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The music genre 'Musique d'Ameublement' originated by Erik Satie in 1917 is commonly called '(What?) music' in English?	A Terrible Beauty A Terrible Beauty Jarry soon became notorious. He took, for example, to riding around Paris with two revolvers tucked in his belt and a carbine across his shoulder. Some say that Jarry fired off a revolver to warn people of his approach. But it is known for certain that at one point he fixed a large bell from a tramcar onto his bicycle. All the same, Jarry was an athletic, no-nonsense cyclist and enjoyed tearing around the countryside. He criticised those who “thinking themselves poets, slow down en route to contemplate the view”. Jarry is now best known for his play, ‘Ubu Roi’, which has been described as a grotesque farce of epic grandeur. It caused a riot in the theatre when first performed in 1896. The character of Ubu was based on sketches Jarry had written as a schoolboy, about his gloriously inept science teacher. In the play the character has evolved into a whimsical, destructive, obscene king of a fanciful Poland. His sinister buffoonery is a prophetic satire of modern dictators. By abandoning normal ethics and standards Jarry constructed an artificial personality for himself based on the Ubu character he had created, and his behaviour, on and off his bicycle, became increasingly absurd. He gestured regally, used the royal ‘We’ and adopted a grandiose form of speed. A bird became “that which cheeps” and a bicycle “that which rolls”. Jarry/Ubu also developed his own form of pseudo-science, called ‘Pataphysicks’, in which a mechanism is described in such credible detail that the underlying absurdity of what is being said can be lost from view. Despite his eccentricities and extreme behaviour, he was very well received and we have many accounts of his constant intellectual brilliance, panache and underlying good nature. He knew and influenced important writers and artists, including Picasso. The London Institute of ’Pataphysics was founded on New Year’s Eve 127 EP (7 September 2000 vulg.), in the presence of various dignitaries of the Collège de ’Pataphysique, including the Provéditeur-Convecteur, Thieri Foulc, and Stanley Chapman, Regent, and current President of the LIP. It is an independent organisation, but maintains amiable relations with the Collège de ’Pataphysique via the London Annexe of the Rogation. It is anglophonic, rather than anglocentric (a number of its participants reside in the USA and elsewhere). The London Institute, like fellow associations in Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Argentina, etc., engages in the promotion of “the vastest of sciences” in its native tongue. –> The Collège de ’Pataphysique, founded in 1948, resumed a public role in France in 2000 after 25 years of “occultation”. The resurgence of this congenial organisation was marked with festivities, exhibitions, a new journal and the appointment of new Satraps (Umberto Eco, Jean Baudrillard and Fernando Arrabal, among others). Jarry’s influence has been considerable. While he himself owes much to Rabelais, movements such as Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism, Expressionism Cubism, Theatre of the Absurd – all owe debts to his O’Brien , The Marx Brothers, the Goons, Mad magazine, Robert Anton Wilson , Monty Python and their spawn were all influenced by Jarry, whether they knew it or not . . . The Ubu plays came as a cultural shock to the smug chattering classes. He created a world where no meant yes, where parody became reality, and where artistically, no tribute was paid to the history of theatre. In Jarry’s theatre, the characters are shockingly dehumanised until they are mere marionettes, language is twisted, and nothing is preached. The theatre-goer is left to their own devices when it comes to understanding the ‘message of the plays’, or discerning whether or not one even exists. Ubu, Jarry’s main character, had appeared before, in the playwright’s schooldays, when he and his friends constructed elaborate puppet shows, parodying their teachers. It is only here that we can draw the ancient tradition which Jarry mined – the grotesque humour of a beachside Punch and Judy show. Alfred Jarry – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to drinking, writing, and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered, and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of L’Ymagier, a luxuriously produced “art” magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time and L’Ymagier provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry’s play Caesar Antichrist (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, Caesar Antichrist presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation the Narmer Palette , an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics . The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort’s review Le Livre d’art, of Jarry’s 5-act play Ubu Roi —the rewritten and expanded Les Polonais of his school days. Ubu Roi’s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l’Oeuvre. On opening night ( December 10 , 1896 ), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier ) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, “Merdre!” (“Shittr!”). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more forward-thinking contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until 1907. Satie: Prelude de La porte héroïque du ciel The Parisian “impressionists” were among the first modern composers; they siezed on the artistic, painterly style of the same name that preceded them, and tried to develop a national style of music that imitated the newer, successful work of French national painters, such as Monet and Renoir. All of the important composers were active and living in Paris — Erik Satie (1866-1925), Claude Debussy (1862-1918), and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937). Together they invented a new harmonic/tonal vocabulary for music that tried to emulate the “blurred images” of French impressionist art and diverged from the Germanic, Wagnerian style of music they believed had become entrenched and thwarted a unique French identity Satie’s innovations came from his long interest in and study of Medieval French music that included plainchant and parallel organum. He contemplated for long hours in the gloom of Notre Dame and studied chant and Gothic art in the Paris Bibliothecque Nationale. He also took an active interest in various quasi-religious, mystical ideas, such as Rosicrucianism. Satie’s musical aesthetic is antithetical to Wagnerian emotional indulgence. Instead we find the other-worldly, unemotional detachment of Gregorian chant and medieval esceticism. In Ogives of 1886, Satie imitated Gregorian monophony and the use of parallel planed chords. Monophony and monody in Satie’s music became quite common, even in later works, such as Descriptions Automatiques (1913). Other Satie innovations include minimalism and furniture music. Musique d’ameublement comprises a group of several pieces written about 1920. It is a precursor of Muzak, music that is meant to be ignored, i.e., background music. In a conversation with Fernand Leger, Satie commented: You know, there’s a need to create furniture music; that is to say, music that would be a part of the surrounding noises and that would take them into account. I see it as melodious, as masking the clatter of knives and forks without drowning it completely, without imposing itself. It would spare them the usual banalities. Moreover, it would neutralize the street noises that indiscreetly force themselves into the picture.[6] During the first performance of musique d’ameublement the audience sat silently, listening intently, but Satie became irritated, got up and admonished the audience with “No, no! Talk, walk around, pay no attention, don’t listen.” In summary, Satie deserves the credit for being the true “father of modern music”. A list of his musical innovations (with examples) that were to have profound consequences for modern music includes: objective, detached, unemotional musical aesthetic, Sarabandes, 1887 non-Wagnerian aesthetic, Sarabandes, furniture music (pre-Muzak): musique d’ameublement, 1920 unbarred, unmeasured, ametric music (unused since the Renaissance), Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 quartal chords: Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 planing of sevenths, ninths, tritones, as well as fourths and fifths unresolved chords of sevenths and ninths: Sarabandes, 1887, Gymnopedies, 1888 retrogressions used to nullify key atonality, Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 use of modes and “synthetic” scales, Gnossienes, 1890 polychords, Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 proto-polytonality, Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 monophony and monody, Le Fils des Etoiles, 1891 embracing of popular styles and cabaret music, 3 Morceaux en Form de Poire, 1903. WFMU’s Beware of the Blog: Pianoless Vexations MP3s 8 hours of MP3s recorded live at The Sculpture Center, NYC on June 11, 2006. Vexations was composed by Erik Satie in 1893 and consists of a short motif repeated 840 times. Vexations was first performed publicly by John Cage and several other pianists over the course of 19 hours in 1963. As the title conveys, artists performing in Pianoless Vexations used any instrument except the piano to perform Satie’s original composition. Instruments included laptops, drums, guitar, French horn, violin, trumpet, saxophone, viola, recorder, toy piano, harpsichord, mandolin, bass, film projectors, voice, dulcimer and more This site is dedicated to proving the theory voiced by Darius Milhaud shortly after Erik Satie died in 1925, that the composer had prophesied the major movements in classical music to appear over the next fifty years (that is, to the year 1975) within his own body of work. Erik Satie – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia All by himself Satie appears to have been the avant-garde to half of the avant-garde movements of the 20th century . Many of these “precursorisms” are possibly based on quite superficial resemblances only, while, on the other hand, he undeniably inspired and influenced many later artists, and their ideas. According to Milhaud, Satie had “prophesied the major movements in classical music to appear over the next fifty years within his own body of work.” In the midst of an art opening at a Paris gallery in 1902, Ambient music was born. Erik Satie and his cronies, after begging everyone in the gallery to ignore them, broke out into what they called Furniture Music–that is, background music–music as wallpaper, music to be purposely not listened to. The patrons of the gallery, thrilled to see musicians performing in their midst, ceased talking and politely watched, despite Satie’s frantic efforts to get them to pay no attention. But it’s not only the Ambient folks that claim Satie as patriarch–just about every radical musical movement in this century can trace its roots back to Satie. Take John Cage, for example. His entire career–and, as a result, the course of music in the 20th Century–took a turn after being exposed to a strange little 3 minute piece of Satie’s called Vexations. It’s only a single page of music but it has the instructions “to be repeated 840 times” scrawled on it. For years it had been written off as a musical joke–a performance of the piece would take approximately 20 hours–an impossible, not to mention tediously boring, task. John Cage, however, took it seriously and gave Vexations its first performance in New York in 1963. Ten pianists working in two hour shifts conquered the piece, which lasted 18 hours and 40 minutes. strange religions, was a Rosicrucian for a while in the 1890s. It was here that he was introduced to the mystical strains of Gregorian and Plainsong chant–music that would influence everything Satie would do for the rest of his career. The ethereal, aloof, and impersonal music went against everything Wagnerian, the rage of the moment in Paris. As a matter of fact, Satie composed his most famous works, the Gymnopédies, while under the spell of the Rosicrucians. Satie supported the church (as well as his musical aspirations) by playing piano in a famous Montmartre cabaret, the Chat Noir. During his tenure there, Satie knocked out a number of stunning bawdy cabaret tunes as well as impressing a young composer, Claude Debussy, who hung out at the place. Debussy immediately recognized the genius in Satie and fell under his influence. Not too long afterwards, Debussy and his friend Maurice Ravel began writing Satie inspired pared-down music that soon snowballed into the world famous movement known as French Impressionism. Satie, ever the oddball, was left in the dust and it wasn’t until Debussy and Ravel were firmly established many years later that they finally fessed up to Satie’s influence. Parade (1917), a collaboration with Jean Cocteau, Picasso, and Serge Diaghilev, rocks and rolls for 20 minutes and was the first classical work to employ a battery of sirens, car horns, typewriters, guns, and blasting percussion. The piece outraged so many people that there was a riot the first night it opened, and the collaborators were smeared all over the Parisian press, turning the 51 year-old Satie into a star overnight. In its experimentation, Parade opened the doors for all types of mechanical music to come later this century; musique concrete, techno, and industrial music all trace their lineage back to Parade. A Day in the Life of a Musician Erik Satie An artist must regulate his life. Here is a time-table of my daily acts. I rise at 7.18; am inspired from 10.23 to 11.47. I lunch at 12.11 and leave the table at 12.14. A healthy ride on horse-back round my domain follows from 1.19 pm to 2.53 pm. Another bout of inspiration from 3.12 to 4.7 pm. From 5 to 6.47 pm various occupations (fencing, reflection, immobility, visits, contemplation, dexterity, natation, etc.) Dinner is served at 7.16 and finished at 7.20 pm. From 8.9 to 9.59 pm symphonic readings (out loud). I go to bed regularly at 10.37 pm. Once a week (on Tuesdays) I awake with a start at 3.14 am. My only nourishment consists of food that is white: eggs, sugar, shredded bones, the fat of dead animals, veal, salt, coco-nuts, chicken cooked in white water, mouldy fruit, rice, turnips, sausages in camphor, pastry, cheese (white varieties), cotton salad, and certain kinds of fish (without their skin). I boil my wine and drink it cold mixed with the juice of the Fuschia. I have a good appetite but never talk when eating for fear of strangling myself. I breathe carefully (a little at a time) and dance very rarely. When walking I hold my ribs and look steadily behind me. My expression is very serious; when I laugh it is unintentional, and I always apologise very politely. I sleep with only one eye closed, very profoundly. My bed is round with a hole in it for my head to go through. Every hour a servant takes my temperature and gives me another. Posted by juniorbonner LRB \| Michael Wood : There is no cure This probability, or the claim for such a probability, turns a patent conceptual opposition (inclined/disinclined) into a form of collaboration, although, I think, without any causal implication. I am not inclined because I am disinclined; but my (possibly hidden) inclination can be seen in my (all too manifest) disinclination. This interpretative move is characteristic of the most vulgar Freudianism, but also characteristic of Freud himself, and these days seems to get him into more trouble than all his theories of sexuality, infant desire, screen memories, death drive and primal horde put together. Freud didn’t invent the move, he got it from Nietzsche, who is undoubtedly its modern master. At the end of The Birth of Tragedy we are invited to imagine ourselves ‘transposed back to life in ancient Greece’, where we are certain to be struck by its extraordinary beauty. A predictable thought would be: how lucky these people are to live in such harmony and to find so direct an expression of it in their culture. We might even have our equivalent of Freud’s reaction to the Acropolis: all that stuff they told us about ancient Greece is really true. But Nietzsche goes straight for the counter-intuition. Not how great Apollo is but how great Dionysus must be, if Apollo has to work so hard at his music and ritual and architecture. Not how beautiful these people and this culture are, but ‘how much did these people have to suffer to become so beautiful!’ We now make this move all the time in daily life, and it can be too easy – even if it’s never easy in Nietzsche and not often easy in Freud. I know you mean yes because you said no too emphatically. You didn’t say it emphatically? Oh well, I must have heard the emphasis you were holding back. This is what it means not to take no for an answer. Logic is a considerable cultural accomplishment, and so is the recourse to evidence. The notion that inclination lurks in disinclination and, more generally, that opposites can collapse into each other at any time, becomes very troubling, and what’s more, in this kind of interpretation, evidence is not merely ignored, it is taken as proving its exact opposite. And the move may just be wrong, as well as too easy. Think of all those judges in rape cases who are sure what women want. Even Wittgenstein’s ‘highly probable’ begins to seem rather tendentious. There are no probabilities in such a game. But of course inclination does sometimes lurk in disinclination, no can mean yes, and suffering often does underlie beauty. The fact that a supposed method of interpretation is too easy or troubling or often wrong doesn’t mean it’s useless. It just means it’s not a method. There is a logic that works by means of a periodic breakdown of logic, and the world is full of instances we couldn’t begin to understand without it. The difficult question, usually, is not the relatively simple one of whether no means no or yes, but what else even a genuine no might mean. John Forrester puts the matter very well in Dispatches from the Freud Wars (1997) when he asks how we tell the difference between ‘a patient’s independent judgment of psychoanalysis’ and ‘a negative transference’. ‘That is the fundamental problem in addressing psychoanalysis,’ he says, ‘and an answer hinges on one’s interpretation of the function of negation in human speech.’ Freud himself would no doubt have evoked Goethe’s Mephistopheles in this context, who defines himself as ‘the spirit that always denies’ – literally, says no, ‘der Geist, der stets verneint’. He says no and he means no but even that turns out to be a feature of God’s larger plan. He is, he tells Faust, ‘a part of that strength/that always wills evil and always does good’. Henri Rousseau: In Imaginary Jungles, a Terrible Beauty Lurks – New York Times HENRI ROUSSEAU’S paintings have been stopping people in their tracks for nearly 120 years, and despite their familiarity, the force is still with them. A group of 49 is currently working its magic in “Henri Rousseau: Jungles in Paris” at the National Gallery of Art . Although the show gives a fairly complete account of the artist’s development, including many examples of his Paris scenes and portraits, it concentrates on his especially mesmerizing jungle paintings, in which moments of Darwinian struggle or startlingly Surreal strangeness unfold amid velvety botanical Edens. What happens when a lion fells an antelope in the forest, or (somehow) a gorilla attacks an American Indian, and no one hears it? Life goes on. The focus might also be a dark-skinned snake charmer or an alert nude on a red couch. But Rousseau’s leafy grandeur, his tapestrylike parade of starchy, incipiently Cubist foliage and outsize lotuslike blooms, remains profoundly indifferent, decoratively intact, nearly abstract. Rousseau was entirely self-taught, which may be why his unruffled jungle visions count as some of the most instantly lovable yet persistently mysterious advances in the history of art. Large in scale, flat of space, they dismiss one-point perspective with astounding aplomb. Their radicalism needs no explanation; it simply casts a spell. It combines the serenity of Edward Hicks’s “Peaceable Kingdom” paintings and the clashing forms and piercing eyes of Picasso ’s “Demoiselles d’Avignon,” a work that they surely influenced. Strangest of all, Rousseau painted his jungles without leaving Paris. A Change of Mind es, somewhere a while back ”human character changed.” Virginia Woolf thought it happened around the time of an art exhibit in 1910, but British awareness is notoriously belated. The change started to happen in the 1870’s, and not, as William R. Everdell arrestingly demonstrates in ”The First Moderns,” in painting or in literature but in number theory. He’s aware that word-focused people will be startled: ”Everyone who has heard of modernism has heard of Picasso. Most have heard of Joyce. But who has heard of Dedekind?” Yet it was an 1872 pamphlet of Richard Dedekind’s that first, to use the terminology of 19th-century positivism, ”rigorized” modernism’s generic concept — which, as Everdell reveals, is discontinuity. Dedekind established that mathematicians are deceived if they think they are working with a continuum. No such thing exists. Within any numeric space, say between 1 and 5, you can increase the population all you like. To natural numbers like 2 and 3 and 4 you can add infinitely more rationals like or 118/119, plus infinitely more irrationals like the square root of 2: still, you’ll never begin to crowd out the unpopulated space. It will always affront you like a dark sky studded with stars. So much for ”that grail of 19th-century metaphor, smooth change.” Guardian Unlimited Arts \| Arts features \| Adrian Searle finds a new Kandinsky show fascinating It was, allegedly, Wassily Kandinsky himself who, seeing one of his own early paintings placed on its side, realised that its subject matter was irrelevant. What mattered were the spiritual vibrations, the painting’s inner sound, feelings. This was just one of several epiphanies that struck the young artist, who was born in Moscow in 1866, and came to painting late, having first studied law. Importantly, he also undertook an ethnographic study of peasant law among the pagan Zyrian tribe in Siberia, where he discovered a vital folk art quite unlike anything a young bourgeois Moscovite had ever seen. Soon after completing his PhD, Kandinsky turned down a university lectureship to paint full time. That same year in Moscow he saw a Monet painting of a haystack. He stood looking at it for several minutes before he realised what the painting represented. One can imagine this extended, bewildered moment of incomprehension, Kandinsky’s mind working overtime, something shifting in his head. Soon after, he attended a performance of Wagner’s Lohengrin at the Bolshoi theatre, and was overcome by synaesthesia – experiencing the music as colours, shapes and lines, madly drawing themselves in front of him. Not long after, he moved to Munich. work, especially the Windows. The paper, hospitable to every felicitous accident of blot and puddle in the watercolour washes, contains the images gently. As the art historian Robert Rosenblum has said, ‘Klee’s particular genius [was] to be able to take any number of the principal Romantic motifs and ambitions that, by the early twentieth century, had often swollen into grotesquely Wagnerian dimensions, and translate them into a language appropriate to the diminutive scale of a child’s enchanted world.’ “If Klee was not one of the great formgivers, he was still ambitious. Like a miniaturist, he wanted to render nature permeable, in the most exact way, to the language of style – and this meant not only close but ecstatic observation of the natural world, embracing the Romantic extremes of the near and the far, the close-up detail and the “cosmic” landscape. At one end, the moon and mountains, the stand of jagged dark pines, the flat mirroring seas laid in a mosaic of washes; at the other, a swarm of little graphic inventions, crystalline or squirming, that could only have been made in the age of high-resolution microscopy and the close-up photograph. There was a clear link between some of Klee’s plant motifs and the images of plankton, diatoms, seeds, and micro-organisms that German scientific photographers were making at the same time. In such paintings, Klee tried to give back to art a symbol that must have seemed lost forever in the nightmarish violence of World War I and the social unrest that followed. This was the Paradise-Garden, one of the central images of religious romanticism – the metaphor of Creation itself, with all species growing peaceably together under the eye of natural (or divine) order.” Wassily Kandinsky Kandinsky and Music “The term “Composition” can imply a metaphor with music. Kandinsky was fascinated by music’s emotional power. Because music expresses itself through sound and time, it allows the listener a freedom of imagination, interpretation, and emotional response that is not based on the literal or the descriptive, but rather on the abstract quality that painting, still dependent on representing the visible world, could not provide. “Kandinsky’s special understanding of the affinities between painting and music and his belief in the Gesamtkunstwerk, or the total work of art, came forth in his text “On Stage Composition,” his play “Yellow Sound,” and his portfolio of prose poems and prints Klange (Sounds, 1913). Music can respond and appeal directly to the artist’s “internal element” and express spiritual values, thus for Kandinsky it is a more advanced art. In his writings Kandinsky emphasizes this superiority in advancing toward what he calls the epoch of the great spiritual. James Joyce’s Amazing Chronicle few intuitive, sensitive visionaries may understand and comprehend “Ulysses,” James Joyce’s new and mammoth volume, without going through a course of training or instruction, but the average intelligent reader will glean little or nothing from it- even from careful perusal, one might properly say study, of it- save bewilderment and a sense of disgust. It should be companioned with a key and a glossary like the Berlitz books. Then the attentive and diligent reader would eventually get some comprehension of Mr. Joyce’s message. That he has a message there can be no doubt. He seeks to tell the world of the people that he has encountered in the forty years of sentient existence; to describe their conduct and speech and to analyze their motives, and to relate the effect the “world,” sordid, turbulent, disorderly, with mephitic atmosphere engendered by alcohol and the dominant ecclesiasticism of his country, had upon him, an emotional Celt, an egocentric genius, whose chief diversion and keenest pleasure is self-analysis and whose lifelong important occupation has been keeping a notebook in which has been recorded incident encountered and speech heard with photographic accuracy and Boswellian fidelity. Moreover, he is determined to tell it in a new way. Not in straightforward, narrative fashion, with a certain sequentiality of idea, fact, occurrence, in sentence, phrase and paragraph that is comprehensible to a person of education and culture, but in parodies of classic prose and current slang, in perversions of sacred literature, in carefully metered prose with studied incoherence, in symbols so occult and mystic that only the initiated and profoundly versed can understand- in short, by means of every trick and illusion that a master artificer, or even magician, can play with the English language.	Furniture
Which Spanish corporation bought the UK O2 phone corporation in 2005?	Ambient music : definition of Ambient music and synonyms of Ambient music (English) Ambient music artists – List of electronic music genres – Furniture music Ambient is an electronic music genre which originated in the United Kingdom . Developing in the 1970s, ambient stemmed from the experimental and synthesizer -oriented styles of the period, [2] while being influenced by Kraftwerk and Klaus Schulze ; nevertheless, the dance and techno music of the 1980s also played an important role in the genre. Brian Eno is regarded as ambient's main founder. [3] [4] The concept of background or furniture music had already existed some time before, yet Eno is said to have created ambient by fusing elements of environmental music with electronica. Ambient's sound was additionally influenced in part by space rock and Krautrock . As a genre, ambient focuses on creating a mood or atmosphere through synthesizers and timbral qualities. It often lacks the presence of any net composition, beat, or structured melody. Due to its relatively open style, ambient music often takes influences from many other genres, ranging from house , dub , industrial and new age , amongst several others. As a matter of fact, since it is a relatively ambiguous term, [4] ambient has no distinct characteristics, and its style can vary a lot. In essence, it is a term to describe any form of electronic music which puts an emphasis on tone and atmosphere over songwriting, composition and craftsmanship, hence often lacking musical structure or rhythm. Ambient music is often highly conceptual and experimental in style, while it is said to evoke an "atmospheric", [5] "visual" [6] or "unobtrusive" quality. [7] Ambient did not achieve large commercial success, while attracting criticism for its "boring" and over-intellectual sound. [4] Nevertheless, it has also attained a certain degree of acclaim throughout the years. It had its first wave of popularity in the 1970s, yet saw a revival towards the late-1980s with the prominence of house and techno music, growing a cult following by the 1990s. [2] Contents John Cage (right) with David Tudor at Shiraz Arts Festival 1971 The roots of ambient music go back to the early 20th century. In particular, the period just before and after the First World War gave rise to two significant art movements that encouraged experimentation with various musical (and non musical) forms, while rejecting more conventional, tradition-bound styles of expression. These art movements were called Futurism and Dadaism . Aside from being known for their painters and writers, these movements also attracted experimental and 'anti-music' musicians such as Francesco Balilla Pratella of the pre-war Futurism movement and Kurt Schwitters and Erwin Schulhoff of the post-war Dadaist movement . The latter movement played an influential role in the musical development of Erik Satie .[ citation needed ] As an early 20th century French composer, Erik Satie used such Dadaist -inspired explorations to create an early form of ambient / background music that he labeled " furniture music " (Musique d'ameublement). This he described as being the sort of music that could be played during a dinner to create a background atmosphere for that activity, rather than serving as the focus of attention. [8] From this greater historical perspective, Satie is the link between these early Art movements and the work of Brian Eno , who as an art school trained musician, had an appreciation of both the music and art worlds.[ citation needed ] Brian Eno is generally credited with coining the term "Ambient Music" in the mid-1970s to refer to music that, as he stated, can be either "actively listened to with attention or as easily ignored, depending on the choice of the listener", and that exists on the "cusp between melody and texture". [8] Eno, who describes himself as a "non-musician", termed his experiments in sound as "treatments" rather than as traditional performances. Eno used the word "ambient" to describe music that creates an atmosphere that puts the listener into a different state of mind; having chosen the word based on the Latin term "ambire", "to surround". [9] The album notes accompanying Eno's 1978 release Ambient 1: Music for Airports include a manifesto describing the philosophy behind his ambient music: "Ambient Music must be able to accommodate many levels of listening attention without enforcing one in particular; it must be as ignorable as it is interesting." [10] Eno has acknowledged the influence of Erik Satie and John Cage . In particular, Eno was aware of Cage's use of chance such as throwing the I Ching to directly affect the creation of a musical composition. Eno then utilised a similar method of weaving randomness into his compositional structures. This approach was manifested in Eno's creation of Oblique Strategies , where he used a set of specially designed cards to create various sound dilemmas that in turn, were resolved by exploring various open ended paths, until a resolution to the musical composition revealed itself. Eno also acknowledged influences of the drone music of La Monte Young (of whom he said, "La Monte Young is the daddy of us all" [11] ) and of the mood music of Miles Davis and Teo Macero , especially their 1974 epic piece, "He Loved Him Madly", about which Eno wrote, "that piece seemed to have the 'spacious' quality that I was after...it became a touchstone to which I returned frequently." [9] Beyond the major influence of Brian Eno, other musicians and bands added to the growing nucleus of music that evolved around the development of "Ambient Music". While not an exhaustive list, one cannot ignore the parallel influences of Wendy Carlos , who produced the original music piece called "Timesteps" which was then used as the filmscore to Clockwork Orange , as well as her later work Sonic Seasonings . Other significant artists such as Mike Oldfield , Jean Michel Jarre and Vangelis have all added to or directly influenced the evolution of ambient music. Adding to these individual artists, works by groups such as Pink Floyd , through their albums Ummagumma , Meddle and Obscured by Clouds . Other groups including Yes with their album Tales from Topographic Oceans , the Hafler Trio , Tangerine Dream , Popol Vuh , Can , and Kraftwerk have all added distinctive aspects to the growing and diversified genre of ambient music.[ citation needed ] 1990s: Developments By the early 1990s artists such as The Orb , Aphex Twin , Seefeel , the Irresistible Force , Geir Jenssen's Biosphere , and the Higher Intelligence Agency were being referred to by the popular music press as ambient house , ambient techno , IDM or simply "ambient" according to the liner notes of Brian Eno 's Ambient 1: Music for Airports : “ Ambient Music is intended to induce calm and a space to think. ” So-called ' Chillout ' began as a term deriving from British ecstasy culture which was originally applied in relaxed downtempo 'chillout rooms' outside of the main dance floor where ambient, dub and downtempo beats were played to ease the tripping mind. [12] [13] The London scene artists, such as Aphex Twin (specifically: Selected Ambient Works Volume II , 1994), Global Communication ( 76:14 , 1994), FSOL The Future Sound of London ( Lifeforms , ISDN ), The Black Dog ( Temple of Transparent Balls , 1993), Autechre ( Incunabula , 1993, Amber ), Boards of Canada , and The KLF 's seminal Chill Out , 1990, all took a part in popularising and diversifying ambient music where it was used as a calming respite from the intensity of the hardcore and techno popular at that time. [12] Later in the period much experimental electronica (particularly sound artists such as Pole , Mika Vainio , Ryoji Ikeda , Christian Fennesz , Aphex Twin and Autechre ) expanded the themes of 'ambient' along the lines of earlier 1970s ambient music & dub but with increasingly abstracted sample-based textures and digital electronics that ultimately began to converge with minimalist compositions and music concrete .[ citation needed ] Digital era musicians and sound artists , including Brian Eno [14] are notable in their attempts to create ' sonic sculptures ' which interact with the physical architecture of the listening space using advanced electronic installations.[ citation needed ] Literally 'ambient' field recordings are a specialism of the Touch Music label. Forerunner of this species in Poland is Brunette Models (since 1995). The electroacoustic influence can be heard in the contemporary work of Polish artist Jacaszek (since 2008).[ citation needed ] Glitch music is a major subset of this work produced by (mainly German) labels such Mille Plateaux ( Clicks & Cuts Series , 2000).[ citation needed ] Some dubstep producers, notably Burial and Kites (Bristol ambient dubstep) have nostalgically referenced the sonic 'post-rave' ambience of the nineties era.[ citation needed ] Soundtracks This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability . Ambient music has been used in many motion pictures , television shows and video games, and is notable for contributing to their atmosphere, or soundscapes . Vangelis wrote the scores for the British film Chariots of Fire , and for Ridley Scott 's 1982 film Blade Runner , as well as many other score albums. David Lynch 's 1984 film Dune , for example, forgoes the epic sci-fi adventure style theme music popularized by Star Wars in favor of a more atmospheric music score by Toto and Brian Eno . Throughout the 1980s Tangerine Dream composed scores for more than twenty films, most notably the soundtracks for Flashpoint and Heartbreakers , both released in 1984, and Legend , directed by Ridley Scott and released in 1985. Electronic musician Paddy Kingsland is noted for the music style he brought to several serials of the television series Doctor Who which had until then relied mostly on stock music cues or minimal music for much of its history. The video game trilogy Fallout and its spinoffs use ambient music that sometimes contains gentle rumblings to portray the bleakness of the post-apocalyptic world which the games are set in. Relic Entertainment 's 1999 game Homeworld uses such music to highlight the vast emptiness of the areas of deep space the Mothership often finds itself in. Another game series that uses ambient music is the Oddworld games, notably Oddworld: Stranger's Wrath . That music was composed by Michael Bross . The games featured in Valve's Half-Life series, including spinoffs such as Portal , feature ambient music soundtracks by composers Kelly Bailey and Mike Morasky. The EA Game Mirror's Edge also used ambient music, composed and produced by Magnus Birgersson under his guise Solar Fields , to give a futuristic feel or puzzling atmosphere to sections of the game. The Sci-Fi horror game Doom 3 uses an ambient soundtrack made by former drummer Chris Vrenna of the band Nine Inch Nails , instead of having a song, mainly a MIDI file, looped through the entire map. Silent Hill is also a notable video game series for ambient soundtrack. Akira Yamaoka has composed the music throughout the series and is especially known for the use of industrial elements in his scores. Related and derivative genres Organic ambient music This section may contain original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references . Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. (June 2009) Organic ambient music is characterised by integration of electronic , electric , and acoustic musical instruments. Aside from the usual electronic music influences, organic ambient tends to incorporate influences from world music , especially drone instruments and hand percussion . Organic ambient is intended to be more harmonious with nature than with the disco . Some of the artists in this sub-genre include Robert Rich , Steve Roach , Vidna Obmana , O Yuki Conjugate , Voice of Eye , Vir Unis , James Johnson , Loren Nerell , Atomic Skunk , Tuu and Robert Scott Thompson . Some works by ambient pioneers such as Brian Eno , Laraaji or Popol Vuh who use a combination of traditional instruments (such as piano or hammered dulcimer or hand percussion, though usually processed through tape loops or other devices) and electronic instruments, would[ who? ] be considered New Age / organic ambient music in this sense. In the 1970s and 1980s, Klaus Schulze often recorded string ensembles and performances by solo cellists to go along with his extended Moog synthesizer workouts. Nature-inspired ambient music The music is composed from samples and recordings of naturally occurring sounds. Sometimes these samples can be treated to make them more instrument-like. The samples may be arranged in repetitive ways to form a conventional musical structure or may be random and unfocused. Sometimes the sound is mixed with urban or "found" sounds. Examples include much of Biosphere's Substrata , Mira Calix 's insect music and Chris Watson 's Weather Report . Some overlap occurs between organic ambient and nature-inspired New Age. One of the first albums in the genre, Wendy Carlos ' Sonic Seasonings , combines sampled and synthesized nature sounds with ambient melodies and drones for a particularly relaxing effect. Transformation by Suzanne Doucet and Christian Buehner and the album Second Nature by Bill Laswell , Tetsu Inoue , and Atom Heart are ambient album that use processed nature sounds, with reverb and echo to create a hypnotic environment. Douglas Leedy 's Entropical Paradise, released as a three LP set by Seraphim in 1971, consisting of six, side-long, compositions of "environmental music", in which single modular synthesizer settings were allowed to play out without further intervention. Dark ambient See also: List of dark ambient artists Dark ambient is a general term for any kind of ambient music with a "dark" or dissonant feel, but often involves extensive use of digital reverb to create vast sonic spaces for frightening, bottom-heavy sounds such as deep drones, gloomy male chorus, echoing thunder, and distant artillery. It has an eerie feel; the term " isolationist ambient " could be used interchangeably with it according to the listener or artists perspective. Some artists and releases that epitomize the style could include Bass Communion 's Ghosts on Magnetic Tape and Vajrayana , Lull 's Cold Summer , Controlled Bleeding 's The Poisoner , and the Robert Rich / Lustmord collaboration album Stalker . Related styles include ambient industrial and isolationist ambient. Ambient house Main article: Ambient house Ambient house is a musical category founded in the late 1980s that is used to describe acid house featuring ambient music elements and atmospheres. [15] Tracks in the ambient house genre typically feature four-on-the-floor beats, synth pads , and vocal samples integrated in an atmospheric style. [15] Ambient house tracks generally lack a diatonic center and feature much atonality along with synthesized chords. Illbient is another form of ambient house music. Ambient industrial Main article: Ambient industrial Ambient industrial is a hybrid genre of ambient and industrial music ; the term industrial being used in the original experimental sense, rather than in the sense of industrial metal or EBM . [16] A "typical" ambient industrial work (if there is such a thing) might consist of evolving dissonant harmonies of metallic drones and resonances, extreme low frequency rumbles and machine noises, perhaps supplemented by gongs , percussive rhythms, bullroarers , distorted voices or anything else the artist might care to sample (often processed to the point where the original sample is no longer recognizable). [16] Entire works may be based on radio telescope recordings, the babbling of newborn babies, or sounds recorded through contact microphones on telegraph wires. [16] Among the many artists who work in this area are Coil , Controlled Bleeding , CTI , Deutsch Nepal , Hafler Trio , Lustmord , Nocturnal Emissions , PGR , Thomas Köner , Zoviet France , [16] Nine Inch Nails , Susumu Yokota , Scorn and Heimkveld Kunst . However, many of these artists are very eclectic in their output, with much of it falling outside of ambient industrial per se. [16] Space music Main article: Space music Space music, also spelled spacemusic, includes music from the ambient genre as well as a broad range of other genres with certain characteristics in common to create the experience of contemplative spaciousness. [17] [18] [19] Space music ranges from simple to complex sonic textures sometimes lacking conventional melodic, rhythmic, or vocal components, [20] [21] generally evoking a sense of "continuum of spatial imagery and emotion", [22] beneficial introspection, deep listening [23] and sensations of floating, cruising or flying. [24] [25] Space music is used by individuals for both background enhancement and foreground listening, often with headphones, to stimulate relaxation, contemplation, inspiration and generally peaceful expansive moods [26] and soundscapes . Space music is also a component of many film soundtracks and is commonly used in planetariums , as a relaxation aid and for meditation . [27] Hearts of Space is a well-known radio show and affiliated record label, specializing in space music since 1984, having released over 150 albums devoted to the music style. Notable artists who have brought elements of ambient music to space music include Michael Stearns , Constance Demby , Jean Ven Robert Hal , Enigma , Jean Michel Jarre , Carbon Based Lifeforms , Robert Rich , Steve Roach , Numina , Dweller at the Threshold , Jonn Serrie , Klaus Schulze , Tangerine Dream (as well as the group's founder Edgar Froese ), and Vangelis . Isolationist ambient music Main article: Isolationism (music) Isolationist ambient music, also known as isolationism, can be differentiated from other forms of ambient music in its use of repetition, dissonance, microtonality , and unresolved harmonies to create a sense of unresolved unease and desolation. [28] The term was popularized in the mid-1990s by the British magazine The Wire and the Ambient 4: Isolationism compilation from Virgin , this began as more or less a synonym for ambient industrial, but also inclusive of certain post-metal streams of ambient, such as Final , Lull , Main , or post-techno artists such as Autechre and Aphex Twin . It may be less appropriate to call isolationist ambient a genre than using it to describe the style or "feel" of particular works by an artist working in an ambient mode. This is because many artists better known for other styles of work can occasionally create pieces that "sound" isolationist. (For example, Labradford , Seefeel , Kyle Bobby Dunn , Techno Animal , Voice of Eye , KK Null , etc.) [29] There are many labels releasing work that could be termed isolationist ambient, among these are Malignant Records , Cold Spring , Manifold Records , Soleilmoon , and The Sombient label with the "drones" compilation series. Some of the artists known for this style of ambient music include Lull, Final, Bass Communion , Deutsch Nepal , Inanna , Negru Voda , Thomas Köner , Robert Fripp , Steven Wilson , and Chuck Hammer ( Guitarchitecture ). Of late there has been an influx of progressive metal artists who have clear ambient influences. Bands such as Cult of Luna , Isis , Devil Sold His Soul , Porcupine Tree , and Between the Screams have pioneered the genre and are largely credited with popularizing the sound. These bands are largely known as post-metal . Ambient dub Ambient dub is a phrase first coined by the now defunct Beyond Records from early 1990s in Birmingham, England.[ citation needed ] Their defining series of albums Ambient Dub 1, 2, through to 4 inspired many, including sound engineer and producer Bill Laswell , who used the same phrase in his music project Divination , where he collaborates with different musicians on each album (though sometimes the same ones are on more than one of the albums such as Tetsu Inoue and others). Laswell also presented ambient dub and ambient house music on albums by his collaboration project Axiom Dub , featuring recording artists The Orb , Jah Wobble , Jaki Liebezeit , Scorn and DJ Spooky . Ambient dub involves the genre melding of dub styles made famous by King Tubby and other Jamaican sound artists with DJ inspired ambient electronica, complete with all the inherent drop-outs, echo, equalization and psychedelic electronic effects. As writer and performer David Toop explains in an early Beyond Records newsletter, "Dub music is like a long echo delay, looping through time...turning the rational order of musical sequences into an ocean of sensation." Ethno ambient Ethnoambient (Ethno ambient) is a type of music that draws heavily from acoustic ethnic music - both in musical structure and instrumentation, electric world music, and combines those influences with ambient music related to texture, technological manipulations, and field recordings. Ethno ambient is related in spirit to techno tribal, ethno techno, and especially to "Fourth World" music and "ambient" music, launched in the late 1970s by Jon Hassell and Brian Eno , respectively. Practitioners of ethno ambient music include Bill Laswell , Steve Roach , Adi Lukovac , Robert Rich , Gayan Uttejak , Vidna Obmana , Ian Naismith , Jah Wobble , Max Corbacho , Bruno Sanfilippo and Paul Haslinger . Notable films incorporating ambient music or sound design This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability . Drive Notable ambient-music shows on radio and via satellite Echoes , is a daily two-hour music radio program hosted by John Diliberto featuring a soundscape of ambient, spacemusic, electronica, new acoustic and new music directions – founded in 1989 and syndicated on 130 radio stations in the USA. Hearts of Space , a program hosted by Stephen Hill and broadcast on NPR in the US since 1973. [30] [31] Musical Starstreams , a US-based commercial radio station and internet program produced, programmed and hosted by Forest since 1981. Star's End a radio show on 88.5 WXPN , in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . Founded in 1976, it is the second longest-running ambient music radio show in the world. [32] Ultima Thule Ambient Music , a weekly 90-minute show broadcast since 1989 on community radio across Australia. SoundScape, a weekly 3 hour show program hosted by Greg 'Cracker' Carrick on community radio Yarra Valley FM 99.1 in the Yarra Valley, Victoria, Australia. Alpha Rhythms, a 3 hour radio show aired by WYSO , an NPR affiliate operated by Antioch University in Yellow Springs, Ohio airing on Sunday evenings. See also ^ Epsilon: Isolationism Thread from Ambient Music Mailing List ^ "The program has defined its own niche — a mix of ambient, electronic, world, New Age, classical and experimental music....Slow-paced, space-creating music from many cultures — ancient bell meditations, classical adagios, creative space jazz, and the latest electronic and acoustic ambient music are woven into a seamless sequence unified by sound, emotion, and spatial imagery." Stephen Hill, co-founder, Hearts of Space, essay titled Contemplative Music, Broadly Defined ^ "Hill's Hearts of Space Web site provides streaming access to an archive of hundreds of hours of spacemusic artfully blended into one-hour programs combining ambient, electronic, world, New Age and classical music." Steve Sande, The Sky's the Limit with Ambient Music, SF Chronicle, Sunday, January 11, 2004 ^ "Star's End" is (with the exception of "Music from the Hearts of Space") the longest running radio program of ambient music in the world. Since 1976, Star's End has been providing the Philadelphia broadcast area with music to sleep and dream to." "Star's End" website background information page [ dead link ] External links	i don't know
What is a rock containing a mineral/element, and is also a sub-unit of Scandinavian currencies?	Ore - definition of ore by The Free Dictionary Ore - definition of ore by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ore (ôr) n. A mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable constituent, especially a metal, can be profitably mined or extracted. [Middle English, from Old English ōra and from Old English ār, brass, copper, bronze.] ö·re A Swedish unit of currency equal to 1/100 of the krona. [Swedish, from Old Norse eyrir, from Latin aureus, gold coin, from aurum, gold.] ø·re A unit of currency equal to 1/100 of the krone in Denmark and Norway. [Danish and Norwegian, both from Old Norse eyrir; see öre.] ore (ɔː) n (Chemistry) any naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which economically important constituents, esp metals, can be extracted [Old English ār, ōra; related to Gothic aiz, Latin aes, Dutch oer] öre (ˈørə) n, pl öre (Currencies) a Scandinavian monetary unit worth one hundredth of a Swedish krona and (øre) one hundredth of a Danish and Norwegian krone ore (ɔr, oʊr) n. 1. a metal-bearing mineral or rock, or a native metal, that can be mined at a profit. 2. a mineral or natural product serving as a source of some nonmetallic substance, as sulfur. [before 900; conflation of Middle English ore, Old English ōra ore, unreduced metal; and Middle English or(e) ore, metal, Old English ār brass; c. Old Saxon, Old High German ēr, Old Norse eir; compare Latin aes bronze] ö•re (ˈœ rə) n., pl. ö•re. 1. Also, ø•re (Œ′ r ə). a monetary unit of Denmark and Norway, equal to 1/100 of a krone. 2. a monetary unit of Sweden, equal to 1/100 of a krona. [1700–20; < Swedish öre, Dan, Norwegian øre « Latin aureus a gold coin] Ore. ore (ôr) A mineral or rock from which a valuable or useful substance, especially a metal, can be extracted at a reasonable cost. ore	Ore
What is the common name of the lighter/fuel gas, formula C4H10?	Silver ore - definition of Silver ore by The Free Dictionary Silver ore - definition of Silver ore by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Silver+ore (ôr) n. A mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable constituent, especially a metal, can be profitably mined or extracted. [Middle English, from Old English ōra and from Old English ār, brass, copper, bronze.] ö·re A Swedish unit of currency equal to 1/100 of the krona. [Swedish, from Old Norse eyrir, from Latin aureus, gold coin, from aurum, gold.] ø·re A unit of currency equal to 1/100 of the krone in Denmark and Norway. [Danish and Norwegian, both from Old Norse eyrir; see öre.] ore (ɔː) n (Chemistry) any naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which economically important constituents, esp metals, can be extracted [Old English ār, ōra; related to Gothic aiz, Latin aes, Dutch oer] öre (ˈørə) n, pl öre (Currencies) a Scandinavian monetary unit worth one hundredth of a Swedish krona and (øre) one hundredth of a Danish and Norwegian krone ore (ɔr, oʊr) n. 1. a metal-bearing mineral or rock, or a native metal, that can be mined at a profit. 2. a mineral or natural product serving as a source of some nonmetallic substance, as sulfur. [before 900; conflation of Middle English ore, Old English ōra ore, unreduced metal; and Middle English or(e) ore, metal, Old English ār brass; c. Old Saxon, Old High German ēr, Old Norse eir; compare Latin aes bronze] ö•re (ˈœ rə) n., pl. ö•re. 1. Also, ø•re (Œ′ r ə). a monetary unit of Denmark and Norway, equal to 1/100 of a krone. 2. a monetary unit of Sweden, equal to 1/100 of a krona. [1700–20; < Swedish öre, Dan, Norwegian øre « Latin aureus a gold coin] Ore. ore (ôr) A mineral or rock from which a valuable or useful substance, especially a metal, can be extracted at a reasonable cost. ore	i don't know
What sort of artworks are the Cloth of St Gereon, Hunt of the Unicorn, Apocalypse, Wawel, and New World?	Jagiellonian tapestries - Wikipedia, Photos and Videos Jagiellonian tapestries NEXT GO TO RESULTS [20 .. 69] WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE Jump to: navigation , search Tapestry with shield-bearing satyrs and monogram SA of king Sigismund Augustus, ca. 1555. The Jagiellonian tapestries are a collection of tapestries woven in the Netherlands and Flanders, which originally consisted of 365 pieces assembled by the Jagiellons to decorate the interiors of the royal residence Wawel Castle . [1] [2] It is also known as the Wawel arrasses, as the majority of the preserved fabrics is in the possession of the Wawel Castle Museum and the French city of Arras was a large center of manufacturing of this kind of wall decoration in the beginning of the 16th century. [3] The collection become a state property of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland according to the will of Sigismund II Augustus . [4] [5] Contents 3 External links History and components[ edit ] The first tapestries were brought by Queen Bona Sforza as her wedding dowry . [6] Then in 1526 and 1533, Sigismund I the Old ordered 108 fabrics in Antwerp and Bruges . [6] Most of the tapestries, however, were commissioned by king Sigismund II Augustus in Brussels [3] in the workshops of Willem and Jan de Kempeneer, Jan van Tieghem [7] and Nicolas Leyniers between 1550-1565. [8] Initially, there were about 170 tapestries in the royal collection, among them [9] 84 black-and-white tapestries with the royal crest and the letters SA, 8 tapestries which Sigismund I the Old had been received from the Emperor Maximilian I , [10] and others, gifts from foreign delegations. The gifts include one tapestry with the Polish eagle bearing the date 1560, the royal initials and the letters CKCH (Christophorus Krupski Capitaneus Horodlo) next to the Korczak coat of arms and the inscription SCABELLVM PEDVM TVORVM (the footstool under your feet, Psalm 110, A Psalm of David), a gift from Krzysztof Krupski, starost of Horodło for Sigismund Augustus. [6] The tapestries had been displayed publicly for the first time during the wedding of king Sigismund Augustus with Catherine of Austria . [4] To this day, preserved about 138 of which exposed are about 30. They were matched in size to the walls and some of them reach the size of 5 × 9 m (5.47 × 9.84 yd). [4] The tapestries were made of wool strands, silk and gold [3] and woven on looms with a density of about 8 - 10 warp threads per centimeter. This series consists of the following subjects: Verdure Dragon fighting with a panther (detail), design by the circle of Pieter Coecke van Aelst. Biblical scenes - scenes from the Story of the First Parents, the Story of Noah and the Story of Tower of Babel [3] (inventory number of the Wawel Museum 1 - 18), the Story of Moses, the Story of Absalom the Story of Nebuchadnezzar and the Story of Saul (scattered), created according to design by Michiel Coxie - biblical scenes, fillets by an unknown artist from the circle of painters Cornelis Floris and Cornelis Bos , [11] Mythological scenes - scenes from the Trojan War, the Military expeditions of the Persian king Cyrus, the Story of Romulus and Remus, the Story of Scipio, the Story of Hannibal, the Story of Julius Caesar and the Story of Octavian Augustus (scattered), [12] landscape and animal scenes (verdure) [3] (inventory number of the Wawel Museum 19 - 78) created around 1560, according to design by an unknown artist from the circle of Pieter Coecke van Aelst [13] (sometimes associated with Willem Tons), grotesque scenes with the coats of arms of Poland and Lithuania and the royal initials [3] (inventory number of the Wawel Museum 79 - 134/2) created around 1560, according to design by an unknown artist from the circle of painters Cornelis Floris and Cornelis Bos, three grotesque (inventory number 92, 93, 94) were based on drawings by Cornelis Bos. Biblical tapestries are exhibited in rotation in the chambers on the second floor of the castle, and the tapestries with animals, as well as grotesques with monograms and coats of arms on both floors. This is the largest collection of tapestries ever commissioned by one ruler. According to the will of the last Jagiellonian king the Flemish Arrases in gold or figured, together with those of simpler kind [14] were given to the king's three sisters and after their death, they had become the property of the State Treasury, [4] under the custody of the Commonwealth's parliament [15] to serve the public good of the Commonwealth and not for private benefit of future kings (fragment of the Diet's resolution). [16] Verdure An otter with a fish in its mouth, Jan van Tieghem's workshop, ca. 1555. Unfortunately, the not quite precise will became a cause of many conflicts over ownership of the tapesties between the kings and nobles. The whole collection was only together for a short time at the Castle in Tykocin until 1572. [17] Then the king's sisters scattered it between their residences in Kraków , Niepołomice , Warsaw , Vilnius and Hrodna , and even sent some to Sweden . [17] The king Sigismund III Vasa brought back 30 pieces that Anna Jagiellon sent to Stockholm to her sister Catherine (Sigismund's mother). In 1633, three of the tapestries with scenes from the Story of Moses, were presented by Jerzy Ossoliński , on behalf of king Władysław IV Vasa , to Pope Urban VIII . [18] During the Deluge the collection was hidden by Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski in his estates in Spiš . [19] In the following years the king John II Casimir Vasa mortgaged 157 tapestries to a merchant from Gdańsk , Jan Gratta, without the consent of parliament. [20] In order to force the lifetime wages after his abdication the king also took some of the tapestries to France . [21] This caused protests from the nobility and the king's debt was not repaid until 1724. [20] The parliament submitted the tapestries for safekeeping in the Warsaw's Carmelite convent [21] and for the last time they were displayed during the coronation of king Stanisław Augustus in 1764. After the major reconstruction of the Warsaw Royal Castle 's interiors in the neoclassical style the king ordered new tapestries in France and the Jagiellonian collection was rolled up and stored in the building of the Treasury Committee - Palace of the Republic . [19] According to an inventory performed during the reign of Stanisław Augustus there were about 156 arrasses. In 1795, after the Third Partition of Poland , the tapestries along with other goods plundered from the royal residencies, were taken by Alexander Suvorov to Russia . [20] Paradise Bliss, Jan de Kempeneer's workshop, ca. 1550. After regaining independence and victorious war with the Soviet Union the Polish government managed to recover 137 fabrics, [20] in various states of preservation, between 1922-1924. The tapesties were cut to fit the walls of the Winter Palace and Gatchina Palace , or they were used as furniture upholstery. [20] Some of them are still in Russia, displayed in different museums, without specifying their origin, the Soviets claimed that the tapestries are equivalent for the Polish debts. [22] When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the tapestries stored at Wawel Castle were transported through Romania , France and England to Canada [21] [23] to be finally returned, after 15 years of negotiations, to the People's Republic of Poland in the 1960s. [24] [25] In 1961, when the royal collection was coming back from a long journey it was greeted by the Sigismund Bell and the Kraków inhabitants. Today 137 fabrics are owned by the Wawel Royal Castle (2 of them, Forest landscape with a deer and a duck catching fish and the Forest landscape with a deer and giraffes by Nicolas Leyniers, are displayed in the Warsaw Royal Castle), the Moral fall of the humanity before the deluge, returned to Poland in 1977 as a gift from the Soviet Union, it is in the Royal Castle in Warsaw and one of the missing, which appeared on the antique market in the 1950s and was purchased by the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam . [26] Today, the 136 that are still in possession of the Wawel castle make up Europe's best tapestry collections.	Tapestry
The '(What number-th?) Amendment' refers to US legal or informal refusal to answer a self-incriminating/awkward question?	0750661844 Tapestry Conservation \| Tapestry \| Conservation (Cultural Heritage) 0750661844 Tapestry Conservation You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 6 to 60 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 66 to 71 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 77 to 119 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 125 to 263 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 269 to 274 are not shown in this preview.	i don't know
What sort of flooring meant in French 'small enclosed space'?	Parquet \| Define Parquet at Dictionary.com parquet noun 1. a floor composed of short strips or blocks of wood forming a pattern, sometimes with inlays of other woods or other materials. 2. the part of the main floor of a theater, opera house, etc., that is between the musicians' area and the parterre or rear division or, especially in the U.S., the entire floor space for spectators. verb (used with object), parqueted [pahr-keyd] /pɑrˈkeɪd/ (Show IPA), parqueting [pahr-key-ing] /pɑrˈkeɪ ɪŋ/ (Show IPA) 3. to construct (a floor) of parquetry. Origin of parquet 1670-80; < French, diminutive of parc park ; see -et Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for parquet Expand An American Suffragette Isaac N. Stevens The parquet floor was to be supplied with rugs of warm Eastern colours. The Lady of the Basement Flat Mrs. George de Horne Vaizey Some of the blood was dripping on Aunt Caroline's parquet floor, but not enough for the crowd. Good References E. J. Rath Zollern tapped his cane on the parquet floor, rhythmically, persistently. The Unknown Quantity Henry van Dyke In Texas some of it is employed in the manufacture of parquet flooring. American Forest Trees Henry H. Gibson They do not protrude over the parquet, but simply line the walls like balconies. British Dictionary definitions for parquet Expand a floor covering of pieces of hardwood fitted in a decorative pattern; parquetry 2. Also called parquet floor. a floor so covered 3. (US) the stalls of a theatre 4. the main part of the Paris Bourse, where officially listed securities are traded Compare coulisse (sense 3) 5. (in France) the department of government responsible for the prosecution of crimes verb (transitive) to cover (a floor) with parquet Word Origin C19: from Old French: small enclosure, from parc enclosure; see park Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for parquet Expand n. 1816, "patterned wooden flooring," from French parquet "wooden flooring; enclosed portion of a park," from Old French parchet (14c.) "small compartment, part of a park or theater," diminutive of parc (see park (n.)). Meaning "part of a theater auditorium at the front of the ground floor" is first recorded 1848. The noun use in English has been influenced by the verb (attested from 1640s, from French parqueter. Related: Parquetry Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	Parquetry
Which sea, with ports Venice and Split, is the northernmost part of the Mediterranean Sea?	stall - WordReference.com Dictionary of English stall WordReference Random House Learner's Dictionary of American English © 2017 stall1 /stɔl/USA pronunciation n. [ countable ] Agriculturea compartment, as in a stable, to confine an animal:the stalls for individual cows. a booth in which merchandise is displayed for sale. a small enclosed space for a specific activity or thing:a shower stall. a marked space for parking a car, as in a parking lot. a condition in which an engine suddenly stops functioning. v. (of a motor or a vehicle) to stop or come to a standstill:[no object; (~ + out)]The car started but then immediately stalled. to cause (a car or motor) to stop functioning suddenly, as by overloading:[~ + object]kept stalling the car when I put it in gear. stall2 /stɔl/USA pronunciation v. to delay, esp. by avoiding a direct answer or action: [~ + object]deliberately tried to stall the talks so that we wouldn't get a raise.[no object]You're stalling; just give us an answer. to be delayed, impeded, or interrupted:[no object]Once again contract talks have stalled. WordReference Random House Unabridged Dictionary of American English © 2017 stall1 (stôl),USA pronunciation Agriculturea compartment in a stable or shed for the accommodation of one animal. Agriculturea stable or shed for horses or cattle. a booth or stand in which merchandise is displayed for sale, or in which some business is carried on (sometimes used in combination):a butcher's stall; a bookstall. Library Sciencecarrel (def. 1). one of a number of fixed enclosed seats in the choir or chancel of a church for the use of the clergy. a pew. any small compartment or booth for a specific activity or housing a specific thing:a shower stall. a rectangular space marked off or reserved for parking a car or other vehicle, as in a parking lot. Automotivean instance or the condition of causing an engine, or a vehicle powered by an engine, to stop, esp. by supplying it with a poor fuel mixture or by overloading it. Aeronauticsan instance or the condition of causing an airplane to fly at an angle of attack greater than the angle of maximum lift, causing loss of control and a downward spin. Cf. critical angle (def. 2). a protective covering for a finger or toe, as various guards and sheaths or one finger of a glove. British Termsa chairlike seat in a theater, separated from others by arms or rails, esp. one in the front section of the parquet. v.t. to assign to, put, or keep in a stall or stalls, as an animal or a car. to confine in a stall for fattening, as cattle. to cause (a motor or the vehicle it powers) to stop, esp. by supplying it with a poor fuel mixture or overloading it. Aeronautics to put (an airplane) into a stall. to lose control of or crash (an airplane) from so doing. to bring to a standstill; check the progress or motion of, esp. unintentionally. to cause to stick fast, as in mire or snow. v.i. Automotive, Aeronautics(of an engine, car, airplane, etc.) to be stalled or go through the process of stalling (sometimes fol. by out). to come to a standstill; be brought to a stop. to stick fast, as in mire. to occupy a stall, as an animal. stall′-like′, adj. bef. 900; Middle English; Old English steall; cognate with German Stall, Old Norse stallr; akin to Old English stellan, German stellen to put, place stall2 (stôl),USA pronunciation v.i. to delay, esp. by evasion or deception. Sportto prolong holding the ball as a tactic to prevent the opponent from scoring, as when one's team has the lead. Cf. freeze (def. 31). v.t. to delay or put off, esp. by evasion or deception (often fol. by off):He stalled the police for 15 minutes so his accomplice could get away. n. a pretext, as a ruse, trick, or the like, used to delay or deceive. Slang Terms[Underworld Slang.]the member of a pickpocket's team who distracts the victim long enough for the theft to take place. Sportslowdown (def. 3). 1490–1500; earlier stale decoy bird ( Anglo-French estale decoy pigeon), Old English stæl- decoy (in stælhrān decoy reindeer); akin to stall1 Collins Concise English Dictionary © HarperCollins Publishers:: stall /stɔːl/ n	i don't know
Name the author of the British children's TV animated series The Herbs, and Paddington book series?	Home More About Paddington 2 PADDINGTON 2 GOES INTO PRODUCTION Producer David Heyman and STUDIOCANAL are delighted to announce the start of filming for Paul King’s highly anticipated PADDINGTON 2 revealing that Hugh Grant and Brendan Gleeson join the all-star returning cast. For more information and to see which countries are already confirming their release dates.... Big Screen CAST ANNOUNCEMENT Hugh Grant and Brendan Gleeson join the all-star returning cast of Hugh Bonneville, Sally Hawkins, Julie Walters, Jim Broadbent, Peter Capaldi, Madeleine Harris and Samuel Joslin with Ben Whishaw as the voice of Paddington and Imelda Staunton as Aunt Lucy. Michael Bond The bear & his creator It was while Michael Bond CBE was working as a television cameraman for the BBC in 1956 that he first came up with the idea for Paddington. Little could he have known then how many people from around the world would come to know and love his small bear from Peru.	Michael Bond
The word 'idea' derives from Greek meaning the sense to?	5 Children’s Books Transformed Into 3D-Animated Films 5 Children’s Books Transformed Into 3D-Animated Films Reddit Audiences were a dimension closer to feeling like they were soaring with blue aliens or diving into the depths of Titanic’s wreckage in lauded James Cameron movies like Avatar and Ghosts of the Abyss; 3D technology was all the rage. But the popularity of 3D films has more recently declined — peaking in 2011 with a record 47 3D films released, but revenue dropped 18 percent from 2010. Thirty-four 3D films were made in 2013, and 28 are scheduled for this year. The reasons why are up for debate — from more expensive 3D ticket prices to the quality of the films themselves. Children’s 3D movies, however, are a different story. Three of the seven movies of the first-quarter of 2014 were 3D non-superhero kids movies. According to the MPAA , the share of tickets sold to 2-11 year olds is at its highest point since 2009, and with 3D attendance skewing towards children age 2-17. When it comes to 3D technology, the youngest audience members are a good bet. While 3D is a non-traditional medium, many of the children’s films are based on a time-tested format: traditional pencil drawings in picture books. Here’s a look at some of these films, including those that are soon to come. The Polar Express IMAX’s first full-length animated 3D feature was released in 2004, but its source material, the eponymous award-winning picture book by Chris Van Allsburg, was published in 1985. The story features a young boy who meets a conductor of a train called the Polar Express, which is journeying to the North Pole. Together, they go on a Christmas adventure. The film stars Tom Hanks (through motion-capture) as the train conductor, but unlike the book, the film takes place in the late 1950s. The film , which cost $165 million to make, garnered great attention on the possibilities for 3D in animated films. The Adventures of Tintin Tintin may have been more recently introduced to audiences in the U.S. via the Steven Spielberg action-adventure film, but the comic book series has been read for generations in Western Europe. The clean and colorful pages by Belgian cartoonist Georges Remi, who wrote under the pen name Hergé, have sold over 350 million copies and translated into roughly 80 languages. The film grossed over $373 million and received positive reviews, including comparisons to Spielberg’s Raiders of the Lost Ark. A sequel, The Adventures of Tintin: Prisoners of the Sun , will continue to follow the young investigative journalist and his dog. It be directed by Peter Jackson and released in 2016. Paddington The British comedy film is based on the beloved children’s literature character, Paddington Bear, who first appeared in 1958. The writer, Michael Bond, wrote more than 20 books featuring the brown bear, which was illustrated by Peggy Fortnum. The books have sold over 30 million copies worldwide. David Heyman, who is known for his work on all eight Harry Potter films, is producing Paddington. Colin Firth’s voice was recently replaced by Ben Whishaw after the studio decided Firth’s voice was unsuitable for the character. The film also includes the voices of Nicole Kidman, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Bonneville, Julie Walters, and Sally Hawkins. It will be released November 2014. Le Petit Prince The whimsical drawings and philosophical musings of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s 1943 novella will soon come alive in a 3D computer animated fantasy film. The French book has been translated into more than 250 languages and has sold over 140 million copies worldwide. The film , which has an $80 million budget, features an international A-list cast including James Franco, Marion Cotillard, Rachel McAdams, Jeff Bridges, Ricky Gervais, and Paul Giamatti. Many adaptations of the book have occurred, including a 1974 film . Hopefully the latest film will be able to retain the poetic charm of the source. It will be released October 2015. Peanuts The latest film based on the classic Charles Schulz comics is the first in 35 years. The film will be released November 2015. The influential comic had 17,897 strips published, a readership of 355 million in 75 countries, and was translated into 21 languages. The iconic characters, including Charlie Brown, Snoopy, and Woodstock, will appear in the film. The late Bill Melendez will voice Snoopy and Woodstock through archival recordings. Melendez was the only person Schultz trusted to turn his comic creations into television specials. Recent promo at San Diego Comic-Con, including artwork and a short trailer, suggests that the film retains the warm and playful spirit of the comics. More From Entertainment Cheat Sheet:	i don't know
