Jesse Ferguson . Tyson knocked down Ferguson with an uppercut in the fifth round that broke Ferguson’s nose. [17] During the sixth round, Ferguson began to hold and clinch Tyson in an apparent attempt to avoid further punishment. After admonishing Ferguson several times to obey his commands to box, the referee finally stopped the fight near the middle of the sixth round. Initially ruled a win for Tyson by disqualification (DQ) of his opponent, the ruling was subsequently “adjusted” as a win by technical knockout (TKO) after Tyson’s corner protested that a DQ win would end Tyson’s string of knockout victories, and that a knockout would have been the inevitable result. The rationale offered for the revised outcome was that the fight was actually stopped because Ferguson could not (rather than would not) continue boxing.
On November 22, 1986, Tyson was given his first title fight against Trevor Berbick for the World Boxing Council (WBC) heavyweight championship. Tyson won the title by second round TKO, and at the age of 20 years and 4 months became the youngest heavyweight champion in history. [18] Tyson’s dominant performance brought many accolades. Donald Saunders wrote: “The noble and manly art of boxing can at least cease worrying about its immediate future, now [that] it has discovered a heavyweight champion fit to stand alongside Dempsey, Tunney, Louis, Marciano and Ali.” [19]
Because of Tyson’s strength, many fighters were intimidated by him. [20] This was backed up by his outstanding hand speed, accuracy, coordination, power, and timing. Tyson was also noted for his defensive abilities. [21] Holding his hands high in the Peek-a-Boo style taught by his mentor Cus D’Amato , he slipped and weaved out of the way of the opponent’s punches while closing the distance to deliver his own punches. [21] One of Tyson’s trademark combinations was to throw a right hook to his opponent’s body, then follow it up with a right uppercut to his opponent’s chin; very few boxers would remain standing if caught by this combination. Boxers knocked down with this combination include Jesse Ferguson and Jose Ribalta.
Undisputed champion
See also: Mike Tyson vs. Michael Spinks
Expectations for Tyson were extremely high, and he embarked on an ambitious campaign to fight all the top heavyweights in the world. Tyson defended his title against James Smith on March 7, 1987, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He won by unanimous decision and added Smith’s World Boxing Association (WBA) title to his existing belt. [22] ‘Tyson mania’ in the media was becoming rampant. [23] He beat Pinklon Thomas in May with a knockout in the sixth round. [24] On August 1 he took the International Boxing Federation (IBF) title from Tony Tucker in a twelve round unanimous decision. [25] He became the first heavyweight to own all three major belts – WBA, WBC, and IBF – at the same time. Another fight, in October of that year, ended with a victory for Tyson over 1984 Olympics Super Heavyweight gold medalist Tyrell Biggs by knockout in the seventh round. [26]
During this time, Tyson came to the attention of gaming company Nintendo : after witnessing one of Tyson’s fights, Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa was impressed by the fighter’s “power and skill”, prompting him to suggest Tyson be included in the upcoming Nintendo Entertainment System port of the Punch Out!! arcade game. The idea was implemented, and in 1987 Nintendo released Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out!! , which was well-received and sold more than a million copies. [27]
Tyson had three fights in 1988. He faced Larry Holmes on January 22, 1988, and defeated the legendary former champion by a fourth round KO. [28] This was the only knockout loss Holmes suffered in 75 professional bouts. In March, Tyson then fought contender Tony Tubbs in Tokyo, Japan, fitting in an easy two-round victory amid promotional and marketing work. [29]
On June 27, 1988, Tyson faced Michael Spinks . Spinks, who had taken the heavyweight championship from Larry Holmes via a 15-round decision in 1985, had not lost his title in the ring but was not recognized as champion by the major boxing organizations. Holmes had previously given up all but the IBF title, and that was eventually stripped from Spinks after he elected to fight Gerry Cooney (winning by a 5th-round TKO) rather than IBF Number 1 Contender Tony Tucker, as the Cooney fight provided him a larger purse. However, Spinks did become the lineal champion by beating Holmes and many (including Ring magazine) considered him to have a legitimate claim to being the true heavyweight champion. The bout was, at the time, the richest fight in history and expectations were very high. Boxing pundits were predicting a titanic battle of styles, with Tyson’s aggressive infighting conflicting with Spinks’ skillful outfighting and footwork. The fight ended after 91 seconds when Tyson knocked Spinks out in the first round; many consider this to be the pinnacle of Tyson’s fame and boxing ability. [30] Spinks, previously unbeaten, would never fight professionally again.
Controversy and upset
Main article: Tyson vs. Douglas
During this period, Tyson’s problems outside boxing were also starting to emerge. His marriage to Robin Givens was heading for divorce, [31] and his future contract was being fought over by Don King and Bill Cayton . [32] In late 1988, Tyson parted with manager Bill Cayton and fired longtime trainer Kevin Rooney , the man many credit for honing Tyson’s craft after the death of D’Amato. [21] Without Rooney, Tyson’s personal discipline declined. [33] In 1989, Tyson had only two fights amid personal turmoil. He faced the popular British boxer Frank Bruno in February in a fight where Bruno managed to stun Tyson at the end of the 1st round, [34] although Tyson went on to knock out Bruno in the fifth round. Tyson then knocked out Carl “The Truth” Williams in one round in July. [35] In 1989, Tyson was granted an Honorary Doctorate in Humane Letters from Central State University in Ohio. [36]
By 1990, Tyson seemed to have lost direction, and his personal life and training habits were in disarray. In a fight on February 11, 1990, he lost the undisputed championship to Buster Douglas in Tokyo. [37] Tyson was a huge betting favorite, but Douglas (priced at 42/1) was at an emotional peak after losing his mother to a stroke 23 days prior to the fight, and fought the fight of his life. [37] Tyson failed to find a way past Douglas’s quick jab that had a 12-inch (30 cm) reach advantage over his own. Tyson did send Douglas to the floor in the eighth round, catching him with an uppercut, but Douglas recovered sufficiently to hand Tyson a heavy beating in the subsequent two rounds (after the fight, the Tyson camp would complain that the count was slow and that Douglas had taken longer than ten seconds to get to his feet). [38] Just 35 seconds into the 10th round, Douglas unleashed a brutal combination of hooks that sent Tyson to the canvas for the first time in his career. He was counted out by referee Octavio Meyran . [37] Though Tyson has been reputed to have been out of shape for this fight, in fact he weighed in at 220 and 1/2 pounds, only 2 pounds more than he had weighed when he beat Michael Spinks 20 months earlier. Mentally, however, he was not prepared for the inspired Douglas. [39]
The knockout victory by Douglas over Tyson, the previously undefeated “baddest man on the planet” and arguably the most feared boxer in professional boxing at that time, has been described as one of the most shocking upsets in modern sports history. [40]
After Douglas
After the loss, Tyson recovered by knocking out Henry Tillman [41] and Alex Stewart [42] in the first round in his next two fights. Tyson’s victory over the 1984 Olympics Boxing Heavyweight gold medalist (and 1983 Boxing Heavyweight silver medalist of the Pan American Games ) Tillman enabled Tyson to avenge his early career amateur losses at Tillman’s hands. These bouts set up an elimination match for another shot at the undisputed world heavyweight championship, which Evander Holyfield had taken from Douglas in his first defense of the title.
Tyson, who was the No.1 contender, faced No.2 contender Donovan “Razor” Ruddock on March 18, 1991, in Las Vegas. Ruddock at the time was seen as the most dangerous heavyweight around and was thought of as one of the hardest punching heavyweights. Tyson and Ruddock went back and forth for most of the fight, until referee Richard Steele controversially stopped the fight during the seventh round in favor of Tyson. This decision infuriated the fans in attendance, sparking a post-fight melee in the audience and the referee had to be escorted from the ring. [43]
Tyson and Ruddock met again on June 28 that year, with Tyson knocking down Ruddock twice and winning a 12 round unanimous decision. [44] A fight between Tyson and Holyfield for the undisputed championship was arranged for the autumn of 1991.
The match between Tyson and reigning champion Holyfield did not occur, with Tyson pulling out of the scheduled November 8, 1991 title fight at Caesars Palace , Las Vegas, with a rib cartilage injury sustained during training.
Rape conviction, prison, and conversion
Tyson was arrested in July 1991 for the rape of 18-year-old Desiree Washington, Miss Black Rhode Island , in an Indianapolis hotel room. Tyson’s rape trial took place in the Indianapolis courthouse from January 26 to February 10, 1992. As part of its case, the prosecution documented Tyson’s history of problems with attractive young women. Tyson’s defense contended that Tyson was the victim and that Washington was a cold and calculated vixen out to hurt Tyson for publicity.
Desiree Washington testified that she received a phone call from Tyson at 1:36 am on July 19, 1991 inviting her to a party. Having joined Tyson in his limousine, Washington testified that Tyson made sexual advances towards her. She testified that upon arriving at his hotel room, Tyson pinned her down on his bed and raped her despite her pleas to stop. She afterwards ran out of the room and asked Tyson’s chauffeur to drive her back to her hotel.
Partial corroboration of Washington’s story came via testimony from Tyson’s chauffeur, Virginia Foster, who confirmed Desiree Washington’s state of shock. Further testimony came from Thomas Richardson, the emergency room physician who examined Washington more than 24 hours after the incident and confirmed that Washington’s physical condition was consistent with rape. [45]
Taking the witness stand, under Tyson’s lead defense lawyer Vincent Fuller ‘s direct examination, Tyson claimed that everything had taken place with Washington’s full cooperation and he claimed not to have forced himself upon her. When he was cross-examined by the lead prosecutor, Gregory Garrison, Tyson denied claims that he had misled Washington and insisted that she wanted to have sex with him. Because of Tyson’s hostile and defensive responses to the questions during cross-examination, some have speculated that his behavior made him unlikable to the jury who saw him as brutish and arrogant. [46]
Tyson was convicted on the rape charge on February 10, 1992 after the jury deliberated for nearly 10 hours. [47]
Alan Dershowitz filed an appeal on Tyson’s behalf alleging that the victim had a history of at least one false accusation of rape [48] and that the judge had blocked testimony from witnesses who would have contradicted Washington. The Indiana Court of Appeals ruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote. [49]
Under Indiana law, a defendant convicted of a felony must begin serving his prison sentence immediately after the sentence is imposed. On March 26, he was given a sentence of 10 years, six in prison and four on probation. [50] He was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now the Plainfield Correctional Facility ) in April 1992, [51] and he was released in March 1995 after serving three years. [52] During his incarceration, Tyson converted to Islam. [53] On July 2, 2010 he visited Mecca to perform the Umrah (Minor Islamic pilgrimage). [54]
Comeback
Tyson did not fight again until later in 1995 after he was paroled from prison. He had two comeback bouts against Peter McNeeley and Buster Mathis Jr. , which he won easily. Interest in Tyson’s first comeback fight since his incarceration was high enough that it grossed more than US$96 million worldwide, including a United States record $63 million for PPV television. The fight was purchased by 1.52 million homes, setting both PPV viewership and revenue records for that time. [55] The brief, 89-second fight wherein McNeeley swiftly crumpled on facing Tyson, elicited criticism that Tyson’s management lined up “ Tomato Cans “, easily defeatable and unworthy boxers for his return. [56] TV Guide included the Tyson-McNeeley fight in their list of the 50 Greatest TV Sports Moments of All Time in 1998. [57]
He regained one belt by easily winning the WBC title from Frank Bruno (their second fight) in March 1996 by knocking him out in the third round. [58] Tyson added the WBA belt by defeating champion Bruce Seldon in one round in September that year. Seldon was severely criticized and mocked in the popular press for seemingly collapsing to innocuous punches from Tyson in the fight. [59]
Tyson–Holyfield fights
Main article: Tyson-Holyfield I
Tyson attempted to defend the WBA title against Evander Holyfield . Holyfield was in the fourth fight of his own comeback after retiring in 1994 following the loss of his championship to Michael Moorer (who subsequently lost to George Foreman by knockout during his first defense). It was said that Don King and others saw Holyfield, the former champion, who was 34 at the time of the fight and a huge underdog, as a washed-up fighter. [60]
On November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tyson faced Holyfield in a title bout dubbed ‘Finally.’ In a surprising turn of events, Holyfield, who was given virtually no chance to win by numerous commentators, [61] defeated Tyson by TKO when referee Mitch Halpern stopped the bout in round 11. [62] Holyfield made history with the upset win by being the second person ever to win a heavyweight championship belt three times, after Muhammad Ali. However Holyfield’s victory was marred by allegations from Tyson’s camp of Holyfield’s frequent headbutts [63] during the bout. Although the headbutts were ruled accidental by the referee, [63] they would become a point of contention in the subsequent rematch. [64]
Tyson vs. Holyfield II and aftermath
Poster publicizing the June 28, 1997, Holyfield–Tyson II fight, dubbed The Sound and The Fury
Main article: Holyfield-Tyson II
Tyson and Holyfield fought again on June 28, 1997. Originally, Halpern was supposed to be the referee, but after Tyson’s camp protested, Halpern stepped aside in favor of Mills Lane . [65] The highly anticipated rematch was dubbed The Sound and the Fury, and was held at the Las Vegas MGM Grand Garden Arena , site of the first bout. It was a lucrative event, drawing even more attention than the first bout and grossing $100 million. Tyson received $30 million and Holyfield $35 million—the highest paid professional boxing purses ever until 2007. [66] [67] The fight was purchased by 1.99 million households, setting a pay-per-view buy rate record that stood until the May 5, 2007, De La Hoya-Mayweather boxing match . [67] [68]
Soon to become one of the most controversial events in modern sports, [69] the fight was stopped at the end of the third round, with Tyson disqualified [70] for biting Holyfield on both ears. The first time he bit him the match was temporarily stopped. Referee Mills Lane deducted two points from Tyson and the fight resumed. However, after the match resumed, Tyson did it again: this time Tyson was disqualified and Holyfield won the match. One bite was severe enough to remove a piece of Holyfield’s right ear, which was found on the ring floor after the fight. [71] Tyson later stated that his actions were retaliation for Holyfield repeatedly headbutting him without penalty. [64] In the confusion that followed the ending of the bout and announcement of the decision, a near riot erupted in the arena and several people were injured in the ensuing melee. [72]
Tyson’s former trainer, Teddy Atlas , had predicted that Tyson would be disqualified. “He planned this,” Atlas said. “That’s the only reason he went through with this fight. This was a charade so he could get out and live with himself as long as in his world he would be known as savage and brutal. In his world, he was the man who attacked like an animal and people would say he was trying to annihilate Holyfield, trying to kill him, when nothing could be further from the truth.” [73]
As a subsequent fallout from the incident, US$3 million was immediately withheld from Tyson’s $30-million purse by the Nevada state boxing commission (the most it could legally hold back at the time). [74] Two days after the fight, Tyson issued a statement, [75] apologizing to Holyfield for his actions and asked not to be banned for life over the incident. [76] Tyson was roundly condemned in the news media but was not without defenders. Novelist and commentator Katherine Dunn wrote a column that criticized Holyfield’s sportsmanship in the controversial bout and charged the news media with being biased against Tyson. [77]
On July 9, 1997, Tyson’s boxing license was rescinded by the Nevada State Athletic Commission in a unanimous voice vote; he was also fined US$3 million and ordered to pay the legal costs of the hearing. [78] As most state athletic commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this effectively made Tyson unable to box in the United States. The revocation was not permanent, as a little more than a year later on October 18, 1998, the commission voted 4–1 to restore Tyson’s boxing license. [79]
During his time away from boxing in 1998, Tyson made a guest appearance at WrestleMania XIV as an enforcer for the main event match between Shawn Michaels and Steve Austin . During this time, Tyson was also an unofficial member of D-Generation X . Tyson was paid $3 million for being guest enforcer of the match at WrestleMania XIV. [80]
1999 to 2005
After Holyfield
In January 1999, Tyson returned to the ring to fight the South African Francois Botha , in another fight that ended in controversy. While Botha initially controlled the fight, Tyson allegedly attempted to break Botha’s arms during a tie-up and both boxers were cautioned by the referee in the ill-tempered bout. Botha was ahead on points on all scorecards and was confident enough to mock Tyson as the fight continued. Nonetheless, Tyson landed a straight right-hand in the fifth round that knocked out Botha. [81]
Legal problems caught up with Tyson once again. On February 5, 1999, Tyson was sentenced to a year’s imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve two years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for assaulting two motorists after a traffic accident on August 31, 1998. [82] He served nine months of that sentence. After his release, he fought Orlin Norris on October 23, 1999. Tyson knocked down Norris with a left hook thrown after the bell sounded to end the first round. Norris injured his knee from the off-the-clinch-punch when he went down and said he was unable to continue the fight. Consequently, the bout was ruled a no contest . [83]
“I’m the best ever. I’m the most brutal and vicious, the most ruthless champion there has ever been. No one can stop me. Lennox is a conqueror? No! I’m Alexander ! He’s no Alexander! I’m the best ever. There’s never been anyone as ruthless as me. I’m Sonny Liston . I’m Jack Dempsey . There’s no one like me. I’m from their cloth. There is no one who can match me. My style is impetuous, my defense is impregnable, and I’m just ferocious. I want his heart! I want to eat his children! Praise be to Allah!”
Tyson’s post fight interview after knocking out Lou Savarese 38 seconds into the bout in June 2000. [84]
In 2000, Tyson had three fights. The first was staged at the MEN Arena , Manchester, England against Julius Francis . Following controversy as to whether Tyson should be allowed into the country, he took four minutes to knock out Francis, ending the bout in the second round. [85] He also fought Lou Savarese in June 2000 in Glasgow , winning in the first round; the fight lasted only 38 seconds. Tyson continued punching after the referee had stopped the fight, knocking the referee to the floor as he tried to separate the boxers. [86] In October, Tyson fought the similarly controversial Andrzej Gołota , [87] winning in round three after Gołota refused to continue after his jaw was broken. The result was later changed to no contest after Tyson refused to take a pre-fight drug test and then tested positive for marijuana in a post-fight urine test. [88] Tyson fought only once in 2001, beating Brian Nielsen in Copenhagen with a seventh round TKO. [89]
Lewis vs. Tyson
Main article: Lennox Lewis vs. Mike Tyson
The Lewis -Tyson fight that took place on June 8, 2002, was one of the most anticipated heavyweight fights in years.