Which country first bred Doberman Pinscher dogs?	Doberman Pinscher Dog Breed Information Tendency toward a tolerance for cats and a lower prey drive. 3 stars Child Friendly Dogs that tend to be more sturdy, playful and easygoing around children and more tolerant of children's behavior. 4 stars Tendency to enjoy or tolerate other dogs. 2 stars Level of daily activity needed. 3 stars Amount of bathing, brushing, even professional grooming needed. 1 star Level of health issues a breed tends to have. 4 stars A dog's thinking and problem-solving ability (not trainability). 5 stars How lighthearted and spirited a dog tends to be. 3 stars Amount and frequency of dog hair shedding. 3 stars Preferred amount of interaction with other pets and humans. 3 stars Tendency to be welcoming to new people. 1 star A dog's inclination to be protective of his home, yard or even car. 5 stars Level of ease in learning something new and a willingness to try new things. 5 stars A breed that is likely to alert you to the presence of strangers. 5 stars Overview Did You Know? Doberman’s get a bad reputation as attack dogs. Alpha in the Academy Award-winning film “UP” embodies every stereotype of the Doberman Pinscher: he’s both mean and not very smart. Fortunately, he’s also fictional and nothing like a real Doberman. The Doberman Pinscher is a dog of contradictions. Although he has a reputation as a sharp and even sinister dog, his devoted fans consider him the most loving and loyal of companions. And no, "loyal" isn't a euphemism for "only likes his owner." It's the real thing, a tremendous bond between dog and human that lies at the heart of the Doberman's enduring popularity. Believe it or not, a good Doberman is a stable, friendly dog -- unless you threaten his family. But the bad reputation isn't entirely undeserved. Health and temperament problems became a serious issue in the breed with its growing popularity, and continue to plague the carelessly bred dogs you'll find in pet stores, through Internet retailers, and at many of the big kennels advertising in the backs of magazines. If you want the steady, protective, intelligent Doberman of your dreams, be prepared to do your due dilligence to find him. A Doberman is right for you if you're ready to provide loving leadership to your dog, train him consistently and fairly and give him plenty of exercise and outlet for his considerable intelligence. And don't underestimate that intelligence: the Doberman is among the smartest of all dog breeds, and one whose owners need to pay attention lest they find themselves outsmarted. If you expect your dog to spend his days in the backyard and his evenings keeping you company while you play video games, you’d better be prepared for a barking, bored, destructive dog instead of the devoted companion you thought you were bringing into your home. Developed as a guard dog, the Doberman has an innate ability not only to protect his family but also to anticipate danger and threats. Because he's so smart, he's not often wrong, but if the Doberman isn't socialized and trained to behave appropriately around strangers, he may show excessive suspicion of guests in your home – suspicion that can turn into aggression. Many people want a Doberman for purposes of protection, but almost no one really needs a trained protection dog – most people or families simply need a watchdog and a deterrent. The Doberman's reputation, intelligence, instinctive ability to evaluate threats, and his loyalty to and innate protectiveness of his human family are all that's needed to accomplish those goals, so don't get a "trained protection dog" that you don't need and probably can't handle. A well-bred, well-trained, properly socialized Doberman who lives with his family will protect them as part of his nature. One of the key phrases there is "lives with his family." While some Dobermans are raised successfully in kennel situations, these are working dogs that have demanding and interesting tasks to do that give them the exercise and mental stimulation the dogs need. If your Doberman is a family pet, he needs to live indoors with your family. Otherwise, he'll be lonely, bored and destructive – and less, rather than more, likely to protect you. If you do share your home with a Doberman, you'll find him to be a fairly easy dog to care for. Just keep his nails trimmed, his body lean and exercised, and brush him weekly to keep shedding to a minimum. An alert watchdog, the Doberman can be a barker, so help yours develop appropriate barking behavior when young so it doesn't become a nuisance later on. While most people are familiar only with the black Doberman with rust markings, Dobermans actually come in a number of colors: black with rust-colored markings; blue (actually gray) with rust markings; various shades of red-brown with rust markings; and a light tan color called "Isabella," which also has rust markings. Be aware that white or cream Dobermans are a genetic mutation that is associated with severe health problems ; they are not the prized and expensive rarity some people will try to market them as. There is no test for the albino gene, but good breeders do everything they can to avoid producing albino Dobermans. Avoid these dogs and the breeders who produce and sell them. Other Quick Facts The Doberman originated in Germany, created by tax collector Louis Dobermann to keep himself and the taxes he carried safe from thieves. In the 1950s, long before the advent of agility and freestyle competitions, the Doberman Drill Team thrilled audiences with their amazing physical feats. Today the breed is highly competitive in obedience and agility trials as well as many other dog sports and activities. The Doberman who is raised with children and other pets will love and protect them and be a good companion for kids. The first Doberman to win Best in Show at Westminster was Ch. Ferry v Raufelsen of Giralda in 1939. He was followed by his grandson, Ch. Rancho Dobe's Storm, who had back to back wins in 1952 and 1953 and more recently by Ch. Royal Tudor Wild as the Wind in 1989. History The History of Dobermans Tax collector Louis Dobermann needed a guard dog to keep the monies he carried safe from thieves. To create the intelligent, reliable guard dog that he had in mind, he crossed shorthaired shepherd dogs with Rottweilers , black and tan terriers, and German Pinschers . Sleek dogs such as Greyhounds and Weimaraners may also have been part of his “recipe.” Before long, he was producing dogs of a distinct type. The first Doberman Pinschers, as they became known, were seen at a dog show in Erfurt, Germany, in 1897. Three years later the breed received official recognition as a German breed. The American Kennel Club registered its first Doberman in 1908, and the Doberman Pinscher Club of America was formed in 1921. Throughout their history, Dobermans have made a name for themselves as police and military dogs. During World War II, the United States Marine Corp used Dobermans in combat as sentries, messengers, and scouts. While liberating Guam, 25 Marine war dogs died. Dobermans are seen in archival footage of the battle on Okinawa, one of the bloodiest conflicts in American history. In 1994 a bronze memorial statue of a Doberman commissioned by the United Doberman Club was erected in Guam. The memorial is called "Always Faithful." In 2001 when the World Trade Center towers collapsed, search and rescue Dobermans looked for survivors and bodies at Ground Zero. The Doberman still has a fearsome reputation, but the secret that has made him one of the AKC’s most popular breeds over the years is his devotion to and love for his family. It’s no wonder that the Doberman is 14 th in AKC registrations, up from 23 rd a decade ago. Personality The Doberman Temperament and Personality The Doberman’s qualities of intelligence, trainability and courage have made him capable of performing many different roles, from police or military dog to family protector and friend. The ideal Doberman is energetic, watchful, determined, alert and obedient, never shy or vicious. That temperament and relationship with people only occurs when the Doberman lives closely with his family so that he can build that bond of loyalty for which he is famous. A Doberman who is left out in the backyard alone will never become a loving protector but instead a fearful dog who is aggressive toward everyone, including his own family. Never do that to a dog. When the Doberman is loved, socialized and trained, there is no more wonderful companion. The perfect Doberman doesn’t come ready-made from the breeder. Any dog, no matter how nice, can develop obnoxious levels of barking, digging, countersurfing and other undesirable behaviors if he is bored, untrained or unsupervised. And any dog can be a trial to live with during adolescence. Start training your puppy the day you bring him home. Even at eight weeks old, he is capable of soaking up everything you can teach him. Don’t wait until he is 6 months old to begin training or you will have a more headstrong dog to deal with. If possible, get him into puppy kindergarten class by the time he is 10 to 12 weeks old, and socialize, socialize, socialize. However, be aware that many puppy training classes require certain vaccines (like kennel cough) to be up to date, and many veterinarians recommend limited exposure to other dogs and public places until puppy vaccines (including rabies, distemper and parvovirus ) have been completed. In lieu of formal training, you can begin training your puppy at home and socializing him among family and friends until puppy vaccines are completed. Talk to the breeder, describe exactly what you’re looking for in a dog, and ask for assistance in selecting a puppy. Breeders see the puppies daily and can make uncannily accurate recommendations once they know something about your lifestyle and personality. Whatever you want from a Doberman, look for one whose parents have nice personalities and who has been well socialized from early puppyhood. Health What You Need to Know About Doberman Health All dogs have the potential to develop genetic health problems, just as all people have the potential to inherit a particular disease. Run, don’t walk, from any breeder who does not offer a health guarantee on puppies, who tells you that the breed is 100 percent healthy and has no known problems, or who tells you that her puppies are isolated from the main part of the household for health reasons. A reputable breeder will be honest and open about health problems in the breed and the incidence with which they occur in her lines. One of the most serious breed-related health problems in the Doberman is cardiomyopathy, which causes an enlarged heart. An annual heart exam is critical in catching this condition early, and no dog with cardiomyopathy should ever be bred. Nor should any Doberman be bred without a comprehensive heart examination by a board-certified veterinary cardiologist and OFA certification within the past year. The sad reality, however, is that a dog who tests fine one day can develop heart disease the next, and the puppy of two parents without heart disease can still develop it. Another breed-related condition affecting the Doberman is cervical vertebral instability (CVI), commonly called Wobbler's syndrome. It's caused by a malformation of the vertebrae within the neck that results in pressure on the spinal cord and leads to weakness and lack of coordination in the hindquarters and sometimes to complete paralysis. Symptoms can be managed to a certain extent in dogs that are not severely affected, and some dogs experience some relief from surgery, but the outcome is far from certain. While CVI is thought to be genetic, there is no screening test for the condition. Dobermans are also prone to the bleeding disorder known as von Willebrand disease, as well as hypoadrenocorticism, or Addison's disease. Not all of these conditions are detectable in a growing puppy, and it is impossible to predict whether an animal will be free of these maladies, which is why you must find a reputable breeder who is committed to breeding the healthiest animals possible. They should be able to produce independent certification that the parents of the dog (and grandparents, etc.) have been screened for common defects and deemed healthy for breeding. That’s where health registries come in. The Doberman Pinscher Club of America participates in the Canine Health Information Center , a health database. Before individual Dobermans can be issued a CHIC number, breeders must submit hip, heart and thyroid evaluations from the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) and eye test results from the Canine Eye Registration Foundation (CERF). PennHip and Ontario Veterinary College (OVC) hip certifications are also accepted. The heart evaluation requires echocardiography and a Holter examination. Other required tests are an OFA or DPCA evaluation for von Willebrand’s disease and a working aptitude test issued by the DPCA. Breeders must agree to have all test results, positive or negative, published in the CHIC database. A dog need not receive good or even passing scores on the evaluations to obtain a CHIC number, so CHIC registration alone is not proof of soundness or absence of disease, but all test results are posted on the CHIC website and can be accessed by anyone who wants to check the health of a puppy’s parents. If the breeder tells you she doesn't need to do those tests because she's never had problems in her lines and her dogs have been "vet checked," then you should go find a breeder who is more rigorous about genetic testing. Careful breeders screen their breeding dogs for genetic disease and breed only the healthiest and best-looking specimens, but sometimes Mother Nature has other ideas and a puppy develops one of these diseases despite good breeding practices. Advances in veterinary medicine mean that in most cases the dogs can still live a good life. If you’re getting a puppy, ask the breeder about the ages of the dogs in her lines and what they died of. Not every Doberman visit to the vet is for a genetic problem. Dobermans are one of the deep-chested breeds likely to bloat, a condition in which the stomach expands with air. This can become the more serious condition, gastric torsion, if the stomach twists on itself, cutting off blood flow. Gastric torsion, or gastric dilatation volvulus, strikes suddenly, and a dog who was fine one minute can be dead a few hours later. Watch for symptoms like restlessness and pacing, drooling, pale gums and lip licking, trying to throw up but without bringing anything up, and signs of pain. Gastric torsion requires immediate veterinary surgery, and most dogs that have bloated once will bloat again. That means it’s wise to opt for the procedure known as "stomach tacking," which will keep the stomach from twisting in the future. This procedure can also be done as a preventive measure. Remember that after you’ve taken a new puppy into your home, you have the power to protect him from one of the most common health problems: obesity. Keeping a Doberman at an appropriate weight is one of the easiest ways to extend his life. Make the most of your preventive abilities to help ensure a healthier dog for life. Grooming The Basics of Doberman Grooming Grooming is a breeze. Brush the Doberman with a slicker brush or hound glove every week, or even just run a wet towel over him. On the days he needs a bath, use a dog shampoo, not a human product. Rinse thoroughly and let him shake dry or towel-dry him. The Doberman sheds moderately. Regular brushing will help keep him and your home neat. As with any dog, brushing before a bath helps eliminate more dead hair, which leaves less hair to shed. Your vacuum cleaner will work longer if you brush your Doberman regularly. The rest is basic care. Trim his nails as needed, usually every few weeks. Brush his teeth for good overall health and fresh breath. Finding Finding a Doberman Pinscher Whether you want to go with a breeder or get your dog from a shelter or rescue, here are some things to keep in mind. Choosing a Doberman Breeder Finding a good breeder is the key to finding the right puppy. A good breeder will match you with the right puppy, and will without question have done all the health certifications necessary to screen out health problems as much as is possible. He or she is more interested in placing pups in the right homes than in making big bucks. Good breeders will welcome your questions about temperament, health clearances and what the dogs are like to live with and come right back at you with questions of their own about what you’re looking for in a dog and what kind of life you can provide for him. The Doberman Pinscher Club of America is a good place to start your search for a responsible breeder. Look for a breeder who abides by the club's code of ethics , which does not permit the sale of puppies through brokers, auctions or commercial dealers such as pet stores. Breeders should sell puppies with a written contract guaranteeing they'll take back the dog at any time during his life if you become unable to keep him, and with written documentation that both the puppy's parents have had their hips, eyes, elbows and hearts examined and certified by the appropriate health organizations. Seek out a breeder whose dogs are active in agility, obedience and other sports that require athleticism and good health, and not just ribbons from the show ring. A breeder whose dogs are part of the DPCA Longevity Program is an even better bet, as is one who has DPCA Working Aptitude certification for his breeding dogs. Proper Doberman temperament is so important that the Doberman Pinscher Club of America has developed a certification program for its member breeders to ensure that their dogs "demonstrate the characteristics required of a dog to be a stable companion and resolute protector." There's a bonus: Breeders who go to that extent to prove their dogs are temperamentally sound are going to be among the best and most ethical sources for a puppy. Avoid breeders who only seem interested in how quickly they can unload a puppy on you and whether your credit card will go through. You should also bear in mind that buying a puppy from websites that offer to ship your dog to you immediately can be a risky venture, as it leaves you no recourse if what you get isn’t exactly what you expected. Put at least as much effort into researching your puppy as you would into choosing a new car or expensive appliance. It will save you money in the long run. Many reputable breeders have websites, so how can you tell who’s good and who’s not? Red flags include puppies always being available, multiple litters on the premises, having your choice of any puppy, and the ability to pay online with a credit card. Those things are convenient, but they are almost never associated with reputable breeders. Whether you’re planning to get your new best friend from a breeder, a pet store, or another source, don’t forget that old adage “let the buyer beware”. Disreputable breeders and facilities that deal with puppy mills can be hard to distinguish from reliable operations. There’s no 100% guaranteed way to make sure you’ll never purchase a sick puppy, but researching the breed (so you know what to expect), checking out the facility (to identify unhealthy conditions or sick animals), and asking the right questions can reduce the chances of heading into a disastrous situation. And don’t forget to ask your veterinarian, who can often refer you to a reputable breeder, breed rescue organization, or other reliable source for healthy puppies. The cost of a Doberman Pinscher puppy varies depending on the breeder’s locale, whether he is male or female, what titles his parents have, and whether he is best suited for the show ring or a pet home. The puppy you buy should have been raised in a clean home environment, from parents with health clearances and show and, ideally, working or versatility titles to prove that they are good specimens of the breed. Puppies should be temperament tested, vetted, dewormed, and socialized to give them a healthy, confident start in life. And before you decide to buy a puppy, consider whether an adult Doberman Pinscher might better suit your needs and lifestyle. Puppies are loads of fun, but they require a lot of time and effort before they grow up to become the dog of your dreams. An adult Doberman Pinscher may already have some training and will probably be less active, destructive and demanding than a puppy. With an adult, you know more about what you’re getting in terms of personality and health and you can find adults through breeders or shelters. If you are interested in acquiring an older dog through breeders, ask them about purchasing a retired show dog or if they know of an adult dog who needs a new home. If you want to adopt a dog, read the advice below on how to do that. Adopting a Dog From a Doberman Rescue or Shelter There are many great options available if you want to adopt a dog from an animal shelter or breed rescue organization. Here is how to get started. 1. Use the Web Sites like Petfinder.com and Adopt-a-Pet.com can have you searching for a Doberman in your area in no time flat. The site allows you to be very specific in your requests (housetraining status, for example) or very general (all the Dobermans available on Petfinder across the country). AnimalShelter can help you find animal rescue groups in your area. Also some local newspapers have “pets looking for homes” sections you can review. Social media is another great way to find a dog. Post on your Facebook page that you are looking for a specific breed so that your entire community can be your eyes and ears. 2. Reach Out to Local Experts Start talking with all the pet pros in your area about your desire for a Doberman. That includes vets, dog walkers, and groomers. When someone has to make the tough decision to give up a dog, that person will often ask her own trusted network for recommendations. 3. Talk to Breed Rescue Networking can help you find a dog that may be the perfect companion for your family. You can also search online for other Doberman rescues in your area. Most people who love Dobermans love all Dobermans. That’s why breed clubs have rescue organizations devoted to taking care of homeless dogs. The Doberman Pinscher Club of America’s rescue network can help you find a dog that may be the perfect companion for your family. You can also search online for other Doberman rescues in your area. The great thing about breed rescue groups is that they tend to be very upfront about any health conditions the dogs may have and are a valuable resource for advice. They also often offer fostering opportunities so, with training, you could bring a Doberman home with you to see what the experience is like. 4. Key Questions to Ask You now know the things to discuss with a breeder, but there are also questions you should discuss with shelter or rescue group staff or volunteers before you bring home a pup. These include: What is his energy level? How is he around other animals? How does he respond to shelter workers, visitors and children? What is his personality like? What is his age?	Germany
A litany originally referred to a repetitious series of communications in?	Doberman Pinscher Puppies For Sale - AKC PuppyFinder Barking Level: Barks When Necessary Breed Description This powerful, muscular dog is known for its strong protective instincts, intelligence and fearlessness. He's elegant, athletic and very trainable. The breed's reputation as guard dogs is well-known, but they can also be loving, affectionate pets. It's crucial to select your Doberman Pinscher puppy from a reputable breeder and then socialize and train him early. For first-time owners of this breed, taking your puppy to obedience classes or working with a trainer will bring you the best results. He'll also need plenty of exercise to look and feel his best. If you're willing to put in the work, a well-trained and socialized Doberman Pinscher can be an absolute joy. History & Job Origin: Germany Year Recognized: 1908 Breed History & Job Description: In the 1890s a German tax collector named Louis Dobermann bred a protection dog to accompany him on his rounds. There are different theories about which breeds Herr Dobermann utilized in his dog: The Rottweiler, Greyhound, Manchester Terrier, and Miniature Pinscher are some breeds mentioned as possible pieces of the puzzle. During World War II, the Marine Corps Dobermans won the breed great fame in America. The well-bred pet Dobe of today is a more attractive and obedient version of the original “Tax Collector’s Dog.” Health Like all breeds there may be some health issues, like hip dysplasia, eye disease and von Willebrand's disease. Some dogs may be faced with these health challenges in their lives, but the majority of Doberman Pinschers are healthy dogs. They may be affected by bloat, a digestive disorder of the stomach. Make sure to educate yourself about this potentially fatal condition by educating yourself on the symptoms of bloat. Recommended Health Test from the National Breed Club: Cardiac Exam	i don't know
Name the generally synthesized music genre pioneered by Brian Eno in the 1970s?	Brian Eno - Electronic Music of Brainvoyager Brian Eno February 14, 2014 No Comment The story of Brian Eno Brian Peter George St. John le Baptiste de la Salle Eno, (born 15 May 1948 and originally christened Brian Peter George Eno), professionally known as Brian Eno or simply as Eno, is an English musician, composer, record producer, singer, and visual artist, known as one of the principal innovators of ambient music. Brian Eno was a student of Roy Ascott on his Ground course at Ipswich Civic College. Then he studied at Colchester Institute art school in Essex, England, taking inspiration from minimalist painting. During his time on the art course at the Institute, he also gained experience in playing and making music through teaching sessions held in the adjacent music school. He joined the band Roxy Music as synthesizer player in the early 1970s. Roxy Music’s success in the glam rock scene came quickly, but Brian Eno soon tired of touring and of conflicts with lead singer Bryan Ferry. Brian Eno’s solo music has explored more experimental musical styles and ambient music. It has also been immensely influential, pioneering ambient and generative music, innovating production techniques, and emphasizing “theory over practice”. He also introduced the concept of chance music to popular audiences, partially through collaborations with other musicians. Brian Eno has also worked as an influential music and album producer. By the end of the 1970s, Brian Eno had worked with David Bowie on the seminal “Berlin Trilogy” and helped popularize the American band Devo and the punk-influenced “No Wave” genre. He produced and performed on three albums by Talking Heads, including Remain in Light (1980), and produced seven albums for U2, including The Joshua Tree (1987). Brian Eno has also worked on records by James, Laurie Anderson, Coldplay, Depeche Mode, Paul Simon, Grace Jones, James Blake and Slowdive, among others. Brian Eno pursues multimedia ventures in parallel to his music career, including art installations, a regular column on society and innovation in Prospect magazine, and “Oblique Strategies” (written with Peter Schmidt), a deck of cards in which cryptic remarks or random insights are intended to resolve dilemmas. Brian Eno continues to collaborate with other musicians, produce records, release his own music, and write. Education and early musical career Brian Eno was born in 1948 at Phyllis Memorial Hospital, Woodbridge, Suffolk, and was educated at St Joseph’s College, Ipswich, which was founded by the St John le Baptiste de la Salle order of Catholic brothers (from whom he took part of his name when a student there), at Ipswich Art School in Roy Ascott’s Ground course and the Winchester School of Art, graduating in 1969. At the Winchester School of Art, Brian Eno attended a lecture by Pete Townshend of The Who about the use of tape machines by non-musicians, citing the lecture as the moment he realized he could make music even though he was not a musician at that point. In school, he used a tape recorder as a musical instrument and experimented with his first, sometimes improvisational, bands. St. Joseph’s College teacher and painter Tom Phillips encouraged him, recalling “Piano Tennis” with Brian Eno, in which, after collecting pianos, they stripped and aligned them in a hall, striking them with tennis balls. From that collaboration, he became involved in Cornelius Cardew’s Scratch Orchestra. The first released recording in which Brian Eno played is the Deutsche Grammophon edition of Cardew’s The Great Learning (rec. Feb. 1971), as one of the voices in the recital of The Great Learning Paragraph 7. Another early recording was the Berlin Horse soundtrack, by Malcom Le Grice, a nine-minute, 2 × 16 mm-double-projection, released in 1970 and presented in 1971. Roxy Music Brian Eno’s professional music career began in London, as a member (1971–1973) of the glam/art rock band Roxy Music, initially not appearing on stage with them at live shows, but operating the mixing desk, processing the band’s sound with a VCS3 synthesizer and tape recorders, and singing backing vocals. He then progressed to appearing on stage as a performing member of the group, usually flamboyantly costumed. He quit the band on completing the promotion tour for the band’s second album, For Your Pleasure because of disagreements with lead singer Bryan Ferry and boredom with the rock star life. In 1992, he described his Roxy Music tenure as important to his career: As a result of going into a subway station and meeting saxophonist Andy Mackay, I joined Roxy Music, and, as a result of that, I have a career in music. If I’d walked ten yards further on the platform, or missed that train, or been in the next carriage, I probably would have been an art teacher now. During his period with Roxy Music, and for his first three solo albums, he was credited on these records only as ‘Eno’. 1970s Brian Eno embarked on a solo career almost immediately. Between 1973 and 1977 he created four albums of largely electronically inflected pop songs – Here Come the Warm Jets, Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy), Another Green World and Before and After Science, though the latter two also contained a number of minimal instrumental pieces in the so-called ambient style. Tiger Mountain contains the galloping “Third Uncle”, one of Brian Eno’s best-known songs, owing in part to its later being covered by Bauhaus. Critic Dave Thompson writes that the song is “a near punk attack of riffing guitars and clattering percussion, ‘Third Uncle’ could, in other hands, be a heavy metal anthem, albeit one whose lyrical content would tongue-tie the most slavish air guitarist.” These four albums were remastered and reissued in 2004 by Virgin’s Astralwerks label. Due to Brian Eno’s decision not to add any extra tracks of the original material, a handful of tracks originally issued as singles have not been reissued (“Seven Deadly Finns” and “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” were included on the deleted Eno Vocal Box set and the single mix of “King’s Lead Hat” (which is an anagram of “Talking Heads”) has never been reissued). During this period, Brian Eno also played three dates with Phil Manzanera in the band 801, a “supergroup” that performed more or less mutated selections from albums by Brian Eno, Manzanera, and Quiet Sun, as well as covers of songs by The Beatles and The Kinks. In 1972, Brian Eno and Robert Fripp (from King Crimson) utilized a tape-delay system, described as ‘Frippertronics’, and the pair released an album in 1973 called (No Pussyfooting). The technique involved two Revox tape recorders set up side by side, with the tape unspooling from the first deck being carried over to the second deck to be spooled. This enabled sound recorded on the first deck to be played back by the second deck at a time delay that varied with the distance between the two decks and the speed of the tape (typically a few seconds). The technique was borrowed from minimalist composer Terry Riley, whose similar tape-delay feedback system with a pair of Revox tape recorders (a setup Riley used to call the “Time Lag Accumulator”) was first used on Riley’s album Music for The Gift in 1963. In 1975, Robert Fripp and Brian Eno released a second album, Evening Star, and played several live shows in Europe. Brian Eno’s new methods of making sound into music called for new ways of notating his compositions. Like some 20th-century composers of “classical” music, he used graphic notation to represent what could not possibly be conveyed by conventional notes on a staff. Brian Eno was a prominent member of the performance art-classical orchestra the Portsmouth Sinfonia – having started playing with them in 1972. In 1973 he produced the orchestra’s first album The Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics (released in March 1974) and in 1974 he produced the live album Hallellujah! The Portsmouth Sinfonia Live at the Royal Albert Hall of their infamous May 1974 concert (released in October 1974.) In addition to producing both albums, Brian Eno performed in the orchestra on both recordings – playing the clarinet. Brian Eno also deployed the orchestra’s famously dissonant string section on his second solo album Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy). The orchestra at this time included other musicians whose solo work he would subsequently release on his Obscure label including Gavin Bryars and Michael Nyman. That year he also composed music for the album Lady June’s Linguistic Leprosy, with Kevin Ayers, to accompany the poet June Campbell Cramer. Brian Eno continued his career by producing a larger number of highly eclectic and increasingly ambient electronic and acoustic albums. He is widely credited with coining the term “ambient music”, low-volume music designed to modify one’s perception of a surrounding environment. His first such work, 1975’s Discreet Music (again created via an elaborate tape-delay methodology, which Brian Eno diagrammed on the back cover of the LP), is considered the landmark album of the genre. This was followed by his Ambient series (Music for Airports (Ambient 1), The Plateaux of Mirror (Ambient 2), Day of Radiance (Ambient 3) and On Land (Ambient 4)). Brian Eno was the primary musician on these releases with the exception of Ambient 2 which featured Harold Budd on keyboard, and Ambient 3 where the American composer Laraaji was the sole musician playing the zither and hammered dulcimer with Brian Eno producing. In 1975 Brian Eno performed as the Wolf in a rock version of Sergei Prokofiev’s classic Peter and the Wolf. Produced by Robin Lumley and Jack Lancaster, the album featured Gary Moore, Manfred Mann, Phil Collins, Stephane Grapelli, Chris Spedding, Cozy Powell, Jon Hiseman, Bill Bruford and Alvin Lee. Also in 1975, Brian Eno provided synthesizers and treatments on Quiet Sun’s Mainstream album alongside Phil Manzanera, Charles Hayward, Dave Jarrett, and Bill MacCormick, and he performed on and contributed songs and vocals to Phil Manzanera’s Diamond Head album. Brian Eno in 1974 on the Dutch television program ‘Toppop’ In September 1976 Brian Eno recorded with the highly influential Krautrock/Kosmische Musik group Harmonia at their studio in Forst, Germany. This material was not released until 1997 as Tracks and Traces by Harmonia ’76. It was again reissued in 2009 with additional tracks and credited to Harmonia & Eno ’76. 1980s In 1980 Brian Eno provided a film score for Herbert Vesely’s Egon Schiele – Exzess und Bestrafung, also known as Egon Schiele – Excess and Punishment. The ambient-style score was an unusual choice for a historical piece, but it worked effectively with the film’s themes of sexual obsession and death. In 1981, having returned from Ghana and before On Land, he discovered Miles Davis’ 1974 track “He Loved Him Madly”, a melancholy tribute to Duke Ellington influenced by both African music and Karlheinz Stockhausen: as Brian Eno stated in the liner notes for On Land: Teo Macero’s revolutionary production on that piece seemed to me to have the “spacious” quality I was after, and like Federico Fellini’s 1973 film Amarcord, it too became a touchstone to which I returned frequently. In 1980–1981, Brian Eno collaborated with David Byrne of Talking Heads (which he had already anagrammatized as ‘King’s Lead Hat’) on My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, which was built around radio broadcasts Brian Eno collected while living in the United States, along with sampling recordings from around the world transposed over music predominantly inspired by African and Middle Eastern rhythms. In 1983 Brian Eno collaborated with his brother, Roger Eno, and Daniel Lanois on the album “APOLLO: Atmospheres and Soundtracks”. Many of the sounds created on this album can be heard again on later albums produced by both Eno and Lanois. 1990s In 1992, Brian Eno released an album featuring heavily syncopated rhythms entitled Nerve Net, with contributions from several former collaborators including Robert Fripp, Benmont Tench, Robert Quine and John Paul Jones. This album was a last-minute substitution for My Squelchy Life, which featured more pop oriented material, with Brian Eno on vocals. Several tracks from My Squelchy Life later appeared on 1993’s retrospective box set Eno Box II: Vocals. Brian Eno also released in 1992 a work entitled The Shutov Assembly, recorded between 1985 and 1990. This album embraces atonality and abandons most conventional concepts of modes, scales and pitch. Much of the music shifts gradually and without discernible focus, and is one of Brian Eno’s most varied ambient collections. Conventional instrumentation is eschewed, save for treated keyboards. During the 1990s, Brian Eno became increasingly interested in self-generating musical systems, the results of which he called generative music. The basic premise of generative music is the blending of several independent musical tracks, of varying sounds, length, and in some cases, silence. When each individual track concludes, it starts again mixing with the other tracks allowing the listener to hear an almost infinite combination. In one instance of generative music, Brian Eno calculated that it would take almost 10,000 years to hear the entire possibilities of one individual piece. Brian Eno has presented this music in his own, and other artists’, art and sound installations, most notably “I Dormienti (The Sleepers)”, Lightness: Music for the Marble Palace, Music for Civic Recovery Centre, The Quiet Room and “Music for Prague”. One of Brian Eno’s better-known collaborations was with the members of U2, Luciano Pavarotti and several other artists in a group called Passengers. They produced the 1995 album “Original Soundtracks 1”. This album reached No. 76 on the US Billboard charts and No. 12 in the UK charts. It featured a single, “Miss Sarajevo”, which was a top 10 hit in the UK (#6). While the members of U2 are on the album, Brian Eno’s influence dominates, as the album is very atmospheric and ambient. This album showcased a lot of experimentation from U2, but flowed into Brian Eno’s general style. The album was designed to be songs for movie soundtracks – movies that had yet to be made. The album caused some discontent within U2, as some members felt it a bit self-indulgent. U2 purposefully called the group Passengers – as opposed to U2 – as they felt they were all “passengers” on Brian Eno’s creation. This collaboration is chronicled in Brian Eno’s book “A Year with Swollen Appendices” a diary published in 1996. In 1996, Brian Eno scored the six-part fantasy television series Neverwhere. 2000s In 2004, Fripp and Eno recorded another ambient collaboration album, The Equatorial Stars. Brian Eno returned in June 2005 with Another Day on Earth, his first major album since Wrong Way Up (with John Cale) to prominently feature vocals (a trend continued with Everything That Happens Will Happen Today). The album differs from his 1970s solo work as musical production has changed since then, evident in its semi-electronic production. In early 2006, Brian Eno collaborated with David Byrne, again, for the reissue of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts in celebration of the influential album’s 25th anniversary. Eight previously unreleased tracks, recorded during the initial sessions in 1980/81, were added to the album, while one track, “Qu’ran”, was removed in accordance with requests from an Islamic organization in London. An unusual interactive marketing strategy coincided with its re-release, the album’s promotional website features the ability for anyone to officially and legally download the multi-tracks of two songs from the album, “A Secret Life” and “Help Me Somebody”. Individuals can then remix and upload new mixes of these tracks to the website so others can listen to and rate them. In late 2006, Brian Eno released 77 Million Paintings, a program of generative video and music specifically for the PC. As its title suggests, there is a possible combination of 77 million paintings where the viewer will see different combinations of video slides prepared by Brian Eno each time the program is launched. Likewise, the accompanying music is generated by the program so that it’s almost certain the listener will never quite hear the same arrangement twice. The second edition of “77 Million Paintings” featuring improved morphing and a further two layers of sound was released on 14 January 2008. In June 2007, when commissioned in the Yerba Buena Center of the Arts in San Francisco, California, Annabeth Robinson (AngryBeth Shortbread) recreated 77 Million Paintings in Second Life. In 2007, Brian Eno’s music was featured in a movie adaption of Irvine Welsh’s best-selling collection Ecstasy: Three Tales of Chemical Romance. He also appeared playing keyboards in Voila, Belinda Carlisle’s solo album sung entirely in French. Also in 2007, Brian Eno contributed a composition titled “Grafton Street” to Dido’s third album, Safe Trip Home, released in November 2008. In 2008, he released Everything That Happens Will Happen Today with David Byrne, designed the sound for the video game Spore and wrote a chapter to Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture, edited by Paul D. Miller (a.k.a. DJ Spooky). Brian Eno revealed on radio in May 2009 that a skin graft he received as treatment for a severe burn on his arm was part human skin, part carbon fibre. He explained that as human skin is based on carbon, the experimental treatment was likely going to work out well for him, in spite of the fact that he feels a lightness in the affected arm. In June 2009, Brian Eno curated the Luminous Festival at Sydney Opera House, culminating in his first live appearance in many years. “Pure Scenius” consisted of three live improvised performances on the same day, featuring Brian Eno, Australian improv trio The Necks, Karl Hyde from Underworld, electronic artist Jon Hopkins and guitarist Leo Abrahams. Brian Eno scored the music for Peter Jackson’s film adaptation of The Lovely Bones, released in December 2009. 2010s In May 2010, the same Pure Scenius line-up as in 2009 performed ‘This is Pure Scenius!’, in the same format of three live improvised performances on the same day, at the Brighton Festival in England. Also at the 2010 Brighton Festival, after a performance of Woojun Lee’s live arrangement of ‘Apollo: Atmospheres and Soundtracks’ by Icebreaker and B. J. Cole, Brian Eno and the band performed four of his songs. Brian Eno released another solo album on Warp Records in late 2010. Small Craft on a Milk Sea, made in association with long-time collaborator Leo Abrahams and Jon Hopkins, was released on 2 November in the United States and 15 November in the UK. The album included five compositions as adaptions of those tracks that Brian Eno wrote for The Lovely Bones. Brian Eno also sang backing vocals on Anna Calvi’s debut album on two songs “Desire” and “Suzanne & I”. He later released Drums Between the Bells, a collaboration with poet Rick Holland, on 4 July 2011, and the EP Panic of Looking from the same recordings. In November 2012, Brian Eno released Lux, a 76-minute composition in four sections, via Warp Records. It was announced on 25 February 2013 that Brian Eno would produce the song “Digital Lion” on James Blake’s second album, Overgrown. Record producer and other projects Record production From the beginning of his solo career in 1973, Brian Eno was in demand as a producer – though his management now describes him as a “sonic landscaper” rather than a producer. The first album with Brian Eno credited as producer was Lucky Leif and the Longships by Robert Calvert. Brian Eno’s lengthy string of producer credits includes albums for Talking Heads, U2, Devo, Ultravox and James. He also produced part of the 1993 album When I Was a Boy by Jane Siberry. He won the best producer award at the 1994 and 1996 BRIT Awards. Brian Eno describes himself as a “non-musician” and coined the term “treatments” to describe his modification of the sound of musical instruments, and to separate his role from that of the traditional instrumentalist. His skill at using “The Studio as a Compositional Tool” (the title of an essay by Brian Eno) led in part to his career as a producer. His methods were recognized at the time (mid-1970s) as unique, so much so that on Genesis’s The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway, he is credited with ‘Enossification’; on Robert Wyatt’s Ruth Is Stranger Than Richard with a Direct inject anti-jazz raygun and on John Cale’s Island albums as simply being “Eno”. Despite being a self-professed “non-musician”, Brian Eno has contributed to recordings by artists as varied as Nico, Robert Calvert, Genesis, David Bowie, and Zvuki Mu, in various capacities such as use of his studio/synthesizer/electronic treatments, vocals, guitar, bass guitar, and as just being ‘Eno’. In 1984, he (along with several other authors) composed and performed the “Prophecy Theme” for the David Lynch film Dune; the rest of the soundtrack was composed and performed by the group Toto. Brian Eno produced performance artist Laurie Anderson’s Bright Red album, and also composed for it. The work is avant-garde spoken word with haunting and magnifying sounds. Brian Eno played on David Byrne’s musical score for The Catherine Wheel, a project commissioned by Twyla Tharp to accompany her Broadway dance project of the same name. He worked with David Bowie as a writer and musician on Bowie’s influential 1977–79 ‘Berlin Trilogy’ of albums, Low, “Heroes” and Lodger, on Bowie’s later album Outside, and on the song “I’m Afraid of Americans”. In 1980 Brian Eno developed an interest in altered guitar tunings, which led to Guitarchitecture discussions with Chuck Hammer, former Lou Reed guitarist. Following on from his No-Wave involvement which brought him in contact with the “renegade” artist Greg Belcastro, who introduced him to the guitar techniques of a fledgling Sonic Youth, Brian Eno has also collaborated with John Cale, former member of Velvet Underground, on his trilogy Fear, Slow Dazzle and Helen of Troy, Robert Wyatt on his Shleep CD, with Jon Hassell, with the German duo Cluster, with composers Harold Budd, Philip Glass and Roberto Carnevale. A new collaboration between David Byrne and Brian Eno titled Everything That Happens Will Happen Today was released digitally on 18 August 2008, with the enhanced CD released in October. Brian Eno co-produced The Unforgettable Fire (1984), The Joshua Tree (1987), Achtung Baby (1991), and All That You Can’t Leave Behind (2000) for U2 with his frequent collaborator Daniel Lanois, and produced 1993’s Zooropa with Mark “Flood” Ellis. In 1995, U2 and Brian Eno joined forces to create the album Original Soundtracks 1 under the group name Passengers; songs from OST1 included “Your Blue Room” and “Miss Sarajevo”. When the album was released, the US charts were dominated by movie soundtrack albums and singles. Even though films are listed for each song, all but three are bogus. Once Brian Eno pointed out that it was not a real ploy for radio airplay, but a spoof of one, U2 agreed to the concept. Brian Eno also produced Laid (1993), Wah Wah (1994) and Pleased to Meet You (2001) for James, performing as an extra musician on all three. He is credited for “frequent interference and occasional co-production” on their 1997 album Whiplash. Brian Eno played on the 1986 album Measure for Measure by Australian band Icehouse. He remixed two tracks for Depeche Mode, “I Feel You” and “In Your Room”, both single releases from the album Songs of Faith and Devotion in 1993. In 1995, Brian Eno provided one of several remixes of “Protection” by Massive Attack (originally from their Protection album) for release as a single. The single also included more remixes by DJs J-Swift, Tom D, and Underdog. In 2007, he produced the fourth studio album by Coldplay entitled Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends, which was released in 2008. Also in 2008, he worked with Grace Jones on her album Hurricane, credited for “production consultation” and as a member of the band, playing keyboards, treatments and background vocals. He worked on the twelfth studio album by U2, again with Lanois, titled No Line on the Horizon. It was recorded in Morocco, South France and Dublin and released in Europe on 27 February 2009. In 2011, Brian Eno and Coldplay reunited and produced Coldplay’s fifth studio album Mylo Xyloto, released on 24 October of that year. The Microsoft Sound In 1994, Microsoft corporation designers Mark Malamud and Erik Gavriluk approached Brian Eno to compose music for the Windows 95 project. The result was the six-second start-up music-sound of the Windows 95 operating system, The Microsoft Sound. In an interview with Joel Selvin in the San Francisco Chronicle he said: The idea came up at the time when I was completely bereft of ideas. I’d been working on my own music for a while and was quite lost, actually. And I really appreciated someone coming along and saying, “Here’s a specific problem — solve it. The thing from the agency said, “We want a piece of music that is inspiring, universal, blah-blah, da-da-da, optimistic, futuristic, sentimental, emotional,” this whole list of adjectives, and then at the bottom it said “and it must be 31/4 seconds long.” I thought this was so funny and an amazing thought to actually try to make a little piece of music. It’s like making a tiny little jewel. In fact, I made 84 pieces. I got completely into this world of tiny, tiny little pieces of music. I was so sensitive to microseconds at the end of this that it really broke a logjam in my own work. Then when I’d finished that and I went back to working with pieces that were like three minutes long, it seemed like oceans of time. Brian Eno shed further light on the composition of the sound on the BBC Radio 4 show The Museum of Curiosity, explaining that he created it using a Macintosh computer, and stating “I wrote it on a Mac. I’ve never used a PC in my life; I don’t like them”. Video work Brian Eno had spoken of an early and ongoing interest in playing with light in a similar way to the ambient manner in which he manipulated sound, but only started experimenting with the medium of video in 1978. Brian Eno describes the first video camera he received, which would become his main tool for creating ambient video and light installations: One afternoon while I was working in the studio with Talking Heads, the roadie from Foreigner, working in an adjacent studio, came in and asked whether anyone wanted to buy some video equipment. I’d never really thought much about video, and found most ‘video art’ completely unmemorable, but the prospect of actually owning a video camera was at that time quite exotic. The Panasonic industrial camera Brian Eno received had significant design flaws preventing the camera from sitting upright without the assistance of a tripod. This led to his works’ being filmed in vertical format, forcing the viewer to flip his television set on its side to view it in the proper orientation. The pieces Brian Eno produced with this method, such as Mistaken Memories of Mediaeval Manhattan (1980) and Thursday Afternoon (1984) (accompanied by the album of the same title), were labeled as ‘Video Paintings.’ He explained the genre title in the music magazine NME: I was delighted to find this other way of using video because at last here’s video which draws from another source, which is painting… I call them ‘video paintings’ because if you say to people ‘I make videos’, they think of Sting’s new rock video or some really boring, grimy ‘Video Art’. It’s just a way of saying, ‘I make videos that don’t move very fast. These works presented Brian Eno with the opportunity to expand his ambient aesthetic into a visual form, manipulating the medium of video to produce something not present in the normal television experience. His video works were shown around the world in exhibitions in New York and Tokyo, as well as released on the compilation 14 Video Paintings in 2005. Brian Eno continued his video experimentation through the 80s, 90s and 2000s, leading to further experimentation with the television as a malleable light source and onto his generative works such as 77 Million Paintings in 2006. Generative music In 1996, he collaborated in developing the SSEYO Koan generative music system (by Pete Cole and Tim Cole of intermorphic) that he used in composing the hybrid music in the album Generative Music 1: Some very basic forms of generative music have existed for a long time, but as marginal curiosities. Wind chimes are an example, but the only compositional control you have over the music they produce is in the original choice of notes that the chimes will sound. Recently, however, out of the union of synthesizers and computers, some much finer tools have evolved. Koan Software is probably the best of these systems, allowing a composer to control not one, but one-hundred and fifty musical and sonic parameters, within which the computer then improvises (as wind improvises the wind chimes). The works I have made with this system symbolize, to me, the beginning of a new era of music. Until a hundred years ago, every musical event was unique: music was ephemeral and unrepeatable, and even classical scoring couldn’t guarantee precise duplication. Then came the gramophone record, which captured particular performances, and made it possible to hear them identically, over and over again. But now, there are three alternatives: live music, recorded music, and generative music. Generative music enjoys some of the benefits of both its ancestors. Like live music, it is always different. Like recorded music, it is free of time-and-place limitations — you can hear it when and where you want. I really think it is possible that our grandchildren will look at us in wonder and say: “You mean you used to listen to exactly the same thing over and over again? As C.S.J. Bofop, in 1996, he said: Each of the twelve pieces on Generative Music 1 has a distinctive character. There are, of course, the ambient works ranging from the dark, almost mournful “Densities III” (complete with distant bells), to translucent “Lysis (Tungsten)”. These are contrasted with pieces in dramatically different styles, such as “Komarek”, with its hard-edged, angular melodies, reminiscent of Schoenberg’s early serial experiments, and “Klee 42” whose simple polyphony is similar to that of the early Renaissance, but, of course, the great beauty of Generative Music is that those pieces will never sound quite that way again. Obscure records Brian Eno started the Obscure Records label in Britain in 1975 to release works by lesser-known composers. The first group of three releases included his own composition, Discreet Music, and the now-famous The Sinking of the Titanic (1969) and Jesus’ Blood Never Failed Me Yet (1971) by Gavin Bryars. The second side of Discreet Music consisted of several versions of Pachelbel’s Canon, the composition which Brian Eno had previously chosen to precede Roxy Music’s appearances on stage, to which various algorithmic transformations have been applied, rendering it almost unrecognizable. Side 1 consisted of a tape loop system for generating music from relatively sparse input. These tapes had previously been used as backgrounds in some of his collaborations with Fripp, most notably on Evening Star. Only 10 albums were released on Obscure, including works by John Adams, Michael Nyman, and John Cage. At this time he was also affiliating with artists in the Fluxus movement. Other work Brian Eno has also been active in other artistic fields, producing videos for gallery display and collaborating with visual artists in other endeavors. One is the set of “Oblique Strategies” cards that he and artist Peter Schmidt, produced in the mid-1970s, described as “100 Worthwhile Dilemmas” and intended as guides to shaking up the mind in the process of producing works of art. Another was his collaboration with artist Russell Mills on the book More Dark Than Shark. He was also the provider of music for Robert Sheckley’s In the Land of Clear Colours, a narrated story with music originally published by a small art gallery in Spain. Brian Eno appeared as Father Brian Eno at the “It’s Great Being a Priest!” convention, in “Going to America”, the final episode of the television sitcom Father Ted, which originally aired on 1 May 1998 on Channel 4. In March 2008 Brian Eno collaborated with the Italian artist Mimmo Paladino on a show of the latter’s works with Brian Eno’s soundscapes at Ara Pacis in Rome. In 2008, Brian Eno designed the procedurally-generated music for the video game Spore. In October 2008, Brian Eno collaborated with Peter Chilvers to create an application titled Bloom, Trope, and Air for the iOS platform. Brian Eno was the guest curator of the 2009 Sydney Festival and the 2010 Brighton Festival. In 2013, Brian Eno made a number of limited edition prints featuring the artwork from his 2012 album Lux available only from his website. In 2011 Eno and Chilvers released ‘Scape’, an Ambient Music app. Influence Brian Eno is frequently referred to as one of popular music’s most influential artists. Critic Jason Ankeny at Allmusic argues that Brian Eno “forever altered the ways in which music is approached, composed, performed, and perceived, and everything from punk to techno to new age bears his unmistakable influence.” He has spread his techniques and theories primarily through his production; his distinctive style affected a number of projects he’s been involved in, including Bowie’s Berlin Trilogy (helping to popularize minimalism) and the albums he produced for Talking Heads (incorporating African music and polyrhythms on Brian Eno’s advice), Devo, and other groups. Brian Eno’s first collaboration with David Byrne, 1981’s My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, pioneered sampling techniques that would prove to be influential in hip-hop, and broke ground by incorporating world music. Brian Eno and Peter Schmidt’s Oblique Strategies have been utilized by many bands, and Brian Eno’s production style has proven influential in several general respects: “his recording techniques have helped change the way that modern musicians – particularly electronic musicians – view the studio. No longer is it just a passive medium through which they communicate their ideas but itself a new instrument with seemingly endless possibilities.” While not the only inventor of ambient music, Brian Eno is seen as a major contributor to the genre. The Ambient Music Guide argues that he has brought from “relative obscurity into the popular consciousness” fundamental ideas about ambient music, including “the idea of modern music as subtle atmosphere, as chill-out, as impressionistic, as something that creates space for quiet reflection or relaxation.” His groundbreaking work in electronic music has been said to have brought widespread attention to and innovations in the role of electronic technology in recording. In 2001 Half Man Half Biscuit released an EP entitled “Eno Collaboration”, which contains a track of the same name. MGMT wrote a song about Brian Eno, called “Brian Eno”, for their 2010 album Congratulations. The band LCD Soundsystem has frequently cited Brian Eno as a key influence on their own sound and music. In 2011 Belgian academics from the Royal Museum for Central Africa named a species of Afrotropical spider Pseudocorinna brianeno in his honor. Personal life and beliefs Brian Eno refers to himself as an “Evangelical Atheist”. Brian Eno has been active politically throughout his life, frequently writing letters to government ministers, appearing on political debates, and writing newspaper columns to express his political views. He was sharply critical of the Thatcher government’s decision to reduce funding to the BBC World Service, arguing that the £5 million cut to its £25 million budget was damaging, and was the equivalent cost of “just one wing of one F-16 fighter jet” – a reference to a large order of military hardware the government had just made. In 1996, Brian Eno and others started the Long Now Foundation to educate the public about the very long-term future of society. He is also a columnist for the British newspaper The Observer. In 2003, he appeared on a UK Channel 4 discussion about the Iraq war with a top military spokesman; Brian Eno was highly critical of the war. In 2005, he spoke at an anti-war demonstration in Hyde Park, London. In March 2006, he spoke at an anti-war demonstration at Trafalgar Square; he noted that 2 billion people on this planet do not have clean drinking water, and that water could have been supplied to them for about one-fifth of the cost of the Iraq war. The Nokia 8800 Sirocco Edition mobile phone features exclusive music composed by Brian Eno. Between 8 January 2007 and 12 February 2007, ten units of Nokia 8800 Sirocco Brian Eno Signature Edition mobile phones, individually numbered and engraved with Brian Eno’s signature were auctioned off. All proceeds went to two charities chosen by Brian Eno: the Keiskamma Aids Treatment program and The World Land Trust. In 2006, Brian Eno was one of more than 100 artists and writers who signed an open letter calling for an international boycott of Israeli political and cultural institutions. In December 2007, the newly elected Leader of Liberal Democrats, Nick Clegg, appointed Brian Eno as his youth affairs adviser. In January 2009, Brian Eno spoke out against Israel’s military action on the Gaza Strip by writing an opinion for CounterPunch and participating in a large-scale protest in London. In 2013, Brian Eno became a patron of Videre Est Credere (Latin for “to see is to believe”) a UK Human Rights Charity. Videre describes itself as “giving local activists the equipment, training and support needed to safely capture compelling video evidence of human rights violations. This captured footage is verified, analyzed and then distributed to those who can create change.” He participates alongside movie producers Uri Fruchtmann and Terry Gilliam – along with Executive Director of Greenpeace UK John Sauven.	Ambient
What acronymic internet alternative to traditional university campus learning was substantially extended in the UK in 2013?	dj, music, genres, definitions, house, disco, rock, hip hop, techno, reggae, classical songs MUSIC GENRES A music genre is a category (or genre) of pieces of music that share a certain style or "basic musical language" (van der Merwe 1989, p.3). Music can also be categorised by non-musical criteria such as geographical origin. Such categories are not strictly genre and a single geographical category will often include a number of different genre. Categorizing music, especially into finer genres or subgenres, can be difficult for newly emerging styles or for pieces of music that incorporate features of multiple genres. Attempts to pigeonhole particular musicians in a single genre are sometimes ill-founded as they may produce music in a variety of genres over time or even within a single piece. Some people feel that the categorization of music into genres is based more on commercial and marketing motives than musical criteria. John Zorn, for example, a musician whose work has covered a wide range of genres, wrote in Arcana: Musicians on Music that genres are tools used to "commodify and commercialize an artist's complex personal vision." Other artists feel that it is an artist's fault themselves if they make a body of work that can easily be put into a class shared with others. Some genre labels are quite vague, and may be contrived by critics; post-rock, for example, is a term devised and defined by Simon Reynolds. Another example of this is video game music, which while defined by its media, can also represent its own style, as well as that of any other musical genre. Dividing music by genre does make it easier to trace threads through music history, and makes it easier for individuals to find artists that they enjoy. Although there are many individual genres, it is possible to group these together into a number of overlapping major groupings. The rest of this page attempts to do that for a number of widely agreed areas. These definitions are relatively short and simple, even though they cover a large number of genres. CLASSICAL / ART MUSIC The term classical music refers to a number of different, but related, genres. Without any qualification, the usual meaning of "classical music" in the English language is European classical music (an older usage describes specifically the Western art music of the Classical Music Era). It can also refer to the classical (or art) music of non-Western cultures such as Indian classical music or Chinese classical music. In a Western context, classical music is generally a classification covering music composed and performed by professionally trained artists. Classical music is a written tradition. It is composed and written using music notation, and as a rule is performed faithfully to the score. Art music is a term widely used to describe classical music and other serious forms of artistic musical expression, Western or non-Western, especially referring to serious music composed after 1950. RHYTHM AND BLUES Rhythm and blues is a name for black popular music tradition. When speaking strictly of "rhythm 'n' blues", the term may refer to black pop-music from 1940s to 1960s that was not jazz nor blues but something more lightweight. The term "R&B" often refers to any contemporary black pop music. A notable subgenre of rhythm 'n' blues was doo-wop, which put emphasis on polyphonic singing. In the early 1960s rhythm 'n' blues took influences from gospel and rock and roll and thus soul music was born. In the late 1960s, funk music started to evolve out of soul; by the 1970s funk had become its own subgenre that stressed complex, "funky" rhythm patterns and monotonistic compositions based on a riff or two. In the early to mid 1970s, hip hop music (also known as "rap") grew out of funk and reggae (see below). Funk and soul music evolved into contemporary R&B (no longer an acronym) in the 1980s. ROCK Rock, in its broadest sense, can refer to almost all popular music recorded since the early 1950s. Its earliest form, rock and roll, arose from multiple genres in the late 1940s, most importantly jump blues. It was first popularized by performers like Bill Haley, Dan and the Huberettes, and Elvis Presley, who fused the sound with country music, resulting in rockabilly. In addition, gospel music and a related genre, R&B (rhythm and blues), emerged later in the decade. R&B soon became one of the most popular genres, with girl groups, garage rock and surf rock most popular in the US, while harder, more blues-oriented musicians became popular in the UK, which soon developed into British blues, merseybeat, mod and skiffle. Starting the mid-1960s, a group of British bands that played variations on American R&B-influenced blues became popular on both sides of the Atlantic -- the British Invasion, a catchall term for multiple genres. These groups, including the Beatles, fused the earlier sounds with Appalachian folk music, forming folk rock, as well as a variety of less-popular genres, including the singer-songwriter tradition. Early heavy metal and punk rock bands formed in this period, though these genres did not emerge as such for several years. The most popular genre of the British Invasion was psychedelic music, which slowly morphed into bluegrass-influenced jam bands like the Grateful Dead and ornate, classically-influenced progressive rock bands. Merseybeat and mod groups like The Yardbirds and The Who soon evolved into hard rock, which, in the early 1970s specialized into a gritty sound called glam rock, as well as a mostly underground phenomenon called power pop. In the early to mid-1970s, singer-songwriters and pop musicians led the charts, though punk rock and krautrock also developed, and some success was achieved by southern rock and roots rock performers, which fused modern techniques with a more traditionalist sound. COUNTRY MUSIC Country music is usually used to refer to honky tonk today. Emerging in the 1930s in the United States, honky tonk country was strongly influenced by the blues, as well as jug bands (which cannot be properly called honky tonk). In the 1950s, country achieved great mainstream success by adding elements of rock and roll; this was called rockabilly. In addition, Western swing added influences from Swing and bluegrass emerged as a largely underground phenomenon. Later in the decade, the Nashville sound, a highly polished form of country music, became very popular. In reaction to this, harder-edged, gritty musicians sprung up in Bakersfield, California, inventing the Bakersfield sound. Merle Haggard and similar artists brought the Bakersfield sound to mainstream audiences in the 1960s, while Nashville started churning out countrypolitan. During the 1970s, the most popular genre was outlaw country, a heavily rock-influenced style. The late 1980s saw the Urban Cowboys bring about an influx of pop-oriented stars during the 1990s. Modern bluegrass music has remained mostly traditional, though progressive bluegrass and close harmony groups do exist, and the sound is the primary basis for jam bands like the Grateful Dead. ELECTRONIC MUSIC Electronic music started with the invention of the synthesizer. Some subcategories of electronic music include electronic dance music, space, new age, ambient, and the catch-all "electronica," which can sometimes include all of the above electronic sub-genres. One of the first people to popularize the synthesizer was Wendy Carlos who performed classical music on the synthesizer on the recording Switched-On Bach. Space music was popularized by the group Tangerine Dream, among others, as a precursor to new age music. New age music served to support and perpetuate the values of the new age movement. Though there is some overlap between the various sub-genres of electronic music, Brian Eno, the creator of ambient music, claimed that ambient had a bit of "evil" in it, whereas new age music did not. Eno's creation was less values-driven than new age; his goal was to create music like wallpaper, insofar as the listener could listen to or easily ignore the music. Naturally, many people have met electronic music also in the form of video game music. ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC Although many artists in the 50s and 60s created pure electronic music with pop structures, fully formed electronic dance music as we know it today really emerged in 1977 with Giorgio Moroder's From Here to Eternity album. There are now many subgenres of electronic music, these include: techno (mechanical sounding dance music featuring little melody and more noise), trance music (with a distinct style of instrumentation focused on complex, uplifting chord progressions and melodies), Goa trance (spawning from industrial music and tribal dance, focusing on creating psychedelic sound effects within the songs), house music (fully electronic disco music), big beat (using older drum loops and more melodic elements sampled and looped), drum and bass (an offshoot of hardcore and Jamaican dancehall, utilizing quick tempos with sampled break beats, most notably the amen break and the funky drummer), gabber or gabba, (a Dutch development on techno, which features extremely high tempos and lots of overdrive and distortion on the music, especially the base drum being distorted into a square wave tone), happy hardcore (a slightly more palatable version of Gabba, fusing elements of drum and bass as well). Of these subgenres, trance is probably the most widespread. Electronic dance music is often composed to fit easily into a live DJ set. ELECTRONICA Electronic music that does not fall into the new age, techno or dance categories are often referred to as "left-field" or "electronica" (although there are critics who maintain that the term "electronica" is an invention of the media). Styles of electronica include ambient, downtempo, illbient and trip-hop (among countless others, see list of electronic music genres), which are all related in that they usually rely more on their atmospheric qualities than electronic dance music, and make use of slower, more subtle tempos, sometimes excluding rhythm completely. IDM (an abbreviation for intelligent dance music) is an elusive and confusing genre classification that can only be truly defined by flagbearers and flagburners like Aphex Twin and Autechre. All electronic music owes at least its historical existence to early pioneers of tape experiments known as musique concrète, such as John Cage, Pierre Schaeffer and Karlheinz Stockhausen, as well as early synthesists like Wendy Carlos (aka Walter Carlos), Jean-Michel Jarre, and Morton Subotnick . (See electronic art music). MELODIC MUSIC Melodic music is a term that covers various genres of non-classical music which are primarily characterised by the dominance of a single strong melody line. Rhythm, tempo and beat are subordinate to the melody line or tune, which is generally easily memorable, and followed without great difficulty. Melodic music is found in all parts of the world, overlapping many genres, and may be performed by a singer or orchestra, or a combination of the two. In the west, melodic music has developed largely from folk song sources, and been heavily influenced by classical music in its development and orchestration. In many areas the border line between classical and melodic popular music is imprecise. Opera is generally considered to be a classical form. The lighter operetta is considered borderline, whilst stage and film musicals and musical comedy are firmly placed in the popular melodic category. The reasons for much of this are largely historical. Other major categories of melodic music include music hall and vaudeville, which, along with the ballad, grew out of European folk music. Orchestral dance music developed from localised forms such as the jig, polka and waltz, but with the admixture of Latin American, negro blues and ragtime influences, it diversified into countless sub-genres such as big band, cabaret and Swing. More specialised forms of melodic music include military music, religious music. Also video game music is often melodic. Traditional pop music overlaps a number of these categories: big band music and musical comedy, for example, are closely allied to traditional pop. REGGAE, DUB AND RELATED FORMS In Jamaica during the 1950s, American R&B was most popular, though mento (a form of folk music) was more common in rural areas. A fusion of the two styles, along with soca and other genres, formed ska, an extremely popular form of music intended for dancing. In the 1960s, reggae and dub emerged from ska and American rock and roll. Starting the late 1960s, a rock-influenced form of music began developing -- this was called rocksteady. With some folk influences (both Jamaican and American), and the growing urban popularity of Rastafari, rocksteady evolved into what is now known as roots reggae. In the 1970s, a style called Lovers rock became popular primarily in the United Kingdom by British performers of ballad-oriented reggae music. The 1970s also saw the emergence of Two Tone in Coventry, England, with bands fusing ska and punk, as well as covering original ska tracks. Punk band The Clash also used Dub and reggae elements. Dub emerged in Jamaica when sound system DJs began taking away the vocals from songs so that people could dance to the beat alone. Soon, pioneers like King Tubby and Lee Scratch Perry began adding new vocals over the old beats; the lyrics were rhythmic and rhyme-heavy. After the popularity of reggae died down in the early 1980s, derivatives of dub dominated the Jamaican charts. These included ragga and dancehall, both of which remained popular in Jamaica alone until the mainstream breakthrough of American gangsta rap (which evolved out of dub musicians like DJ Kool Herc moving to American cities). Ragga especially now has many devoted followers throughout the world. Reggaeton is a fusion of reggae and rap, popular in Latin America, but gradually appearing in the mainstream charts. PUNK MUSIC Punk is a subgenre of rock music (see below). The term "punk music" can only rarely be applied without any controversy. Perhaps the only bands always considered "punk" are the first wave of punk bands, such as the Clash and the Ramones. Before this, however, a series of underground musicians helped define the music throughout the 1970s -- see Forerunners of punk music. After 1978, following the collapse of The Sex Pistols, punk could go no further. However, the space that had been created in popular taste and in the distribution system facilitated a number of successors. With the exhaustion of The Sex Pistols, none of their peers -- Blondie, Siouxie and the Banshees, Television, The Clash, The Pop Group, The Ramones was able to carry on the public fight for freedom of expression. A flood of other groups came to prominence in Britain who explored the new space with abandon. Despite evidence to the contrary, many refused to believe that the phenomenon could not be repeated and several so-called genres acquired followings. These 'genres' can be grouped into three categories -- hardcore punk, New Wave and alternative rock. Hardcore punk music kept the raw, visceral energy of the original punk bands. In the 1980s, reggae influences resulted in a fusion called ska punk, while another group of bands became known as Oi!, uniting punks and Skinheads with an aggressive, though often humourous style of streetpunk. Some of these bands took a far-right political stance, most notably Skrewdriver, but most distanced themselves from this, often appearing at the opposite end of the political spectrum, such as The Angelic Upstarts. During the 1990s, some more styles emerged, including straight edge, and queercore, based around subcultures -- straight edge and homosexuals, respectively. Psychobilly (see also cow punk) also emerged, fusing punk with rockabilly and other kinds of country music. In addition, emo (or emocore) had appeared by the 90s, characterized by slower beats, dreamy vocals and angst-ridden lyrics, and moshcore, which involved heavy moshing. New Wave was the most popular genre of punk music, dominating the charts during the early 1980s. Varieties included Neue Deutsche Welle, synth pop, dream pop and the New Romantics. Of these, the most popular was synth pop, though the most critically accepted groups were the underground dream pop bands. In the 1980s, dream pop evolved into many of the most popular genres of the 1990s. This occurred primarily in Britain, with styles like jangle pop (and the Paisley Underground) and noise pop (and, later, twee pop, shoegazing). All of these styles (along with psychedelic music) contributed to the popular emergence of Britpop in the middle of the decade. Keeping the anti-corporate stance of punk music, alternative rock is a broad grouping, referring to multiple styles. The earliest genres were noise pop, post-rock and Gothic rock. These bands were unable to break into the mainstream, though they influenced many of the 1980s' most popular groups. By the end of the decade, post rock had developed into math rock, while other genres like Riot grrl, slowcore (aka sadcore or shoegazing) and grunge music. During the early 1990s, grunge music broke into the mainstream in a big way. With "alternative" now mainstream, other bands began referring to themselves as indie rock. Many all-women bands are alternative, punk, post-punk, or riot grrl. Popular alternative rock bands today incorporate several different styles of music bringing a hybrid of sounds, e.g. Linkin Park. HIP HOP / RAP Hip hop music (also commonly referred to as "rap") can be seen as a subgenre of R&B tradition (see above). Hip hop began in inner cities in the US in the 1970s. The earliest recordings, from the late-1970s and early 1980s, are now referred to as old school hip hop. In the later part of the decade, regional styles developed. East Coast hip hop, based out of New York City, was by far the most popular as hip hop began to break into the mainstream. West Coast hip hop, based out of Los Angeles, was by far less popular until 1992, when Dr. Dre's The Chronic revolutionized the West Coast sound, using slow, stoned, lazy beats in what came to be called G Funk. Soon after, a host of other regional styles became popular, most notably Southern rap, based out of Atlanta and New Orleans, primarily. Atlanta-based performers like OutKast and Goodie Mob soon developed their own distinct sound, which came to be known as Dirty South. As hip hop became more popular in the mid-1990s, alternative hip hop gained in popularity among critics and long-time fans of the music. De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising (1989) was perhaps the first "alternative hip hop" blockbuster, and helped develop a specific style called jazz rap, characterized by the use of live instrumentation and/or jazz samples. Other less popular forms of hip hop include various non-American varieties; Japan, Britain, Mexico, Sweden, Finland, France, Germany, Italy and Turkey have vibrant hip hop communities. In Puerto Rico, a style called reggaeton is popular. Electro hip hop was invented in the 1980s, but is distinctly different from most old school hip hop (as is go go, another old style). Some other genres have been created by fusing hip hop with techno (trip hop) and heavy metal (rapcore). In the late 1980s, Miami's hip hop scene was characterized by bass-heavy grooves designed for dancing -- Miami bass music. There are also rappers with Christian themes in the lyrics -- this is Christian hip hop. CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN MUSIC Since the 1960s, most African popular music incorporates traditional local vocal, instrumental, and percussive styles, but also draws heavily on rock, reggae, and/or hip hop. For example raï, which originated in Algeria and spread throughout North Africa and to the North African diaspora, especially in France, began with topical songs based in the local traditional music, but, starting around 1980, began to incorporate elements of hip hop. Other notable contemporary African genres include Zulu jive (South Africa), highlife (Ghana) and in Nigeria juju music (now nearly a century old, and constantly evolving) and Afrobeat. Many African countries have also developed their own versions of reggae and hip hop. HIGH-ENERGY Disco never died, it split. At the beginning part became Hi-NRG and part became house. Now Hi-NRG took additional techno sound. This is the current evolution of disco that remained truest to its mid'70'-dlsco roots and is the perennial musical staple of gay dance clubs. Attributes: strong melodies, full vocal arrangements, happy, uplifting energy, lots of remakes. 118 to 140 BPM. Examples: Abigail, Kylie Mlnogue, Blue System, Fancy, Bad Boys Blue, Gypsy & Queen, Pet Shop Boys, Abbacadabra, Cabballero, Masterboy, Aladino, and anything on the PWL, Klone or Megatone labels. Check current releases in ITALO-DISCO Page for updates. HOUSE This is by far; the most popular dance format. So much so, that there exists over a dozen related branches including New York dub, Chicago, New Jersey, Miami, garage, tribal, acid... in fact, almost every other format touches on house at some point because the steady 4/4 time signature beat is virtually universal in dance music. Attributes: the beat, keyboards, home synthesizers, male vocals, female vocals at all... add any or all. What you add defines what kind of house it is but what makes it house is it the beat 110 to 128 BPM. Examples: lnner City, MK, Ralphie Rosario, Robin S., and anything on the Murk; Eightball or Strictly Rhythm labels. DREAM HOUSE It has to be clarified that Robert Miles is not the original creator of the DREAM MUSIC. Apparently this term was used for the first time by the Italian D.J. Gianni Parrini, at the end of 1993. D.J. Parrini is still the real leader of this style, but it seems he has not the luck as Robert Miles with his 'Children'. Among the first creators of this style were artists like: Adriano Dodici, Gigi d'Agostino (well known nowadays), Leonardo Rossi, and of course Gianni Parrini himself. DREAM HOUSE originally evolved from TRANCE. Usually down-beat, with soft melodic sounds (a piano is characteristic and practically a mandatory section), and a sharp pounding drum beat. It also can have a heavenly female or choir voice (e.g. Zhi-vago, DJ Dado etc). The cover-sleeves normally shows virtual landscapes, or relating to the cosmos. Frequently the dream can be fused with elements of techno or progressive music, resulting faster with a vibrating baseline straight and running (e.g. B.B.E). This "mutated" style also got the name (e.g. PROGRESSIVE MEDITERRANEAN). Other variant of dream is called COSMIC-DREAM: it is more deep and reflexive (e.g. . Brothers Of The Coast). The main Italian labels devoted to dream music in Italy are: In Lite, Outta (both from Ala Bianca Group), Desastre (from DB One), several labels from Zac Music like Vertikal, Elite, Universal have released some stuff. Also from DiscoMagic we have the side more commercial of this style with a label just named Dream Records. Check these releases: Adriano Dodici 'Opera Dodici' (WestWard / 1993), Roland Brant 'Mastermind' (Desastre / 1994), D.J. Panda 'It's A Dream' (Outta / 1994), Robiz 'Universum' (In Lite / 1995), Gianni Parrini 'White Blow' (Drohm / 1995), Sonic Dream 'Il Sogno' (Desastre / 1995), Oscar Piatelli & Frank Vanoli 'Livin' Age' (Desastre / 1995), MC Hair 'Moonra E.P.' (Red Gate / 1995), Positive with Gianni Parrini 'Traum Remix' (UMM PR / 1995), Brothers Of The Coast 'Ouverture' (Universal / 1995) cosmic dream. ACID HOUSE This sound originated from Chicago in the mid-'80's. It's phased and gated quarter note percussion patterns generated by the Roland TR 808 and 909 drum machines marked a milestone advancement in synthdriven dance music. The acid house sound was an overnight revolution and remains the cornerstone of the American underground scene. Attributes: the Roland 303 drum machine signature sound. 118 to 130 BPM. Examples: Bobby Konders, Caucasian Boy and anything on DJ International, Trax or Hot Mix labels. GARAGE Garage started in New York's club "Paradise Garage" located in Greenwich Village and thus term: "Garage" music was used to describe the style of music that was played there. It is the home of the infamous DJ Larry Levan. This style of music is faithful to the old disco style and keeps it alive. Its characteristics are a lot of bass, vocals, keyboards and sometimes, even violins. These days Garage is popular in the UK and is slowly spreading across the European continent. CHICAGO In the city of Chicago, many DJ's started to experiment with old disco records and mixed them with samples from bands like Kraftwerk and New Order. Through this, a new style evolved; 120 BPM (beats per minute), quadruple time, soul voices, and piano samples. Chicago is known for its characteristic original piano and voice samples. Some people like to refer this style as "old skool" house. Chicago was named after the "Warehouse Club", a disco in Chicago. In 1987, this new style travelled to Europe. Ever since, European DJ's have been spinning and experimenting with Chicago. ACID JAZZ This is misleading name. There is nothing "acid like" about acid jazz. It is actually a fusion of old and new classic jazz riffs and scat vocals with funky hip hop beats and modern technology. During a true acid jazz set, a DJ may spin the latest Mo' Wax releases, funky, hip-hop, rap interspersed with Ella Fitzgerald or Harvey Mason. The key word here is fusion. Attributes: hip-hop or house rhythms live instrumentation, silky smooth arrangements, and an easy, flowing soulful energy. 