Tyson once again had the opportunity to fight for a heavyweight championship in 2002, against Lennox Lewis , who held the WBC, IBF, IBO & Lineal titles at the time. As promising amateurs, Tyson and Lewis had sparred together at a training camp, in a meeting arranged by Cus D’Amato in 1984. [90] Tyson sought to fight Lewis in Nevada for a more lucrative box-office venue, but the Nevada boxing commission refused him a license to box as he was facing possible sexual assault charges at the time. [91]
Two years prior to the bout, in a post-fight interview following the Savarese fight, Tyson had made several inflammatory remarks to Lewis, “I want your heart, I want to eat your children.” [92] On January 22, 2002, a brawl involving the two boxers and their entourages occurred at a press conference held in New York to publicize the planned event. [93] The melee put to rest any chance of a Nevada fight and alternative arrangements had to be made, with the fight eventually occurring on June 8 at the Pyramid Arena in Memphis , Tennessee. Lewis dominated the fight and knocked out Tyson with a right hook in the eighth round. Tyson was magnanimous after the fight and praised Lewis on his victory. [94] This fight was the highest-grossing event in pay-per-view history at that time, generating $106.9 million from 1.95 million buys in the USA. [67] [68]
Late career, bankruptcy and retirement
On February 22, 2003, Tyson beat fringe contender Clifford Etienne 49 seconds into round one, once again in Memphis. The pre-fight was marred by rumors of Tyson’s lack of fitness and that he took time out from training to party in Las Vegas and get a new facial tattoo . [95] This would be Tyson’s final professional victory in the ring.
In August 2003, after years of financial struggles, Tyson finally filed for bankruptcy. [96] In 2003, amid all his economic troubles, he was named by Ring Magazine at number 16, right behind Sonny Liston , among the 100 greatest punchers of all time.
On August 13, 2003, Tyson entered the ring for a face to face confrontation against then K-1 fighting phenom Bob Sapp immediately after Sapp’s win against Kimo Leopoldo in Las Vegas . K-1 signed Tyson to a contract with the hopes of making a fight happen between the two, but Tyson’s status as a convicted felon made him unable to obtain a visa to enter Japan, where the fight would have been most profitable. Alternate locations were discussed, but the fight never came to fruition. [97] It is unknown if he actually profited from this arrangement.
On July 30, 2004, Tyson faced the British boxer Danny Williams in another comeback fight, this time staged in Louisville , Kentucky. Tyson dominated the opening two rounds. The third round was even, with Williams getting in some clean blows and also a few illegal ones, for which he was penalized. In the fourth round, Tyson was unexpectedly knocked out. After the fight, it was revealed that Tyson was trying to fight on one leg, having torn a ligament in his other knee in the first round. This was Tyson’s fifth career defeat. [98] He underwent surgery for the ligament four days after the fight. His manager, Shelly Finkel, claimed that Tyson was unable to throw meaningful right-hand punches after the knee injury. [99]
On June 11, 2005, Tyson stunned the boxing world by quitting before the start of the seventh round in a close bout against journeyman Kevin McBride . After losing the third of his last four fights, Tyson said he would quit boxing because he no longer had “the fighting guts or the heart anymore.” [100]
Exhibition tour
To help pay off his debts, Tyson returned to the ring on a world tour in a series of four-round exhibitions against journeyman heavyweight Corey “T-Rex” Sanders in Youngstown, Ohio 2006. [101] Tyson, without headgear at 5 ft 10.5 in and 216 pounds, was in great shape, but far from his prime against Sanders, with headgear at 6 ft 8 in and 293 pounds, a loser of his last seven pro bouts and nearly blind from a detached retina in his left eye. Tyson appeared to be “holding back” in these exhibitions to prevent an early end to the “show”. “If I don’t get out of this financial quagmire there’s a possibility I may have to be a punching bag for somebody. The money I make isn’t going to help my bills from a tremendous standpoint, but I’m going to feel better about myself. I’m not going to be depressed,” explained Tyson about the reasons for his “comeback”. [102]
Legacy
A 1998 ranking of “The Greatest Heavyweights of All-Time” by Ring magazine placed Tyson at No.14 on the list. [103]
In Ring Magazine’s list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years, released in 2002, Tyson was ranked at No. 72. [104] He is ranked No. 16 on Ring Magazine’s 2003 list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. [105]
After professional boxing
Tyson in the ring at Las Vegas in October 2006
On the front page of USA Today on June 3, 2005, Tyson was quoted as saying: “My whole life has been a waste – I’ve been a failure.” He continued: “I just want to escape. I’m really embarrassed with myself and my life. I want to be a missionary . I think I could do that while keeping my dignity without letting people know they chased me out of the country. I want to get this part of my life over as soon as possible. In this country nothing good is going to come of me. People put me so high; I wanted to tear that image down.” [106] Tyson began to spend much of his time tending to his 350 pigeons in Paradise Valley , an upscale enclave near Phoenix , Arizona. [107]
Tyson has stayed in the limelight by promoting various websites and companies. [108] In the past Tyson had shunned endorsements, accusing other athletes of putting on a false front to obtain them. [109] He has also done entertainment boxing shows at a casino in Las Vegas [110] and started a tour of exhibition bouts to pay off his numerous debts. [111]
On December 29, 2006, Tyson was arrested in Scottsdale , Arizona, on suspicion of DUI and felony drug possession after he nearly crashed into a police SUV shortly after leaving a nightclub. According to a police probable-cause statement, filed in Maricopa County Superior Court, “[Tyson] admitted to using [drugs] today and stated he is an addict and has a problem.” [112] Tyson pleaded not guilty on January 22, 2007, in Maricopa County Superior Court to felony drug possession and paraphernalia possession counts and two misdemeanor counts of driving under the influence of drugs. On February 8 he checked himself into an in-patient treatment program for “various addictions” while awaiting trial on the drug charges. [113]
On September 24, 2007, Mike Tyson pleaded guilty to possession of cocaine and driving under the influence. He was convicted of these charges in November 2007 and sentenced to 24 hours in jail, 360 hours community service and 3 years probation. Prosecutors had requested a year-long jail sentence, but the judge praised Tyson for seeking help with his drug problems. [114]
On November 11, 2009, Mike Tyson was arrested after getting into a scuffle at Los Angeles International airport with a photographer. [115] No charges were filed.
Tyson appeared on WWE Monday Night Raw as the guest host on January 11, 2010 and even made his return to the ring in a tag team match with Chris Jericho against D-Generation X . At first, the duo had their way until Tyson revealed a DX T-shirt he was wearing underneath a black shirt he was wearing and knocked-out Jericho, which allowed Shawn Michaels to pin Jericho, giving DX the win.
On June 12, 2011, Tyson was inducted to the International Boxing Hall of Fame , alongside legendary Mexican champion Julio César Chávez , light welterweight champion Kostya Tszyu , and actor/screenwriter Sylvester Stallone . [116]
On August 7, 2011, CBS aired an episode of The Same Name, featuring Mike Tyson. [117]
On the Janurary 30, 2012 edition of Monday Night Raw, after ESPN, TMZ, and others had leaked the news earlier in the day, it was confirmed that Tyson will be inducted into the celebrity wing of the WWE Hall of Fame .
Personal life
Tyson has been legally married three times and he had eight children with several different women.
His first marriage was to actress Robin Givens from February 7, 1988 to February 14, 1989. [31] Givens was known for her work on the sitcom Head of the Class . Tyson’s marriage to Givens was especially tumultuous with allegations of violence, spousal abuse and mental instability on Tyson’s part. [118] Matters came to a head when Tyson and Givens gave a joint interview with Barbara Walters on the ABC TV newsmagazine show 20/20 in September 1988, in which Givens described life with Tyson as “torture, pure hell, worse than anything I could possibly imagine.” [119] Givens also described Tyson as “ manic depressive ” on national television while Tyson looked on with an intent and calm expression. [118] A month later, Givens announced that she was seeking a divorce from the allegedly abusive Tyson. [118] They had no children but she claims to have had a miscarriage while Tyson claims she was never pregnant and only used that to get him to marry her. [118] [120] During their marriage, the couple lived in a mansion in Bernardsville , New Jersey. [121] [122]
His second marriage was to Monica Turner from April 19, 1997 to January 14, 2003. [123] At the time of the divorce filing, Turner worked as a pediatric resident at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington DC. [124] She is also the sister of Michael Steele , the former Lieutenant Governor of Maryland and former Republican National Committee Chairman. [125] Turner filed for divorce from Tyson in January 2002, claiming that he committed adultery during their five-year marriage, an act that “has neither been forgiven nor condoned.” [124] The couple had two children: Rayna and Amir.
On May 25, 2009, Tyson’s 4-year-old daughter, Exodus, was found by her 7-year-old brother, Miguel, unconscious and tangled in a cord, dangling from an exercise treadmill. The child’s mother untangled her, administered CPR and called for medical attention. Exodus was listed in “extremely critical condition” and was on life support at Phoenix ‘s St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center . She subsequently died of her injuries on May 26, 2009. [126] [127] Ten days later, Tyson wed for the third time, to girlfriend Lakiha Spicer, age 32, exchanging vows on Saturday, June 6, 2009, in a short, private ceremony, at the La Bella Wedding Chapel at the Las Vegas Hilton hotel-casino. [128] Spicer was a resident of nearby suburban Henderson , Nevada. County marriage records in Las Vegas show the couple got a marriage license 30 minutes before their ceremony. Spicer is the mother of Tyson’s daughter, Milan and son, Morocco. His other children include Mikey (born 1990), Miguel (born 2002) and D’Amato (born 1990). He has a total of eight children including the deceased Exodus.
While on the American talk show The View in early May 2010, Tyson revealed that he is now forced to live paycheck to paycheck. [129] He went on to say: “I’m totally destitute and broke. But I have an awesome life, I have an awesome wife who cares about me. I’m totally broke. I had a lot of fun. It (losing his money) just happened. I’m very grateful. I don’t deserve to have the wife that I have; I don’t deserve the kids that I have, but I do, and I’m very grateful.”
In March 2011, Tyson appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to discuss his new Animal Planet reality series Taking on Tyson. In the interview with DeGeneres, Tyson discussed some of the ways he had improved his life in the past two years, including sober living and a vegan diet. [130]
Also, in March 2011, Mike Tyson appeared at the SXSW Screenburn Arcade for the launch of his new iPhone app Mike Tyson: Main Event . [131]
In May 2011, Tyson sent an autographed boxing gloves to soccer superstar Cristiano Ronaldo . ‘To Cristiano’ is what written on the gloves, along with Tyson’s signature. [132]
Also, in May 2011, Tyson was a contestant in the Argentinian dance contest Bailando 2011 , and he was paired with his wife, Lahika Spicer. The couple withdrew from the competition after the second round.
In September 2011, Tyson gave an interview in which he made comments about former Alaska governor Sarah Palin that included crude and violent descriptions of interracial sex. These comments were then reprinted on the Daily Caller website. Journalist Greta van Susteren criticized Tyson and the Daily Caller over the comments, which she described as “smut” and “violence against women”. [133]
Popular culture
For more details on this topic, see Mike Tyson in popular culture .
At the height of his fame and career in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, Tyson was one of the most recognized sports personalities in the world. Apart from his many sporting accomplishments, his outrageous and controversial behavior in the ring and in his private life has kept him in the public eye and in the courtroom. [134] As such, Tyson has appeared in myriad popular media in cameo appearances in film and television. He has also been featured in video games and as a subject of parody or satire .
Published in 2007, author Joe Layden’s book The Last Great Fight: The Extraordinary Tale of Two Men and How One Fight Changed Their Lives Forever, chronicled the lives of Tyson and Douglas before and after their heavyweight championship fight. The book received positive reviews and claimed the fight was essentially the beginning of the end of boxing’s popularity in mainstream sports.
In 2008, the documentary Tyson premiered at the annual Cannes Film Festival in France. The film was directed by James Toback and has interviews with Tyson and clips of his fights and from his personal life. It received high critical praise, scoring an 86% approval rating on the website Rotten Tomatoes from a pool of over 100 film critics.
Joe Lewis, The Brown Bomber, Boxing Heavyweight Champion Leave a comment
Joseph Louis Barrow (May 13, 1914 – April 12, 1981), better known as Joe Louis, was the world heavyweight boxing champion from 1937 to 1949. He is considered to be one of the greatest heavyweights of all time. Nicknamed the Brown Bomber, Louis helped elevate boxing from a nadir in popularity in the post- Jack Dempsey era by establishing a reputation as an honest, hardworking fighter at a time when the sport was dominated by gambling interests. [1] [2] Louis’s championship reign lasted 140 consecutive months, during which he participated in 27 championship fights, 26 championship fights during his reign; the 27th, against Ezzard Charles , was a challenge to Charles’ heavyweight title and so is not included in Louis’ reign. All in all, Joe was victorious in 25 successful title defenses, a record for the heavyweight division. In 2005, Louis was ranked as the #1 heavyweight of all-time by the International Boxing Research Organization, [3] and was ranked #1 on The Ring ‘s list of the 100 Greatest Punchers of All-Time.
Louis’s cultural impact was felt well outside the ring. He is widely regarded as the first African American to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II . [4] He also was instrumental in integrating the game of golf, breaking the sport’s color barrier in America by appearing under a sponsor’s exemption in a PGA event in 1952. [5]
Early life
A statue honoring Joe Louis now stands in Chambers County Courthouse Square in his hometown, LaFayette , Alabama .
Louis was born on May 13, 1914 in a ramshackle dwelling on Bell Chapel Road, located about a 1.6 km (1 mile) off Alabama’s Route 50 and roughly 10 km (six miles) north of Lafayette in rural Chambers County, Alabama . Louis was the son of Munroe Barrow and Lillie (Reese) Barrow, the seventh of eight children. [6] [7] He weighed 5.5 kg (11 pounds) at birth. [6] Both Louis’s parents were the children of former slaves, alternating between sharecropping and rental farming. [8] Munroe was predominantly African American with some white ancestry, while Lillie was half Cherokee. [8]
Louis spent twelve years growing up in rural Alabama, where little is known of his childhood. He suffered from a speech impediment , and spoke very little until about the age of six. [9] Munroe Barrow was committed to a mental institution in 1916, and as a result Joe knew very little of his biological father. [10] Around 1920, Louis’s mother married Pat Brooks, a local construction contractor, having received word that Munroe Barrow had died while institutionalized (in reality, Munroe Barrow lived until 1938, unaware of his son’s fame). [11]
In 1926, shaken by a gang of white men in the Ku Klux Klan , Louis’s family moved to Detroit, Michigan , forming part of the post- World War I Great Migration . [12] [13] Joe’s brother worked for Ford Motor Company (where Joe would himself work for a time at the River Rouge Plant [14] ) and the family settled into a home at 2700 Catherine (now Madison) Street in Detroit’s Black Bottom neighborhood. [15]
Louis attended Bronson Vocational School for a time to learn cabinet-making, [14] and his mother attempted to get him interested in playing the violin. [16]
Amateur career
The Depression hit the Barrow family hard, but as an alternative to gang activity, Joe began to spend time at a local youth recreation center at 637 Brewster Street in Detroit. [17] Legend has it that he tried to hide his pugilistic ambitions from his mother by carrying his boxing gloves inside his violin case. [18]
Louis’s amateur debut, at age 17, probably in early 1932, [19] came as a light-heavyweight. A legend exists that before the fight Louis, only barely literate, wrote his name so large that there was no room for his last name “Barrow” – as a result becoming known as “Joe Louis” for the remainder of his boxing career. [20] More likely, Louis simply omitted his last name to keep his boxing pursuits a secret from his mother. [21] After this debut (a loss to future Olympian Johnny Miller [22] ), Louis compiled numerous amateur victories – eventually winning the club championship of his Brewster Street recreation center, the home of many aspiring Golden Gloves fighters. [23]
In 1933, Louis won the Detroit-area Golden Gloves Novice Division championship for the light heavyweight classification against Joe Biskey, later losing in the Chicago Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions. [24] The next year, competing in the Golden Gloves’ Open Division, he won the light heavyweight classification, this time also winning the Chicago Tournament of Champions. Although a hand injury forced Louis to miss the New York/Chicago Champions’ cross-town bout for the ultimate Golden Gloves championship in 1934, he followed up his Chicago performance by winning the National AAU tournament in St. Louis, Missouri in April of that year. [25] By the end of his amateur career, Louis’s record was 50 wins against 4 losses, with 43 knockouts. [26]
Professional career
In his time as a fighter, Joe Louis had 71 fights. He knocked out 54 victims, endured three defeats, and held the championship from 1937 until March 1949, the longest span of a heavyweight titleholder. Louis failed to regain the championship when he returned to the ring in 1950, and when Rocky Marciano knocked him out in 1951, the man who had been called the Brown Bomber was finished. [27]
Early years
Louis’s impressive amateur performances attracted the interest of professional promoters. Rather than sign with an established promoter, Louis agreed to be represented by a black Detroit-area bookmaker named John Roxborough. As Louis explained it in his autobiography, Roxborough convinced Louis that white managers would have no real interest in seeing a black boxer work his way up to title contention:
[Roxborough] told me about the fate of most black fighters, ones with white managers, who wound up burned-out and broke before they reached their prime. The white managers were not interested in the men they were handling but in the money they could make from them. They didn’t take the proper time to see that their fighters had a proper training, that they lived comfortably, or ate well, or had some pocket change. Mr. Roxborough was talking about Black Power before it became popular. [28]
Roxborough knew a Chicago-area boxing promoter named Julian Black, who already had a stable of mediocre boxers against which Louis could hone his craft – this time in the more lucrative heavyweight division. [28] Once he was part of the management team, Black solicited Jack “Chappy” Blackburn , another Chicago native, as Louis’s trainer. [28] As a result, Louis’ initial professional fights were all located in the Chicago area. His professional debut came on July 4, 1934 against Jack Kracken in the Bacon Casino on Chicago’s south side. [29] Louis earned $59 for knocking out Kracken in the first round. [30] Louis won all 12 professional fights that year, 10 by way of knockout .
In September 1934, while promoting a Detroit-area “coming home” bout for Louis against Canadian Alex Borchuk, Roxborough was pressured by members of the Michigan State Boxing Commisision to have Louis sign with white management. [31] Roxborough refused, and continued advancing Louis’s career with bouts against heavyweight contenders Art Sykes and Stanley Poreda .
When training for a fight against Lee Ramage, Louis noticed a young female secretary for the black newspaper Chicago Defender at the gym. After defeating Ramage, the secretary, Marva Trotter, was invited to the celebration party at Chicago’s Grand Hotel. [32] Trotter would later become Louis’s first wife in 1935.