80 to 126 BPM. Examples: US3, Brand New Heavies, Jamiroquai, Digable Planets, and anything on the Blue Note, Talkin' Loud, Acid Jazz or Mo' Wax Labels. DISCO HOUSE Disco house borrows heavily from classic late '70's e discos and funk, and is indicative of the current shift toward music with strong hooks and melodies, and a comfortable familiarity. In England, this style of music is called Tesko - a hybrid of disco and techno, except for X-Press-2 who call their sound a blend of disco and rave - Rave Music. Attributes: Tesko uses a disco arrangements style, house rhythms, and a techno sampling technique. 120 to 130 BPM. Examples: X-Press-2, Ming's Incredible Disco Machine, Cotton Club, and most releases of the Stress or Whizz labels. TRIBAL HOUSE Tribal music is defined by its percussion. The arrangements are often simple and repetitive and the energy is primal and driving. Attributes: Minimalist, striped down mixes and subtle melodies. Chanted vocal samples with heavy African, Brazilian, Indian or other ethnic flavour. 120 to 128 BPM. Examples: The Goodmen, and DJ EFX mix or many releases on the Murk, Strictly Rhythms or Tribal America labels. PROGRESSIVE HOUSE This is music that is too progressive to fit the general house definition yet not as dark or hard as trance or techno-house. Attributes: Trance styled keyboard and synth-lines, house vocal loops and samples with driving, electronic mid-tempo house rhythms. 120 to 130 BPM. Examples: Underworld, Fluke, Rhythm Invention and most releases on the Limbo or Wrap labels. TECHNO/TECHNO-HOUSE Over the years and around the world the term "TECHNO" has come to mean many things to many people. The term was first cloned by Kraftwerk from Germany to describe their unique use of technology in electronic and computerized instruments while making contemporary Pop Music. As techno evolved new terminology was required to make sense of all its variants. In time it stood for what now refers to "INDUSTRIAL" or "ELECTRONIC BODY MUSIC" and later still, for what is now considered the "HOUSE, the sound originated in Detroit and Chicago in the mid-'80s. Pioneered by such luminaries as Juan Atkins, Kenny Larkin and Mike "Hitman" Wilson techno has evolved from cutting edge underground ('84 to '89); to undisputed ruler of the American rave scene ('89 to '92), to mainstream "Top 40" acceptance. The commercial success of techno has also led to its fall from grace in the underground scene, being replaced by trance, progressive house, and the strong resurgence of true house. Today the term "TECHNO" has come to mean fusion of all these styles and now" TECHNO" is the short from "TECHNO-HOUSE". Throughout all the phases and trends and ups and downs that TECHNO has endured, one man maintained his position as an instigator and innovator and is now consider the godfather of the TECHNO movement - Talla 2XLC. born and Raised in Frankfurt, Germany, he founded the first club exclusively devoted to TECHNO, conceived Frontpage Magazine, and launched, with Zoth Ommog SUCK ME PLASMA, the first TECHNO-HOUSE label. He has lived by the TECHNO motto" "Forcing The Future", like no other DJ before or since. Never ego-driven or spotlight-hungry he became a quiet but enormously influential mastermind behind every aspect of TECHNO's evolution. Although the seeds of TECHNO were planted in Frankfurt's Rhein-Main district, it soon spread internationally through 80's and 90's. Now, Tall 2XLC is still in top form and widely regarded as the creative genius behind TECHNO-HOUSE current popularity. Attributes: Hard synth-keyboard riffs, pounding Belgian style bass, often combining male rap and female vocals and always delivering the most intense, frenetic energy possible. 130 to 150 BPM. Examples: L.A. Style, Moby, Fierce Ruling Diva, Tyrell Corp., Robotico Rejecto, Klangwerk, Quadrophonia, many of the releases on Radikal on Bounce labels, Suck Me Plasma releases and everything from Rotterdam. GABBER Gabber is basically the Dutch form of house music. Imagine house music at 33RPM playing at 45RPM. In other words, it is very fast (around 220BPM or so). To describe this style, I would use the word "dark". The bass is really "kicky" and distortion effects are used to produce beats that sound like hammers pounding on a wall (with an echo). The Gabber generation in the Netherlands have a typical "look" : bald head, Australian track suit, Nick air max shoes. Some people like to call "gabber" "gabba" which is essentially the same thing. Gabber branches off to many other styles of music such as happy hardcore and terrorcore. Check out the Thunderdome collection, most releases by ID&T, Rotterdam Records and Planet Core Productions (PCP). TRANCE Trance evolved from German Techno, using the rolling bass and sizzling keyboards of techno to give the music a hypnotic flowing effect, yet retaining all the driving, pulsating energy of its true techno roots. Attributes: synth/sample-driving, pounding baselines, complex cyber-sounding keyboards, usually instrumental. 128 to 150 BPM. Examples: Aphex Twin, HardTrance Acsperience, Cosmo, Raver's Nature, Marusha and anything on the Harthouse, D-Jax, Rough Trade, or EX labels. GOA TRANCE Goa was born in Germany where trance also comes from. Trance grew in Germany and that's where everyone who knows it has got it. Goa is known for the peace, love, and sun. Trance was played on a lot of beach parties and because of its warm climate of "goa" vinyl would melt. Thus, the music was put on DAT and wasn't mixed, and that's why the tracks have an intro, climax, and an outro. Goa trance is played all over the world and the public seem to enjoy it more because it is more "relaxing" and "easy-listening" style than other types of trance. A lot of various "branches" have been born with experimental mixing; voodoo trance, astral trance. Sample CD's: Man with no name, The Best of Goa Trance Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, Astral Projection. JUNGLE / DRUM N BASS Jungle is quite chaotic and has a breakbeat of 160BPM with the bass drum on half speed. If you're not used to it, it's hard to predict when there is a beat and/or bass. Jungle's origins are from England and it is named after the big concrete, metallic "jungle" city. Different mixes with reggae and hardcore are divided into three categories: Drum 'n' Bass, Hardstep, and Intelligent jungle. Intelligent jungle can also be called "artcore", which has a slight trance "flavour" into it. Artists such as LTJ Bukem, PFM, Jamie Myerson, and Goldie are known for this style of music. HAPPY HARDCORE Happy Hardcore, also known as 4-Beat is a style of techno music that is very fast, very bouncy and a riot to dance to (IMHO). It's extremely high-energy and when one dances to it, you feel almost like a puppet on strings moving uncontrollably to the music with your hands in the air and a smile on your face! It's origins date back to the early '90s in the UK to what is now know as old school hardcore (circa 1992). This hardcore began to split into different forms, such as Jungle which has enjoyed a growing following everywhere including North America. Typical characteristics of happy hardcore music are: a driving 4/4 kick (hence the name 4-beat), usually (but not always) lots of piano and female vocals (making the music 'happy'). Happy hardcore also features lots of break beats, although they are being dropped in favour of more techno sounds and stompy Dutch inspired kicks. Happy hardcore runs at 160-180 bpm and 99% of the music originates from the United Kingdom where its popularity is gaining even over jungle. Basically, happy hardcore is the "mainstream" or the "public" version of gabber. But don't be mistaken, they are two different types of music. A lot of samples from old hit records, movies, piano and rap voices are the basic roots for happy hardcore. The first famous track was made by Charly Lownoise and Mental Theo called "wonderful days", a classic. Happy hardcore can range from 160BPM to 180BPM. It's pretty fast but the melody is quite enjoyable (you can't resist stamping your feet). These days, happy hardcore is becoming more and more "happy". It has a very friendly "attitude" and titles such as "Smurf's house" will tell it all. SEXCORE Sexcore is a sub-category hardcore/terrorcore but with sex samples from old porno records. It was popular in the West Coast of the U.S. Similar characteristics as gabber, sexcore is categorized as underground music because it is not popular to the public and is harder to find. Ron D Core (owner of Dr Freeclouds Mixing Lab) is pretty infamous for having some crazy records. He also spins terrorcore and the occasional retro hard acid set) BREAK BEAT Breakbeat evolved from late '80's rave by combining hip-hop rhythms and mixing tricks (back, spins, etc,) with techno-rave keyboards and sampling techniques. This style was revamped in 1998 by groups like Music Instructor, Solid Force, Sybtronic and other. Attributes: Funky rhythm tracks, lots of samples and choppy mixes, sped-up "chipmunk" vocal loops, frenetic explosive energy. 135 to 170 BPM. Examples of groups originally recording in this style are as following: Smart E's, Sonz Of A Loop Da Loop Era, Prodigy, Q-Bass, Pascal Device, RMB, DJ Hooligan, Raver's Nature, Music Instructor and everything on the Suburban Bass, Production House or Moving Shadow. ENERGY ALTERNATIVE These are titles that simply don't fit a simplified house, high-energy, dance-rock or techno definition. Attributes: Very accessible sounding, usually using lots of synth-keyboards, and strong hooks and vocal arrangements to successfully combine elements of house, rock and techno. 100 to 140 BPM. Examples: Enigma, Depeche Mode, Camouflage, and anything produced by Michael Cretu. AMBIENT Ambient is music that you can't dance to, or can you? It may or may not have a beat, and is primarily designed for a chilled out trip to synth-driven fantasy. Often combining natural and "found sounds" which can be looped through processors to create original unique sounds. Attributes: Very electronic and spacey, often featuring long sound effect, intros and breaks, and occasionally featuring mixes 20 minutes long (or more!). 0 to 140 BPM. Examples: The Orb, Amorphous Androgynous, Future Sound Of London and many releases on the Rising High, Hardkiss, Fax, Apollo or Astralwerks. Note - Definitions are taken from various sources and are meant to be broad guidelines to genres. © 1999-2017 www.jazzyjoe.com	i don't know
From Latin meaning 'stake', what is the hinged or pivoted catch preventing reverse motion of a ratchet wheel?	pawl - definition and meaning pawl Definitions from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition n. A hinged or pivoted device adapted to fit into a notch of a ratchet wheel to impart forward motion or prevent backward motion. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License n. A pivoted catch designed to fall into a notch on a ratchet wheel so as to allow movement in only one direction (e.g. on a windlass or in a clock mechanism), or alternatively to move the wheel in one direction. v. To stop with a pawl. from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English n. A pivoted tongue, or sliding bolt, on one part of a machine, adapted to fall into notches, or interdental spaces, on another part, as a ratchet wheel, in such a manner as to permit motion in one direction and prevent it in the reverse, as in a windlass; a catch, click, or detent. See Illust. of ratchet wheel. transitive v. To stop with a pawl; to drop the pawls off. from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia n. A short iron bar acting as a catch or brake to prevent a windlass or capstan from turning back. See cuts under capstan and pattern-chain. n. A bar pivoted to a movable or fixed support at one end, and having its opposite end adapted to fit the teeth of a ratchet-wheel or ratchet-bar, used either for holding the ratchet-wheel or -bar in a position to which it has been moved by other mechanism (as in the case where the pawl is pivoted to a fixed support), or for moving it (as when the pawl is pivoted to a movable support). n. Cross pawl, in ship-building. from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. n. a hinged catch that fits into a notch of a ratchet to move a wheel forward or prevent it from moving backward Etymologies from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition Probably from Dutch pal, from Latin pālus, stake; see pag- in Indo-European roots. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License Perhaps from Low German or Dutch pal. Examples His mechanic had removed a pawl or two in an effort to decrease freehub drag, but the results were disastrous.	Pawl
What traditional strong ceramic material is named ultimately from a pig?	Appendix:Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms/W/3 - Wiktionary Appendix:Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms/W/3 Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary wicket a. N. Wales. A kind of pillar-and-stall, or bord-and-pillar, system of working a seam of coal, with pillars up to 15 yd (13.7 m) apart and stalls up to 24 yd (22.0 m) wide. Also called wicket work. b. A wall built of refractories to close an opening into a kiln or furnace; it is of a temporary nature, serving as a door; e.g., in intermittent or annular kilns. wicket conveyor A conveyor comprising two or more endless chains connected by crossbars and to which vertical rods are attached at spaced intervals. The crossbars are also provided with spaced projections at the same level to form in effect a continuous carrying surface through which product cannot fall. a. A rock-cutting tool or bit, used to deflect a borehole, that has an articulated pilot part, which also can be attached to a knuckle-jointed device and coupled to the bottom end of a drill string. Also called whipstock. b. Nickname for hand-rotated stoper drill. wildcat a. A borehole and/or the act of drilling a borehole in an unproved territory where the prospect of finding anything of value is questionable. It is analogous to a prospect in mining. b. A mining company organized to develop unproven ground far from the actual point of discovery. Any risky venture in mining. a. An individual or corporation devoted to exploration in areas far removed from points where actual minerals or other substances of value are known to occur. Also called cold noser. See also: wildcat. b. One who locates a mining claim far from where a deposit has been discovered or developed. wilderness a. An area or tract of land that is uncultivated and uninhabited by people. b. North American stage: Middle Ordovician (above Porterfield, below Barnveld; it includes uppermost Black River and Rockland rocks). c. Mottled red and gray grit at Forest of Dean, U.K. a. Steel in, or made from, a wild heat. b. Said of liquid steel, esp. rimmed steel, that is producing considerable effervescence. Wilfley table Long-established and widely used form of shaking table; rectangular; mounted horizontally and can be sloped about its long axis. It is covered with linoleum (occasionally rubber) and has longitudinal riffles tapering at the discharge end to a smooth cleaning area, triangular in the upper corner. A compound eccentric is used to create a gentle and rapid throwing motion on the table, longitudinally. Sands, usually classified for size range, are fed continuously and worked along the table with (1) the aid of feedwater, and (2) across riffles downslope by gravity tilt adjustment and added wash water. At the discharge end, the sands have separated into bands: the heaviest and smallest uppermost; the largest and lightest lowest. The Dodd, Cammet, Hallett, and Woodbury are similar types of tables. See also: Woodbury table. willen stone a. Eng. An oolitic freestone used for cornices and chimney pieces; also, a good paving stone, Halston, Northamptonshire. b. A massive yellow to green, impure variety of antigorite resembling jade; used for decorative purposes. It commonly contains specks of chromite. c. An old "misspelling" of willemite. williamsite a. An apple-green impure variety of serpentine. See also: jade. b. A translucent bright green serpentine, usually containing specks of chromite, used as a semiprecious stone. c. An old misspelling of willemite. Wilmot jig A basket-type jig, the basket being suspended in a tank of water. Pulsations are effected by moving this basket upward and downward by means of eccentrics. Has been used extensively in the preparation of anthracite of all sizes and, to a lesser extent, of bituminous coal. Wilputte oven A byproduct coke oven having two outer zones in the heating system and one double inner zone. In this oven, the gas is alternately burned upwards in the two outer zones with the products of combustion being carried down through the double inner zone and, on reversal, burned upwards in the double inner zone with the products of combustion being carried down through the two outer zones. Known as a double-divided oven. wilsonite a. A purplish-red material consisting of an aluminosilicate of magnesium and potassium; represents an altered scapolite. b. A tuff composed of fragments of pumice and andesite in a matrix of vitric and granular material (Holmes, 1928). a. A green variety of grossular garnet. b. A greenish variety of vesuvianite. a. To extract ore or coal. To mine, to develop, to prepare for mining. b. To recover (as metal) from ore. winch a. A small hand- or power-operated drum haulage used for light-duty work in surface and underground mines. A heavy-duty power winch fitted to the rear of a tractor. See also: pickrose hoist. b. Syn: hoist. Formerly, a manually powered hoisting machine, consisting of a horizontal drum with rank handles. c. A drum that can be rotated so as to exert a strong pull while it is winding the attached line. d. A small drum haulage or hoist. A gear train is interposed between the handle and the drum. The handle is turned several revolutions to one revolution of the drum. Two handles and a pawl and ratchet may be fitted to prevent the load from running back should the pressure on the handle be reduced. See also: monkey winch. a. An electrically driven winding engine for hoisting a cage or cages up a vertical mine shaft. b. See: card tender. winding The operation of hoisting coal, ore, miners, or materials in a shaft. The conventional method is to employ two cages actuated by a drum type of winding engine. Steel ropes are attached at either end of the drum, one over and the other under it, so that as one cage ascends, the other descends. Thus the cages arrive at pit top and bottom simultaneously. See also: automatic cyclic winding; balanced winding; balance rope; deep winding; Koepe winder; winding cycle; winding rope. winding cycle In general, a cycle refers to any series of changes or operations in which any part of the system return to its original state or position. In winding, the term usually refers to a complete wind, which is comprised of three phases: (1) acceleration to full speed; (2) full-speed running; and (3) retardation to rest. The period of the winding cycle is the sum of winding time and decking time in seconds. See also: winding speed. winding drum For haulage to the surface through a mine shaft, the surface gear includes a winding drum of cylindrical or cylindroconical form on which the winding rope (hoisting rope) is coiled as the cage, or skip or kibble, is raised, and from which it is paid off as the return journey is made. Two such receptacles are usually worked simultaneously in balanced hoisting, one rising as the other descends, from a compound drum. The drum is driven by the winding engine. See also: bicylindroconical drum; conical drum; Koepe sheave; parallel drum; winding engine. winding engine a. A steam or electric engine at the top of a shaft that powers the winding drum, thus hoisting and lowering a cage or skip by means of a winding rope. In metal mining, the winding engine is usually called a hoist. Also called: winder. See also: hoist. b. See: winding drum. winding guide The purpose of a winding guide is to permit winding to proceed safely at relatively high speeds by preventing collisions between the cages and between cages and the side of, or fittings in, a shaft. It must be (1) rigid enough to prevent material deviation of the cages or skips from the vertical; (2) strong, since a broken guide causes danger from damage; (3) smooth, so as to offer as little resistance to the movement of a cage as possible; and (4) firmly supported and maintained vertical. Guides may be of two types, rigid or flexible. The former may be of timber, and in new shafts have generally been replaced by steel channels, steel rails or angles; the latter are steel ropes of round or semilocked section steel rods. Rigid guides are adopted in shafts of rectangular cross section; these and the shaft sides and fittings are small. Rope guides are used in circular and elliptical shafts where adequate clearances can be provided. Rope guides maintain the vertical automatically, and expand and contract with temperature variation without complication. winding sheave A grooved pulley wheel, mounted on plummer blocks, at the top of the headgear. The winding rope passes from a cage or skip around the sheave and onto the winding drum. For normal loads, the sheave rim and boss are made of castiron, and the spokes are made of round, mild steel. Winding sheaves range up to about 24 ft (7.32 m) in diameter. Sheaves up to 8 ft (2.44 m) in diameter are usually made in one piece, but above this size, they are built in halves and bolted together. To give efficient service, the sheave diameter should be at least 96 times the winding rope diameter. See also: head sheave; Koepe sheave. Syn: hoisting sheave. winding speed The velocity at which a winding engine lifts a cage or skip in a shaft. Winding speeds reach up to 6,000 ft/min (1.8 km/min) for deep mines. The normal maximum speed for deep shafts is 3,500 to 4,000 ft/min (1.1 to 1.2 km/min) and for geared winders, 1,500 to 3,000 ft/min (0.46 to 0.91 km/min). windlass a. A device used for hoisting; limited to small-scale development work and prospecting because of its small capacity. b. A drum or a section of tree trunk set horizontally on rough bearings above a shallow pit or shaft; used to raise or lower buckets of spoil in exploratory work. Handles at each end of the drum allow for manual rotation. windmill anemometer An anemometer in which a windmill is driven by the air stream, and its rotation is transmitted through gearing to dials or other recording mechanism. In some instruments, the rotating vanes and dials are in the same plane; i.e., both vertical, while in others the dial is horizontal. In the windmill type, the operation of air measurement involves readings of dials at the beginning and end of a measured period. Windmill instruments may be fitted with an extension handle, providing a form of remote control; used to measure air speed in an otherwise inaccessible spot. wind pressure The pressure on a structure due to wind, which increases with wind velocity approx. in accordance with the formula p = 0.003 v (super 2) , where p is the pressure in pounds per square feet of area affected, and v is the wind velocity in miles per hour. a. A row of peats or sod set up to dry, or cut in paring and burning. b. A ridge of soil pushed up by a grader or bulldozer. windup The amount of twist occurring in a string of drill rods when the string is rotated during drilling. There can be as many as several complete revolutions of the rod at the collar before the bottom member of the string begins to rotate. Also called wrap-up. windy shot A blast in a coal mine which--due to improperly placed charges, the wrong kind or quantity of explosives, or insufficient stemming--expends most of its force on the mine air; it sometimes ignites a gas mixture, coal dust, or both, thus causing a secondary explosion, which may or may not spread throughout the mine; a shot that blows out without disturbing the coal; a shot that is not properly directed or loaded; a blown-out shot. a. The side or limb of an anticline. b. See: catch; chair; dog; rests; wing. winning a. The excavation, loading, and removal of coal or ore from the ground; winning follows development. b. The operation of mining an ore and opening up a new portion of a coal seam. c. The portion of a coalfield laid out for working. d. The combined process of excavating and transporting a raw material such as clay to a brickworks or stockpile. winning heading A development heading off which oblique headings and conveyor panels are formed and worked (longwall); any of the development drivages in the solid coal, about 15 yd (13.7 m) apart, and of which bords and pillars are formed (pillar method of working). winze a. A vertical opening driven downward connecting two levels in a mine. When one is standing at the top of a completed connection the opening is referred to as a winze, while when standing at the bottom, the opening is a raise, or rise. Syn: winds. CF: underground shaft. b. A subsidiary shaft that starts underground. It is usually a connection between two levels. Syn: way shaft. c. Can. Interior mine shaft. a. A continuous length of metal drawn from a rod. b. War. A haulage rope. c. See: capillary. wire gage a. A gage for measuring the diameter of wire. b. A standard series of sizes used in the manufacture of wire (diameter) or sheet metal (thickness) and indicated by arbitrary numbers. c. A notched plate having a series of gaged slots, numbered according to the sizes of the wire and sheet metal manufactured; used for measuring the diameter of wire. The gage most widely used in the United States is the U.S. Standard Steel Wire, which name has official sanction, without legal effect. The Birmingham gage is recognized in acts of Congress for tariff purposes. Two gages (American Gage; Browne and Sharpe's) are used for copper wires and all nonferric metal wires. wire line a. As used in a general sense, any cable or rope made of steel wires twisted together to form the strands. Specif., a steel wire rope 5/16 in (7.9 mm) or less in diameter. See also: cable. b. A general term for any flexible steel line or cable drill connecting a surface winch to a tool assembly lowered in a well bore. Also spelled wireline. wire-line core barrel Double-tube, swivel-type core barrel; available in various outside diameters corresponding to sizes of diamond- and rotary-drill boreholes; designed so that the inner-tube assembly is retractable. At the end of a core run, the drill string is broken at the top joint so that an overshot latching device can be lowered on a cable through the drill-rod string. When it reaches the core barrel, the overshot latches onto the retractable inner-tube assembly, which is locked in the core barrel during the core run. The upward pull of the overshot releases the inner tube and permits it to be hoisted to the surface through the drill rods; it is then emptied and serviced and dropped or pumped back into the hole, where it relocks itself in the core barrel at the bottom. Syn: wire-line barrel. wire-line dredging In this method, digging tools or buckets are suspended on a steel cable and lowered to the sediment surface, where they are loaded and retrieved. Includes the use of drag-bucket and clamshell dredges, and generally to a depth of not more than 500 ft (152 m) below sea level. wire pack A circular pack consisting of waste stone built within woven fencing fixed to light props. The pack is still effective as support after the props have failed. Wire packs, e.g., are used for small openings in the Rand mines in South Africa. wire rope a. A rope made of twisted strands of wire for winding in shafts and underground haulages. Wire ropes are made from medium carbon steels. See also: cable; flattened strand rope; locked coil rope; multiple-strand rope; winding rope. b. Various constructions of wire rope are designated by the number of strands in the rope and the number of wires in each strand. The following are some common terms encountered: airplane strand; cable-laid rope; crane rope; elevator rope; extra-flexible hoisting rope; flat rope; flattened-strand rope; guy rope; guy strand; hand rope; haulage rope; hawser; hoisting rope; Lang lay rope; lay; left lay rope; left twist; nonspinning rope; regular lay; reverse-laid rope; rheostat rope; right lay; right twist; running rope; special flexible hoisting rope; standing rope; towing hawser; transmission rope. wire-rope spreader An intermediate section consisting of interchangeable increments or parts in which the carrying idlers are supported by one or more steel wire ropes. Return idlers may or may not be supported from the ropes. �n �� H+�� DICTIONARY TERMS:wire-rope spreader That part of a wire-rope, side-f That part of a wire-rope, side-framed intermediate section that maintains a horizontal plane a fixed distance between wire ropes but does not support the wire ropes. wire saw A saw consisting of one- and three-strand wire cables up to 16,000 ft (4.9 km) long running over pulleys. When fed by a slurry of sand and water and held against rock by tension, the saw cuts narrow, uniform channels by abrasion. This saw is used for cutting granite, slate, marble, limestone, or sandstone blocks. wire-strand core A core in which the number of wires shall not be less than the number of wires in a main strand of the wire rope, and the individual wires shall be of an appropriate grade of steel in accordance with the best practice and design, either bright (uncoated), galvanized, or drawn galvanized wire. See also: independent wire rope core. withdrawal Segregation of particular lands from the operation of specified public land laws, making those laws inapplicable to those lands. Lands may be withdrawn from all or any part of the public land laws, including the mineral location and mineral leasing laws. witness mark A mark or stake set to indicate the position (approximate or exact) of a property corner, instrument station, or other survey point. A witness may be a rock, tree, or other object; e.g., a blazed tree on the bank of a river to indicate a corner at the intersection of some survey line with the center line of the stream, which, therefore, cannot be marked directly; a stake driven so as to stand out; and a stake marked with a station number, driven flush with or below the surface of the ground. a. A monoclinic mineral, Ca (sub 2) NaZr(Si (sub 2) O (sub 7) )(O,OH,F) (sub 2) . b. The organic matter in carbonaceous chondrites. Also spelled woehlerite. Woehler test A fatigue test in which one end of a specimen is held in a chuck and rotated in a ball bearing placed on the other end. The ball bearing carries a weight and, as the specimen rotates, the stress at each point on its surface passes through a cycle from a maximum in tension to a maximum in compression. a. The name of a naphtha-burning flame safety lamp. b. The name of carbide and electric lamps. Wolf nickel-cadmium battery While other nickel-cadmium batteries generally adopt either tubular or pocketed positive plate construction, the Wolf battery has individual features of interest. The supporting medium for the active materials consists of strips of compressed corrugated nickel foil. The method of construction is to perforate strips of the foil, which are pasted with active material. The strips are folded into corrugations and compressed into a cake. Two or more cakes are mounted in a pure nickel frame to form the finished plate. This method of construction results in a plate of satisfactory electrical conductivity, and no admixture of graphite or flake nickel in the active material is necessary. Wolf process A flotation process invented by Jacob D. Wolf in 1903. He used sulfochlorinated or other oils and aimed to secure a high extraction with a low grade of concentrate in the first step, and by washing with hot water to concentrate the concentrate in a second step. Apparently no commercial use was made of it. wollastonite A triclinic mineral of the pyroxenoid group: CaSiO (sub 3) . It is dimorphous with parawollastonite. Wollastonite is found in contact-metamorphosed limestones, and occurs usually in cleavable masses or sometimes in tabular twinned crystals; it may be white, gray, brown, red, or yellow. It is not a pyroxene. Symbol, Wo. Syn: tabular spar. Woodbury table A table of the general Wilfley-Overstrom-Card type, with riffles parallel to the tailings side, and a hinged portion without riffles (unlike the Card). The table top is a rhomboid, and the riffles gradually shorten as they near the tailings side. See also: Wilfley table. Wooddell scale A scale of resistance to abrasion based on the following method: if specimens of different materials are mounted so that they present surfaces substantially in the same plane, and if the surfaces are subjected to a lapping operation with a properly selective abrasive, the harder materials will stand out in relief, whereas the softer ones will be cut or worn to a depth, depending upon their hardness. By averaging several readings, a scale of hardness was established by which the quantitative values of the hardness of various materials could be determined. On the Woodell scale, diamond has approx. 2 times the hardness of boron carbide, 3.5 times that of tungsten carbide, and nearly 5 times that of corundum. wooden tubbing Consists of wooden staves driven down in soft ground during sinking to keep back water. The lining is stated to be capable of withstanding pressures up to a maximum of 130 psi (896 kPa). The lining resembles the sides of a wooden tub and the word tubbing is doubtless derived from this similarity. See also: tubbing. wood piling A method of sinking a shaft through loose surface deposits by driving a ring of wood piles down vertically. As the piles are rammed downward, the loose material is removed. Frames are set to prevent the piles being forced inward. Each new set of piles reduces the dimensions of the excavation. To avoid this reduction in size, the piles are driven at an angle away from the shaft space. Worden gravimeter A compact temperature-compensated gravity meter, in which a system is held in unstable equilibrium about an axis, so that an increase in the gravitational pull on a mass at the end of a weight arm causes a rotation opposed by a sensitive spring. The meter weighs 5 lb (2.25 kg) and has a sensitivity of less than 0.1 mgal. work a. The process of mining coal. b. To crumble and yield under the action of a squeeze. Applied to pillars or roof of a coal mine. c. To be slowly closing under the action of a squeeze. Applied to portions of mine workings. d. Denoting that creep or squeeze is taking place. e. The product of a force in terms of weight and the lineal distance through which it acts. f. To undergo gradual movement, such as heaving, sliding, or sinking; said of rock materials. g. Ore before it is beneficiated. h. A place where industrial labor of any kind is carried on. Usually in the plural as saltworks, ironworks, etc. i. Objects that are to be, are being, or have been treated, such as in cleaning or finishing. workable A coal seam or orebody of such thickness, grade, and depth as to make it a good prospect for development. In remote and isolated locations, other factors influence minability, such as access, water supply, transport facilities, etc. See also: economic coal reserves. a. A mine, or large section of a mine, from which all minable coal or ore has been taken. b. Exhausted; said of a coal seam or ore deposit. a. A small door in a stopping to allow the passage of workers. b. Scot. A small trapdoor on a traveling road. a. A trip made by mine cars and locomotives to take workers, rather than mined material or supplies, to and from the working places. b. A similar trip made by a worker cage in a shaft. working a. When a coal seam is being squeezed by pressure from the roof and floor it emits creaking noises and is said to be "working." This noise often serves as a warning to miners that additional support is needed. Sagging roof emitting noises and requiring additional timbering. b. A working may be a shaft quarry, level, opencut, or stope, etc. Usually in the plural. See also: labor; workings. a. A place in a mine at which coal or ore is actually being mined. See also: working face. b. A miner's room or chamber. workings a. Any area of development; usually restricted in meaning to apply to breasts, etc., in contradistinction to gangways and airways. Often used in a broader sense to mean all underground developments. See also: working. b. The entire system of openings in a mine. Typical usage restricts the term to the area where coal, ore, or mineral is actually being mined. c. Colloquial term for an anthracite mining operation. working stress a. The stress considered to be a safe maximum for a particular material under ordinary conditions. See also: yield stress; load factor. b. The maximum unit stress to which the parts of a structure are to be subjected. c. See: allowable stress. work lead a. Impure pig lead that is to be desilverized or refined. See also: base bullion. b. The electrical conductor connecting the source of arc welding current to the work. Also called welding ground; ground lead. worm A spiral tool, shaped like a carpenter's wood-boring auger, with the bottom end shaped like the cutting end of a diamond point or mud bit. The tool is rotated inside a casing to loosen and clean out debris or to loosen and drill through tough clay at the bottom of a borehole. Also called worm auger; worm-type auger. a. A conveyor consisting of a spiral plate encircling and fastened to a shaft lying longitudinally within a trough; rotation of the spiral pushes the material forward. Also called screw conveyor. b. See: helical conveyor. wound rotor motor A wound rotor induction motor differs from a squirrel cage induction motor only in the construction of its rotor. The rotor, instead of having short-circuited copper bars, has a definite winding connected for the same number of poles as the stator with the leads brought out to slip rings. The stator and rotor are commonly called the primary and secondary, respectively, because under locked rotor conditions, the motor becomes a transformer with a given ratio. This ratio depends upon motor design and is not standardized. Frequently called a slip ring motor. woven-wire vibrating screen Ore screening machine whose screen is woven of steel wire and stretched tightly on a metal frame. Near the center of the screen is fastened the vibrating element of a high-speed vibrator, which produces a vibratory motion at right angles to the plane of the screen. WP-cut A tunnel blasting method in which holes are arranged in a geometrical figure as an incomplete pyramid and not parallel in the planes of the sides. For tunnel widths less than 25 ft (7.5 m), the WP-cut provides a greater advance than V-cuts and fan cuts.	i don't know
What does the Greek prefix 'iso' mean?	Iso- - definition of iso- by The Free Dictionary Iso- - definition of iso- by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/iso- [Greek īso-, from īsos, equal.] iso- combining form 1. equal or identical: isomagnetic. 2. (Chemistry) indicating that a chemical compound is an isomer of a specified compound: isobutane; isocyanic acid. [from Greek isos equal] International Standardization Organization. iso- a combining form meaning “equal”: isochromatic; in chemistry, used in the names of substances that are isomeric with the substance denoted by the base word: isocyanic acid. Also, esp. before a vowel, is- . [< Greek, comb. form of ísos equal] iso- A prefix that means "equal," as in isometric, "having equal measurements." Translations Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Copyright © 2003-2016 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.	Equal
How many curves characterize a Cupid's Bow?	Iso- \| definition of iso- by Medical dictionary Iso- \| definition of iso- by Medical dictionary http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/iso- 1. Prefix meaning equal, like. 2. In chemistry, prefix indicating "isomer of" (isomerism), for example, isocyanate vs. cyanate. 3. In immunology, prefix designating sameness with respect to species; in recent years, the meaning has shifted to sameness with respect to the genetic constitution of individuals. [G. isos, equal] prefix meaning "equal": isobar, isochromatic, isohydric. iso- 1. Prefix meaning equal, like. 2. chemistry Prefix indicating "isomer of" (isomerism); e.g., isocyanate vs. cyanate. 3. immunology Prefix designating similarity with respect to species; in recent years, the meaning has shifted to similarity with respect to genetic constitution of individual people. [G. isos, equal] Combining form denoting equal or equivalent. iso- iso- word element. [Gr.] equal, alike, same. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.	i don't know
The mythological Phoenix bird originally and essentially symbolized?	Phoenix Rising: Mythical Creature, Phoenix Bird Mythology, Myth Beast Ancient Phoenix of Egypt (Benu, Bennu) The ancient Egyptians linked the myth of the phoenix with the longings for immortality that were so strong in their civilization, and from there its symbolism spread around the Mediterranean world of late antiquity. The Bennu bird was usually depicted as a heron. Archaeologists have found the remains of a much larger heron that lived in the Persian Gulf area 5,000 years ago. The Egyptians may have seen this large bird only as an extremely rare visitor or possibly heard tales of it from travelers who had trading expeditions to the Arabian Seas. It had a two long feathers on the crest of it's head and was often crowned with the Atef crown of Osiris (the White Crown with two ostrich plumes on either side) or with the disk of the sun. The Bennu was the sacred bird of Heliopolis. Bennu probably derives from the word weben, meaning "rise" or "shine." The Bennu was associated with the sun and represented the ba or soul of the sun god, Re. In the Late Period, the hieroglyph of the bird was used to represent this deity directly. As a symbol of the rising and setting sun, the Benu was also the lord of the royal jubilee. This Egyptian phoenix was also associated with the inundation of the Nile and of the creation. Standing alone on isolated rocks of islands of high ground during the floods the heron represented the first life to appear on the primeval mound which rose from the watery chaos at the first creation. This mound was called the ben-ben. It was the Bennu bird's cry at the creation of the world that marked the beginning of time. The bennu thus was the got of time and its divisions -- hours, day, night, weeks and years. The Bennu was considered a manifestation of the resurrected Osiris and the bird was often shown perched in his sacred willow tree. At the close of the first century Clement of Rome became the first Christian to interpret the myth of the phoenix as an allegory of the resurrection and of life after death. The phoenix was also compared to undying Rome, and it appears on the coinage of the late Roman Empire as a symbol of the Eternal City. Classical Arabian Phoenix Perhaps the most well known, the Arabian phoenix was a fabulous mythical bird, said to be as large as an eagle, with brilliant scarlet and gold plumage and a melodious cry. Making it's home near a cool well, the Phoenix would appear at dawn every morning to sing a song so enchanting that even the great sun god Apollo would stop to listen. It was said that only one phoenix existed at any one time, and it is very long-lived with a life span of 500 years, 540 years, 1000 years, 1461 years or even 12,994 years (according to various accounts). As the end of its life approached, the phoenix would build a pyre nest of aromatic branches and spices such as myrrh, sets it on fire, and is consumed in the flames. After three days the birth -- or as some legends say a rebirth -- the phoenix arises from the ashes. According to some sources, the phoenix arose from the midst of the flames. The young phoenix gathers the ashes of its predecessor into an egg of myrrh and takes it to Heliopolis, the city of the sun, to deposit it on the alter of the sun god. A symbolic representation of the Death and rebirth of the sun. It is also described as being either eagle like or heron like. It lives on dew, killing nothing and crushing nothing that it touches. Generally considered the king of birds. It has alternatively been called the bird of the sun, of Assyria, of Arabia, of the Ganges, the long-lived bird and the Egyptian bird. The earliest reference to the Phoenix was made by Hesiod in the 8th century B.C., but the most detailed account is by Herodotus of Halicarnassus, the famous Greek historian in 5th century B.C. Chinese Phoenix (Feng Huang) In Chinese mythology, the phoenix is the symbol of high virtue and grace, of power and prosperity. It represents the union of yin and yang. It was thought to be a gentle creature, alighting so gently that it crushed nothing, and eating only dewdrops. It symbolized the Empress usually in a pairing with a dragon (the dragon representing the Emperor), and only Empress could wear the phoenix symbol. The phoenix represented power sent from the heavens to the Empress. If a phoenix was used to decorate a house it symbolized that loyalty and honesty was in the people that lived there. Jewelry with the phoenix design showed that the wearer was a person of high moral values, and so the phoenix could only be worn by people of great importance. The Chinese phoenix was thought to have the beak of a cock, the face of a swallow, the neck of a snake, the breast of a goose, the back of a tortoise, hindquarters of a stag and the tail of a fish. A common depiction of the Feng Huang was of it attacking snakes with its talons and its wings spread. In fact images of the phoenix have appeared throughout China for well over 7000 years. Often in jade and originally on good-luck totems. Although during the Han period (2200 years ago) the phoenix was used as a symbol depicting the direction south shown as a male and female phoenix facing each other. It carried two scrolls in its bill, and its song included the five whole notes of the Chinese scale (I don't exactly know how it could sing with its mouth full). Its feathers were of the five fundamental colors: black, white, red, green, and yellow and was said to represent the Confucian virtues of loyalty, honesty, decorum and justice. Depictions of the phoenix were placed on tomes and graves. Japanese Phoenix (Hou-Ou/Ho-Oo) The Ho-Oo is the Japanese phoenix, the Ho being the male bird and the Oo being the female. Introduced to Japan in the Asuka period (mid 6th to mid 7th century AD) The Hou-Ou greatly resembles the Chinese Phoenix the Feng-Huang in looks. The Ho-Oo is often depicted as nesting in a paulownia tree and was thought to only appear at the birth of a virtuous ruler and was said to mark a new era by decending from the heavens to do good deeds for people only to return to its celestial abode to await a new era. In other traditions, the Hou-ou apears only in peaceful and prosperous times -- which are rare indeed. The Ho-Oo has been adopted as a symbol of the royal family, particularly the empress. It is supposed to represent the sun, justice, fidelity and obedience. It was used in a wide veriety of items including mirrors, lacquerware, textiles and chests.	Rebirth
What part of the human body contains bone-forms called Phalange, Cuneiform, Talus and Calcaneus?	History: The Phoenix and the Early Church The Phoenix and the Early Church Daniel Tompsett Or, how a mythical bird rose from the ashes and gave wing to some dubious thinking The image of the mystical phoenix is widely recognized, though perhaps not everyone is familiar with the story behind the bird. Yet the myth of the phoenix was immensely popular throughout the ancient world; even early Christians were quite familiar with it. Nothing more might need to be said about Christian involvement were it not for the fact that some early churchmen capitalized on the fable’s popularity as they shaped the developing Christian orthodoxy. In what follows we will consider the basis of their teachings about the phoenix: a letter attributed to the man who is purported to have been the earliest of the Roman Catholic Church Fathers, Clement of Rome. One particular passage in Clement’s writings spawned a set of ideas that on the face of it may seem innocent and even helpful to believers. As is often the case, however, things are not necessarily what they seem to be. Mysterious Missive Several writings have been attributed to Clement, though most are believed to be spurious. However, he did leave one epistle that is widely considered to be genuine, a letter to a church in Corinth. It begins by saying that the delay in its sending from Rome was due to “sudden and successive calamitous events,” which appears to be a reference to the persecutions of the emperor Domitian. The date of the message is open to some debate, but if we make the assumption that Domitian’s persecutions ended with the emperor’s death, then it seems likely that it was written somewhere around 96 C.E. The letter seems to have been a response to a situation in which some members of the Corinthian church rose up and deposed certain of their elders. Clement’s exhortations to return to former behavior are derived from both the Old Testament and examples drawn from the early church. This places him in an era when the Hebrew Scriptures were still providing definitive instruction for the conduct of the church, rather than being relegated to secondary status as they were by later generations. The letter is also concerned with reinforcing the truth of Jesus Christ’s resurrection and the hope of a future resurrection for human beings. It is in this regard that we encounter a puzzling passage. In chapter 25, Clement writes: “Let us consider the strange sign which takes place in the East, that is in the districts near Arabia. There is a bird which is called the Phoenix. This is the only one of its kind, and lives 500 years; and when the time of its dissolution in death is at hand, it makes itself a sepulchre of frankincense and myrrh and other spices, and when the time is fulfilled it enters into it and dies. Now, from the corruption of its flesh there springs a worm, which is nourished by the juices of the dead bird, and puts forth wings. Then, when it has become strong, it takes up that sepulchre, in which are the bones of its predecessor, and carries them from the country of Arabia as far as Egypt until it reaches the city called Heliopolis, and in the daylight in the sight of all it flies to the altar of the Sun, places them there, and then starts back to its former home. Then the priests inspect the registers of dates, and they find that it has come at the fulfilment of the 500th year.” The Catholic Encyclopedia refers to this passage as “curious,” and most today would agree. What Clement actually understood about the existence of the phoenix is hard to know, though the first line of the next chapter suggests that he gave it credence. In itself that isn’t surprising; as noted earlier, the myth was popular and wide-ranging. “Not surprisingly, early Christian writers construed the phoenix as a symbol not only of resurrection in general but also of Christ himself and his resurrection in particular.” David L. Jeffrey, A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature (1992) In order to better grasp the significance of Clement’s use of the phoenix story, we need to uncover some additional background. Let’s first examine the context. The preceding chapter speaks of the resurrection of Jesus Christ as a proof of a future resurrection for all humanity. This is followed by examples from the natural world that suggest to Clement “the resurrection which is at all times taking place”; for example, day and night (“The night falls asleep, and day arises”) and the sowing of seeds (“out of their decay the mightiness of the Master’s providence raises them up, and from being one they increase manifold and bear fruit”). Then comes the story of the phoenix in chapter 25. Clement’s question in all of this is why followers of Jesus Christ should find His resurrection so hard to believe when the creation itself and even the secular world provide imagery relating to resurrection. But is that all there is to it? Lineage of a Concept If the story of the phoenix was well known at the time Clement wrote his letter, where did it come from originally? According to 19th-century British theologian J.B. Lightfoot, “the earliest mention of the phoenix is in Hesiod,” a seventh- or eighth-century-B.C.E. Greek poet. From the Greeks the story passed to the Romans. In 47 C.E., a bird said to be a phoenix was exhibited at Rome, and Lightfoot suggested that the exhibit “may have been seen by Clement.” Although “no one doubted” that this particular bird was a fake, it seems that people nonetheless believed the stories concerning the existence of such a creature. In 8 C.E., 88 years prior to the likely date of Clement’s letter, the Roman poet Ovid completed his Metamorphoses, an instantly popular work based on Greek mythology. In a section concerning the doctrines of Pythagoras, Ovid wrote of a similar mythical creature. In Ovid’s version, however, the phoenix built its nest in “a lofty swaying palm” before departing to “the Sun’s holy temple” in “the Sun’s great city.” The palm may have held a combined significance with the phoenix in the pagan world. Dutch historian Roelof van den Broek notes that the ancient Greek word for phoenix sounds the same as the word for palm, a fact from which their classical association “seems to have been determined” (The Myth of the Phoenix According to Classical and Early Christian Traditions). Palms are evergreen, after all, a symbol of perpetual renewal that correlates with the imagery associated with the dying and reborn phoenix. In ancient Greece the palm tree was associated with the sun-god Apollo; his myth suggested that the goddess Leto had given birth to him under a palm. In ancient Assyrian mythology, the tree symbolized the mother goddess Ishtar. The Mesopotamian goddess Inanna, through her marriage to the fertility god Damuzi, was seen as the one who made the harvest of the date palm flourish. And to the Romans, the palm signified the goddess Victory. Yet another version of the phoenix myth describes the bird combusting in flame, a concept that again links the bird to the sun. The fiery phoenix, just like the sun god, was associated with death and rebirth for the ancient Greeks and Romans. However, it is specifically to Egypt that Clement’s curious example leads. Clement describes the reborn phoenix as taking its parent’s remains “into Egypt, to the city called Heliopolis.” Heliopolis, or City of the Sun, was located a few miles northeast of modern-day Cairo. Clement, like Ovid, provides the significant piece of information that the bird was supposed to deposit its parent’s remains “on the altar of the sun” for the inspection of the priests. The sun god at Heliopolis was called Atum, a god identified with Ra, who was revered as a creator bringing order out of chaos. Atum is often depicted in human form, seated on a throne, holding a staff and wearing the red and white double crown of Egypt. The Egyptian sun god was believed to have risen from the chaos-waters as a benu (or bennu) bird at creation, and this lore appears to be the source of the myth of the phoenix. According to the Handbook of Egyptian Mythology, the word benu “probably comes from an Egyptian verb meaning to rise and to shine.” The same source notes that from “the Pyramid Texts onward, the benu bird was closely associated with the creator sun god.” David Fideler suggests that the benu bird was believed to be the “soul of Ra” (Jesus Christ, Sun of God: Ancient Cosmology and Early Christian Symbolism). A Fable Takes Wing Having thus been carried from Egypt to the Greek and Roman world, the pagan phoenix-in-the-palm myth—symbolizing a mother goddess and a creator/sun-god consort—was easily absorbed into Christian symbolism and artwork. Clement was the first non-pagan writer to find new meaning in the myth. In his retelling of it, he specified that the bird’s nest was “of frankincense and myrrh and other spices.” Whether this was a conscious effort to link the myth to Christ’s birth is impossible to say, but later Christian writers similarly limited themselves to naming only these two. Yet numerous spices, most often including cinnamon, are mentioned across various traditions of the phoenix myth. So the fact that two of the Magi’s gifts are among them can have no real symbolic value. “The anonymous author of Physiologus infused these venerable pagan tales with the spirit of Christian moral and mystical teaching, and thereafter they occupied a place of special importance in the symbolism of the Christian world.” Michael J. Curley, Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (2009) A century after Clement wrote, Tertullian (an early Latin Church Father) again used the example of the phoenix in connection with resurrection. The story also featured in another piece of writing that appeared about the same time: the Physiologus, a Greek work that described real and mythical animals and outlined their allegorical significance for the developing Christian orthodoxy. Its author added a new detail to the phoenix story—that the bird died and returned to life after three days. “The motif of the three days was inserted into the existing tradition by the author of the Physiologus as a means of bringing out the typological symbolism of the phoenix: the events in the life of the phoenix are meant to reflect those in the life of Christ,” says van den Broek. Writing a little later, another early Church Father, Origen, also thought the pagan mythological bird might be real (see Contra Celsum 4.98). He spoke of it as an example of the variety and harmony to be found in God’s creation. In the fourth and fifth centuries, Church Fathers including Ambrose, Cyril of Jerusalem and Jerome were still repeating the myth, and some began offering it as a God-given proof of the reality of (Christ’s) resurrection. In the words of Cyril, “God knew men’s unbelief and provided for this purpose a bird, called a Phoenix” (Catechetical Lecture 18). And around the sixth century, an anonymous Coptic preacher wrote a sermon in which he claimed that the phoenix had first been seen at the time of Cain and Abel, and that it was last seen just after Jesus’ birth, “which now indicates to us the resurrection.” Little by little, Christian writers began to read more into the various references to the strange creature. They noted its uniqueness (“the only one of its kind”) and began to interpret the phoenix of pagan myth not only as a Christian symbol of virgin birth, renovation and resurrection but as a type or allegory of Jesus Christ Himself. Other aspects of the pagan story have worked their way into Christian literature and iconography as well. For example, the Catholic Encyclopedia records that Origen dubbed the palm tree “the symbol of victory in that war waged by the spirit against the flesh.” This source further asserts, “In this sense it was especially applicable to martyrs, the victors par excellence over the spiritual foes of mankind; hence the frequent occurrence in the Acts of the martyrs of such expressions as ‘he received the palm of martyrdom.’” It’s hard to avoid making a connection between Origen’s words and the Roman view of the palm as a symbol of the pagan goddess Victory. Van den Broek notes that “in early Christian art the phoenix was often shown on a palm-tree,” symbolizing “the triumph of Life over death.” For example, the Museo di Roma houses a fragment of a 13th-century mosaic from Old St. Peter’s in Rome, which shows the image of a phoenix. The mosaic decorated the basilica’s apse and depicted Christ enthroned with the apostles Peter and Paul on either side. Antonio Iacobini, in an essay titled “Est Haec Sacra Principis Aedes: The Vatican Basilica from Innocent III to Gregory IX,” relates that within the mosaic “the phoenix rested on the palm tree” behind the image of Pope Innocent III. Van den Broek remarks on early Christians’ ability “to preserve ancient conceptions deeply rooted in Classical culture, adapting them to their new experience of faith and life.” In a sense, none of this should be surprising. After all, members of the dominant Christian sect based in Rome would have been eager to find common ground not only with their own roots but with the pagan masses they hoped to convert. Still, though the adaptation of the phoenix myth may have appealed to prospective pagan converts, it is at odds with the divinely inspired Scriptures that Christendom claims as its own. The apostle Paul pointed out to a group of listeners in Athens that we shouldn’t think of God in terms of “an image formed by the art and imagination of man” (Acts 17:29, English Standard Version); while the context here is carved idols, the principle surely applies to viewing Christ’s death and resurrection through the characters and story line of a pagan myth. There is no way to prove that Clement—whatever he may have believed about the existence of the phoenix—intended anything more than to offer a well-known illustration of “resurrection” to point out the disingenuousness of those who rejected the very concept as strange and unknown and on that basis rejected Jesus Christ’s resurrection; yet his use of the mythical phoenix as a “sign” became the basis of a fable about the reincarnation of Jesus Christ as what amounts to the ultimate sun god. It exemplifies the eventually widespread rewriting of “the Christ story” in pagan terminology, a practice known as syncretism. Clement’s letter provides an interesting historical perspective on the state of Christianity at the end of the first century. His extensive use of the Hebrew Scriptures is in keeping with the early New Testament Church, founded by Jesus Christ and based in the same Hebrew Scriptures—the only ones available to Him and His earliest disciples. What emerges from this study of Clement’s letter and later forms of Christianity is the progressive reduction of the original teachings of the New Testament Church, founded on the ancient Scriptures, to pagan conceptions. This fact alone severs any meaningful link between what has come to be called “Christianity” and the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles. In departing from a deep appreciation of the Hebrew Scriptures and often borrowing instead from pagan themes, Christianity in fact departed from the founding principles of the New Testament Church. Selected References N.F. Blake (editor), The Phoenix (1968). Michael J. Curley (translator), Physiologus: A Medieval Book of Nature Lore (2009). John Fotopoulos (editor), The New Testament and Early Christian Literature in Greco-Roman Context (2006). Madonna Gauding, The Signs and Symbols Bible: The Definitive Guide to the World of Symbols (2009). Robin Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology (2004). Misako Himuro, “The Phoenix in the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians” in Renaissance Studies (1998). Kirsopp Lake (translator), “1 Clement,” in The Apostolic Fathers, Volume 1 (1919). J.B. Lightfoot (translator), The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians (1890). C. Scott Littleton, Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology, Volume 4 (2005). M.R. Niehoff, “The Phoenix in Rabbinic Literature” in The Harvard Theological Review (1996). Geraldine Pinch, Handbook of Egyptian Mythology (2002). Pat Remler, Egyptian Mythology A to Z (2000, 2006). Cyril C. Richardson (editor), Early Christian Fathers (1953, 1996). Alexander Roberts, Sir James Donaldson, Arthur Cleveland Coxe (editors), “St. Clement: Epistle to the Corinthians,” in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 1 (1885, 2007). Roelof van den Broek, The Myth of the Phoenix According to Classical and Early Christian Traditions (1971). Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter W. van der Horst (editors), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (1999).	i don't know
The Malayalam language is from, and still used by over 30 million people in?	Malayalam Language - Wikiquote Malayalam Language Jump to: navigation , search Wikipedia in Malayalam language Malayalam language (മലയാളം, Malayāḷam ? [mɐləjaːɭəm]), is a language spoken in India , predominantly in the state of Kerala . It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated a Classical Language in India in 2013, Malayalam has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry . It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by approximately 33 million people, according to the 2001 census. Malayalam most likely originated from Middle Tamil (Sen-Tamil) in the 6th century. An alternative theory proposes a split in even more ancient times Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages and today over eighty percent of the vocabulary of Malayalam in scholarly usage is from Sanskrit. Before Malayalam came into being, Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam , including present day Kerala state, a famous example being Silappatikaram . Silappatikaram was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Cochin , and is considered a classic in Sangam literature . Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature. Contents Quotes[ edit ] The Union Cabinet decided to grant the coveted recognition to the language , spoken by 33.3 million Malayalis all over the world . Malayalam now joins Tamil , Kannada and Telugu , all members of the Dravidian linguistic family , as the fourth ‘classical’ language of South India . The Hindu in: Classical’ status for Malayalam , The Hindu, 24 May 2013 Grantha, Vattezhuthu, Kolezhuthu, Malayanma, Devanagiri, Brahmi and Tamil alphabets[ edit ] Copper plate inscriptions of Grantha alphabet . The first letter in Malayalam language C. Radhakrishnan in: Grantha, Vattezhuthu, Kolezhuthu, Malayanma, Devanagiri, Brahmi and Tamil alphabets , C.Radhakrishnan's Home Page The Grantha alphabet is a descendant of the Brahmi alphabet and started to emerge during the 5th century AD....Total alphabets are about 48 in number, without the Dravidian characters like the ra and zha. Granthakshara was used to write Sanskrit in Kerala before Ezhuthachan 's time. Vattezhuthu used as Malayalam alphabet during that time is similar to Tamil . Vattezhuthu was the early script used to write Malayalam. Total alphabets\|alphabets were about 30. From the Vattezhuthu was derived another script called the kolezhuthu . This script was more commonly used in the Cochin and Malabar areas than in Travancore . Yet another script derived from the vattezhuthu was the Malayanma , which was commonly used south to Thiruvananthapuram . Malayanma also does not differ fundamentally from the vattezhuthu. The absence of character combinations, the vowels a and o and conventions for symbols were real difficulties in Vattezhuthu . The trouble with kolezhuthu was still more, for it had regional variations also. And in the case Malayanma, the complexity of the script, Tamil usage and conventional abbreviations for words made it unintelligible to the rest of the region. With all these three scripts in current use the writing and reading of Malayalam must indeed have been a difficult affair. Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval[ edit ] Bishop Alexander de Campo, grave plate in Malayalam language in the Sanctuary Kuruvilangad, Kerala The script and the linguistic structure of Malayalam was formalized by Thunchathu Ramanujan Ezhuthassan , who lived in the 16th century. N. V. Neeba, Anoop Nmaboodri,C.V. Jawahar, and P.J. Natayanan In: Venu Govindaraju, Srirangaraj (Ranga) Setlur [ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval], Springer Science & Business Media, 25 September 2009 Malayalam is an Indian language spoken by 40 million people with its own script spoken in the south western state of Kerala. In: p. 125. Malayalam has a rich literary tradition. The Malayalam script has a large number of similar characters making the recognition pattern challenging. In: p. 126. Malayalam is one of the five major languages of the Dravidian language family, which also includes Tamil , Telugu , Kannada and Tulu . In: p. 126. The Malayalam speakers – referred to as Malayalis – have been strongly peripatetic. Hence, the language is heard widely all over India as well as in the Persian Gulf countries, Europe , Australia , and the North America . In: p. 126. The language started as a variant of Tamil that was spoken in regions of Kerala, and evolved its own form, grammar , and vocabulary by 500 CE. A significant transition from Tamil happened with the introduction of a form of literature called Manipravalam , which freely mixed words from Sanskrit into the language. In: p. 126. Most words in traditional Malayalam has its roots in either Tamil or Sanskrit . Due to its lineage to both Sanskrit and Tamil, the w:Malayalam alphabetMalayalam alphabet has the largest number of letters among the Indian languages . In: p. 126. Kerala had a flourishing spice trade with Europe , Middle east and Egypt for over 2000 years. This long-standing exposure led to words and expressions being borrowed from a variety of languages such as Arabic , Hebrew , Latin . The most significant influence in the recent past has been English language , which has contributed a large number of words in everyday use, mostly in its original form. In: p. 126. Malayalam has a strong literary history , which is centuries old and is very rich in several genres of literature . The earliest known literary composition in the language is from the 13th century. Notably, the work Ramacharitam by Cheeraman is recognized by scholars as the first book in Malayalam. The first Malayalam grammar/literary treatise, Leelathilakam, was compiled in the 14th century. Malayalam also has a rich vocabulary, with around 90,000 words, listed in the dictionary ShabdathArAvalli. In: p. 126. The script and the linguistic structure of Malayalam was formalized by Thunchathu Ramanujan Ezhuthassan , who lived in the 16th century. In: p. 126. The intermediate development of the literature was primarily through the lyrics for performing art forms of Kathakali , Koothu , and Thullal and translations of the mythological stories. In fact, one of the first works in the language, Bhashakautilyam, from the 12th century, is a translation of Arthashastra from Sanskrit . In: p. 126. A variety of literary styles in prose and poems , including mythical, satirical, fictional, narrative, and travelogue , were created in Malayalam before the 18th century. The literary journals such as Bhasha Poshini and Vidya Vinodini, which came into existence towards the end of the 19th century, played a critical role in popularising the literary culture and criticism in the language. In: p. 126. The modern day literature in Malayalam is as evolved and complex as that of any other languages in the world . In: p. 127. The recognition of printed or handwritten Malayalam has to deal with a large number of complex glyphs , some of which are highly similar to each other. However, recent advances in classifier design, combined with the increase in processing power of computers have all but solved the primary recognition problem. In: p. 131. A characteristic of the Malayalam language is the common usage of compound words created from multiple root words, using the sandhi rules . This creates a combinatorial explosion in the number of distinct words in the language. In: p. 132. K.A. Jayaseelan in: Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1-5 , Popular Prakashan, 2000 Malayalam evolved either from a western dialect of Tamil or from the a branch of Proto-Dravidian from which modern Tamil also evolved. The earliest record of the language is an inscription dated 830 AD. In: p. 349 An. early extensive influx of Sanskrit words influenced the Malayalam script (derived from the Grantha script , itself derived from Brahmi ), it has letters to represent all the Sanskrit sounds besides the Dravidian sounds. In: p. 349 The language also uses a script called Koleluttu (Rod script), which is derived from the Tamil writing system. The Tamil Grantha script is used as well. In: p. 349 Like the Dravidian languages generally, its clause has a subject-object verb word order; it has a nominative-accusative case-marking pattern; its Malayalam language pronominal system has “natural” gender , non-human is a neuter and masculine/feminine is distinguished (fir humans) according to sex . In: p. 349 But unlike other Dravidian languages, its finite verb is inflected only for tense, not for person, number, and gender. In: p. 349 Malayalam is spoken mainly in the southwestern southern coast of Kerala and the Union Territory of Lakshadweep ; but bilingual communities in contiguous parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu also speak it.... It has regional and caste-based dialects . A distinction, called Diglossia\|diglossia]], exists between the formal, literary language and the colloquial tongue . In: p. 349	India
Copra is the dried white meat or flesh of what?	Malayalam 2016 New Songs - Mr-Jatt Malayalam Malayalam Listen & download new 87 songs 42 album and watch videos of Malayalam also find top 30 songs of Malayalam pbMalayalamb pronounced mljlm imalayamisupsup smallIPAsmallmljam is a language spoken in India predominantly in the state of Kerala It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India with official language status in the state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and was spoken by 33 million people in 2001 Malayalam is also spoken in the Nilgiris district Kanyakumari district and Coimbatore of Tamil Nadu Dakshina Kannada Mangalore and Kodagu districts of KarnatakappMalayalam most likely originated from Middle Tamil SenTamilMalayalam in the 6th century An alternative theory proposes a split in even more ancient times In either case Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages and today over eighty percent of the vocabulary of Malayalam in scholarly usage is from Sanskrit Before Malayalam came into being Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam including present day Kerala state a famous example being iSilappatikaramiSilappatikaram was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Cochin is considered a classic among Sangam literature Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature The earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vattezhuttu script and later the Kolezhuttu which derived from it As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit Grantha script was adopted for writing and came to be known as iArya Ezhuttui This developed into the modern Malayalam script Many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam termed as Manipravalam The oldest literary work in Malayalam distinct from the Tamil tradition is dated between the 9th and 11th centuryppDue to its lineage deriving from both Sanskrit and Tamil the Malayalam alphabet has the largest number of letters among the Indian languages Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing all the sounds of Sanskrit and all Dravidian languagesp>	i don't know
What does the internet top level domain '.cat' represent?	List of Internet Top Level Domains List of Internet Top Level Domains The following is a list of Internet top-level domains. The top-level domain article provides the background information. The official list of all top-level domains is maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Notes: Name: DNS name of the generic top-level domain Entity: target audience or restricted use Notes: general remarks IDN: support for internationalized domain names (IDN) DNSSEC: presence of DS records for Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) Name Must verify eligibility for registration; only those in various categories of air-travel-related entities may register. No .asia Asia-Pacific region This is a TLD for companies, organizations, and individuals based in the region of Asia, Australia, and the Pacific. Yes .biz business This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not held by commercial entities in accordance with the domain’s charter. This TLD was created to provide relief for the wildly-popular .com TLD. No This is a TLD for Web sites in the Catalan language or related to Catalan culture. Yes .com commercial This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Though originally intended for for-profit business entities, for a number of reasons it became the “main” TLD for domain names and is currently used by all types of entities including nonprofits, schools and private individuals. Domain name registrations may be challenged if the holder cannot prove an outside relation justifying reservation of the name, to prevent “ squatting “. Yes The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the Rochdale Principles . No .edu educational The .edu TLD is limited to specific educational institutions such as, but not limited to, primary schools, middle schools, secondary schools, colleges, and universities. In the US, its usability was limited in 2001 to post-secondary institutions accredited by an agency on the list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies maintained by the United States Department of Education . This domain is therefore almost exclusively used by U.S. colleges and universities. Some institutions that do not meet the current registration criteria have grandfathered domain names. No The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. governmental entities and agencies. No This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Yes .int international organizations The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations. No .jobs companies The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a “company.jobs” domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers. No The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military. No Must be used for mobile-compatible sites in accordance with standards. No Must be verified as a legitimate museum. Yes .name individuals, by name This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not by individuals (or the owners of fictional characters) in accordance with the domain’s charter. Yes .net network This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Originally intended for use by domains pointing to a distributed network of computers, or “umbrella” sites that act as the portal to a set of smaller websites. No .org organization This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Originally intended for use by non-profit organizations, and still primarily used by same. Yes .pro professions Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed or certified lawyers, accountants, physicians and engineers in France, Canada, NL, UK and the U.S. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials. No	Catalan
What term refers to a traditional alternative to electronic or digital technology, and separately to something which corresponds to another?	List of Internet Top Level Domains List of Internet Top Level Domains The following is a list of Internet top-level domains. The top-level domain article provides the background information. The official list of all top-level domains is maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Notes: Name: DNS name of the generic top-level domain Entity: target audience or restricted use Notes: general remarks IDN: support for internationalized domain names (IDN) DNSSEC: presence of DS records for Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) Name Must verify eligibility for registration; only those in various categories of air-travel-related entities may register. No .asia Asia-Pacific region This is a TLD for companies, organizations, and individuals based in the region of Asia, Australia, and the Pacific. Yes .biz business This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not held by commercial entities in accordance with the domain’s charter. This TLD was created to provide relief for the wildly-popular .com TLD. No This is a TLD for Web sites in the Catalan language or related to Catalan culture. Yes .com commercial This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Though originally intended for for-profit business entities, for a number of reasons it became the “main” TLD for domain names and is currently used by all types of entities including nonprofits, schools and private individuals. Domain name registrations may be challenged if the holder cannot prove an outside relation justifying reservation of the name, to prevent “ squatting “. Yes The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the Rochdale Principles . No .edu educational The .edu TLD is limited to specific educational institutions such as, but not limited to, primary schools, middle schools, secondary schools, colleges, and universities. In the US, its usability was limited in 2001 to post-secondary institutions accredited by an agency on the list of nationally recognized accrediting agencies maintained by the United States Department of Education . This domain is therefore almost exclusively used by U.S. colleges and universities. Some institutions that do not meet the current registration criteria have grandfathered domain names. No The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. governmental entities and agencies. No This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Yes .int international organizations The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations. No .jobs companies The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a “company.jobs” domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers. No The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military. No Must be used for mobile-compatible sites in accordance with standards. No Must be verified as a legitimate museum. Yes .name individuals, by name This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register; however, registrations may be challenged later if they are not by individuals (or the owners of fictional characters) in accordance with the domain’s charter. Yes .net network This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Originally intended for use by domains pointing to a distributed network of computers, or “umbrella” sites that act as the portal to a set of smaller websites. No .org organization This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register. Originally intended for use by non-profit organizations, and still primarily used by same. Yes .pro professions Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed or certified lawyers, accountants, physicians and engineers in France, Canada, NL, UK and the U.S. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials. No	i don't know