During this time, Louis also met a longtime associate who would eventually become his personal lawyer, Truman Gibson . As a young associate at a law firm hired by Julian Black, Gibson was charged with personally entertaining Louis during the pendency of business deals. [33]
Title contention
Although Louis’ management was finding him bouts against legitimate heavyweight contenders, no path to the title was forthcoming. Although boxing was not officially segregated, white Americans had become wary of the prospect of another black champion in the wake of Jack Johnson ‘s highly unpopular “reign of terror” atop the heavyweight division, [1] and an informal barrier existed that kept black boxers out of title contention. [1] [34] Biographer Gerald Astor stated that “Joe Louis’ early boxing career was stalked by the spectre of Jack Johnson.” [1] [35]
A change in management was inevitable. In 1935, boxing promoter Mike Jacobs sought out Louis’ handlers. After Louis’ narrow defeat of Natie Brown on March 29, 1935, Jacobs and the Louis team met at the Frog Club, a colored nightclub, and negotiated a three-year exclusive boxing promotion deal. [36] The contract, however, did not keep Roxborough and Black from attempting to cash in as Louis’ managers; when Louis turned 21 on May 13, 1935, Roxborough and Black each signed Louis to an onerous long-term contract that collectively dedicated half of Louis’ future income to the pair. [28]
Black and Roxborough did, however, shape Louis’ media image carefully and deliberately. Seeking to ensure that Louis did not meet the same fate as Johnson, who suffered tremendous public backlash for his flamboyant lifestyle, they drafted seven “commandments” for Louis’ personal conduct. These included:
Never have his picture taken with a white woman (though he once was photographed with a white teenaged girl for a local paper in Michigan who was doing a story on Louis for her high school newspaper).
Never gloat over a fallen opponent
Never engage in fixed fights
Live and fight clean [21] [37]
As a result, Louis was generally portrayed in the white media as a clean-living, modest person, which facilitated his burgeoning celebrity status. [38] With the backing of major promotion, Louis fought 13 times in 1935. The bout that helped put him in the media spotlight occurred on June 25, when Louis knocked out a former world heavyweight champion, the 6’6″, 265-pound Primo Carnera , in six rounds. Foreshadowing the Louis-Schmeling rivalry to come, the Carnera bout featured a political dimension. Louis’ defeat of Carnera, who symbolized Benito Mussolini ‘s regime in the popular eye, was seen as a victory for the international community, particularly among African Americans, who were sympathetic to Ethiopia, which was undergoing a territorial dispute with Italy. [39] [40] [41] America’s white press began promoting Louis’ image in as positive a manner as was possible for the times; nicknames created for Louis included the “mahogany mauler,” “chocolate chopper,” “coffee-colored KO king,” “saffra sandman,” and one that stuck, “The Brown Bomber.” [41] [42] Helping the white press to overcome any reluctance to feature a black contender was the fact that boxing, in the mid-1930s, was in desperate need of a marketable hero. Since the retirement of Jack Dempsey in 1929, boxing had devolved into a sordid mixture of poor athletes, gambling, fixed fights, thrown matches, and control of the sport by organized crime. [1] New York Times columnist Edward VanNess wrote, “Louis … is a boon to boxing. Just as Dempsey led the sport out of the doldrums … so is Louis leading the boxing game out of a slump.” [1] Likewise, biographer Bill Libby asserted that “The sports world was hungry for a great champion when Louis arrived in New York in 1935.” [1] [2] Although the mainstream press was beginning to embrace Louis, there remained some fear at the prospect of another black heavyweight champion. In September 1935, on the eve of Louis’ fight with the former title holder Max Baer , Washington Post sportswriter Shirley Povich expressed American hopes for the white contender; “They say Baer will surpass himself in the knowledge that he is the lone white hope for the defense of Nordic superiority in the prize ring.” [1] It was not to be. Although Baer had been knocked down only once before in his professional career (by Frankie Campbell ), Louis dominated Baer, knocking him out in four rounds. Unknowingly, Baer suffered from a unique disadvantage in the fight; earlier that evening, Louis had married Marva Trotter at a friend’s apartment, and was eager to end the fight in order to consummate the relationship. [43] Later that year, Louis also knocked out Paolino Uzcudun , who had never been knocked down or out before.
Louis vs. Schmeling I
Main article: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling
By this time, Louis was ranked as the No. 1 contender in the heavyweight division, [44] and had won the Associated Press’ “Athlete of the Year” award for 1935. [41] What was considered to be a final tune-up bout before an eventual title shot was scheduled for June 1936 against former world heavyweight champion Max Schmeling . Although a former champion, Schmeling was not considered a threat to Louis, then with an undefeated professional record of 27-0. [45] Schmeling had won his title on a technicality when Jack Sharkey was disqualified after giving Schmeling a low blow in 1930. Schmeling was also 30 years old at the time of the Louis bout, and allegedly past his prime. [45] Louis’s training retreat was located at Lakewood, New Jersey , where Louis was first able to practice the game of golf , which later became a lifelong passion. [46] Noted entertainer Ed Sullivan had initially sparked Louis’s interest in the sport by giving an instructional book to Joe’s wife, Marva. [47] Louis spent significant time on the golf course rather than training for the Schmeling match. [28] [48]
Conversely, Schmeling prepared intently for the bout. Schmeling had thoroughly studied Louis’s style, and believed he had found a weakness. [49] By exploiting Louis’s habit of dropping his left hand low after a jab, Schmeling handed Louis his first professional loss by knocking him out in Round 12 at Yankee Stadium on June 19, 1936. [50]
World Championship
After defeating Louis, Schmeling expected a title shot against James J. Braddock , who had unexpectedly defeated Max Baer for the heavyweight title the previous June. Madison Square Garden (MSG) had a contract with Braddock for the title defense and also sought a Braddock-Schmeling title bout. But Jacobs and Braddock’s manager Joe Gould had been planning a Braddock-Louis matchup for months. [51] Schmeling’s victory gave Gould tremendous leverage, however; if he were to offer Schmeling the title chance instead of Louis, there was a very real possibility that Nazi authorities would never allow Louis a shot at the title. [51] Gould’s demands were therefore onerous: Jacobs would have to pay 10% of all future boxing promotion profits (including any future profits from Louis’s future bouts) for ten years. [52] Braddock and Gould would eventually receive more than $150,000 from this arrangement. [52] Well before the actual fight, Jacobs and Gould publicly announced that their fighters would face for the heavyweight title on June 22, 1937. [52] Figuring that the New York State Athletic Commission would not sanction the fight in deference to MSG and Schmeling, Jacobs scheduled the fight for Chicago. [52]
Each of the parties involved worked to facilitate the controversial Braddock-Louis matchup. Louis did his part by knocking out former champion Jack Sharkey on August 18, 1936. Meanwhile, Gould trumped up anti-Nazi sentiment against Schmeling, [53] and Jacobs defended a lawsuit by MSG to halt the Braddock-Louis fight. A federal court in Newark, New Jersey eventually ruled that Braddock’s contractual obligation to stage his title defense at MSG was unenforceable for lack of mutual consideration. [53]
The stage was set for Louis’s title shot. On the night of the fight, June 22, 1937, Braddock was able to knock Louis down in Round 1, but afterward could accomplish little. After inflicting constant punishment, Louis defeated the “Cinderella Man” by knockout in Round 8. Louis’s ascent to the world heavyweight title was complete.
Louis’s victory was a seminal moment in African American history. Thousands of African Americans stayed up all night across the country in celebration. [4] Noted author and member of the Harlem Renaissance Langston Hughes described Louis’s effect in these terms:
Each time Joe Louis won a fight in those depression years, even before he became champion, thousands of black Americans on relief or W.P.A. , and poor, would throng out into the streets all across the land to march and cheer and yell and cry because of Joe’s one-man triumphs. No one else in the United States has ever had such an effect on Negro emotions – or on mine. I marched and cheered and yelled and cried, too. [54]
Initial title defenses
Despite now being heavyweight champion, Louis was haunted by the earlier defeat to Schmeling. Shortly after winning the title, he was quoted as saying, “I don’t want to be called champ until I whip Max Schmeling.” [45] Louis’s manager Mike Jacobs attempted to arrange a rematch with Schmeling in 1937, but negotiations broke down when Schmeling demanded 30% of the gate. [55] When Schmeling instead attempted to arrange for a fight against British Empire Champion Tommy Farr , known as the “Tonypandy Terror,”—ostensibly for a world championship to rival the claims of American boxing authorities—Jacobs outmaneuvered him, offering Farr a guaranteed $60,000 to fight Louis instead. The offer was too lucrative for Farr to turn down. [56]
On August 30, 1937, after a postponement of four days due to rain, Louis and Farr finally touched gloves at New York’s Yankee Stadium before a crowd of approximately 32,000. [57] Louis fought one of the hardest battles of his life. The bout was closely contested and went the entire 15 rounds, with Louis being unable to knock Farr down. Referee Arthur Donovan was even seen shaking Farr’s hand after the bout, in apparent congratulation. [58]
Nevertheless, after the score was announced, Louis had won a controversial unanimous decision. [58] [59] Time described the scene thus: “After collecting the judges’ votes, referee Arthur Donovan announced that Louis had won the fight on points. The crowd of 50,000…amazed that Farr had not been knocked out or even knocked down, booed the decision. It seems the crowd believed that referee Arthur Donovan, Sr. had raised Farr’s glove in victory. Seven years later, in his published account of the fight, Donovan spoke of the ‘mistake’ that may have led to this confusion. He wrote As Tommy walked back to his corner after shaking Louis’ hand, I followed him and seized his glove. ‘Tommy, a wonderful perform—” I began . . . Then I dropped his hand like a red-hot coal! He had started to raise his arm. He thought I had given him the fight and the world championship! I literally ran away, shaking my head and shouting. ‘No! No! No!’ realising how I had raised his hopes for a few seconds only to dash them to the ground . . . That’s the last time my emotions will get the better of me in a prize fight! There was much booing at the announced result, but, as I say it, it was all emotional. I gave Tommy two rounds and one even— and both his winning rounds were close.. [60] Speaking over the radio after the fight, Louis admitted that he had been hurt twice.” [61]
In preparation for the inevitable rematch with Schmeling, Louis tuned up with bouts against Nathan Mann and Harry Thomas .
Louis vs. Schmeling II
The rematch between Louis and Schmeling is one of the most famous boxing matches of all time, and is remembered as one of the major sports events of the 20th century. [45] Following his defeat of Louis in 1936, Schmeling became a national hero in Germany. Schmeling’s victory over an African American was touted by Nazi officials as proof of their doctrine of Aryan superiority . When the rematch was scheduled, Louis retreated to his boxing camp in New Jersey and trained incessantly for the fight. A few weeks before the bout, Louis visited the White House, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt told him, “Joe, we need muscles like yours to beat Germany.” [45] Louis later admitted: “I knew I had to get Schmeling good. I had my own personal reasons and the whole damned country was depending on me.” [62]
When Schmeling arrived in New York in June 1938 for the rematch, he was accompanied by a Nazi party publicist who issued statements that a black man could not defeat Schmeling, and that when Schmeling won, his prize money would be used to build tanks in Germany. Schmeling’s hotel was picketed by anti-Nazi protesters in the days before the fight. [45]
On the night of June 22, 1938, Louis and Schmeling met for the second time in the boxing ring. The fight was held in Yankee Stadium before a crowd of 70,043. It was broadcast by radio to millions of listeners throughout the world, with radio announcers reporting on the fight in English, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. Before the bout, Schmeling weighed in at 193 pounds; Louis weighed in at 198¾ pounds. [45]
The fight lasted two minutes and four seconds. [63] Louis battered Schmeling with a series of swift attacks, forcing Schmeling against the ropes and giving him a paralyzing body blow (Schmeling later claimed it was an illegal kidney punch). Schmeling was knocked down three times, and only managed to throw two punches in the entire bout. On the third knockdown, Schmeling’s trainer threw in the towel and referee Arthur Donovan stopped the fight. [45]
“Bum of the Month Club”
In the 29 months from January 1939 through May 1941, Louis defended his title thirteen times, a frequency unmatched by any heavyweight champion since the end of the bare-knuckle era. The pace of his title defenses, combined with his convincing wins, earned Louis’ opponents from this era the collective nickname “Bum of the Month Club”. [21] Notables of this lambasted pantheon include:
World light-heavyweight champion John Henry Lewis who, attempting to move up a weight class, was knocked out in the first round by Louis on January 25, 1939. [64]
“Two Ton” Tony Galento , who was able to push Louis to the canvas in the third round of their bout on June 28, 1939, before letting his guard down and being knocked out in the fourth. [64]
Chilean Arturo Godoy , who Louis fought twice in 1940, on February 9 and June 20. Louis won the first bout by a decision, and the rematch by a knockout in the eighth round. [64]
Al McCoy , putative New England heavyweight champion, whose fight against Louis is probably best known for being the first heavyweight title bout held in Boston , Massachusetts (at the Boston Garden on December 16, 1940). The popular local challenger dodged his way around Louis before being unable to respond to the sixth-round bell. [64]
Clarence “Red” Burman , who pressed Louis for nearly five rounds at Madison Square Garden on January 31, 1941 before succumbing to a series of body blows. [64]
Gus Dorazio, of whom Louis remarked, “At least he tried,” after being leveled by a short right hand in the second round at Philadelphia ‘s Convention Hall on February 17. [64]
Abe Simon, who endured thirteen rounds of punishment before 18,908 at Olympia Stadium in Detroit on March 21 before referee Sam Hennessy declared a TKO.
Tony Musto, who, at 5’7½” and 198 pounds, was known as the “baby tank”. Despite a unique crouching style, Musto was slowly worn down over eight and a half rounds in St. Louis on April 8. [64]
Buddy Baer (brother of former champion Max), who was leading the May 23, 1941, bout in Washington, D.C., until an eventual barrage by Louis, capped by a hit at the sixth round bell. Referee Arthur Donovan disqualified Baer before the beginning of the seventh round as a result of stalling by Baer’s manager. [64]
Despite its derogatory nickname, most of the group were top-ten heavyweights. Of the twelve fighters Louis faced during this period, five were rated by The Ring as top-ten heavyweights in the year they fought Louis: Galento (overall #2 heavyweight in 1939), Bob Pastor (#3, 1939), Godoy (#3, 1940), Simon (#6, 1941), and Baer (#8, 1941); four others (Musto, Dorazio, Burman, and Johnny Paycheck) were ranked in the top ten in a different year. [65]
Billy Conn fight
“Joe Louis vs. Billy Conn” redirects here.
Louis’ string of lightly regarded competition ended with his bout against Billy Conn , the light-heavyweight champion and a highly regarded contender. The fighters met on June 18, 1941, in front of a crowd of 54,487 fans at the Polo Grounds in New York City. [66] The fight turned out to be one of the greatest heavyweight boxing fights of all time.
Conn would not gain weight for the challenge against Louis, saying instead that he would rely on a “hit and run” strategy. Louis’s famous response: “He can run, but he can’t hide.” [14] [67]
However, Louis had clearly underestimated Conn’s threat. In his autobiography, Joe Louis said, “I made a mistake going into that fight. I knew Conn was kinda small and I didn’t want them to say in the papers that I beat up on some little guy so the day before the fight I did a little roadwork to break a sweat and drank as little water as possible so I could weigh in under 200 pounds. Chappie was as mad as hell. But Conn was a clever fighter, he was like a mosquito, he’d sting and move.” [66]
Conn had the better of the fight through twelve rounds, although Louis was able to stun Conn with a left hook in the fifth, cutting his eye and nose. By the eighth round, Louis began suffering from dehydration. By the twelfth round, Louis was exhausted, with Conn ahead on two of three boxing scorecards. But against the advice of his corner, Conn continued to closely engage Louis in the later stages of the fight. Louis made the most of the opportunity, knocking Conn out with two seconds left in the thirteenth round. [66]
The contest created an instant rivalry that Louis’s career had lacked since the Schmeling era, and a rematch with Conn was planned for late 1942. The rematch had to be abruptly canceled, however, after Conn broke his hand in a much-publicized fight with his father-in-law, major league ballplayer “Greenfield” Jimmy Smith. [68] By the time Conn was ready for the rematch, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, detouring Louis’s heavyweight career.
World War II
World War II recruiting poster featuring Louis
Louis fought a charity bout for the Navy Relief Society against his former opponent Buddy Baer on January 9, 1942, which generated $47,000 for the fund. [14] The next day, he volunteered to enlist as a private in the United States Army at Camp Upton, Long Island. [69] [70] Newsreel cameras recorded his induction, including a staged scene in which a soldier-clerk asked, “What’s your occupation?” and Louis replied in a nervous rush, “Fighting and let us at them Japs.” [71]
Another military charity bout on March 27, 1942, (against another former opponent, Abe Simon) netted $36,146. [14] Before the fight, Louis had spoken at a Relief Fund dinner, saying of the war effort: “We’ll win, ’cause we’re on God’s side.” [1] The media widely reported the comment, instigating a surge of popularity for Louis. Slowly, the press would begin to eliminate its stereotypical racial references when covering Louis, and instead treat him as an unqualified sports hero. [1] Despite the public relations boon, Louis’s charitable fights would prove financially costly. Although Louis saw none of the roughly $90,000 raised by these and other charitable fights, the IRS would later credit these amounts as taxable income paid to Louis. [72] After the war, the IRS would pursue the issue.
For basic training, Louis was assigned to a segregated cavalry unit based in Fort Riley , Kansas. The assignment was at the suggestion of his friend and lawyer Truman Gibson , who knew of Louis’s love for horsemanship. [69] Gibson had previously become a civilian advisor to the War Department, in charge of investigating claims of harassment against black soldiers. Accordingly, Louis used this personal connection to help the cause of various black soldiers with whom he came in to contact. In one noted episode, Louis contacted Gibson in order to facilitate the Officer Candidate School (OCS) applications of a group of African Americans at Fort Riley, which had been inexplicably delayed for several months. [73] [74] Among the OCS applications Louis facilitated turned out to be that of a young Jackie Robinson , later to break the baseball color barrier . [73] [75] The episode would spawn a personal friendship between the two men. [76]
Louis in army
Realizing Louis’s potential for elevating esprit de corps among the troops, the Army placed him in its Special Services Division rather than deploying him into combat. [70] Louis would go on a celebrity tour with other notables including fellow boxer Sugar Ray Robinson . [71] Louis traveled more than 35,000 km (21,000 miles) and staged 96 boxing exhibitions before two million soldiers. [14] In England during 1944, he was reported to have enlisted as a player for Liverpool Football Club as a publicity stunt. [77]
In addition to his travels, Louis was the focus of a media recruitment campaign encouraging African-American men to enlist in the Armed Services, despite the military’s racial segregation. When asked about his decision to enter the racially-segregated U.S. Army, Louis’ explanation was simple: “Lots of things wrong with America, but Hitler ain’t going to fix them.” In 1943, Louis made an appearance in the wartime Hollywood musical This Is the Army , directed by Michael Curtiz . Louis appears as himself in a musical number, “The Well-Dressed Man In Harlem,” which emphasizes the importance of African-American soldiers and promotes their enlistment.