Which country borders Finland, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia?	Which Country Has the Most Neighboring Countries? By Matt Rosenberg Updated August 06, 2016. Which country in the world shares its border with the most countries? Technically, we have a tie because both China and Russia have the most neighboring countries with 14 neighbors each. This should not be surprising as Russia and China are the largest political nations in the world. They are also located in a part of Asia (and Europe) that has many small countries. Yet, these two are not alone in their numerous neighbors, as both Brazil and Germany share their borders with more than eight countries. #1 - China has 14 Neighboring Countries China is the third largest country in terms of area (if we count Antarctica) and its lands dominate the southeastern part of Asia. This location (next to many small countries) and the 13,954 miles (22,457 kilometers) of border brings it to the top of our list as having the most neighbors in the world. In total, China borders 14 other countries: On the northern border, China borders (west to east) Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Russia. To the west, China shares boundaries with (north to south) Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The southern border of China is shared with (west to east) India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, and Vietnam. On the western border, China's neighbor is North Korea (and, again, Russia). #2 - Russia has 14 (or 12) Neighboring Countries Russia is the largest country in the world and it spans both the European and Asian continents. It is only natural that it shares borders with many countries. Despite its large area, Russia's total boundary on land is just slightly smaller than China with a border of 13,923 miles (22,408 kilometers). It's important to remember that the country has a lot of coastline 23,582 miles (37,953 kilometers), particularly in the north. On the western side, Russia borders (north to south) Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, and Ukraine. To the south, Russia shares a border with (west to east) Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and North Korea. If we include the Russian oblast (region) of Kaliningrad (200 miles west of the main Russian border), then we can add Poland and Lithuania to the list and that brings the total to 14 neighbors. #3 - Brazil has 10 Neighboring Countries Brazil is the largest country in South America and it dominates the continent. With the exception of Ecuador and Chile, it borders ever South American nation, bringing its total up to 10 neighbors. Of the top three countries listed here, Brazil wins the prize for having the longest border area. In total, Brazil has a 10,032 mile (16,145 kilometers) border with other countries. Brazil shares its northern border with (west to east) Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Running down the western border of Brazil are the countries of (north to south) Colombia and Peru. On the southwestern side, Brazil borders (west to east) Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. #4 - Germany has 9 Neighboring Countries Germany is one of the largest countries in Europe and many of its neighbors are among the continent's smallest nations. It is also almost completely landlocked, so its 2,307 miles (3,714 kilometers) of border are shared with nine other countries. Germany's single neighbor to the north is Denmark. On the eastern border of Germany, you will find (north to south) Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. To the south, Germany shares a border with (west to east) Switzerland and Austria. The western borders of Germany are shared with (north to south) Poland and the Czech Republic. Source	Russia
What is the fourth root of 625 (i.e., what number multiplied by itself four times is 625)?	Kazakhstan travel guide - Wikitravel Time Zone UTC+5 to UTC+6 Kazakhstan is by far the largest of the Central Asian states of the former Soviet Union. It has borders with Russia , China , and the Central Asian countries of Kyrgyzstan , Uzbekistan , and Turkmenistan . Kazakhstan is the world's ninth biggest country by size, and it is more than twice the size of the other Central Asian states combined. Its lack of significant historical sites and endless featureless steppe have put many off Kazakhstan, while many still are captivated by the emptiness and mystery of this Goliath state. It will be many travellers' first port of call on their Central Asian adventure, and there is much for the intrepid traveller to enjoy. Kazakhstan is the richest country in Central Asia , due to its large oil and natural gas reserves. The country is also the largest landlocked country. Understand[ edit ] Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were united as a single nation in the middle of 15th century. The area was conquered by Russia in the second half of 19th century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the launching of the 1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures. This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other deported nationalities, including the Volga Germans) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many of these newcomers to emigrate. Modern Kazakhstan is a neo-patrimonial state characterized by considerable nepotism and dominance over political and economic affairs by President Nursultan Nazarbayev and his allies. However, it is not as severely authoritarian in government as compared to bordering Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and China. Since independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Kazakh government has allowed foreign investment to flow into the country. The development of significant oil and gas reserves, particularly in the north and west, have subsequently brought a large amount of wealth to the country, though the money falls into the hands of just a few people. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan is now labelled a middle-income country, and is already classified with a high human development index. Corruption in Kazakhstan is even more ubiquitous than neighboring China, but it is not as widespread compared to other countries in the region. Current issues include: developing a cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets (an oil pipeline to China has been built; the gas pipeline is under construction); achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, and mining sectors, and strengthening relations with surrounding states and other foreign powers. Cities[ edit ] Astana (Aqmola) — second largest city, and capital since December 1998. Worth visiting but you only need a few days to get to the most recommended sightseeings. The city is brand new and being built very rapidly. If you want to see what Akmola (Astana previous name) looks like, you need to do it now as the old city is disappearing quite rapidly. Atyrau — oil capital of Kazakhstan, where large onshore Tengiz and offshore Kashagan oilfields are located. Almaty — largest city, and capital prior to December 1998. Definitely a must-see. Beside the Soviet-style city, you may want to go to the Medeu and other places in the nearby mountains. Aktobe — an industrial city located in the eastern part of Europe. Karaganda — industrial city between Astana and Almaty; worth visiting if you like mining history. Pavlodar — Kazakh city in very north of the country, founded in 1720, closed until 1992 for its military significance in tank production, and home to one very impressive mosque, as well as other interesting Orthodox churches and various memorials Shymkent — Kazakhstan's third largest city, very crowded with Uzbek people, it is an old market town located near Tashkent and some beautiful mountains; now booming with oil exploration, Turkestan — another ancient city, long a border town between the Persian culture to the south and the Turkic nomadic culture to the north, now majority Uzbek and home to several important cultural-historical monuments Ust-Kamenogorsk — Majority Russian mining city in the Altai mountains Get in[ edit ] If you need to post your passport overseas for visa processing (For example, Australian and NZ citizens need to post their applications to Singapore), book your return courier before you send off your application. If complications arise with your visa application, you can always change the pick up time. Couriers (DHL, TNT etc) require a shipment label to be printed on the return envelope, and it is easier if you don't rely on the embassy to print and stick on your shipment label, although confirmation that the embassy will do this if you ring up and ask. For residents in Australia and New Zealand, it is cheaper to book online directly with Singapore courier companies such as DHL Singapore or TNT Singapore. DHL Australia charges AUD125 and DHL Singapore only charged SGD66. You can still print off a DHL Singapore shipment label and attach it to your envelope before you send it off. Citizens of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Hong Kong SAR, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Ukraine and Serbia do not need visas to enter Kazakhstan. Between 15 July 2014 and 15 July 2017, citizens of the United States, the Netherlands, the UK, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates, South Korea, and Japan will be able to enter without a visa for 15 days at a time. Update 5 July 2015: This has grown. As of July 16, 2015, the list will include 19 countries: the Commonwealth of Australia, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Republic of Finland, the French Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany, Hungary, the Italian Republic, Japan, Malaysia, the Principality of Monaco, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Norway, the Republic of Singapore, the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Swiss Confederation, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America. According to the government resolution, citizens of these countries may enter Kazakhstan with all types of valid passports visa-free from July 16, 2015 for a period of up to 15 (fifteen) days after the crossing of the border of Kazakhstan. Registration of citizens from these countries will be made directly at the border crossings upon their entrance into the territory of Kazakhstan. End of update. Citizens of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UAE, United Kingdom and USA (Jul 2009) can obtain single-entry (up to 30 days) or double-entry (up to 60 days) tourist visas without providing a letter of invitation. Citizens of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Malaysia, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UAE, United Kingdom and USA (Aug 2010) with valid Kyrgyz tourist visa can travel also to Almaty Oblast and Zhambyl Oblast of Kazakhstan. However if you have two-entry Kyrgyz visa and you cross the border from Kyrgyzstan to Kazakhstan, you can't return back on this visa to Kyrgyzstan. Most customs officers don't know about this agreement, which can cause long obstructions at border crossings.(Update Nov 2011. NO officials know of this agreement and you will be turned away with a stamp on your Kyrgyz visa that says no entry) The similar agreement applies reciprocally in Kyrgyzstan, but not for all abovementioned nationalities, see Kyrgyzstan#Get_in . However, many of these nationalities now do not need a visa to visit Kyrgyzstan, so check with the local Kyrgyz embassy as well. For more information you should contact a Kazakhstan diplomatic mission in your area or Kazakhstan MFA's website Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan . Note that as of June 2012 the Consulate General of Kazakhstan in New York says it only accepts money orders, but they actually accept cashier's checks as well. Note: Although the Kazakh government has set certain policies regarding which countries do not require LOI's, this does not always reach the embassies. Be prepared for the worst and coming up against an official who might flat out refuse to give you a visa without a LOI. This is an issue at the Kazakhstan Embassy in Moscow (Australian Passports). Air Kazakhstan stopped flying at the end of March 2004. The flag carrier is now Air Astana which flies to Almaty , Astana , Aktau , Aktobe , Atyrau , Abu Dhabi , Uralsk , Kyzylorda , Moscow , Delhi , Beijing , Istanbul , Bangkok , Hannover , London , Amsterdam , Baku , Kuala Lumpur , Frankfurt , Seoul , Ho Chi Minh City , and Hong Kong . In 2011, Air Astana stopped flying to and from Dubai, but now flies to and from Abu Dhabi. Etihad Airways also services the Almaty and Astana to and from Abu Dhabi routes. However, Air Astana has a near monopoly on the international routes by limiting the access of foreign airlines to Kazakhstan. Lufthansa has also flights to Almaty, from where you can go anywhere via local carrier SCAT , which flies to most cities in Kazakhstan, although it must be mentioned that SCAT is on the list of airlines banned from European airspace. British Airways (Almaty-Heathrow route taken over by bmi from Sept 2007) and KLM now fly several times a week to Heathrow and Schiphol. There is also non-stop connection twice a week from Prague, operated by Czech airlines. Turkish Airlines is good passenger carrier, with flights to Istanbul (ask a travel agent about the student fares, which can be a great deal). There are twice a week flights from Seoul to Almaty; one is Asiana Airlines, and the other is Astana. Airbaltic also flies to Almaty (no direct flight); if you reserve tickets in advance, you can go there for €130 (from Riga ). By train[ edit ] Trains in Kazakhstan are slow but comfortable and clean. Popular routes include Almaty to/from Moscow (77 hours), Novosibirsk (35 hours) and Ürümqi , China (34 hours). Count on a 3–4 hours stay at Russian border or 6–8 hours at Chinese border. Trains in Kazakhstan can also be booked online. By car[ edit ] You can enter Kazakhstan by car through many of the border checkpoints on main roads into the country. However, be prepared to wait up to 36 hours in the queues, with rather poor facilities. By bus[ edit ] It is fairly easy to travel from Ürümqi to Almaty via sleeper bus, especially if you aren't in a hurry and don't mind living on a bus for a good 24 to 36 hours. The border crossing itself is a bit of a hike, and you may be made to carry all of your belongings with you for quite a ways in some seriously warm weather. The bus trip and "baggage fees" are around USD45. You can pick up your Kazakhstan visa at the consulate in Urumqi as well, but be prepared to chill for at least a week waiting, and be sure to get a copy of your passport before handing it over. By boat[ edit ] Freighters travel regularly between Baku and Aktau , and it is possible to hitch a ride. Note, though, that it is common for ships to get held up, even for weeks, before entering port, so you had better stock up on food and water before boarding. See freighter travel to better understand how this works. Registration[ edit ] You must register your visa within five days of entering Kazakhstan if your border entry card has only one stamp. After your first registration you must register in each destination if you stay more than 72 hours (see each destination for further details). If you stay in Kazakhstan less than five days then you may not need to register but this needs to be confirmed (July 2008). Although border entry card is having provision to mention just the name of your organisation, you must specify full address next to the name of organisation (although no one tells this at the time of entry). In one off case people are caught by immigration police for not having full address in the border entry card, resulting into seizing the passports causing inconvenience to the visitors. The passports needs to be collected at the immigration police office later next day after due formality. Get around[ edit ] You can travel within Kazakhstan using taxis, buses, trains and planes, it depends on your budget and demands. Renting a car is rather costly compared to other means of transport. In Semipalatinsk (Semey) a minivan costs KZT35, and a large bus costs KZT35-40 (in Astana it ranges about KZT60-65), common taxi fare is minimally KZT300 (at the time, March of 2009, USD1 was approximately KZT150 ). By public buses[ edit ] Public transportation in big cities is rather popular. You can use buses, trolleys, trams and minibuses. One big minus of all of them is that they never come on schedule and very crowded on peak time. Moreover, there is absolutely no plan with bus stops and schedule whatsoever. If you don't speak Russian, taking the bus will be quite tricky but not impossible. By taxi[ edit ] Use taxis as they are very cheap (€2 to €6 within city). You don't have to use official taxis in most cities, basically you can stop almost any car on the street by raising your hand. It works good in Almaty and Astana, but in Karagandy the best way is to order a taxi by phone. It is somewhat cheaper and even faster than hitch-hike waiting. A note of warning, getting to the Almaty airport can be expensive. Taxis to the airport vary greatly in price. Any foreigner will be quoted a very high rate but usually cabs will come down once they see they aren't going to be able to get that much. USD50 is outlandish. Do not accept the first price as it will result in your being overcharged. It should be less than USD10, although it can never be guaranteed that a foreigner will get that price. A better option are the minibuses and buses that go to the airport. The word "airport" is very similar in Russian and English. A common way to get around is by unofficial taxis. Any time of the day, just wave your hand and someone will stop. Locals do this all the time. Negotiate the price and destination before you agree to go. About USD2-4 is fair for a ride within the centre of Almaty. If your Russian is poor or non-existent, you will be charged a lot more than locals; to avoid this, try to use public buses as much as you can and don't hesitate to tell the driver how much you are ready to pay (do this before he tells you how much he wants!). To be safe though, do not get in a car if more than one person is driving. Also, do not take these kind of taxis for long distances or anywhere that goes through remote areas, as there are frequent robberies, especially of foreigners. Always try to have exact amount of money in cash (the price which you negotiated with a taxi driver), since usually they will not give you change. So if the price should be KZT350, give the driver KZT350, not more (otherwise he/she might not find change for you). By train[ edit ] Train is the most popular way of covering the huge distances between Kazakhstan's main cities. Main train stations are located in Astana, Karaganda and Almaty, but they can be found almost in every big city. The rolling stock, train classes, ticket and reservation system was inherited from former Soviet Railways, so they are very similar to the Russian system, see Russian train travel article . Ticket prices are slightly lower than in Russia. Kazakh Railways have an e-shop [1] (only in Kazakh and Russian), but it doesn't accept many of non-CIS credit cards, so you probably use it only for price check. Kazakhstan is a large country. For instance, it will take you almost 24 hours to get from Almaty to Astana. However, going by train is most fun way of travelling, since the trains are a great way to meet people. A lot has been written about the pitfalls of being included in a vodka drinking party on a train, but for the most part fellow travellers are friendly, and keen to find out about you ("why aren't you married?" and, if you are, "why don't you have children?", and if you do, "why don't they have children?"!). Most travellers take food for the journey, as restaurant car provision is sporadic (and they expect you to share yours too!). If you don't have enough to last the distance, the trains generally stop for 15-20 minutes at each station and there are always people on the platform selling food and drink, at any time of day or night. There is also a train called Talgo, which is able to cover distance between Almaty and Astana in 9 hours. The cost of the ticket is about KZT9000. By long distance buses[ edit ] They are a popular alternatives to trains and are faster but less comfortable than them. As for trains, you will need to buy your ticket in advance and will be given a seat number. Be careful when the bus makes a bathroom stop, the driver don't check if all passengers are on board before resuming driving! Fares are relatively low, for instance a single from Almaty to Karaganda (14 hours) will cost you KZT2500, much cheaper than an flight ticket. By plane[ edit ] Air Astana provides offices in a few major hotels in big cities, or you can book on their website; it's the fastest way of travelling within the country for those who can afford it. Planes are brand new and match European standards in quality. Other[ edit ] A fun and cheap way to get around is by taking a "marshrutka". These are the dilapidated vans that cruise around town. They usually have a sign (in Russian) listing the destination, and the driver will usually call out where they are going. But you will not find them in Almaty. Talk[ edit ] The Kazakh and Russian languages are spoken in Kazakhstan. More than 90% of Kazakh citizens speak Russian, while less than 50% speak Kazakh, and roughly half of those who speak Kazakh speak it as their native language. Although the Russian language is much more useful, ethnic Kazakhs will react extremely well to you if you speak even a little Kazakh, and even if they themselves speak none, because the Kazakh language is a great source of national pride for the Kazakh people. Most ethnic Kazakhs are not proud to speak the Russian language. Many people under age 20 will know some English as well as many customs officials and airport people know English. It is difficult to get around the country without some Russian or Kazakh language skills; though, within the more modernized cities, it is easier. Have your place of residence written on a card and get a cab if you get lost (you might be somewhat overcharged by the cab, but it is better than being lost). See[ edit ][ add listing ] Baikonur is the famous cosmodrome site for the launch of the first manned orbital flight by Yuri Gagarin. The modern town of Baikonur was built near the existing village of Tyuratam. As the cosmodrome area (6000km²) is rented by Russia, no Kazakh visa is needed if you fly in directly from Moscow. Do[ edit ][ add listing ] Sauna complexes. Due to its cold and windy weather conditions, visiting saunas with friends is very popular in Kazakhstan. Saunas (Russian banyas or Finnish steam rooms) are an excellent place to discuss business issues or just socialize with friends. Having parties (birthdays, New Year, etc) in saunas is a normal practice. In fact many modern sauna complexes in Almaty and Astana are usually fully equipped with karaoke, billiards, swimming pools, relax rooms, massage rooms, etc. edit The national currency is the tenge (Kazakh: теңге, teñge, sometimes also written as ₸) coded as KZT. Tenge is free-floating currency At 17 January 2016 rate is: USD1 = KZT360.75 €1 = KZT393.66 Exchange rates are controlled by the state bank. Prices are increasing, especially on imported goods, but also on basics like bus fares. As of March 2014, it's difficult to buy dollars, at least in Karaganda. Shopping[ edit ] Even for people who are not big shoppers, the beautifully crafted felt items will appeal. They are also easy to carry and inexpensive to post. Meat, potatoes, rice and pasta. And lots of it. If you're vegetarian be wary, because if it doesn't have meat in it, it was almost certainly cooked on meat stock. Some recommended dishes: Beshbarmak - a horse meat and pasta dish with potato and onion. The national traditional dish of Kazakhstan most often served for special occasions. Can also be made with beef or lamb. Most restaurants that serve it will present a portion enough for two or three people Kazy - handmade horse meat sausage, could be cooked and served with Beshbarmak, but not at the restaurants, unless you ask to do so when preorder menu. If you did not, it would be served as cold meat appetizer with other types of cold meat appetizers(Zhaya, Basturma, Shyzhyk). And separate price would be charged. Kazakh dish. Laghman - a thick noodle dish with meat, carrot and onion, usually served as a soup.Some other veggies could be added too. Manty - large steamed dumplings full of meat and onions. Sometimes made with onions or pumpkin. Traditional Uighur dish. Plov - wonderful dish of fried rice, meat, carrots, and sometimes other bits such as raisins or tomatoes. Traditional Uzbek dish. Shashlyk or Shish Kebab - skewered, roasted chunks of marinated meat, served with some sort of flatbread (usually lavash) and onions. Various marinates can be used, and different ways to cook it, open fire or other. Baursaky - bread best served piping hot. A little like an unsweetened doughnut. Kazakh. Pelmeni - boiled dumplings made from different kinds of meat or potato. Russian. If you're a vegetarian, you're probably thinking there's nothing for you in Kazakstan. And you're right - so long as you eat out. But if you're cooking your own food, you'll be more than satisfied. Kazakstan has some excellent products available at little markets everywhere. You will be amazed with the taste and availability of fresh organic veggies at low price! For a treat in Almaty, try Govinda's, a delicious vegetarian Hare Krishna restaurant. Malls have food courts with some vegetarian options too. Even some small Kazakh eateries will prepare vegetarian meals for you if you make it very clear to them (e.g. "byez myasa" (without meat), "ya vegeterianetz" (I [male] am a vegetarian), "ya vegetarianka" (I [female] am a vegetarian) in Russian). At some places (e.g. smak) you can even find vegetarian manty made with pumpkin. The legacy of Korean resettlement in Kazakhstan means that Korean dishes, particularly salads, are very common. At the country's many bazaars (independent food and goods markets), look for the Korean ladies selling these. They will wrap you up any number of delicious, often spicy and garlicky salads to take away in plastic bags. If you are vegetarian, this may be the only decent thing you get to eat while you're in the country. On the other hand, in Kazakhstan you can find any dishes you want, but Chinese and Japanese dishes are very expensive. The most delicious is caviar, which is very cheap, you can buy 1 kilo of caviar for less than USD300 in Almaty Zyeloniy Bazaar, but you can't export or take it with you home, you will be stopped at airport and pay high fines. Eating out is relatively cheap; you basically order the meat dish and then add rice, potatoes, etc. Each element is priced individually, so you can order for instance only meat or only rice. Prices are relatively cheap, count 500T for chicken, 1000T for beef, and up to 1500T for horse, a local delicacy. Of course, the fancier the restaurant, the higher the price. If you don't speak Russian, things are relatively hard as the majority of restaurants don't have English menus (with the exception of some hyped places in Almaty). While Kazakhs are not very religious, most do not eat pork. Be aware of this if you are dining out with Kazakhs or planning a dinner at home. Also many dishes that are made elsewhere with pork (such as dumplings or sausage) are made with beef or mutton here. The legal drinking/purchasing age of alcoholic beverages is 21. You can find any sort of drink you want, some of the traditional beverages include: Kumiss - fermented mare's milk, up to 6% alcohol content - imagine tart lemonade, mixed with semi-sour milk Kumyran (Shubat)- fermented camel's milk Kvas - described as similar to root beer it can be bought in a bottle in a store, or by the cup from people with giant yellowish tanks of it on the street Cheap alcoholic drinks can be found at every little corner shop (called the astanovka). These places are open 24/7, just knock on their door if the shopkeeper is asleep. Kazakhstan's specialty is cognac, though stores still sell vodka cheaper than bottled water at times. However, some of these astanovka sometimes sell alcohol of dubious origin; for the sake of your stomach you may want to buy your beverage in a supermarket, although the price will definitely be higher. Several brands of beer, of good quality and flavor, are made in Karaganda. Juices, in cartons, are common and delicious, especially peach juice. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ] There are numerous hotels, from very cheap ones for €10 per night, to the luxurious ones. You wouldn't find the cheapest ones on the web; the only way to book them is to call directly, but in that case you'll have to speak Russian at the least. There are almost no camping sites except in Burabay/Borovoe in Kazakhstan. You can, however, camp almost anywhere due to the huge uninhabited spots. The scenery is beautiful but because of the very hot weather: don't forget to take plenty of water with you as you can very easily spend many of days without seeing anybody. If you camp near a nomadic tribe, ask for the permission to stay near; it will not be refused. There are also many apartments rent by the night, some by agencies, or from women often near the train station whom shake large key rings on the main roads, and are cheaper. Work[ edit ] Unlike certain European countries still recovering from recession, Kazakhstan abounds in employment or business opportunities. Skilled professionals may be able to find a job, more likely, in the energy or educational sector. Salaries tend to decrease as the country is working in the direction of ensuring equal pay for locals vs. expat staff. Expatriate candidates must obtain a work permit. In recent years, it is becoming harder to get a work permit, comparing with prior years. Stay safe[ edit ] Kazakhstan is a country where the population has a long history of balanced, harmonious, multi-ethnic social interaction, where both guests and locals are treated with respect during everyday life, with certain exceptions (described below in more detail). Visitors will experience hospitality and warmth in this lovely country. However, your personal safety may vary from very safe to relatively unsafe depending on the location, time of the day, circumstances, and your personal behaviour. Unlike other former Soviet Union countries, black, South Asian and Middle Eastern people should feel comfortable. Generally, Kazakh cities are safe during the day, but certain parts of major cities should be avoided at night to reduce risk (e.g. (i) all parts of Almaty below Tashkentskaya street and all microdistrict areas within these zones, certain other remote microdistricts, and areas with high concentration of shabby private houses (such as Shanyrak); (ii) in smaller towns, e.g. Taraz, Balkhash, Shymkent, Taldykorgan, Uralsk, Semey and Ust-Kamenogorsk, going out at night should not present a significant risk, though infrequent muggings do occur; and (iii) all smaller towns such as Shar, Stepnogorsk, and Temirtau may present a higher risk of mugging and violent crime). Scams[ edit ] Scams are common in Kazakhstan, such as the "lost wallet ploy", where someone will often claim to have found wallet and then tries to split the money with you. His partner saunters up and says it's his wallet and forces you to give him money. The twist on this scam is that the individual who will come looking for a lost wallet demands you show your purse or pocket to prove you haven't stolen it. The individual may end up grabbing all your belongings and darts away. Locals might pose as cops and then demand you for money about something. As a general rule, the real police officer will show their badges or produce them upon request. Corruption[ edit ] Corruption is an immense problem in Kazakhstan, despite numerous efforts initiated by the government to fight the issue. Troublingly, the police are generally not to be trusted. Due to their low salaries, cops can be easily bribed and they may often engage in aggressive behavior such as robbing visitors by pretending to arrest them for being publicly drunk. Stay alert and ensure that this will not happen to you. Other public officials might also engage in similar antics with travelers. It's very common for the authorities to put visitors under surveillance in their hotel rooms, such as tapping telephones to going through your belongings. The police may also conduct random checks on the street that require you to show your passport. To avoid any problems with the authorities, avoid taking photographs of government buildings as that can be interpreted as spying which can land you in prison. Prostitution[ edit ] Although illegal, prostitution has become widespread in many big cities lately. Usually prostitutes work in hotels, night clubs or saunas. Also, local classified newspapers typically have a whole section dedicated to escort services. Many sex workers in Kazakhstan are in fact from neighbouring, less economically developed states such as Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Crime Issues[ edit ] A foreign man soliciting a local woman on the streets or in a nightclub may draw unwanted attention from locals, or might result in arguments. Normal western attention and respect for women and children, including a smile or kind greeting, can be taken by a local husband or father as threatening or offensive. Carrying expensive phones, watches, and jewelry; or otherwise demonstrating wealth in public may result in closer attention from pickpockets and potential criminals. Outside Almaty and Astana, this should be avoided. There is zero tolerance for any drugs, and trace amounts may result in criminal investigation, prosecution, and jail time. Prisons are known to be dangerous and often inhumane. Keep your passport (or a certified copy of your passport and visa) with you at all times. While the situation has improved lately, police might still try to extort money from foreigners, especially on trains and long-distance buses. Unless the officers involved are drunk, it is possible to avoid paying them by pretending not to understand, or by claiming poverty. The risk of violent crime is comparable with rougher parts of major USA cities. An ordinary tourist should not experience any violent crime and is unlikely to be a target of minor crimes, if their behavior stays within generally accepted norms in public places. Excessive consumption of alcohol and visiting a nightclub will always present a higher risk, especially if a person goes out alone. It is advisable to go out as a group, or even better, with locals. Late at night, people speaking foreign languages may receive extra attention from local police, who have been known to falsely accuse a person with petty crimes, make an arrest, and attempt to obtain a KZT1,000-5,000 cash payment "fine". Cell phones work most places and should be used to call a local-language speaking friend. Driving[ edit ] Careless and drunk driving is a problem. It is always advisable to obey traffic rules and wear seat belts. In most cities, using local taxis may present a higher risk than official public transportation due to many taxis operating unlicensed with incompetent drivers. Situations of unlicensed taxi drivers demanding additional fees before releasing luggage from their trunk, or driving off and stealing luggage are more common than would be expected in western cities with a well-regulated taxi industry. It's advisable to keep your valuables and passport in your pockets and your most valuable bag on your lap. Public transportation and taxis are much less expensive than in western cities. Respect[ edit ] Kazakh people have more pride than most westerners would expect. Therefore, insulting or negative comments about Kazakhstan or local Kazakhstani people will often result in severe arguments and possible threats of physical violence. It is not recommended to get into an argument with locals, as Kazakhstan is a nation where physical power is part of the local culture, and occasionally can lead to a fatal last argument. There have been cases of violence against foreign workers in West Kazakhstan. A housing camp of Turkish workers was destroyed, with many workers assaulted, due to anger about foreigners taking local jobs and an alleged rape involving a local woman. Many locals treat foreigners with a visible degree of skepticism, largely due to years of isolation from the rest of the world. With the work of the Peace Corps and many other international groups and companies, this view is starting to fade. Nevertheless, the locals will often stare at foreigners with a mix of intense curiosity or skepticism. Gestures[ edit ] Kazakhs, like Russians, often don't smile at people in public except to those they know. Although this is widely changing, smiling at an individual you do not know can be interpreted as rude and inconsiderate. Whistling inside a house is unacceptable in almost all Kazakh homes. It is a very common superstition in Kazakhstan that whistling inside will make the owner of the house poor. Kazakhstan has some foreign consulates and official representatives. China, 37 Kabanbay Batyr, Astana, ☎ +7 7172 79-35-61, 79-35-94, 79-35-64, [2] . edit Finland, 12 Samal Microdistrict, Astana Tower, 17 floor, Astana, ☎ +7 7172 44-21-21, [3] . [email protected] edit Greece, 109 microdistrict KARAOTKEL 2010000, Astana, ☎ +77172 563714, Emergencies: +7701 188 7406 ( gremb.ast[at]mfa.gr , fax: +77172 563826). edit Lithuania , 6/1 Kabanbay batyr g., BC Kaskad, 10 a., 103 room, ☎ +7 7172 925850, Fax: +7 7172 925 853 United Kingdom, British Embassy, Astana 62, Kosmonavtov Street, ☎ +7 7172 556200 (fax: +852 2901 3066), [4] . edit United States of America, Ak Bulak 4, Str. 23-22, building #3, Astana 010010, ☎ +7 (7172) 70-21-00 ( [email protected] , fax: +7 (7172) 54-09-14), [5] . edit The Netherlands, Kosmonavtov street 62, Renco building 3rd floor, Microdistrict Chubary, 010000 Astana, ☎ +7 7172 555450 ( [email protected] , fax: +7 7172 555474), [6] . edit	i don't know