Louis’s celebrity power was not, however, merely directed toward African Americans. In a famous wartime recruitment slogan, Louis echoed his prior comments of 1942: “We’ll win, because we’re on God’s side.” The publicity of the campaign made Louis widely popular stateside, even outside the world of sports. [4] Never before had white Americans embraced a black man as their representative to the world. [4]
Although Louis never saw combat, his military service would see challenges of its own. During his travels he would often experience blatant racism. On one occasion, a military policeman (MP) ordered Louis and Ray Robinson to move their seats to a bench in the rear of an Alabama Army camp bus depot. “We ain’t moving,” said Louis. The MP tried to arrest them, but Louis forcefully argued the pair out of the situation. [78] In another incident, Louis allegedly had to resort to bribery to persuade a commanding officer to drop charges against Jackie Robinson for punching a captain who had called Robinson a “nigger”. [74]
Louis was eventually promoted to the rank of Sergeant , and was awarded the Legion of Merit medal for “incalculable contribution to the general morale.” [70] [79] Receipt of the honor qualified Louis for immediate release from military service on October 1, 1945. [14] [80]
Later career and retirement
Louis emerged from his wartime service significantly in debt. In addition to his looming tax bill — which had not been finally determined at the time, but was estimated at greater than $100,000 [71] — Jacobs claimed that Louis owed him $250,000. [81]
Despite the financial pressure on Louis to resume boxing, his long-awaited rematch against Billy Conn had to be postponed to the summer of 1946, when weather conditions could accommodate a large outdoor audience. On June 19, a disappointing 40,000 saw the rematch at Yankee Stadium, [71] in which Louis was not seriously tested. Conn, whose skills had deteriorated during the long layoff, largely avoided contact until being dispatched by knockout in the eighth round. Although the attendance did not meet expectations, the fight was still the most profitable of Louis’s career to date. His share of the purse was $600,000, of which Louis’ managers got $140,000, his ex-wife $66,000, and the state of New York $30,000. [71]
After trouble finding another suitable opponent, on December 5, 1947, Louis met Jersey Joe Walcott , a 33-year-old veteran with a 44-11-2 record. Walcott entered the fight as a 10-to-1 underdog. Nevertheless, Walcott knocked down Louis twice in the first four rounds. Most observers in Madison Square Garden felt Walcott dominated the 15-round fight; when Louis was declared the winner in a split decision, the crowd booed. [71]
Louis was under no delusion about the state of his boxing skills, yet he was too embarrassed to quit after the Walcott fight. Determined to win and retire with his title intact, Louis signed on for a rematch. On June 25, 1948, about 42,000 people came to Yankee Stadium to see the aging champion, who weighed 213½, the heaviest of his career to date. Walcott knocked down Louis in the third round, but Louis survived to knock out Walcott in the eleventh. [71]
Louis would not defend his title again before announcing his retirement from boxing on March 1, 1949. [82] In his bouts with Conn and Walcott, it had become apparent that Louis was no longer the fighter he once had been. As he had done earlier in his career, however, Louis would continue to appear in numerous exhibition matches worldwide. [14] [82]
Post-retirement comeback
At the time of Louis’s initial retirement, the IRS was still completing its investigation of his prior tax returns, which had always been handled by Mike Jacobs’s personal accountant. [83] In May 1950, the IRS finished a full audit of Louis’s past returns and announced that, with interest and penalties, he owed the government more than $500,000. [71] Louis had no choice but to return to the ring.
After asking Gibson to take over his personal finances and switching his management from Jacobs and Roxborough to Marshall Miles, [63] [84] the Louis camp negotiated a deal with the IRS under which Louis would come out of retirement, with all Louis’s net proceeds going to the IRS. A match with Ezzard Charles – who had acquired the vacant heavyweight title in June 1949 by outpointing Walcott – was set for September 27, 1950. By then, Louis was 36 years old, and had been away from competitive boxing for two years. Weighing in at 218, Louis was still strong, but his reflexes were gone. Charles repeatedly beat him to the punch. By the end of the fight, Louis was cut above both eyes, one of which was shut tight by swelling. [63] He knew he had lost even before Charles was declared the winner. The result was not the only disappointing aspect of the fight for Louis; only 22,357 spectators paid to witness the event at Yankee Stadium, and his share of the purse was a mere $100,458. [63] Louis had to continue fighting.
After facing several club-level opponents, the International Boxing Club guaranteed Louis $300,000 to face undefeated heavyweight contender Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951. [71] Despite his being a 6-to-5 favorite, few boxing insiders believed Louis had a chance. [85] Marciano himself was reluctant to participate in the bout, but was understanding of Louis’s position: “This is the last guy on earth I want to fight.” [86] It was feared, particularly among those who had witnessed Marciano’s punching power first hand, that Louis’s unwillingness to quit would result in serious injury. Fighting back tears, Ferdie Pacheco said in the SportsCentury documentary about his bout with Marciano, “He [Louis] wasn’t just going to lose. He was going to take a vicious, savage beating. Before the eyes of the nation, Joe Louis, an American hero if ever there was one, was going to get beaten up.” Louis was dropped in the eighth round by a Marciano left, and knocked out of the ring less than thirty seconds later.
In the dressing room after the fight, Louis’s Army touring companion, Sugar Ray Robinson, wept. Marciano also attempted to console Louis, saying, “I’m sorry, Joe.” [71] “What’s the use of crying?” Louis said. “The better man won. I guess everything happens for the best.” [71]
After facing Marciano, with the prospect of another significant payday all but gone, Louis retired for good from professional boxing. He would, as before, continue to tour on the exhibition circuit, with his last contest taking place on December 16, 1951, in Taipei, Taiwan , against Corporal Buford J. deCordova. [14] [82]
Taxes and financial troubles
Despite Louis’s lucrative purses over the years, most of the proceeds went to his handlers. Of the over $4.6 million earned during his boxing career, Louis himself received only about $800,000. [14] Louis was nevertheless extremely generous to his family, paying for homes, cars and education for his parents and siblings, [87] often with money fronted by Jacobs. [88] He invested in a number of businesses, all of which eventually failed, [87] including the Joe Louis Restaurant, the Joe Louis Insurance Company, a softball team called the Brown Bombers, Joe Louis Milk Company, Joe Louis Punch (a drink), the Louis-Rower P.R. firm, a horse farm, and the Rhumboogie Café in Chicago. [89] He gave liberally to the government as well, paying back the city of Detroit for any welfare money his family had received. [87]
Louis and Schmeling, 1971. The former rivals became close friends in later life
A combination of this largesse and government intervention eventually put Louis in severe financial straits. His entrusting of his finances to former manager Mike Jacobs haunted him. After the $500,000 IRS tax bill was assessed, with interest accumulating every year, the need for cash precipitated Louis’s post-retirement comeback. [71] [90] Even though his comeback earned him significant purses, the incremental tax rate in place at the time (90%) meant that these boxing proceeds did not even keep pace with interest on Louis’s tax debt. As a result, by the end of the 1950s, he owed over $1 million in taxes and interest. [90] In 1953, when Louis’s mother died, the IRS appropriated the $667 she had willed to Louis. [71] To bring in money, Louis engaged in numerous activities outside the ring. He appeared on various quiz shows , [90] and an old Army buddy, Ash Resnick, gave Louis a job welcoming tourists to the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas , where Resnick was an executive. [90] For income, Louis even became a professional wrestler in the 1950s and 1960s, and again as late as 1972. [71] [91]
Louis remained a popular celebrity in his twilight years. His friends included former rival Max Schmeling—who provided Louis with financial assistance during his retirement [92] —and mobster Frank Lucas , who, disgusted with the government’s treatment of Louis, once paid off a $50,000 tax lien held against him. [93] These payments, along with an eventual agreement in the early 1960s by the IRS to limit its collections to an amount based on Louis’s current income, [71] allowed Louis to live comfortably toward the end of his life. [87]
[ edit ] Professional golf
One of Louis’s other passions was the game of golf, in which he also played a historic role. He was a long-time devotee of the sport since being introduced to the game before the first Schmeling fight in 1936. Similar to subsequent black athletes such as Michael Jordan and Charles Barkley , Louis was also known to mix gambling with his golf game. [47] In 1952, Louis was invited to play in the San Diego Open on a sponsor’s exemption, becoming the first African American to play a PGA Tour event. [47] Initially, the PGA of America was reluctant to allow Louis to enter the event, having a bylaw at the time limiting PGA participation to Caucasians. [5] However, Louis’s celebrity eventually pushed the PGA toward removing the bylaw, paving the way for the first generation of African-American professional golfers such as Calvin Peete . [5] Louis himself financially supported the careers of several other early black professional golfers, such as Bill Spiller , Ted Rhodes , Howard Wheeler, Clyde Martin and Charlie Sifford . [47] He was also instrumental in founding The First Tee, a charity helping underprivileged children become acquainted with the game of golf. [5] His son, Joe Louis Barrow, Jr., currently oversees the organization. [47]
In 2009, the PGA of America granted posthumous membership to Ted Rhodes , John Shippen , and Bill Spiller , who were denied the opportunity to become PGA members during their professional careers. The PGA also has granted posthumous honorary membership to Louis. [94]
Personal life and death
Joe Louis with Jean Anderson , Chicago , 1947
Louis had two children by wife Marva Trotter (daughter Jacqueline in 1943 and son Joseph Louis Barrow Jr. in 1947) and adopted three others. They divorced in March 1945 only to remarry a year later, but were again divorced in February 1949. [71] [95] Marva moved on to an acting and modeling career. [79] [96] On Christmas Day 1955, Louis married Rose Morgan, a successful Harlem businesswoman; their marriage was annulled in 1958. [95] Louis’s final marriage – to Martha Jefferson, a lawyer from Los Angeles, on St. Patrick’s Day 1959 – lasted until his death. They had a child and also named him Joe Jr. The younger Joe Louis Barrow Jr. lives in New York city and is involved in boxing. [87] [95]
Though married four times, Louis discreetly enjoyed the company of both African-American and white women, including Lena Horne , Sonja Henie , and Lana Turner . [21] [87]
Joe Louis’ headstone in Arlington National Cemetery , Virginia
In 1953, Robert Gordon directed a movie about Louis’s life, The Joe Louis Story . The movie, filmed in Hollywood , starred Golden Gloves fighter Coley Wallace in the role of Louis. [97]
Starting in the 1960s, Louis was frequently mocked by segments of the African-American community (including Muhammad Ali) for being an Uncle Tom .
Drugs took a toll on Louis in his later years. In 1969, he was hospitalized after collapsing on a New York City street. While the incident was at first credited to “physical breakdown,” [95] underlying problems would soon surface. In 1970, he spent five months at the Colorado Psychiatric Hospital and the Veterans Administration Hospital in Denver, hospitalized by his wife, Martha, and his son, Joe Louis Barrow Jr., for paranoia. [95] In a 1971 book, Brown Bomber, by Barney Nagler, Louis disclosed the truth about these incidents, stating that his collapse in 1969 had been caused by cocaine, and that his subsequent hospitalization had been prompted by his fear of a plot to destroy him. [95] Strokes and heart ailments caused Louis’s condition to deteriorate further later in the decade. He had surgery to correct an aortic aneurysm in 1977 and thereafter used an Amigo POV/scooter for a mobility aid. [14] [98]
Louis died of a heart attack in Desert Springs Hospital near Las Vegas on April 12, 1981, just hours after his last public appearance viewing the Larry Holmes – Trevor Berbick heavyweight championship. Ronald Reagan waived the eligibility rules for burial at Arlington National Cemetery, and Louis was buried there with full military honors on April 21, 1981. [99] [100] His funeral was paid for in part by former competitor and friend, Max Schmeling, [101] who also acted as a pallbearer.
Legacy
Congressional Gold Medal in 1982
In all, Louis made 25 defenses of his heavyweight title from 1937 to 1948, and was a world champion for 11 years and 10 months. Both are still records in the heavyweight division, the former in any division. [102] His most remarkable record is that he knocked out 23 opponents in 27 title fights, including 5 world champions. [103] In addition to his accomplishments inside the ring, Louis uttered two of boxing’s most famous observations: “He can run, but he can’t hide” and “Everyone has a plan until they’ve been hit.” [14] [104]
Louis is also remembered in sports outside of boxing. An indoor sports venue is named after him in Detroit, the Joe Louis Arena , where the Detroit Red Wings play their NHL games. [105] In 1936, a beat writer for the Winnipeg Tribune used Joe Louis’s nickname to refer to the Winnipeg Football Club after a game. From that point, the team became known popularly as the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . [106]
His recognition also transcends the sporting world. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Joe Louis on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans . [107] On August 26, 1982, Louis was posthumously approved for the Congressional Gold Medal , the highest award given to civilians by the U.S. legislative branch. [108] Congress stated that he “did so much to bolster the spirit of the American people during one of the most crucial times in American history and which have endured throughout the years as a symbol of strength for the nation.” [109] Following Louis’ death, President Ronald Reagan said, “Joe Louis was more than a sports legend — his career was an indictment of racial bigotry and a source of pride and inspiration to millions of white and black people around the world.” [110]
Detroit Monument
A memorial to Louis was dedicated in Detroit (at Jefferson Avenue & Woodward) on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Time, Inc. and executed by Robert Graham , is a 24-foot-long (7.3 m) arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24-foot-high (7.3 m) pyramidal framework. It represents the power of his punch both inside and outside the ring. Because of his efforts to fight Jim Crow laws, the fist was symbolically aimed toward the south. [111]
In an interview with Arsenio Hall in the late 1980s, Muhammad Ali, stated that his two biggest influences in boxing were Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Louis. [112]
On February 27, 2010, an 8-foot (2.4 m) bronze statue of Louis was unveiled in his Alabama hometown. The statue sits on a base of red granite outside the Chambers County Courthouse. [113]
In 1993, he became the first boxer to be honored on a postage stamp issued by the U.S. Postal Service. [114]
Various other facilities have been named after Joe Louis. A street near Madison Square Garden is named in his honor. The former Pipe O’ Peace Golf Course in Riverdale, Illinois , (a Chicago suburb) was in 1986 renamed “Joe Louis The Champ Golf Course”. [115] American Legion Post 375 in Detroit is also named after Joe Louis.
In one of the most widely-quoted tributes to Louis, New York Post sportswriter Jimmy Cannon was known for the following statement (interjecting to another person’s characterization of Louis as “a credit to his race”); “Yes, Joe Louis is a credit to his race—the human race.” [116]
In 2009, the band Yeasayer came out with a song titled “Ambling Alp” which imagines what advice Joe Louis’s father might have given him prior to becoming a prizefighter. The song references adversities and opponents, including Max Schmeling and Primo Carnera, Louis had to overcome in his career. [117]
[ edit ] Professional record
66 Wins (52 knockouts, 13 decisions, 1 disqualification), 3 Losses (2 knockouts, 1 decision), 1 No Contest Source: BoxRec.com
Result
[ edit ] Cultural references
In his heyday, Louis was the subject of many musical tributes, including a number of blues songs. [118]
Louis played a boxer in the 1938 race film Spirit of Youth.
In the 1988 movie Coming to America , Eddie Murphy ‘s character Clarence states that Frank Sinatra once told him that Joe Louis was 137 years old, supposedly his age when he lost to Rocky Marciano. [119]
Louis is also mentioned in the song “Save me Joe Louis” by Curtis Eller’s American Circus from the album Wirewalkers and Assassins.
Louis is played by actor Bari K. Willerford in the film American Gangster .
In 2009, the Brooklyn band Yeasayer debuted the single “Ambling Alp” from their forthcoming album Odd Blood. The song makes reference to Louis’ boxing career and his famous rivalry with Schmeling in the first person, with the lyrics such as “Oh, Max Schmeling was a formidable foe / The Ambling Alp was too, at least that’s what I’m told / But if you learn one thing, you’ve learned it well / It’s true, you must give fascists hell.” [120]
An opera based on his life, Shadowboxer , premiered on 17 April 2010. [121]
The aforementioned sculpture of Louis’s fist (see Legacy above) was one of several Detroit landmarks depicted in “Imported from Detroit”, a two-minute commercial for the Chrysler 200 featuring Eminem that aired during Super Bowl XLV in 2011.
| i don't know |
What is the name of the thoroughfare that Harry Potter lived with his Uncle's family? | Dursley family | Harry Potter Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
"They're the worst kind of Muggles, oh really Albus, must we?"
—Minerva McGonagall discussing Harry's relatives [src]
Privet Drive
Harry Potter's aunt and uncle met at work. Petunia Evans, forever embittered by the fact that her parents seemed to value her witch sister more than they valued her, left Cokeworth forever to pursue a typing course in London. This led to an office job, where she met the extremely unmagical, opinionated, and materialistic Vernon Dursley. Large and neckless, this junior executive seemed a model of manliness to young Petunia. He not only returned her romantic interest, but was deliciously normal. He had a perfectly correct car, and wanted to do completely ordinary things, and by the time he had taken her on a series of dull dates, during which he talked mainly about himself and his predictable ideas on the world. During one particular date when they were sitting in his car in front of a chip shop she tearfully confessed about her strange sister. As she had expected, Vernon was quite shocked, though he comforted her and told her it wasn't her fault for having a "freak" for a sister and that he would not hold it against her. He finally proposed to her in his mother's (very ordinary) living room, it was all very emotional.
Hagrid delivering Harry Potter to the Dursleys
Due to Petunia's maternal connection to Harry Potter, Harry was sent to live with the Dursleys after his parents were murdered by Lord Voldemort . The belief was that Lily's maternal sacrifice for Harry would be transmitted through Petunia, even though she held Harry in contempt. Due to his wizarding background, Harry was treated with fear and negligence by the Dursleys; originally being kept oblivious to his wizarding heritage, and being told that his parents had died in a car accident.
The Dursleys lived at 4 Privet Drive in Little Whinging , Surrey, [1] and often went out of their way to keep their neighbours oblivious to anything odd about their family, usually explaining away anything odd by telling people that Harry was a delinquent who went to a detention school far away. Harry did occasionally update them about Voldemort and the Death Eaters. Because of their family connection to Harry and the danger of Voldemort using them to get to Harry, they were forced to go in hiding for their own safety for a period of time during the height of the Second Wizarding War . [2]
Despite his mistreatment of Harry, Harry's cousin Dudley Dursley eventually came to regret his cruelty towards Harry, and the two reconciled later in life; this was mostly due to an incident in the summer before Harry's fifth year of schooling that involved him saving Dudley from a Dementor . [2]
Known family members
"When he had been younger, Harry had dreamed and dreamed of some unknown relation coming to take him away, but it had never happened; The Dursleys were his only family."
—Harry Potter regarding his feelings towards the Dursleys [src]
| Places in Harry Potter |
What French word for a month of the year is the same as the English word for a planet? | If They Had Lived Chapter 1: Prolouge, a harry potter fanfic | FanFiction
She sent the owl.
0000
However, Dumbledore didn't get the message in time. Lily had to be out of the house by noon (according to Petunia).
Lily ended up camping at the graveyard sobbing. She had no home. Her friends were out of town. She had no clue who the human Prongs was…
She felt a nuzzle on her shoulder. Quickly, she turned and saw the stag Prongs. He started for the forest, but stopped and looked back as if asking her to follow. Since she had nowhere to go, she followed.
When they were deeper in the thicket, she heard voices in the graveyard. She turned and saw Death eaters.
"Now where did that little mudblood go?" one asked. "We intercepted her letter, so the old fool doesn't know she's homeless."
She felt a nudge and the stag motioned her to get on. She followed and he quietly snuck deeper into the forest. She rode for what seemed like hours before she fell asleep.
When she woke up, she was in bushes. Prongs the stag was nowhere to be seen and she was at the gates of a large manor.
Suddenly, thunder rumbled. Looking up, she saw dark clouds rolling in. As she got up, she found a piece of parchment on the ground. Picking it up, she read it.
My redheaded beauty,
I see you have met my non-pet familiar. I was deeply honored you named him after me. Unfortunately, I had to bring him home. He has a play date with Moony's familiar, though I believe he would rather stay with you. However, a promise is a promise.
As for why you are where you are, allow me to explain. My father works at the Ministry. The place is swarming with Death Eaters, much as the Minister likes to deny it. He overheard them talking about intercepting the 'Evans girl's letter' and I overheard him talking to my mother. As Prongs the stag took you away, my father and a team of aurors had planed to apprehend these abusers of magic in the hopes that they wouldn't be too late. I didn't want the risk, so I had my familiar bring you to the safest place I could think of.
Now, I must warn you. You may not like it at first considering the family, but let me be the first to assure you that you would be perfectly safe. The man of the house is a skilled auror, as good as my father. The woman of the house is a doting mother and trained healer. As for the heir…well, let me assure you that his personality at school can be described as being on the other side of the looking glass. Please explain to whoever answers the door of your dilemma and you will be guaranteed safety. There are enough wards on the house to rival Gringotts and Hogwarts combined. And should any school children in the house ask why you are there, tell them that Prongs sent you.
I am yours forever,
Lily smiled and walked over to the gate.
Then it started to rain.
"State your name!" the lion on the gate said.
"L-Lily Evans. I was sent here by Prongs. I have nowhere to go and Death Eaters are after me because I'm muggleborn."
The gates opened and she entered.
"You are safe here Lily Evans." The gate said as it closed
Lily walked up to the large doors that towered over her. She carefully knocked on the door
The door opened to reveal a redheaded woman with hazel eyes.
"May I help you, Young Lady?" she asked.
"Please." Lily said almost begging. "My parents were killed by You-Know-Who and my sister has more or less disowned me. I have nowhere to go and all my friends are out of town. I was brought here by the familiar of my secret admirer under the understanding that this was the safest place."
"Calm down." The woman said. "Getting excited in your condition in this rain is not healthy. Come inside and we'll get you dried off and you can tell me everything over a nice cup of tea."
"Thank you Mrs…"
Once Lily was dried, Elizabeth handed her a cup of warm tea.
"Thank you Ma'am." Lily said
"Now, why don't you tell me what's the trouble?" Elizabeth said.
"My name is Lily Evans." Lily said. "I'm a muggleborn witch"
"I'm afraid I'm going to have to stop you for a brief moment." Elizabeth said.
She walked over to a portrait.
"Eric?" she requested.
A man who reminded Lily of Potter appeared.
"Yes Liz?" Eric said
"please go to the Ministry and then Hogwarts to tell Charles and Albus that Miss. Evans is here safe and sound."
"Yes Ma'am." Eric said before vanishing.
"Sorry about that." Elizabeth apologized. "Please continue."
"Anyways," Lily said. "My parents were murdered by You-Know-Who's men. My sister is getting married. Both she and her fiancé hate magic. She's always calling me a freak. And my friends are currently out of the country. I have nowhere to go."
"Well, you can stay here for as long as you like. My son usually keeps to himself during the summer. For the time being…do you like books?"
"Yes Ma'am." She said.
"Then you'll love our library." She said pointing to the double doors. "I'll get the house elves to prepare a room for you."
"Thank you." Lily said finishing her tea and going into the library.
She walked straight into heaven.
BOOKS!
She grabbed a book off the shelf on magical creatures and started reading unaware of the observer on the second floor landing.
Suddenly her head snapped from the book and she pulled out her letter.
his personality at school can be described as being on the other side of the looking glass.
KNOCK KNOCK
She got up and went to the door to see who was entering. She nearly dropped her book when she heard Elizabeth say, "Hello Sirius. What brings you here?"
"I can't take it anymore Mrs. P!" Sirius said, to Lily's surprise, sounding desperate. "My brother…there's this illegal club for upcoming Death Eaters…Regulus joined them. My parents are so proud, it's sickening."
"Well, come on in and we'll get you dried off. Trixy."
"Yes Mistress Lizzy?"
"Please tell James that Sirius is here." Elizabeth told the elf before turning to Sirius. "Are you SURE, Sirius?"
"Yes. His older student 'tutor' stopped by and gave the 'good news' to my parents."
"Who's the tutor?"
"Snape." Sirius said. "As if it's not bad enough attempting a more legal form of the Cruciatus on first years. Now he's teaching my own brother to do it."
"What do you mean a more legal form of the Cruciatus?" Elizabeth asked.
"Sirius?" James Potter's voice came. "What did your parents do this time?"
"Allow Snivillus to teach Regulus 'Cruciminum.'" Sirius said.
"James." Elizabeth said warningly.
"What?" James asked innocently.
"What are you hiding? I know that look. And Sirius mentioned that Snape attempted it on first years."
"You TOLD her?!" James asked
"I didn't say what happened." Sirius said.
James sighed. "It was shot at them, but I took it."
"Are you okay?!" Elizabeth asked in horror.
"Yeah. It happened last year, Mum. Don't worry."
"Why didn't you say anything, James Andrew Potter?"
Lily's suspicions were confirmed.
"Remus told Aunt Minerva it was a different curse and I asked the others not to tell. It didn't hurt THAT much."
"Better than Remus' deranged rabbit?" Sirius asked
"Okay. A LITTLE worse." James said.
"Why didn't you go to another prefect. One who would tell the truth?" Elizabeth asked.
"Like who? Evans? She stands up for Snape as it is. What would I say? Hi Evans, your Slytherin friend just used a semi-less intense form of an Unforgivable on me while trying it out on first years. She wouldn't believe me."
"Well, maybe if you were more your true self instead of hiding behind all those pranks…" Elizabeth said.
"Mum. I CAN'T be my true self at school! It's mock central!"
"Even though you told that first year the CORRECT directions to McGonagall's classroom. Or when you helped that third year get to Dumbledore's office and spent 5 minutes helping him list every sweet known to wizard?" Sirius listed
"How was I suppose to know he'd use a muggle candy?" James asked.
"The point is I've seen you be a polite gentleman at school." Sirius said. "Maybe if you tried it around Evans, she might go out with you."
"It's too late for that." James said. "I think I'll move on anyways."
"Excuse me?" Sirius asked. "Whatever happened to, and I quote, 'A Potter NEVER gives up!'"
"This wouldn't happen to be Lily Evans now, would it?" Elizabeth asked.
"Yeah." James said. "Lily Rose Evans. Name fits. She's as gorgeous as a flower and her middle name describes her personality. Gotta watch out for the thorns"
"James. I've heard it before. It got old your fourth year." Elizabeth said "My point is Lily Evans is here."
"WHAT?!" the two boys exclaimed.
"Library?" Sirius guessed.
"Yes. She said that she was saved by Death Eaters by a stag sent to her by a secret admirer called Prongs. And boys, I want you two on your BEST behavior. She's had a rough summer."
"Yes Ma'am." They chorused
The hours passed and the two boys avoided Lily. She decided to explore the mansion.
"That was a huge risk." Sirius voice came from a door.
"What? Sending her 'Prongs'? Cut her some slack, Mate. Her PARENTS were killed and her own SISTER doesn't want her."
"True" Sirius asked. "I mean…from what I've heard, Evans' sister is a muggle version of my family. I had a great aunt who was a squib and she was INSTANTLY disowned. But still, who would want a bossy know-it-all hanging around?"
Silence
"Don't give me that look." Sirius continued. "Only reasons I associate with her is A. She's Jenkins' friend and B. Your obsession."
"I am NOT obsessed!"
"Suuuure." Sirius said sarcastically.
There was the sound of a door opening.
"Red and green décor in your closest? Hate to break it to ya Jamie, but it's not Christmas. And besides, I thought you HATED green."
"If you would observe, this is NOT the same green as the Slytherin color."
"It's not?" Sirius asked sarcastically.
"No. It's has more light to it."
"Like Evans' eyes?"
Sirius' comment was followed by his bark-like laughter.
"Gotcha Prmmph…"
"Shhh. Who knows who's listening?" James whispered harshly.
Lily was confused.
Lily went down to breakfast to see Sirius stuffing himself.
"Efanfes!" he greeted with his mouth full.
"That is disgusting Black." She said. "What are you doing here?"
"I didn't like it at my place, so I left" Sirius said. "Potter Manor is more fun. Quidditch pitch, inside swimming pool, closet monuments to..."
"SIRIUS!"
The two whipped their heads to the kitchen door and saw James
"You have closet monuments to Black?" Lily teased.
"Hell no." James said. "There are no closet monuments. Unless Sirius here put one of Jenkins in his room."
"There you are." Elizabeth said coming into the room. "James, sweetheart, I need you to go to Diagon Alley to get some stuff for me."
"Yes Mum." James said with no argument. "And Mum, could you PLEASE not call me any pet names around Evans and Sirius?"
"Okay." She said.
James took her list and left the room.
"Ta ta sweetheart!" Sirius mocked.
James threw a glare at his friend then turned to Lily and softened his look.
"We'll talk later, Evans."
"Was your room comfortable Dear?" Elizabeth asked Lily.
'Yes Ma'am. Thank you." Lily said
The trio ate in silence. When that was over, Lily went to the parlor with a book from the Potter Library.
About fifteen minutes later the floo system activated in the hall and a male voice called out almost desperately.
"LIZ!"
"Charles what…" Elizabeth's voice came before stopping short. "Oh Merlin, what happened!?"
"Death Eaters." The man, Charles, said "The Jenkins and the Oxfords are back in town and they were attacked while shopping."
This caught Lily's attention.
"Are they okay?" Elizabeth asked.
"Yeah. He threw himself in front of the two curses aimed at the girls. Both Cruciatus." He said as his voice grew fainter. They were walking away.
Lily slowly followed them after seeing James Potter's unconscious form in his father's arms.
She hid behind the corner as the Potters got their son into his room and closed the door. She walked over to the door and stood against the wall waiting. Waiting for the story behind why Potter was unconscious.
About thirty minutes later, the door opened and Elizabeth was wiping away tears.
"Elizabeth?" Lily asked with concerned.
"I…I think it would be best if you heard the whole thing." Elizabeth said with a broken voice. "Charles?"
"I was at work when I got a call about Diagon Alley being attacked. Luke Jenkins works with me and had just gotten back from vacation. I believe you know his daughter Spica, Miss. Evans?"
"Yes. She's one of my best friends. As is Melissa Oxford."
"Anyways, when we got there, we found Death Eaters swarming the street. Suddenly, Luke heard his daughter scream as well as another girl. We were too far away, but we did get a glimpse. Two Death Eaters were coming up to them. Spica and Melissa were so close together…both Death Eaters used the cruciatus and just as I was about to curse them, the spells were headed towards the girls and then…out of nowhere…James takes both curses at once."
"Is he okay?" she asked in shock not caring about the fact that she was suppose to hate his guts.
"We're not sure." Elizabeth said.
"I had to dodge curses to get a clear shot." Charles said. "He was under double cruciatus for 15 minutes."
"Can I…?" Lily asked. "I want to be a healer and…"
"Sure." Elizabeth said.
Lily walked in and saw Potter in his bed breathing heavily and whimpering as if he was still in pain. She couldn't believe it. He looked so…weak. But since when did she care? Was it because he had saved her two best friends?
After a few minutes, she walked out into the gardens.
"Prongs!" she called for the stag. "PRONGS! I need to talk to someone!"
"WOOF!"
She turned and saw a large black dog with a letter in his mouth. He gave it to her and she held it out pinching it between her thumb and index finger as the doggie drool dripped.
"Lovely." She said opening it vowing to wash her hands. It was the handwriting of one of the Marauders…but not Prongs
Miss. Lily Evans
It breaks my heart to say it, but it will be a long while before Mr. Prongs is able to write. He and his familiar were gravely injured. He instructed me that if anything harm should befall him, that I was to send my familiar, the dog, to comfort you in the place of his stag. Dogs are extremely loyal, almost to a fault. I hope he would be of service.
Sincerely,
Mr. Padfoot
P.S. Please inform Miss. Jenkins that I give my regards.
This CAN'T be happening. First she gets confused over her own feelings for Potter and NOW her two comforters were also injured.
"I guess you'll do." She sighed to the dog as she sat on a bench in the garden. "Oh Snuffles, what am I going to do? I mean…I CAN'T be developing feelings for Potter. But…when I saw him just now…my heart just…broke. But I love Mr. Prongs."
The dog whined.
"True." She said scratching the dog behind the ears as she spoke her thoughts out loud. "I don't really know Prongs. But he's sweet and romantic. Nothing like Potter. But then again, Prongs did say that Potter's personality at school was like going through the looking glass."
She then looked at the dog. "You'll be here when I need you right?"
"Woof." The dog bark and nuzzled her hand.
0000
Lily was on her way to bed when she heard a voice coming from James' bedroom. It was Sirius, so she didn't pay him too much mind until…
"Snuffles!" Sirius said as if complaining. "Of all the names, Snuffles. Surely you didn't tell her in one of your letters, right? And she got your nickname right on the dot, Prongs."
Lily almost dropped the book in her hands. Her admirer was in Potter's room with Potter and Black.
"C'mon Mate." Sirius begged (Black? BEGGING?) "Wake up. Evans needs you right now. Look. I was never one to tell the girls, but…I don't know. Maybe we SHOULD come clean. I mean…It's bad enough with Evans developing feelings for you, but she also cares about your alter ego. I swear Prongs, only you can have triple lives."
Triple life?
The next morning, Lily went to go check on Potter. He had woken up the day before, but his mind had been badly affected. He could go either way now. Elizabeth said that the curses ended JUST at the mark of 'too long.' Lily knew the dangers. He could either come around or be a different type of insane than he had been last month forever.
"Potter?" she asked
He just stared at the canopy of his bed.
"I just wanted to say thanks for saving my friends." She said.
As she turned to go, she got a good look at his room. It was HUGE. And there was a large desk in the corner. Curiously, she walked over to it and saw papers scattered about. Some were maps of the castle, other were letters. All addressed to Prongs from Moony, Wormtail, and Padfoot.
Even though she knew it was wrong, she looked at some of them.
Prongs,
Full moon last night. I swear the minute we graduate I'm going to KILL Greyback for putting me through this. It's so much easier with you guys around. I noticed that the wolf missed you guys. It thinks of you guys as part of its pack. Not that I blame it.
Do you know if Evans and the other girls know about my condition? I've been hinting about it in my letters to Oxford. I just need to know so that in case she gets the connection. If she does, then we're screwed and it'll be all my fault.
I gotta go. Mum wants me to rest.
Moony
P.S. I got the pictures developed. They're enclosed.
She laid the letter down and picked up the only picture which had Lupin, Pettigrew, Black, and Potter in it waving at her. She turned it over and nearly dropped it in shock
Moony, Wormtail, Padfoot, and Prongs: Best Friends Forever/ Spring 1976
She ran from the room to her own room and closed the door and leaned on it in shock. It made perfect sense. Too MUCH sense!
Moony…as in the Full Moon. She knew about Remus' condition. She had known since 2nd year since she overheard Black, Potter, and Pettigrew start obsessing over werewolves. That took her into her own obsession. Being the clever witch she was, she had figured it out.
Then Prongs and Padfoot…she didn't know how they came up with those names. Maybe by their familiars. But she got that letter from Padfoot almost as soon as she went to go look for Prongs the stag. The letter said that he had been injured. Potter had been injured. And Black must have known about the incident. He was Potter's best friend.
Suddenly, she remembered the clues
Pettigrew almost calling Black 'Padfoot' last May
Potter's father was an auror…just like Prongs'
Black almost calling Potter 'Prongs'
Seeing the O on Potter's Transfiguration test as it was handed back. The one on animagi.
How Black knew about the stag and the dog
The secrecy
"It's me." Black's voice came.
She opened the door and saw Sirius.
I realized you know the truth now." He said.
"A-About what?" she asked playing the ignorant card.
"Please. I SAW you run out of the room and the papers out of order." Sirius said.
"Look." She said. "I know it wasn't my place, but…I'm glad I know."
Sirius crossed his arms as if waiting for her to continue.
"Because it proved that there IS more than meets the eye. I was starting to worry that I was falling for an arrogant toerag."
"And now…"
"Now I feel that if I give him a chance…it'll be worth it." She said. "And if you're worried about Remus…I've known since 2nd year and I haven't told anyone. Not even Spica and Mel."
"Good." Sirius said. "Now what?"
"Can I talk to your familiar, Padfoot?" She requested.
He looked a little hesitant. What is it with these guys? They're not acting like themselves.
"Black?" she asked.
"Evans…what I'm about to tell you…you can't tell ANYBODY! Not Mr. or Mrs. Potter. Not McGonagall. Not Dumbledore. NOBODY!"
"What?" she asked.
"Do I have your word?"
"Yes." She said. "My lips are sealed."
Suddenly…he transformed into a dog. But not just any dog. Snuffles
Lily fainted
0000
The week went by and Sirius explained to Lily about the Marauders and why they prank and why the animagus gig. It seemed like James was nowhere near getting better.
Monday,
James opened his eyes as his mother was looking him over. She didn't pay too much mind. He had opened his eyes many times. However, this time…
"Mum?" he asked quietly.
"James?" she asked and realized that her son wasn't looking at the canopy of the bed, but rather…her. "JAMES!"
She sat on the bed and pulled him into a hug.
"W-What happened?" James whispered as he winced.
"You were hit by double cruciatus for 15 minutes." Elizabeth said "You had everyone so worried. How do you feel?"
"Sore…tired…confused…hungry…and I have GOT to go."
Gently, she helped her son up and walked him to his private bathroom.
After James got to use the necessities, ate his food, everything was explained, and took a nap, he asked to see Sirius
"JAMESIE!" Sirius exclaimed happily as he entered
"Watch it Mate." James groaned "I still have a bit of a headache"
"So…maybe now wouldn't be a good time to tell you then."
"Tell me what?"
"Li-Evans knows about the Marauders. She found out when she came in to say thanks for saving Oxford and Jenkins."
James look crestfallen.
"Why don't the two of you talk this over?" Sirius suggested.
James nodded. Sirius left the room. A few seconds later, he came in with Lily.
"Hi." She said shyly.
"I'll leave you two alone." Sirius said leaving and closing the door.
"I guess you know now." James said not looking at her.
"Yeah." Lily said. "Don't worry. I won't tell. I've been keeping Remus' secret since 2nd year."
He still didn't look at her.
"You know," she told him. "When I saw you lying here in pain when your Dad brought you home, I went straight for Prongs. Imagine my surprise when Snuffles shows up with a letter covered in slobber."
"Snuffles?" James asked finally looking at her with laughter in his eyes.
"Potter." She said. "I need to know the truth. What is your TRUE personality? Please be honest"
"Will you believe me?"
"Yes."
He took a deep breath.
"The true me is really the personality of…Prongs." He told her. "Prankster in secret, scholar who could give you and Moony a run for your money, and proper gentleman in public. Prongs is me during the summer."
"So…why put on the mask at school?"
"I wanted to try something new." He told her. "Switch the role of prankster and gentleman. As for Snape…well,…I assumed you were too busy so I told Mum the truth about what had…."
"I heard." She admitted.
"You did?"
"Yes." She confirmed. "I can't believe Severus would do something like that. I'm going to have a few choice words with him on the train. But to change the subject a little…thanks for protecting my friends."
"Your welcome." James said. "Now what?"
"Now what, what?" she asked.
"Don't take this the wrong way but…you're starting to act like Sirius."
"Well, lately, he's been the only person to talk to while your Mum's at work or looking over you." She admitted. "I like to read, but I wasn't going to eat and read at the same time when there are no tests coming."
"So he's rubbing off?" James asked.
"Rather…he's growing on me." She corrected. "So…wanna try again?"
"What do you mean?" he asked.
As if to answer, she stuck out her hand.
"Hi. I'm Lily Evans."
James laughed and took it.
"James Potter. And before you ask, YES of the Potter family."
"I'm afraid I don't follow. I'm muggleborn."
"Ah. Excellent. Maybe you could answer a few questions I have about muggles at some point in time."
The two laughed.
0000
It had been three days since James' awakening and the trio was in the library. James was still a bit weak, but with the help of his two friends he was able to do stuff
"CHECK THIS OUT!" Lily called from the fourth floor landing.
She transfigured the ladder into a slide (thanks to the wards) and slid down to the ground level.
"What?" James asked
TO BECOME AN ANIMAGUS IN ONE MONTH
"What the f***?!" Sirius swore
Both Lily and James blanched and James turned to the door quickly. After a few minutes he sighed. His mother hadn't heard. Thank Merlin.
"You'll have to excuse him." James said to Lily 'It took us three years. And before you start accusing me Padfoot, you KNOW we wanted to keep it a secret from Moony."
Lily was looking through the book and raising her eyebrows at the potions involved.
"When we started the process, it was at a time when I was hiding my intelligence from my friends. If I made a potion that would rival yours and Snape's skills…" James explained
"Your image could be jeopardized?" Lily asked.
"Yeah." He confirmed.
"You know…I might be able to make this." Lily said.
"What is the world coming to?!" Sirius asked dramatically. "It's bad enough we have a GIRL Marauder, but of all people…EVANS!"
"Hey!" Lily exclaimed. "Can you imagine what I could do to my sister if I joined?"
"We have more in common than I thought." Sirius said. "We both hate our siblings."
"Scary." James said. "But don't you two worry. You have replacement siblings."
"Ew." Sirius said looking between James and Lily.
"What may I ask is the matter?" Lily asked.
"That means that you and Prongs are incestuous." Sirius said.
James slapped his hand to his forehead.
"I MEANT," James clarified. "Lily has sisters in Spica and Melissa and you have brothers in me, Moony and Wormtail."
And just as Charles came walking in (with only Lily noticing), James added
"And don't you go accusing me of incest when you are JUST as guilty."
Lily laughed at the disturbed look on the father's face.
"What's so funny?" Sirius asked.
She pointed to the auror.
"How much did you hear?" Sirius asked the wizard
"James was accusing you of incest after you apparently accused him of it." Charles said
"Sirius and I were complaining of our siblings and James just told him that he has replacement siblings in his friends. Then he looked between me and James and said 'ew' and then accused him of incest. James was JUST correcting Sirius in saying that I have sisters in my friends and he has brothers with his when you walked in."
"Sweet Merlin James, don't scare me like that." Charles said placing a hand over his heart.
"Sorry Dad." James said. "What brings you in here?"
"Just checking on you." Charles said. "School starts in a few weeks and I wanted to make sure you were still feeling up to it."
"Of course." James said. "I have a feeling this will be the best year ever."
0000
September 1,
"Thank you for allowing me to stay Mr. and Mrs. Potter." Lily said to the Potters.
"It was no trouble." Elizabeth said. "It was nice having another woman around the house."
The trio waved and got on the train.
"Well, I guess I'll see you boys after the prefect meeting." Lily said.
"Yeah." Sirius said going to go find Moony and Wormtail.
"One quick question." James said.
Oh boy. Here it comes.
"What's our relationship going to be?" James asked quietly. "Still enemies? Friends? Boyfriend/Girlfriend?"
"Let's give the school a shock and be borderline friend and boyfriend/girlfriend." She said. "But not just yet."
"Okay. Catch ya later, Evans."
"So long Potter." She said before going into the prefect cart.
"Hi Lily." Remus said when he saw her.
"Hi Remus." She greeted. "Good summer?"
"Could be worse. You?"
"Started out horrible." She said. "You-know-who's goons killed my parents. Petunia abandoned me. I was nearly attacked by death eaters. Then I find a nice safe place to stay. My host's son gets injured. I find my secret admire is injured as well as his familiar. Next thing I know, I have a boyfriend."
Yes. James and Lily had started going out in secret.
"Eventful." Remus said. "Anyone I know?"
"Probably not." She said trying to hide a smirk.
"Oh. And I'm sorry about your parents and sister." Remus added.
"It's not your fault." Lily said sadly as Remus took a sip of pumpkin juice. "Voldemort killed them. As for Petunia…well…she's a b***h"
Remus choked on his drink and every prefect turned to look at sweet, innocent, smart, non-swearing Lily Evans who had just referred to her own sister as a female dog.
"Okay prefects." The head boy said. "Let's start scheduling patrols and pick partners. Evans. You start."
"Okay." She said standing up and looking at all the choices of prefects. Snape was looking smug as if she was going to choose him. HA! After calling her a mudblood and using cruciminum on her boyfriend when aiming for first years?
"Lupin. You're with me." She said.
"Okay?" the headgirl said. "Snape."
They kept going.
Lily turned as Lupin kept walking.
"I'm amazed you didn't choose me." Snape said.
"You're…" she gapped. "After you called me MUDBLOOD TO MY FACE!? It HURT Severus! We are no longer friends. I tried to stand up for you. But I've seen you for who you truly are. I know you know about my parents. I saw you watching. I spent the summer with a family of wizards. They showed me memories in a pensieve. I know the truth. I'm proud to be in Gryffindor."
Remus had stopped and watched Lily lecture Snape.
She turned and started to storm off but Snape grabbed her arm.
"Let go." She said dangerously.
"No." Snape said.
"You're hurting me!" She told him
The other prefects came out
Remus stared to pull out his wand but before it was out of his holster, Lily had kicked Snape in the balls and punched him in the face.
"NEVER touch me again." She said harshly. "If you do…well…you'll be sorry."
She walked off to find her friends.
"where did you learn to do that?" Remus asked as he caught up with her.
"I had to learn to fend for myself." She said simply
She slid open a compartment door and found Spica and Mel.
"Hey. I heard about your little Diagon Alley adventure." Lily said after closing the door allowing Remus to find the boys.
"You did?" Melissa asked.
"Even the part about who saved our keesters?" Spica asked.
"Yep. Who would have thought POTTER of all people?" Lily asked.
0000
"Imagination is more important than knowledge." Dumbledore said "Tuck in."
The food appeared.
"Since when did Dumbledore know Einstein?" Lily asked.
"He's old enough to have known him personally." Melissa joked.
"So Lily. How was your summer?" Spica asked
"Just fine." She said. "Apart from my parents getting killed and Petunia kicking me out of her life."
Suddenly, the ceiling exploded and confetti came falling in. A large banner fell down behind the staff table
WELCOME BACK TO HOGWARTS! FOR THE NEWBIES, WE'D LIKE TO INTRODUCE OURSELVES. WE ARE THE MARAUDERS:
MOONY- THE SMART ONE
PADFOOT- THE STUD HOTTIE ONE
PRONGS- THE BRAVE ONE
AND FOR THE FIRST TIME EVER…
TIGER (no title available yet)
"Oh great." McGonagall groaned. "Another one."
"Wow." Melissa said. "A new Marauder. I wonder who his secret crush will be."
Lily, who had been eating, choked on her food.
In the Common Room,
"I wonder who this 'Tiger' is?" Remus asked his friends loudly as if to get a point across. He had no clue that Lily was now a member of their gang
"I guess we'll just have to find out." Sirius said innocently.
"What about you James?" Peter asked. "Do you know who he is?"
"I can say, as James Potter, I have no clue." He said before giving a quick wink at Lily who blushed.
0000
A week later,
Lily looked at the grandfather clock in the common room and left. It was time. As she walked the corridors, she pretended as if she was the prefect on patrol. When she got to the one-eyed witch, she casually leaned next to it and whispered "Dissendium" while hiding her wand in her crossed arms and leaning close enough to tap the witch
The hump on the witch widened. Taking a quick look around, she slipped in. A few minutes later, she found herself in Honeydukes. JUST as James said. She found an open window in the cellar. However, it wasn't large enough for a human. But she grinned.
Within the second, a fox was in her place. The vixen leaped onto the crates and slipped through the window and down the street to the Shrieking Shack.
When she got there, she stayed in the shadows and watched Remus pace waiting for the transformation to begin. This was it. She was going to witness a real live werewolf transformation.
Suddenly, a trap door opened and the other Marauders came in…in HUMAN form.
"Ready?" Sirius asked the werewolf.
"What's the plan tonight?" Remus asked.
James and Sirius looked around. James was the one to spot the fox in the shadows. He gave her a warm smile and answered, "I was thinking we could give Tiger the grand tour of the forest."
"Is he here?" Peter asked.
The fox stepped from the shadows. James walked over and picked her up gently as if she was a pet cat.
"Guys. Meet Tiger." James said.
"is that a GIRL fox?" Peter asked
Suddenly, Remus went ridged.
"We'll talk about her later." James said putting her down. "Get into position. Tiger. Stick with me."
He transformed into his stag form as the other two followed with the dog and the rat. Lily watched in horror as Remus transformed into the monster. It wasn't that she was scared of him, it was that she was scared FOR him. She felt someone nudge her and looked to see her boyfriend give her a reassuring nod.
Once the transformation was complete, Moony sniffed his companions and recognized them as part of his pack. Then he caught a new smell. Growling a little, he went towards the medium sized fox.
Prongs then separated the two and nuzzled the fox to show that she was a friend. Then, Tiger went up to Moony and whimpered showing that he held the dominance. Moony accepted her
0000
The next morning at the brink of sunrise,
Remus woke up in human form and looked at his companions. Wormtail was curled up on Padfoot next to where Remus' head was. Behind Padfoot was Prongs with Tiger curled up next to him. Remus gapped at the fox. He had recognized her scent last night, but his wolf form didn't know it. Now that he was human, he was able to place the scent. It was the last person he expected (aside from Snape)
LILY EVANS?!
"Prongs. Padfoot. Wormtail." Remus whispered. He paused before adding, "Lily."
The four animals woke up and transformed into humans. With Peter still on Sirius.
"Get off Wormtail." Sirius said trying to push the plump boy off.
He got his wish when Peter fell over at the sight of, "EVANS?!"
"My thoughts exactly." Remus said to Peter before turning to the trio that knew beforehand. "I'm going…"
"To the hospital wing and you lot get your arses back into the dorm before the others wake up and find you missing." The three boys chorused as if they've heard the lecture before.
"Moony gives us the same lecture every time." James explained to the baffled Lily.
"AND," Remus added.
"ooh. There's more this time." Sirius said sounding impressed
"I want ALL of you," he said looking at Lily. "to visit me and give me an explanation. ESPECIALLY as to why Lily Evans is allowing James Potter's hand to rest on her waist."
"Okay. We'll explain. C'mon guys." James said opening the trap door.
0000
"Thank Merlin it's a Saturday." Lily sighed as she climbed into bed.
She had just closed her eyes as Miss. Early Riser's (Melissa) alarm went off. The room was filled with groaned.
"Morning girls!" Melissa said cheerfully.
Lily put the pillow over her head. Why oh WHY didn't they have black drapes like the boys rather than the white. Sure they weren't see-through, but they still let light in.
"Mel." Alice said gently. "It's 7 A.M. It's Saturday. No classes, therefore, no waking us up early."
Lily finally found the weariness she had acquired. No wonder few pranks were pulled around full moon time.
A few hours later, Lily told her friends that she wanted to talk to Pomfrey about something. When she managed to avoid them, she found the Marauders in the Hospital Wing.
"Hi guys." She greeted. "Doing okay Remus?"
"Yeah." Remus said. "James was informing me about how you came about to be…one of us."
"We were just about to ask him the question of all questions." Sirius told her.
"Uh oh." Peter and Remus said.
"Naturally, Lily can't keep hiding forever." James explained. "So, over the summer, we got to thinking of expanding the Marauders a bit further."
"How MUCH further?" Remus asked.
"Spica and Mel further." Lily said "Melissa's starting to get suspicious of your condition as it is. Actually…she's already suspicious that you guys are the Marauders."
"How'd she figure that?" Peter asked.
"The only reason she's suspicious is the connection between Moony's name and his full moon absences"
"I guess we can allow them." Remus said. "How about you Pete? Think Patty's up to it."
"Nah." Peter said.
0000
The next day,
"Ladies." Lily said with a sigh as she approached her friends in the dorm. Alice was off with Frank. "I…I have a confession to make."
"Don't tell us." Spica said. "You're going out secretly with Snape."
"Why would I go out with someone who uses Cruciminum on first years?"
"Are you serious?" Melissa asked. "You saw him?!"
"No. But I overheard Prongs telling his mother about it when he thought I wasn't listening. The glare she gave him...if it was directed towards me I'd be telling her of the time I threaten to use the Imperious curse on Petunia to get her to slap Vernon."
"Scary." Melissa said with a shiver.
"You MET Prongs?!" Spica exclaimed.
"And Padfoot this summer." Lily added. "They introduced me to the others later."
"What's Padfoot like?" Spica begged
"He's actually pretty decent." She said. "C'mon. We have Hogsmede"
At Hogsmede,
"Where to first?" Melissa asked when the trio got there.
"You'll see." Lily said.
"But…but…" Spica whimpered as they stood in front of the shack "It's HAUNTED!"
"Would you go in for a Scooby Snack?" Lily teased.
Melissa laughed at the muggle reference. Lily was also laughing at the irony of her question. Spica's two crushes were actually the same person and his form was that of a large dog the size of a Great Dane (though it wasn't one).
"Must be a muggle thing." Spica muttered. "But I am NOT going in there."
"Yes we are." Lily said.
"WE are?" Melissa asked.
"You can't make me." Spica said
"Well?" Lily asked.
"I can't believe you made me." Spica pouted
"Okay." Lily called. "Who's here?!"
A trap door moved and a dog came out. Spica yelped thinking it was a grim.
"It's not a grim." Lily sighed
"You sure?" Melissa asked.
"In that case," Spica said. "What a cute doggie!"
She knelt down and started petting him. Padfoot started licking her.
"Look! A rat!" Melissa said pointing to the fat rat coming out of its hole. "Hello there little fella."
"You sure are good with rats." Spica said.
"What can I say? I'm an animal lover." Melissa said. "I use to have a pet rat. But Michael's pet boa ate Justin."
"I thought your rat's name was Methuselah." Lily said.
"Oh. Met died of old age. Now I have a hamster named Moony."
"And before Met was Jenner." Lily informed Spica. "But Petunia's cat got him when Mel was bringing Jen over."
"She never apologized." Mel sighed before looking up and her eyes widened. "Lily. Turn around very slowly. There's a stag right behind."
Lily whipped around but the stag didn't budge.
"Moony still in the hospital wing?" Lily asked the stag.
The stag nodded.
"that is one smart deer." Spica said.
"Moony? As in Marauder Moony? You KNOW?!" Melissa asked placing Wormtail down.
"Yes." Lily said. "I told you complete secrecy. We are in the presence of Wormtail, Padfoot, and Prongs."
"My Marauder crush is a dog?" Spica asked as Lily put her arm around Prong's neck.
"Yep." Lily said. "Loyal to the core. Want me to tell them, Boys?"
Spica nearly fainted when she found her arms wrapped around Sirius Black.
"We'll tell them." Sirius told her. "Hi Jenkins."
"YOU'RE Padfoot!?" Spica asked.
The rat then tuned into Peter Pettigrew and the stag into James Potter.
"And Moony is Remus." James told Melissa.
"I knew it." She whispered. "Remus is a werewolf."
"is that going to be a problem?" Peter asked.
"Only the fact we can't go on moonlit walks under the full moon." Melissa said
"Don't be so sure, Mel." Lily said.
"What? You have the cure?" Melissa asked.
"No. But it helps him keep his mind" Lily said.
"I think we better start at the top." James said.
0000
A few hours later, the Marauders and the girls were visiting Remus. He was relieved to hear that Melissa accepted him for what he was.
"Now what?" Spica asked
"I have a project." Lily said. "Involving you two."
"You're sounding like a kid wanting a big surprise." Sirius said.
"What can I say?" she said. "A part of me will never grow up"
"Wait a minute." Melissa said realizing something "never grow up… Peter Pan…Lily…Tiger Lily…LILY?!"
"Yeah. So?" Lily asked.
"I can't believe this." Spica said. "Little Miss. Perfect is a Marauder."
"And it's damn lonely being the only girl." Lily told them. "What do you two say?"
""What do you mean?" Melissa asked.
"Melissa Oxford and Spica Jenkins?" James asked. "Would you like to join the Marauders?"
"You will be given full access to our supplies, full knowledge of our pranks, and the privilege of asking for use of the Map and cloak." Sirius added
"What map and cloak." Spica asked.
"Prongs' invisibility cloak and the Marauder Map." Peter said.
"The Map shows the entire school including secret passages, where everybody is, and passwords." Remus said.
"We accept." They said.
"Great." Lily said handing them each a vial of a potion.
"What's this?" Melissa asked.
"This…will allow you to come with us out on the full moons." Lily said. "I'm already one."
"You're a…but it's…Lily Evans!" Melissa stuttered.
0000
"And so your Aunts took the potion." Lily said to the baby in her arms. "Mel became a wolf and Spica became a squirrel. We spent the rest of that year pranking. I spent the next summer with the girls, but saw your Dad every day. We snuck over to your Aunt Petunia's wedding and replaced their punch with firewhiskey. The next school year, we became Head Boy and Girl and made our relationship public."
The door opened and James came in.
"Hey there Tiger." James said.
"Hey Prongs." She said with a laugh.
"How's Prongslet doing?"
"He's fine." Lily said at the beaming boy who was reaching for his Daddy.
"Come here you." James said reaching for his son. "Umph. You're getting heavy. What are you feeding this kid behind my back?"
"The usual. Milk. Strained carrots. Mashed potatoes. Strained corn. Cheerios. Not all at once mind you."
The baby reached for his dad's glasses.
"Dada-Pongs." The baby squealed.
"That's right Sweetie." Lily said
The baby yawned.
"C'mon Cutie." Lily said taking her son. "Let Daddy get some rest."
James gave his son a kiss before giving him back to Lily and plopping down on the couch where his wife had been sitting. He noticed the shoe box on the coffee table. He looked in and saw pictures of his friends before and after the girls joined. He also saw Prongs' letters to Lily. Including the letter from Padfoot.
"I was just telling Harry the story of when I joined." Lily's voice came from behind him a few minutes later. "Not that he'll remember, but it was worth telling it."
He turned and smiled at her.
"So…?" she asked as she went around the couch and sat down next to him "When do we go into hiding?"
"Day before Halloween." James said "Scared?"
She nodded.
"Don't worry. Wormtail will be perfectly safe. I'm going to bed."
"I'll be up in a minute." Lily said.
James left.
Lily thought about something she had learned when she became an animagus. The animal once became reflects personality. The spy was either Sirius, Remus, or Peter. Sirius, the dog, was loyal. So it was either Remus or Peter. Remus was smart. One who would be useful in Voldemort's gang.
Then she thought of Sirius' reasoning for the switch.
"Nobody would suspect Wormtail."
Lily got up and went to the bookshelf and grabbed a dictionary.
Rat: 1. A long-tailed rodent similar to the mouse but larger, esp. one of the genus Rattus. 2. And animal similar to a rat. 3. Slang.
Lily sighed as she read the third definition.
One who is despicable and sneaky, esp. one who betray or informs on one's associates.
"I am so sorry guys." She whispered. "I just can't convince them."
000
The next morning,
"James. Read this." Lily said thrusting the animagus book into his hands trying one last time to convince him that he was an idiot.
"It's just the part of animagus having the personality of their animal." James said getting ready to leave for work.
"Now this!" she said holding out a ripped page from the dictionary with "rat" and the third definition highlighted.
"Yeah. So wh…" James started but the third definition caught his eye.
"I took it upon myself to do some research." Lily said. "Mrs. Pettigrew is the last of her family besides Wormtail. AND is an only child. Mr. Pettigrew died last year as an only child. Peter HAS no aunts, uncles, or grandparents."
"Then…who has he been seeing?" James asked. "Unless…!"
"The long sleeve shirts, the vanishing acts, his arm hurting,…" Lily listed her clues.
"Hi guys!" Sirius said coming in.
"PAFOO!" Harry squealed
| i don't know |
Which is the most heavily populated city in China? | The Most Populated Cities in China - Nations Online Project
Most populated cities in China
Related Categories:
___ The Most Populated Cities in China
List of the largest cities in China by population.
This page shows China's city population for the year 2010 and 2015. The population figures are estimated, showing the most populous cities in China in terms of number of inhabitants, not of physical size. Data source is United Nations World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 Revision .
Chinese cities are among the fastest growing cities in the world. Millions of young people from the rural area migrate to the cities in search for better living conditions and higher-paying jobs with the possibility to support their families back home financially.
keywords: most populated cities in the People's Republic of China, cities of the People's Republic of China, city proper, Urban Agglomerations of China
Chinese Cities with a Population over 2 millions.
City Name
2010
2015
Shanghai (上海), is China's most populous city situated on the eastern coast of the country, a port on the estuary of the Yangtze River. Until World War II, Shanghai contained areas of British, French, and American settlement. It was also the site where in 1921 the founding of the Chinese Communist Party took place.
Shanghai
19,554,000
23,000,000
Beijing (北京), the capital of China, in the northeastern part of the country. It became the country's capital in 1421, at the start of the Ming period, and survived as the capital of the Republic of China after the revolution of 1912. Also called (esp. formerly) Peking.
Beijing
15,000,000
18,079,000
Guangzhou (广州), (also Kwangchow) a city in southern China, the capital of Guangdong province. It is the leading industrial and commercial center of southern China. Also called Canton.
Guangdong (Canton)
10,486,000
12,385,000
Shenzhen (深圳), an industrial city in southern China, north of Hong Kong. The city was China's first Special Economic Zone and southern China's major financial center. It is also the second busiest port in mainland China (after Shanghai).
Guangdong
10,222,000
12,337,000
Chongqing (重庆), (also Chungking) a city in Sichuan province in central China, on the Yangtze River. It was the capital of China from 1938 to 1946.
Chongqing
9,732,000
11,054,000
Wuhan (武汉), a port in eastern China, the capital of Hubei province. Situated at the confluence of the Han and the Yangtze rivers, it is a conurbation of three adjacent towns (Hankow, Hanyang, and Wuchang) that have been administered jointly since 1950.
Hubei
8,904,000
10,256,000
Tianjin , (天津, also Tientsin) it is one of the four cities with a provincial-level status, a port city in northeastern China located in Hubei province.
Tianjin
Foshan, a University city and a rail hub in Guangdong province, it basically forms together with Guangzhou and nearby Dongguan a huge metropolitan area.
Guangdong
7,650,000
8,910,000
Dongguan (东莞) formerly Tung-kuan; an industrial city in the Pearl River Delta, the city is home to South China Mall, one the world's largest shopping malls, but actually vacant.
Guangdong
7,160,000
7,859,000
Hong Kong (香港), the former British dependency on the southeastern coast of China that was returned to China in 1997. The area comprises Hong Kong Island, ceded by China in 1841; the Kowloon peninsula, ceded in 1860; and the New Territories, additional areas of the mainland that were leased for 99 years in 1898. Hong Kong has become one of the world's major financial and manufacturing centers.
7,053,000
7,431,000
Chengdu (成都), the capital of Sichuan province in western central China. The city is one of Southwestern China's most important economic centers and a transportation and communication hub.
Sichuan
Nanjing (南京), is a city in eastern China, on the Yangtze River, capital of Jiangsu province.
Jiangsu
5,665,000
6,723,000
Haerbin (哈尔滨), also Harbin is a city in northeastern China, the capital of Heilongjiang province, located on the Songhua River.
Heilongjiang
5,496,000
6,502,000
Shenyang (沈阳), is an industrial city in northeastern China. It is the capital of the province of Liaoning and the transportation and commercial center of China's northeastern region. The city was formerly known as Mukden.
Liaoning
5,469,000
6,037,000
Hangzhou (杭州), is a city in eastern China, the capital of Zhejiang province, on an inlet of the Yellow Sea called Hangzhou Bay, at the southern end of the Grand Canal.
Zhejiang
| Shanghai |
"The song ""Leaving on a jet plane"" was a number 1 hit for ""Peter, Paul and Mary"" in 1970. Which successful recording artist wrote this song?" | Why is China's east more populated than its west? - Quora
Quora
China
Why is China's east more populated than its west?
Given the fact that China is the most populated country, why is the population distribution so uneven.The provinces on the east like Jiansu and Shanghai and Anhul are highly populated whereas the provinces on the west like Xizang or Tibet are hardly populated. Are climatic conditions only reason to explain this?
Updated Feb 10, 2013
Some maps of the Qin empire(秦) that we find on the internet today seem to show the 200B.C. polity covering most of East Asia. These kinds of maps are inaccurate, and are not supported by historical records. The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) were actually a small ethnic group from Western China, who militarily expanded eastward a little before Jesus was born. To be sure, China did not "start in the east."
Moreover, the conflation of the Qin with modern China, promoted by modern Chinese films such as Hero, does not make too much sense. Qin Dynasty is related to modern China the way the Roman Empire is related to the European Union. The Romans aren't exactly the founders of the EU? Unfortunately, the false connection is taught to Chinese children through the state approved curriculum. These kinds of exaggerated maps and nationalist mythologies lead to false explanations of population growth in East Asia, as well as overly rigid territorial ideas, such as where is "China's east." On the contrary, the borders of polities in Asia shifted back and forth with only modest stability.
Now why are there so many people in the eastern part of modern day China? Let me try to explain:
Qin Dynasty before eastward movement (Dark Pink, labeled as Ch'in)
Because it's in the east where we find the oceans and rivers needed to facilitate communication and transportation. These were the key ingredients to Chinese empire building, urbanization, population growth, and technical progress.
In the broadest sense, the history of East Asia is similar to that of Western Europe. A plethora of political states successively replaced each other and combined over time via mutual military conquests, international commerce, political alliances, and cultural assimilation. These activities eventually concentrated in the East because ships were the primary form of transporting soldiers, raw materials, and information.
Ever wonder why about 300 languages are spoken in China (8)? Over the last 2000 years, rulers in East Asia united possibly thousands of East Asian ethnic groups into just a handful of political confederations (i.e. "China," "Korea," "Japan," "Taiwan," and "Vietnam"). The Yuan (元) and Ming (明) tried between 1300.A.D-1600A.D to expand further eastward to turn ethnic groups in modern day Korea and Japan into "Yuan" and "Ming" subjects, but were eventually turned back, due to inadequate transportation facilities (2). Similarly, the Qing (18th century)--from whom the name China is derived--expanded eastward into Taiwan (3), but were eventually driven away by the Dutch and Japanese, partially due to superior shipping capabilities of the later two.
Suppose ship building had been a strength of the dynasties that ruled China, eastward expansion would have been more successful. So successful that Westerners may be referring to languages spoken in countries like Korea and Japan as a dialects of "Chinese" in the same way we refer to Fukianese as one (9). In all, transportation was the main differentiating factor leading to different political organization, commerce, cities, and borders.
19th and 20th century political movements (1, 4) have given rise to all kinds of propaganda that distorts these somewhat mundane colonial histories, to tell of simpler and more heroic journeys to nationhood (or divine origins). This is part of the reason why political activists from China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Taiwan today photoshop all kinds of weird maps and histories to post on the internet, to either make nativist claims on current holdings or to justify further territorial expansion into the Pacific. In this question, we are mainly concerned with modern China and see from its history that the origins of its current inhabitants is complicated, and comes from both western and eastern parts of the current territory, boxed in by several other co-evolving political amalgams. There has been contention among a lot of players, many of whom through either assimilation or genocide, are no longer here to tell their sides of the story (5, 6).
Rather than imagining that China started in the east, it's more accurate to claim that China ended up in the East because that's where the rivers, sea-shores, and canals to ship soldiers, food, and goods are located. The political integration made possible by natural transportation further promoted trade, making resources more abundant to sustain population growth. Without these geographical endowments, 18th century Europeans would probably discover a more sparsely populated East Asia composed of warring chiefdoms (analogous to East Africa) rather than a highly technocratic state capable of sustaining great cities and population.
NOTE:
For those interested in exploring the interaction of transportation and civilization, consider the works of Jared Diamond (7).
REFERENCES:
There are a few reasons why China is heavily populated on the east coast, compared to its mid and west inland areas.
Geography and Agriculture:
The most fertile farm lands are located in the north and southeast. China has always been an agricultural country; we value farm lands and rivers above all other lands. People naturally migrate towards these areas.
Here's a Chinese farmland map. The green area indicate more farmlands, yellow and orange indicate less farmlands. As you can see, most farmlands are in the northeast area, which also corresponded with areas with more population...
...while mid and west China mostly comprise mountains and deserts. The weathers are horrible -- either too cold or too dry or both. -- so one can't blame people if they don't want to stay there.
Commerce and Transportation
Unlike the United States, China only has an eastern coastline; the west is entirely inland mountains and desert. All of our commercial sea and river ports are located on the east coast -- Qing Dao, Da Lian, Yan Tai, Shang Hai, Xia Men, Hong Kong... Commerce and transportation bring people from all over China. As a result, most Chinese international metropolises are also located along the east coastline.
History
Chinese or Hua Xia culture started around two rivers: the Yang zi River, and the Yellow River. Here's a map of Chinese territory during the Qin Dynasty around 200 BC.
As you can see, we started out around east China, which remains the most populated, most developed area of China.
So, you combine tradition, history, commerce, farmland and weather all together, and the east is just a lot more habitable compared to the west.
9.4k Views · View Upvotes · Answer requested by
Written Feb 10, 2013
I would say it's due to people seeking employment in the heavily industrialised coastal areas. China has been undergoing mass urbanisation in the last three decades as former farmers leave rural areas for more lucrative employment in urban areas. China's economy is focused on manufacturing, and so most of these migrants end up in maunfacturing jobs. Once goods are manufactured they need to be transported to overseas markets. The need for easy access to ports means that factories are built near the coast, and so people flock to coastal cities where the opportunity for employment is higher.
While other factors such as access to resources, terrain and climate probably drove population movements in the past, in modern times I would say it is the search for employment that drives population movements - and most of those jobs are in factories in coastal regions.
Interestingly, I'm sure this trend will reverse or stabilise as the domestic consumer market grows and overseas exports become less important. Factories will probably move inland, as is already being witnessed in cities like Chongqing and Kunming.
| i don't know |
Royal Chantenay is a variety of what fruit or vegetable? | Kings Seeds - Carrot Chantenay Royal
Carrot Chantenay Royal
Products / Carrot Seeds / Carrot Chantenay Royal
Youtube video
Description
STAR BUY.
Chantenay Royal is an excellent all rounder, this carrot is a fine selected variety with all the attributes of Chantenay Red Cored but with improved uniformity. It has very smooth skin and produces heavy yields of sweet tasting carrots.
One of the least demanding of crops and probably the most widely grown vegetable in all British gardens. If it has any draw back, it would be the possibility of attack by carrot fly.
April to July
WHERE TO SOW
Sow thinly direct into the growing site 2cm (¾"") deep in rows 30cm (12"") apart. If possible sow carefully so that thinning is not necessary .
WHAT TO DO NEXT
Carrot fly is attracted by the smell whilst thinning, If you have to thin the seedlings, do so in the evening. Water before thinning and remove all the debris. Do not transplant. Aim for roots 5-7cm (2-3"") apart. Young Carrots can always be pulled alternately to 'thin as you eat'.
MATURITY
High in antioxidant beta-carotene which converts to vitamin A in the body.
HANDY TIP
Never grow carrots on ground that has recently had manure spread as he roots will fork in search of goodness.
Email: [email protected]
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| Carrot |
Which author created the crime solving character Lord Peter Wimsey? | Red Cored Chantenay Carrot Seeds and Plants, Vegetable Gardening at Burpee.com
Growing information
How to Sow
Carrots can be sown early, after danger of heavy frost is over. Sow every two weeks thereafter for continuous harvest, or simply sow a second crop in midsummer for fall harvest. In frost free areas, sow in fall.
Carrots do not like to be transplanted and are best sown directly into the garden bed. Sow carrot seeds in deep, well-worked soil in full sun. Straight roots require soil that is light, loosened deeply, and free of stones, so prepare a carrot planting thoroughly. Consider using a soil amendment such as compost if your soil is heavy. If you choose long carrot varieties, your soil will need to be worked more deeply.
Sow thinly in rows 12 inches apart and cover with ½ inch of fine soil. Firm lightly and keep evenly moist.
Since seedlings have fine leaves it may be beneficial to plant radish along with your carrot seed. The radishes will be harvested well before carrots form and act as a guide to the carrot row.
Seedlings emerge in 14-21 days.
Thin carrot plants to stand 1 inch apart when seedlings are 3 inches high.
How to Grow
Keep weeds under control during the growing season. Weeds compete with plants for water, space and nutrients, so control them by either cultivating often or use a mulch to prevent their seeds from germinating.
Deep, consistent watering and soil well-enriched with compost help carrots form high quality roots by encouraging lush leafy tops that shade the roots, helping to prevent "green shoulders."
Keep plants well watered during dry periods to promote uninterrupted growth. Plants need about 1 inch of rain per week during the growing season. Use a rain gauge to check to see if you need to add water. It’s best to water with a drip or trickle system that delivers water at low pressure at the soil level. If you water with overhead sprinklers, water early in the day so the foliage has time to dry off before evening, to minimize disease problems. Keep the soil moist but not saturated.
Monitor for pests and diseases. Check with your local Cooperative Extension Service for pest controls recommended for your area.
Harvest and Preserving Tips
To make harvesting easier, soak your carrot bed with water before pulling. Twist the tops off while pulling the roots up.
You can leave carrots in the ground after the first frost. In cold climates, pull carrots up before the ground freezes. In warm climates, you can harvest carrots all winter.
Cut the greens off the top after harvest to about ¼ - ½ inches above the shoulder. This will help the carrot to keep longer as the greens can take moisture from the root.
Carrots store best at 32-38 degrees F at 98% humidity.
You can store them in the refrigerator in plastic bags, or they may be blanched and frozen for later use.
Carrots may be canned or pickled as well.
Product Details
| i don't know |
Which author created the crime solving character Jane Tennyson? | Prime Suspect #1 Audiobook | Lynda La Plante | Audible.com
"La Plante always is true to form"
What made the experience of listening to Prime Suspect #1 the most enjoyable?
Ms. Porter captures the nuances of the text and brings characters to life. She is easy to listen to and I look for books she narrates.
Did the plot keep you on the edge of your seat? How?
Plot was complex with many layers, as in life in general
What does Davina Porter bring to the story that you wouldn’t experience if you just read the book?
Davinia does an excellent job bringing characters to life, no matter who the character is, a great talent.
"Not bad, but not great"
Would you try another book from Lynda La Plante and/or Davina Porter?
No, I don't believe I would intentionally select another of Lynda La Plante's books to listen to or read. I didn't find the writing to be all that clever. I find the writing styles of Tana French, Gillan Flynn, Donna Tartt, Adrian McKinty to be far more interesting.
What was your reaction to the ending? (No spoilers please!)
I felt the book to be fairly predictable and at times tedious. I admire and respect the fact that she is interested in highlighting the inequality female detectives are subjected to. However, I found the presentation of it to be mundane.
Which character – as performed by Davina Porter – was your favorite?
I tend to enjoy stories with flawed characters with complex backgrounds that allow me to appreciate certain qualities and loath other aspects. In this story, I found the character descriptions to lack depth. The author's descriptions seemed generally limited to relatively concise descriptions that motivated the characters to act as I would expect them to.
If this book were a movie would you go see it?
No. By the way, the audio book starts with a narrative from the author describing how she came to write a TV script that the book is based on and the real life female detective that helped form the main character.
Any additional comments?
The book is a New York Times Best Seller, so clearly many people enjoy Lynda La Plante's work. I would guess that the reader who likes a concise story with an "underdog" protagonist, may like this book. A reader that prefers books with complex characters may be less likely to find it a great read or listen.
"Well written but boring for me."
This book is an effort to portray a woman fighting for respect, a topic that is well worth exploring. But there is no growth of character, no learning that goes on. Her winning of respects comes for no real reason, far too fast and too complete. But that is not the failure of this book. A book needs a plot, a story that develops. This plot might be worth a (very) short story but is painful when spread out to novel length. I do want to say this is very well written, the scenes are believable as are the characters. But I read stories for excitement, the slow discovery of new facts, each one uncovering both information and more questions. I also read for character development. Sadly all are lacking in this book.
"Keep in mind that 1991 was a long time ago"
I didn't like many (most) of the characters. I also didn't like the heavy-handed portrayal of sexism, but... perhaps way back in 1991 it was really as bad as all that. I think sexism in the workplace is much more subtle now - of course it still exists, but I think that nobody would explicitly state (to a woman, or to other male coworkers) some of the rude things some of the characters in this book said to or about the female lead.
Taking it as a product of its time, it was a decent procedural. I did watch the Prime Suspect series on TV back in the 90s (with Helen Mirren) and had much fonder memories of the story from that show than I got from reading this book.
It was decent. It was a product of its time. It could be seen as dated. I might read more in the series, but... only if I were looking for a combo trip down memory lane plus quick straight-forward read.
I wasn't as smitten with the narrator as most people seem to be - she did fine, but I am not sure if the "harshness" of the story was from the story itself, or how Porter voiced Tennyson to be quite the beotch... There is no sex, some swearing and no graphic violence.
| Lynda La Plante |
Champagne is a variety of what fruit or vegetable? | Prime Suspect #1 Audiobook | Lynda La Plante | Audible.com
"La Plante always is true to form"
What made the experience of listening to Prime Suspect #1 the most enjoyable?
Ms. Porter captures the nuances of the text and brings characters to life. She is easy to listen to and I look for books she narrates.
Did the plot keep you on the edge of your seat? How?
Plot was complex with many layers, as in life in general
What does Davina Porter bring to the story that you wouldn’t experience if you just read the book?
Davinia does an excellent job bringing characters to life, no matter who the character is, a great talent.
"Not bad, but not great"
Would you try another book from Lynda La Plante and/or Davina Porter?
No, I don't believe I would intentionally select another of Lynda La Plante's books to listen to or read. I didn't find the writing to be all that clever. I find the writing styles of Tana French, Gillan Flynn, Donna Tartt, Adrian McKinty to be far more interesting.
What was your reaction to the ending? (No spoilers please!)
I felt the book to be fairly predictable and at times tedious. I admire and respect the fact that she is interested in highlighting the inequality female detectives are subjected to. However, I found the presentation of it to be mundane.
Which character – as performed by Davina Porter – was your favorite?
I tend to enjoy stories with flawed characters with complex backgrounds that allow me to appreciate certain qualities and loath other aspects. In this story, I found the character descriptions to lack depth. The author's descriptions seemed generally limited to relatively concise descriptions that motivated the characters to act as I would expect them to.
If this book were a movie would you go see it?
No. By the way, the audio book starts with a narrative from the author describing how she came to write a TV script that the book is based on and the real life female detective that helped form the main character.
Any additional comments?
The book is a New York Times Best Seller, so clearly many people enjoy Lynda La Plante's work. I would guess that the reader who likes a concise story with an "underdog" protagonist, may like this book. A reader that prefers books with complex characters may be less likely to find it a great read or listen.
"Well written but boring for me."
This book is an effort to portray a woman fighting for respect, a topic that is well worth exploring. But there is no growth of character, no learning that goes on. Her winning of respects comes for no real reason, far too fast and too complete. But that is not the failure of this book. A book needs a plot, a story that develops. This plot might be worth a (very) short story but is painful when spread out to novel length. I do want to say this is very well written, the scenes are believable as are the characters. But I read stories for excitement, the slow discovery of new facts, each one uncovering both information and more questions. I also read for character development. Sadly all are lacking in this book.
"Keep in mind that 1991 was a long time ago"
I didn't like many (most) of the characters. I also didn't like the heavy-handed portrayal of sexism, but... perhaps way back in 1991 it was really as bad as all that. I think sexism in the workplace is much more subtle now - of course it still exists, but I think that nobody would explicitly state (to a woman, or to other male coworkers) some of the rude things some of the characters in this book said to or about the female lead.
Taking it as a product of its time, it was a decent procedural. I did watch the Prime Suspect series on TV back in the 90s (with Helen Mirren) and had much fonder memories of the story from that show than I got from reading this book.
It was decent. It was a product of its time. It could be seen as dated. I might read more in the series, but... only if I were looking for a combo trip down memory lane plus quick straight-forward read.
I wasn't as smitten with the narrator as most people seem to be - she did fine, but I am not sure if the "harshness" of the story was from the story itself, or how Porter voiced Tennyson to be quite the beotch... There is no sex, some swearing and no graphic violence.
| i don't know |
"The song ""Mighty Quinn"" was a number 1 hit for ""Manfred Mann"" in 1968. Which successful recording artist wrote this song?" | Quinn The Eskimo by Manfred Mann Songfacts
Quinn The Eskimo by Manfred Mann Songfacts
Songfacts
This was written by Bob Dylan, but Manfred Mann was the first to record it. Manfred Mann is a group named after their keyboard player. They had another hit in 1976 (as Manfred Mann's Earth Band) with " Blinded By The Light ," a song written by Bruce Springsteen. >>
Suggestion credit:
chet - saratoga springs, NY
Dylan released his version in 1970 on his album Self Portrait. It also appears on his 1972 album More Greatest Hits. Ron Cornelius was Dylan's guitarist for the Self Portrait sessions, and told us about the experience: "There's everybody and his brother flying into Nashville to play on that thing. If you look at the credits, it's amazing how many people were delighted to come and play on it. Out of everybody I've worked with, I don't know of anyone who's been any nicer than Bob Dylan."
This is also known as "The Mighty Quinn." It was featured in a 1989 movie with that name. The film starred Denzel Washington as a police officer named Xavier Quinn. The song was performed in the movie by Sheryl Lee Ralph.
It is possible that Dylan came up with the idea for this after seeing the 1959 Nicholas Ray movie called The Savage Innocents. In that movie, Anthony Quinn played an Eskimo named Inuk. The film is also notable as the first screen appearance of Peter O'Toole, who demanded that his name be removed from the film as all of his dialog was dubbed by another actor. >>
Suggestion credit:
Bob - The Colony, TX
This was also recorded by Leon Russell, The Hollies, and Gary Puckett and The Union Gap.
The Grateful Dead occasionally played this at their shows. Here's one story that circulated about the song: The Grateful Dead years ago had a wild LSD party in a New York City hotel during a tour visit. Allegedly, one of the party guests was Bob Dylan. One of the other guests at the hotel didn't appreciate the noise and voiced several complaints. It was actor Anthony Quinn who'd played an Eskimo in The Savage Innocents. That could have inspired a partying Dylan to write a strange and funny song like this. >>
Suggestion credit:
Joe - Minneapolis, MN
One theory is that "The Mighty Quinn" is Sheriff Larry Quinlan, who raided the Castillia Foundation land in Millbrook, New York and arrested Dr. Timothy Leary and his group of hippies. Quinlan confiscated all the LSD and other drugs at the scene. In this scenario, the "pigeons" are informers. >>
Suggestion credit:
Jerry - Poughkeepsie, NY
Mike D'Abo of Manfred Mann: "We met in a publisher's house as Bob Dylan was making some new material available to other artists. We heard about 10 songs and I thought ' This Wheel's On Fire ' would be the one to do, but Manfred liked The Mighty Quinn, which was called 'Quinn The Eskimo' then. It was sung in a rambling monotone but Manfred had recognized its potential. He sold me on the idea of doing this song, but I had to make up some of the words as I couldn't make out everything he was saying. It was like learning a song phonetically in a foreign language. I have never had the first idea what the song is about except that it seems to be 'Hey, gang, gather round, something exciting is going to happen 'cause the big man's coming.' As to who the big man is and why he is an Eskimo, I don't know." - from 1000 UK #1 Hits by Jon Kutner and Spencer Leigh. >>
Suggestion credit:
| Bob Dylan |
Which is the most heavily populated city in Brazil? | Links
The Band
Between 1964 and 1979 Manfred Mann scored three British Number One hits – plus two more Number One hits in America plus another seven that went Top 5 and six more that made the Top 10.
Over this period Manfred Mann’s bands featured some of the finest singers on the British pop and rock scene: Paul Jones, Mike d’Abo, Mick Rogers and Chris Thompson, all of whom have gone on to enjoy successful and varied solo careers. Their distinctive voices have all added to the rich variety of Manfred Mann’s classic hits.
South African-born Manfred Lubowitz arrived in Britain in 1961. He was already an accomplished jazz pianist and quickly established himself on the London club circuit with drummer Mike Hug with whom he formed the Mann Hug Blues Brothers. In 1963 the band was re-christened Manfred Mann and with a line-up featuring Paul Jones on vocals and harmonica, Mike Vickers on guitar, flute and saxophone, Tom McGuinness on bass and Hug they set their sights on the British pop scene which was about to explode.
They may have been a musically well-educated band but there was nothing sophisticated about Manfred Mann’s first hit the rowdy, frenetic 5-4-3-2-1 that they wrote for the theme song of the groundbreaking TV pop show Ready Steady Go! Boosted by its weekly exposure on the programme the single reached Number 5 early in 1964.
Manfred Mann had their first Number One in the summer of that year with Do Wah Diddy Diddy Diddy, written by the famous New York Brill Building song writing duo of Ellie Greenwich and Jeff Barry. They also found themselves in the vanguard of the British pop invasion of America alongside the Beatles and the Animals (and ahead of the Rolling Stones) as the song shot to the top of the US charts.
The band then proceeded to apply their sharp musical talents to other suitable pop songs such as Sha La La (an American hit for the Shirelles), the poignant Come Tomorrow and Oh No Not My Baby (written by another famous Brill Building duo, Carole King and Gerry Goffin) before turning their attention to Bob Dylan’s If You Gotta Go, Go Now that was a Number 2 hit in the UK and earned the approval of Dylan himself.
In April 1966 Manfred Mann notched up their second British Number One with the gorgeous, melodic Pretty Flamingo. Surprisingly it only scraped into the American Top 30 but it left a lasting impression on a teenage Bruce Springsteen who regularly played it live during the early part of his career.
Pretty Flamingo was the crowning glory for the first incarnation of Manfred Mann, not least for the personality-driven voice of Paul Jones who decided to bow out on a high note. He launched a solo career and starred in the movie Privilege – playing a rock star – before becoming one of Britain’s leading experts and commentators on the blues and R&B.
His departure put the group’s future in jeopardy but his replacement, the unknown public schoolboy Mike D’Abo immediately stamped his own character on the band and the hits flowed seamlessly on – Dylan’s Just Like A Woman, the quirky Semi-Detached Suburban Mr James and Ha! Ha! Said The Clown – before racking up their third UK Number One early in 1968 with Dylan’s Mighty Quinn, an anthemic masterpiece that astonishingly Dylan never released himself.
As the Sixties drew to a close Manfred and Mike Hug decided to explore new musical directions and after more Top Ten hits with My Name Is Jack, Fox On The Run and Ragamuffin Man, they disbanded Manfred Mann. The other members soon found new careers in other bands (Tom McGuiness formed McGuinness Flint) or in production. Mike D’Abo was already an accomplished songwriter.
Manfred and Mike Hug meanwhile embarked on a brief “anti-pop” career with the self-explanatory Chapter Three, a jazz-rock ensemble complete with a five-piece brass section. that was wilfully uncommercial but musically rewarding. After two albums Mike Hug decided to pursue a career composing soundtracks which notably included Up The Junction.
Meanwhile key members of the 60s Manfred Mann line-ups – Paul Jones, Mike D’Abo, Mike Hugg and Tom McGuinness – have banded together and perform as The Manfreds. Such is the enduring legacy of Manfred Mann over the past 40 years.
In 2007, Mike d’Abo became the proud father of twins, Ellie and Louis, and, for this year, he will be taking some time out to spend with his family. The Manfreds ‘Let Em Roll’ tour takes to the road with a new album release….aptly titled ‘Let Em Roll’….and Mike will join the band for a few festival dates throughout the year before re-joining for their highly acclaimed ‘Maximum Rhythm ‘n’ Blues’ UK tour in 2010.
Former members
Manfred Mann
The original keyboard player, whose name was chosen by EMI to be the band's name, although they also became known as the Manfreds. Towards the end of '69 Manfred Mann as a group entity dissolved and the individuals went on to other things as recounted above and below. Manfred himself formed firstly Chapter Three with Mike Hugg and after the demise of this outfit, Manfred Mann's Earth Band, which continues to this day.
Mike Vickers
Another original Manfred, Mike played guitar, alto sax and flute but was tempted away in 1965 by the broader allure of arranging, production & film soundtracks. In his time he has worked with Johnny Dankworth, Ella Fitzgerald, Cilla Black, Cliff Richard, The Hollies, Kiki Dee, Tom Jones and Engelbert Humperdinck. Mike's orchestral arrangement (which he also conducted) for All You Need Is Love for The Beatles' global TV performance is one of the truly memorable events in pop history. He also programmed the Moog for The Beatles' Abbey Road album as well as John Boorman's films Deliverance, Zardoz and The Exorcist II. Mike joined the re-formed Manfreds for a few years on sax, woodwind & flute but is now busy composing contemporary classical music.
Dave Richmond
The original Manfreds bass player, who Tom McGuinness replaced when it became apparent Dave's jazz leanings didn't sit with the R & B direction the band was moving towards at the time. After leaving the band in 1963 Dave became a session player, working with amongst others Elton John, Bread, and Hank Marvin. He has also appeared on a soundtrack with Bill Wyman of The Rolling Stones.
Jack Bruce
Joined the band in 1965 on the recommendation of an old friend of Mike Hugg & Manfred Mann's, Graham Bond, who Jack had played with at an earlier stage in The Graham Bond Organisation along with John McLaughlin, Ginger Baker and latterly, Dick Heckstall-Smith. (Prior to playing with Graham, Jack had been in Alexis Korner's Blues Inc, with Charlie Watts of The Rolling Stones on drums.) When Mike Vickers left the Manfreds, Jack stepped in to fill the gap, leaving John Mayall's Bluesbreakers to do so. His arrival meant that Tom McGuinness could move away from playing bass and back to the instrument he felt more at home with, ie lead guitar. In due course Jack left Manfred Mann to form the legendary Cream with Eric Clapton and Ginger Baker. The band split in 1968 at the height of their popularity and Jack has since recorded numerous solo albums and worked with many different high calibre musicians in a wide variety of genres.
Klaus Voorman
Friend to The Beatles & designer of the Revolver album cover (for which he won a Grammy), bass player Klaus replaced Jack Bruce in Manfred Mann in 1966. Over the years he recorded with B B King, Jerry Lee Lewis, Harry Nilsson and Carly Simon, as well as working with George Harrison and playing bass with The Plastic Ono Band for John Lennon. After moving to the States he worked with The Band, van Dyke Parks, Ry Cooder, Randy Newman and Dr. John, before briefly moving into production. He has since been involved in various artistic enterprises and also runs a hotel in Northern Germany.
Benny Gallagher
One half of hitmakers and blue-chip songwriting team, Gallagher & Lyle, Benny began his career as a tunesmith with The Beatles' Apple company. In 1970, along with Tom McGuinness, his (and Graham Lyle's) astute composing ability propelled McGuinness Flint to the top of the charts. Then came the duo's own hit singles Heart on my Sleeve and I Wanna Stay With You plus the Breakaway album which was a huge success - even more so when the title track was covered by Art Garfunkel. As a Director of The Guild of Record Producers and Recording Engineers, Benny was offered the post of Head of Music at Paul McCartney's Liverpool Institute of Performing Arts, but his many commitments meant he had to decline the offer. He's played with Clapton, McCartney and some of the great original Bluesmen such as Arthur 'Big Boy' Crudup. Benny writes in Nashville and composes film soundtracks, yet found the time to play bass with The Manfreds for a few years when they re-formed.
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