What analytical field is traditionally called 'the dismal science'?	The dismal science You are here: Articles --> Pre-1995 --> The dismal science Vous êtes ici : Essais --> Pre-1995 --> The dismal science The dismal science by Geoff Hart Previously published as: Hart, G.J. 1990. The dismal science. Canadian Forest Service, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont. Staff Newsletter, February:12–14. Economics has been called "the dismal science", in part because its practitioners have never been hesitant to make gloomy predictions about our future. Take, for instance, the current debate among economists about whether or not our economy is due to slide into a recession (the euphemism used for a depression). Another explanation for the "dismal" epithet is perhaps that economists have traditionally had a dismal track record when attempting to explain observed reality, other than through hindsight. The word economics comes from the same root as ecology, namely "eco" (from the Greek oikos, meaning one's house, habitat, or living environment). Although both words share a common root and, at least originally, a common point of reference, in the past century or so the two words have become almost entirely antithetical. That is, the side-effects of policies based solely on the models and predictions of economics have become so severe and unavoidable that the faint warning cries of ecologists are finally being discussed by economists for the first time. Ecology and its complex, poorly understood processes, have always been considered by economists to be an "externality", something that could be safely left out of the equations that the economists use to explain, with 20:20 hindsight, why their earlier equations failed to describe reality. This is an example of what computer scientists call the "GIGO" law: garbage in, garbage out. If you don't start with a good set of data, you'll only arrive at a good result through random chance. Economists have always included the cost of inputs (e.g., raw materials used in manufacturing) in their analyses, but until very recently, have not considered the environmental component of such inputs to be worthy of consideration. The reason traditionally given for this exclusion, in those few cases in which the economist actually considered the environment worthy of modeling, is that economic models are complex enough already without incorporating ecological variables that, after all, aren't well understood by ecologists themselves. Although correct in a very simplistic manner, this argument is easily undercut by subjecting it to the same standards used in economic modeling. Many simplifications of complex situations are made in economic models, to the extent that the truth of the situation is lost in a welter of overly general variables and assumptions. For example, a friend of mine who recently completed his PhD in economics at the University of Toronto presented a talk on his thesis, which boiled down to the following conclusion: if the market price of a forest product rises, the companies that produce the product will attempt to sell more of the product, assuming that their own unit costs don't rise as a result of the increased sales. In short, if someone wants to increase your profit margin, you'll be happy to comply. This sort of obvious, simplistic conclusion was attained after three years of research and statistical analysis, and although a variety of other gems of useful information were concealed in the thesis, much of it was made no more useful because it was too watered down by the time it emerged from the equations. To say that it is shortsighted to ignore externalities in an economic analysis should go without saying, yet clearly it needs to be said. An inevitable consequence of such shortsightedness has been that we, the public, are now left to deal with a broad variety of externalities that were ignored despite loud warnings from environmentalists and other ecologists who clearly foresaw the problem, but who weren't consulted on how to include their warnings in the economic models. For example, we are rapidly running out of room to store the heaps of reeking disposable diapers that are an inevitable and unavoidable externality of the impartial economic planning that gave rise to them; as a result, these nonbiodegradable monuments to our urge to cover the globe with ever more humans will quite probably outlast our current civilization. (This statement is based on the existing data on the lifespan of a typical disposable diaper, estimated to be around 300 years, and on the assumption that we show no signs as a civilization of lasting longer than the Roman Empire, which existed for as little as 400 years, depending on how you choose to assign starting and ending dates.) Pollution, the greatest externality of all, has never been factored into the production costs of most products. Even a simplistic economic analysis can include a cost estimate for cleaning up and disposing of a product and can include this in the market price of the product. The argument against doing so is that this would raise the cost to consumers; however, the reality of the situation is that consumers purchase the products at artificially low prices, and pay the true price through our taxes when it comes time to clean up the mess. The people responsible for the pollution that will arise from the recent tire fire in Hagersville will never pay even a fraction of the cleanup costs; you and I will, for years to come, when our annual tax bills come due. If we must pay for the cleanup, I for one would prefer to pay up front, so I know what I'm paying for and have some incentive to solve a problem before it becomes a disaster. I have a radical proposition for you to consider. At the present time, large companies pay for the cleanup costs of environmental damage they caused because we didn't pay attention to regulating them properly in the first place. When a large company pays a multi-million dollar fine to clean up some catastrophe, our elected representatives fine the company, which economists consider to be an individual in its own right. (Hence the misleading phrase "corporate citizen".) The end result is that the company loses profits, and if the losses are severe enough, jobs of people who had no responsibility for the accident are lost. I propose that the chief executive officers of that company, who made the decisions to skimp on precautions and environmental protection, should be made responsible for the actions of their company, and by imposing jail sentences rather than fines. In this way, there is strong incentive not to let accidents happen; under the current system, those responsible for a company's disasters usually don't even suffer pay cuts if they foul up. Obviously, there would have to be some protection built in to shield those who truly bore no responsibility for a disaster, but as with the rest of our legal system, some means of punishing the guilty must be established. Another example of ignored externalities involves agriculture. Some recent estimates for the American midwest state dthat as much as a bushel of topsoil is lost to erosion for every bushel of corn that is harvested; fertile soil that took millenia to form is being lost at such a rate that it may take millennia to replace the soil. Even if these estimates are exaggerated, the figures are alarming evidence of yet another externality that has never been adequately factored into the cost of our food supplies. Thomas Malthus, one of the first true economists, pointed out clearly that this sort of thing can only be ignored for so long before someone has to pay; it may not be our generation, but do we really want to pass the bill on to our children and grandchildren? I've just become a father, and I certainly don't. Economics, despite compelling evidence to the contrary, still considers itself a science. Economists still, by and large, refuse to conduct any serious analysis of ecological "externalities" in most of their work, in part because this would require consultations with other experts whose advice they have traditionally ignored. If this sort of economics is considered to be science, then give me astrology any day... at least astrologers are easily seen for the false prophets that they are. [A look back from 2005: This one holds up pretty well as a rant, though clearly there has been 20 years of progress in addressing the problem of externalities. What has not happened, apart from isolated instances, is to include the disposal cost in the sales price of every product.—GH] ©2004–2016 Geoffrey Hart. All rights reserved	Economics
The devastating water-borne disease Schistosomiasis, or Snail Fever, is more commonly called what?	Why Is Seattle Socialist Kshama Sawant Allowed To Teach Economics? Why Is Seattle Socialist Kshama Sawant Allowed To Teach Economics? {{article.article.images.featured.caption}} Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own. Full Bio The author is a Forbes contributor. The opinions expressed are those of the writer. Loading ... Loading ... This story appears in the {{article.article.magazine.pretty_date}} issue of {{article.article.magazine.pubName}}. Subscribe I don't cover economics regularly because it is not traditionally considered science. Furthermore, the field too often generates research and commentary that employs more voodoo than a witch doctor. It is largely for these reasons that economics is often referred to as the "dismal science" and why President Harry Truman wanted to meet a one-armed economist . Still, economics can provide powerful insights on market behavior. Indeed, economists from various ideological backgrounds have managed to reach a consensus on several major issues, and from that vantage point, we can say the field has developed something resembling scientific knowledge. One of those insights is that people respond to incentives. If I offer a teenager $50 to mow my lawn -- and an extra $25 if he trims the bushes -- then I can expect to shell out $75. I just offered my little helper a handsome incentive, and there's a very good chance he'll respond to it. This insight on human behavior is so basic and obvious that it is listed as one of the foundations of economics in Harvard economist Greg Mankiw's textbook Principles of Economics . Unfortunately, socialists never learned this lesson. In a socialist economy, incentives play little (if any) role. Therefore, as University of Michigan-Flint economist Mark J. Perry wrote , "By failing to emphasize incentives, socialism is a theory inconsistent with human nature and is therefore doomed to fail." Yet, shockingly, socialists can regularly be found on college campuses. Kshama Sawant , an economics teacher at Seattle Central Community College, openly endorses socialism. She also is running for Seattle City Council and, with the latest election returns , claims 49.5% of the vote. With many ballots left to count, she could still win. How on earth can somebody who rejects basic academic knowledge be so close to winning a city council seat? Even more troublingly, how can somebody with her beliefs be allowed to teach an economics course? This would be analogous to allowing an AIDS denier to teach a medical microbiology course, a 9/11 truther to teach a foreign policy course, or a creationist to teach an evolution course. (Amazingly, UMass-Amherst biologist Lynn Margulis had the dubious distinction of being both an AIDS denier and a 9/11 truther!) Just how far out of the mainstream is Dr. Sawant? She favors collectivizing Amazon . "Collectivizing" is a nice word socialists use to mean seizing assets and turning control of operations over to the government. If Dr. Sawant's embrace of socialism isn't bad enough, she also endorses a terribly destructive policy called "rent control." This policy can take various forms, but basically, landlords are not allowed to charge market rates for apartments. That might sound like a nice thing if you're a renter, but Dr. Mankiw -- citing a 1992 paper in American Economic Review -- states that 93% of economists reject rent control because it "reduces the quantity and quality of housing available." University of Chicago lecturer Charles Wheelan, author of Naked Economics , agrees: [I]f you asked ten economists why there is a shortage of cabs and apartments in New York City, all ten would tell you that limitations on the number of taxi medallions and rent control are what restrict the supply of these goods and services. I have two questions to which I will never expect to receive a rational answer. First, why would Seattle Central Community College allow Dr. Sawant (yes, she actually has a Ph.D. in economics) anywhere near students? And second, to the citizens of Seattle, how does one of the most educated cities in America allow themselves to get duped? This article was originally posted on RealClearScience .	i don't know
A burgh in Scotland (as in Edinburgh) originally meant a?	Burgh B Burgh A Burgh (pronounced /ˈbʌʀə/) was an autonomous corporate entity in Scotland , usually a town . This type of administrative division existed from the 12th century, when David I created the first royal burghs. Burgh status was broadly analogous to borough status, found in the rest of the United Kingdom . Following local government reorganisation in 1975 the title of "burgh" remains in use in many towns, but now has little more than ceremonial value. History of burghs The first burgh was Berwick. By 1130, David I had established burghs at Stirling, Dunfermline, Aberdeen, Perth and Scone, as well as Edinburgh . Burghs had rights to representation in the Parliament of Scotland. Under the Acts of Union of 1707 many became parliamentary burghs, represented in the Parliament of Great Britain. Under the Reform Acts of 1832, 32 years after the merger of the Parliament of Great Britain into the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the boundaries of burghs for parliamentary elections ceased to be necessarily their boundaries for other purposes. Types of burgh There were several types of burgh, including; Royal burgh, founded by Royal charter. Burgh of regality, granted to a nobleman or "lord of regality". Burgh of barony, granted to a tenant-in-chief, with narrower powers. Parliamentary burgh or Burgh constituency, a type of parliamentary constituency. Police burgh, a burgh operating a "police system" of town government. Modern history Until 1833, each burgh had a different constitution or "sett". The government of the burgh was often in the hands of a self-nominating corporation, and few local government functions were performed: these were often left to ad hoc bodies. Two pieces of reforming legislation were enacted in 1833: The Royal Burghs (Scotland) Act (3 & 4 Will. IV c.76) and the Burghs and Police (Scotland) Act (3 & 4 Will. IV c.46). The Royal Burghs Act provided for the election of magistrates and councillors. Each burgh was to have a common council consisting of a provost (or lord provost), magistrates (or bailies) and councillors. Every parliamentary elector living within the "royalty" or area of the royal burgh, or within seven statute miles of its boundary, was entitled to vote in burgh elections. One third of the common council was elected each year. The councillors selected a number of their members to be bailies, who acted as a magistrates bench for the burgh, and dealt with such issues as licensing. The provost, or chief magistrate, was elected from among the council every three years. The Royal Burghs Act was also extended to the 12 parliamentary burghs which had recently been enfranchised. These were growing industrial centres, and apart from the lack of a charter, they had identical powers and privileges to the royal burghs. Royal Burghs retained the right to corporate property or "common good". This property was used for the advantage of the inhabitants of the burgh, funding such facilities as public parks, museums and civic events. The Burghs and Police Act allowed the inhabitants of Royal Burghs, Burghs of Regality and of Barony to adopt a "police system". "Police" in this sense did not refer to law enforcement, but to various local government activities summarised in the Act as "paving, lighting, cleansing, watching, supplying with water, and improving such Burghs respectively, as may be necessary and expedient". The Act could be adopted following its approval in a poll of householders in the burgh. Burghs reformed or created under this and later legislation became known as police burghs. The governing body of a police burgh were the police commissioners. The commissioners were elected by the existing town council of the burgh, not by the electorate at large. The town council of a burgh could by a three-quarters majority become police commissioners for the burgh. In many cases this led to the existence of two parallel burgh administrations, the town council and the police commissioners, each with the same membership, but separate legal identity and powers. Further legislation in 1850 allowed "populous places" other than existing burghs to become police burghs. In 1893 most of the anomalies in the administration of burghs were removed: police commissioners were retitled as councillors and all burghs were to consist of a single body corporate, ending the existence of parallel burghs. All burghs of barony and regality that had not adopted a police system were abolished. Councils were to be headed by a chief magistrate using the "customary title" of the burgh In 1900 the chief magistrate of every burgh was to be known as the provost - except in burghs granted a Lord Provost. The last major legislation to effect burghs came into effect in 1930. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929 divided burghs into three classes: "Counties of cities": the four largest royal burghs, they combined the powers of a burgh and county council. "Large burghs": independent of the county council except in major services such as police and education. "Small burghs": performing minor local government functions such as street-cleaning, housing, lighting and drainage.. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 formally abolished burghs. Section 1(5) of the Act stated: On 16 May 1975, all local government areas existing immediately before that date, that is to say, all counties, counties of cities, large burghs, small burghs and districts, shall cease to exist, and the council of every such area shall also cease to exist. The use of the title continues in informal use, however. The common good properties and funds of the royal burghs continue to exist. They are administered by the present area councils, who must make "have regard to the interests of the inhabitants of the area to which the common good formerly related". The use of these assets are to be for the benefit of the inhabitants of the former burgh. Any person or body holding the honorary freedom of any place... formerly having the status of a city, burgh or royal burgh continued to enjoy that status after the 1975 reorganisation. Features of burghs Provost: The chief magistrate or convener of a burgh, equivalent to a mayor , was called a provost. Many different titles were in use until the Town Councils (Scotland) Act 1900 standardised the term as "provost", except in cities with a lord provost. Since 1975 local authorities have been free to choose the title of their convener and provosts are appointed to chair a number of area and community councils. Bailies: Under the provost were magistrates or baillies who both acted as councillors, and in the enforcement of laws. As well as general tasks, they often had specific tasks such as inspecting wine, or ale, or other products sold at market. The title of bailie ceased to have any statutory meaning in 1975, although modern area councils do sometimes make appointments to the office on a purely ceremonial basis. For example, Glasgow City Council grants the the title in an honorary capacity to senior councillors, while Stirling Council appoints four bailies to act in lieu of the provost in specific geographical areas. Burgesses: The common citizen of a burgh was a burgess (pl. burgessess), a title also used in English boroughs. These were freemen, a class which did not include dependants, servants and so on, though freemen might not be wealthy. Dean of Guild: This was a title held by one of the bailies of the burgh who presided over a Dean of Guild Court which was given the specific duty of building control. The courts were abolished in 1975, with building regulation transferred to the relevant local authority. Appointments to the office of Dean of Guild are still made in some areas: for instance the Lord Dean of Guild of Glasgow is described as the "second citizen of Glasgow" after the Lord Provost although the appointment is in the hands of the Merchants House of Glasgow, and not the city council. Trading privileges: Early Burghs were granted the power to trade, which allowed them to control trade until the 19th century. The population of Burgesses could be roughly divided between merchants and craftsmen , and the tensions between the interests of the two classes was often a feature of the cities. Craftsmen were usually organised into guilds . Merchants also had a guild, but many merchants did not belong to it, and it would be run by a small group of the most powerful merchants. The class of merchants included all traders, from stall-holders and pack-men to shop-holders and traders of considerable wealth. Etymology As used in this article, the Scots language word burgh is derived from the Old English Burh. In Scotland it refers to corporate entities whose legality is peculiar to Scotland. (Scottish law was protected and preserved as distinct from laws of England under the Acts of Union of 1707.) Pronunciation is the same as the English word borough , which is a near cognate of the Scots word. The identical English word Burgh (in place names such as Bamburgh, Carrawburgh and Dunstanburgh) sounds exactly like the Scots Burgh, with the emphasis on the 'r'. The English language borough, like the Scots Burgh, is derived from the same Old English language word burh (whose dative singular and nominative/accusative plural form byrig sometimes underlies modern place-names, and which had dialectal variants including burg ; it was also sometimes confused with beorh, beorg, 'mound, hill', on which see Hall 2001, 69-70). The Old English word was originally used for a fortified town or proto- castle (e.g., at Dover Castle or Burgh Castle) and was related to the verb beorgan (cf. Dutch and German bergen), meaning "to keep, save, make secure". In German Burg means castle, though so many towns grew up around castles that it almost came to mean city , and is incorporated into many placenames, such as Hamburg and Strasbourg ), The word has cognates, or near cognates, in other Germanic languages. For example, burg in German, and borg in both Danish and Swedish. The equivalent word is also to be found in Frisian, Dutch, Norwegian, and Icelandic . In southern England, the word took the form bury, as in Canterbury (Stewart 1967:193). A number of other European languages have cognate words which were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages , including brog in Irish, bwr or bwrc, meaning "wall, rampart" in Welsh, bourg in French, borgo in Italian, and burgo in Spanish (hence the place-name Burgos). The most obviously derivative words are burgher in English, Bürger in German or burger in Dutch (literally citizen , with connotations of middle-class in English and other Germanic languages). Also related are the words bourgeois and belfry (both from the French), and burglar . More distantly, it is related to words meaning hill or mountain in a number of languages ( cf. the second element of iceberg ). [http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GB04143] [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE59.html] Burgh as an element in placenames Burgh is commonly used as a suffix in place names, in Scotland, England and other countries to which people of these nations emigrated : Aldeburgh Bamburgh	Corporation
What French term refers to the standing on 'tip-toes' position in ballet?	Burgh B Burgh A Burgh (pronounced /ˈbʌʀə/) was an autonomous corporate entity in Scotland , usually a town . This type of administrative division existed from the 12th century, when David I created the first royal burghs. Burgh status was broadly analogous to borough status, found in the rest of the United Kingdom . Following local government reorganisation in 1975 the title of "burgh" remains in use in many towns, but now has little more than ceremonial value. History of burghs The first burgh was Berwick. By 1130, David I had established burghs at Stirling, Dunfermline, Aberdeen, Perth and Scone, as well as Edinburgh . Burghs had rights to representation in the Parliament of Scotland. Under the Acts of Union of 1707 many became parliamentary burghs, represented in the Parliament of Great Britain. Under the Reform Acts of 1832, 32 years after the merger of the Parliament of Great Britain into the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the boundaries of burghs for parliamentary elections ceased to be necessarily their boundaries for other purposes. Types of burgh There were several types of burgh, including; Royal burgh, founded by Royal charter. Burgh of regality, granted to a nobleman or "lord of regality". Burgh of barony, granted to a tenant-in-chief, with narrower powers. Parliamentary burgh or Burgh constituency, a type of parliamentary constituency. Police burgh, a burgh operating a "police system" of town government. Modern history Until 1833, each burgh had a different constitution or "sett". The government of the burgh was often in the hands of a self-nominating corporation, and few local government functions were performed: these were often left to ad hoc bodies. Two pieces of reforming legislation were enacted in 1833: The Royal Burghs (Scotland) Act (3 & 4 Will. IV c.76) and the Burghs and Police (Scotland) Act (3 & 4 Will. IV c.46). The Royal Burghs Act provided for the election of magistrates and councillors. Each burgh was to have a common council consisting of a provost (or lord provost), magistrates (or bailies) and councillors. Every parliamentary elector living within the "royalty" or area of the royal burgh, or within seven statute miles of its boundary, was entitled to vote in burgh elections. One third of the common council was elected each year. The councillors selected a number of their members to be bailies, who acted as a magistrates bench for the burgh, and dealt with such issues as licensing. The provost, or chief magistrate, was elected from among the council every three years. The Royal Burghs Act was also extended to the 12 parliamentary burghs which had recently been enfranchised. These were growing industrial centres, and apart from the lack of a charter, they had identical powers and privileges to the royal burghs. Royal Burghs retained the right to corporate property or "common good". This property was used for the advantage of the inhabitants of the burgh, funding such facilities as public parks, museums and civic events. The Burghs and Police Act allowed the inhabitants of Royal Burghs, Burghs of Regality and of Barony to adopt a "police system". "Police" in this sense did not refer to law enforcement, but to various local government activities summarised in the Act as "paving, lighting, cleansing, watching, supplying with water, and improving such Burghs respectively, as may be necessary and expedient". The Act could be adopted following its approval in a poll of householders in the burgh. Burghs reformed or created under this and later legislation became known as police burghs. The governing body of a police burgh were the police commissioners. The commissioners were elected by the existing town council of the burgh, not by the electorate at large. The town council of a burgh could by a three-quarters majority become police commissioners for the burgh. In many cases this led to the existence of two parallel burgh administrations, the town council and the police commissioners, each with the same membership, but separate legal identity and powers. Further legislation in 1850 allowed "populous places" other than existing burghs to become police burghs. In 1893 most of the anomalies in the administration of burghs were removed: police commissioners were retitled as councillors and all burghs were to consist of a single body corporate, ending the existence of parallel burghs. All burghs of barony and regality that had not adopted a police system were abolished. Councils were to be headed by a chief magistrate using the "customary title" of the burgh In 1900 the chief magistrate of every burgh was to be known as the provost - except in burghs granted a Lord Provost. The last major legislation to effect burghs came into effect in 1930. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929 divided burghs into three classes: "Counties of cities": the four largest royal burghs, they combined the powers of a burgh and county council. "Large burghs": independent of the county council except in major services such as police and education. "Small burghs": performing minor local government functions such as street-cleaning, housing, lighting and drainage.. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 formally abolished burghs. Section 1(5) of the Act stated: On 16 May 1975, all local government areas existing immediately before that date, that is to say, all counties, counties of cities, large burghs, small burghs and districts, shall cease to exist, and the council of every such area shall also cease to exist. The use of the title continues in informal use, however. The common good properties and funds of the royal burghs continue to exist. They are administered by the present area councils, who must make "have regard to the interests of the inhabitants of the area to which the common good formerly related". The use of these assets are to be for the benefit of the inhabitants of the former burgh. Any person or body holding the honorary freedom of any place... formerly having the status of a city, burgh or royal burgh continued to enjoy that status after the 1975 reorganisation. Features of burghs Provost: The chief magistrate or convener of a burgh, equivalent to a mayor , was called a provost. Many different titles were in use until the Town Councils (Scotland) Act 1900 standardised the term as "provost", except in cities with a lord provost. Since 1975 local authorities have been free to choose the title of their convener and provosts are appointed to chair a number of area and community councils. Bailies: Under the provost were magistrates or baillies who both acted as councillors, and in the enforcement of laws. As well as general tasks, they often had specific tasks such as inspecting wine, or ale, or other products sold at market. The title of bailie ceased to have any statutory meaning in 1975, although modern area councils do sometimes make appointments to the office on a purely ceremonial basis. For example, Glasgow City Council grants the the title in an honorary capacity to senior councillors, while Stirling Council appoints four bailies to act in lieu of the provost in specific geographical areas. Burgesses: The common citizen of a burgh was a burgess (pl. burgessess), a title also used in English boroughs. These were freemen, a class which did not include dependants, servants and so on, though freemen might not be wealthy. Dean of Guild: This was a title held by one of the bailies of the burgh who presided over a Dean of Guild Court which was given the specific duty of building control. The courts were abolished in 1975, with building regulation transferred to the relevant local authority. Appointments to the office of Dean of Guild are still made in some areas: for instance the Lord Dean of Guild of Glasgow is described as the "second citizen of Glasgow" after the Lord Provost although the appointment is in the hands of the Merchants House of Glasgow, and not the city council. Trading privileges: Early Burghs were granted the power to trade, which allowed them to control trade until the 19th century. The population of Burgesses could be roughly divided between merchants and craftsmen , and the tensions between the interests of the two classes was often a feature of the cities. Craftsmen were usually organised into guilds . Merchants also had a guild, but many merchants did not belong to it, and it would be run by a small group of the most powerful merchants. The class of merchants included all traders, from stall-holders and pack-men to shop-holders and traders of considerable wealth. Etymology As used in this article, the Scots language word burgh is derived from the Old English Burh. In Scotland it refers to corporate entities whose legality is peculiar to Scotland. (Scottish law was protected and preserved as distinct from laws of England under the Acts of Union of 1707.) Pronunciation is the same as the English word borough , which is a near cognate of the Scots word. The identical English word Burgh (in place names such as Bamburgh, Carrawburgh and Dunstanburgh) sounds exactly like the Scots Burgh, with the emphasis on the 'r'. The English language borough, like the Scots Burgh, is derived from the same Old English language word burh (whose dative singular and nominative/accusative plural form byrig sometimes underlies modern place-names, and which had dialectal variants including burg ; it was also sometimes confused with beorh, beorg, 'mound, hill', on which see Hall 2001, 69-70). The Old English word was originally used for a fortified town or proto- castle (e.g., at Dover Castle or Burgh Castle) and was related to the verb beorgan (cf. Dutch and German bergen), meaning "to keep, save, make secure". In German Burg means castle, though so many towns grew up around castles that it almost came to mean city , and is incorporated into many placenames, such as Hamburg and Strasbourg ), The word has cognates, or near cognates, in other Germanic languages. For example, burg in German, and borg in both Danish and Swedish. The equivalent word is also to be found in Frisian, Dutch, Norwegian, and Icelandic . In southern England, the word took the form bury, as in Canterbury (Stewart 1967:193). A number of other European languages have cognate words which were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages , including brog in Irish, bwr or bwrc, meaning "wall, rampart" in Welsh, bourg in French, borgo in Italian, and burgo in Spanish (hence the place-name Burgos). The most obviously derivative words are burgher in English, Bürger in German or burger in Dutch (literally citizen , with connotations of middle-class in English and other Germanic languages). Also related are the words bourgeois and belfry (both from the French), and burglar . More distantly, it is related to words meaning hill or mountain in a number of languages ( cf. the second element of iceberg ). [http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GB04143] [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE59.html] Burgh as an element in placenames Burgh is commonly used as a suffix in place names, in Scotland, England and other countries to which people of these nations emigrated : Aldeburgh Bamburgh	i don't know
What was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, the French Colonies in 1848, and the USA in 1865?	Why was Slavery finally abolished in the British Empire?: The Abolition of Slavery Project Why was Slavery finally abolished in the British Empire? Slavery Timeline Why was Slavery finally abolished in the British Empire? In July 1833, a Bill to abolish slavery throughout the British Empire passed in the House of Commons, followed by the House of Lords on 1st August. There has been a lot of debate over the factors that contributed to the final success of the bill: A change in economic interests. After 1776, when America became independent, Britain's sugar colonies, such as Jamaica and Barbados, declined as America could trade directly with the French and Dutch in the West Indies. Furthermore, as the industrial revolution took hold in the 18th century, Britain no longer needed slave-based goods. The country was more able to prosper from new systems which required high efficiency, through free trade and free labour. Cotton, rather than sugar, became the main produce of the British economy and English towns, such as Manchester and Salford, became industrial centres of world importance. Resistance by enslaved people. Enslaved people had resisted the trade since it began. However, the French Revolution brought ideas of liberty and equality, which inspired those seeking an end to slavery (for example, Toussaint L'Ouverture who led a successful slave revolt in Haiti). Major slave revolts followed ( Barbados 1816, Demerara 1822 and Jamaica 1831-1832); they reduced profitability and gave a strong indication that, regardless of politicial opinion, the enslaved people were not going to tolerate enslavement. The revolts shocked the British government and made them see that the costs and dangers of keeping slavery in the West Indies were too high. In places like Jamaica, many terrified plantation owners were finally ready to accept abolition rather than risk a widespread war. Parliamentary reform. When parliament was finally reformed in 1832, two-thirds of those who supported slavery were swept from power. The once powerful West India Lobby had lost its political strength. Abolition campaigns and religious groups. The demand for freedom for enslaved people had become almost universal. It was now driven forward, not only by the formal abolition campaign but by a coalition of non-conformist churches as well as Evangelicals in the Church of England. The act, however, did not free enslaved people immediately; they were to become "apprentices" for 6 years. Compensation of 20 million was to be paid to the planters. Protests finally forced the government to abolish the apprenticeship system on 1st August, 1838.	Slavery
Sassafras, a traditional aromatic ingredient of perfume and medicine, is a?	Slavery - The National Archives Slavery Slave sale, Charleston, South Carolina, 1856 (ZPER 34/29 (555)) External links As soon as Europeans began to settle in America, in the early 16th century, they imported enslaved Africans to work for them. As European settlement grew, so did the demand for enslaved people. Over the next 300 years more than 11 million enslaved people were transported across the Atlantic from Africa to America and the West Indies, and Britain led this trade from the mid-17th century onwards. Ports such as Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow sent out many slaving ships each year, bringing great prosperity to their owners. Many other cities also grew rich on the profits of industries which depended on slave-produced materials such as cotton, sugar and tobacco. The campaign in Britain to abolish slavery began in the 1760s, supported by both black and white abolitionists. The battle was long and hard-fought, with pro-slavery campaigners arguing that the slave trade was important for the British economy and claiming that enslaved Africans were happy and well-treated. However the frequent rebellions by enslaved Africans and evidence of the appalling conditions endured by them during and after transportation led to growing support for the demands to abolish the slave trade. Eventually, in 1807, Parliament passed an Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, which abolished the trade by Britain in enslaved peoples between Africa, the West Indies and America. The pro-slavery campaigners had argued that with no new enslaved Africans being traded slave-owners would treat their existing slaves better. However, it was clear that enslaved people were still harshly treated and many continued to resist and rebel against their enslavement. In 1833 Parliament passed a further act to abolish slavery in the British West Indies, Canada and the Cape of Good Hope (southern Africa), meaning that it was now illegal to buy or own a person. However, slavery continued in other areas of the British Empire including the territories run by the East India Company, Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) and St Helena. Between 1808 and 1869 the Royal Navy’s West Africa Squadron seized over 1,600 slave ships and freed about 150,000 Africans but, despite this, it is estimated that a further 1 million people were enslaved and transported throughout the 19th Century. Tasks Background Racism Enslavement is both a result and a cause of racism. A belief that certain people were racially inferior allowed Europeans to set up the trade in African enslaved people in the 1520s. It encouraged whites to believe that the cruelty of the capture of enslaved people, the inhuman conditions on the slave-ships and the incredibly harsh treatment the enslaved received in the Americas were somehow justified. Source 2 is just another example of this. Enslavement has also caused racism by setting up a stereotype of black people as victims in the past. The triangular trade The British trade in enslaved people was a three-legged voyage: from British ports to West Africa, where enslaved people were bought with guns and other British-manufactured articles. Then came the dreaded ‘middle passage’ to the Americas, with as many enslaved people as possible were crammed below decks. The enslaved were then sold in the southern USA, the Caribbean Islands and South America, where they were used to work the plantations. Plantations were farms growing only crops that Europe wanted: tobacco, sugar, cotton. The merchant ships would load up with these products and take them back to Britain on the last leg of their journey. Profits from this trade made merchants rich as well as providing the capital (money) for many of the enterprises of the early Industrial Revolution. Plantation life The enslaved people were worked in gangs, made up of both men and women, driven on by the whip of the overseer. They worked for ten to twelve hours a day in the tropical sun, for six days a week. Other enslaved people worked as craftspeople, or servants. The fact that they could be bought or sold away from the plantation at any time made it very difficult to maintain normal family life. Some of the ‘runaways’ listed in Source 1 may well have just been trying to visit friends or relations who had been sold to another plantation. African songs, games, stories and religion helped to maintain the enslaveds’ belief in themselves. From the 17th century, gangs of runaways -called ‘Maroons’ in Jamaica – set up independent, permanent communities which resisted all efforts of the white owners and soldiers to crush them. Sometimes this broke out into open conflict, such as the Maroon Wars of 1730-1740 and 1795-6. There were also slave revolts, in Antigua in 1735, Tacky’s revolt in Jamaica in 1760, Kofi’s revolt in Guyana in 1763, in Granada in 1795-7, and so on. Abolition The case against enslavement had several arguments: the moral argument: enslavement is wicked, un-Christian the economic argument: enslavement is expensive and inefficient the legal argument: enslavement is illegal under British law problems in the plantations: enslaved people continued to resist enslavement and would not be suppressed The campaign to abolish enslavement was the first popular peaceful mass protest movement of modern times. Leading white abolitionists were Granville Sharpe, who helped black people fight test cases in the courts; Thomas Clarkson, who collected evidence of the cruelty of the enslavement trade from all over Britain; and William Wilberforce, who fought for legislation in Parliament. They worked with black abolitionist campaigners, such as Olaudah Equiano and Ottobah Cuguano. Mary Prince, who had been enslaved for part of her life, wrote an important book about her experiences which helped to influence the eventual abolition of enslavement in 1833. Clearly, the campaign to abolish enslavement did not end in 1833. Plantation owners still used forced labour in the form of indentured workers (a worker who works for a fixed term for their transportation, board and lodgings) particularly on tobacco plantations. Being an indentured worker meant, in theory, that you should be treated fairly and that although you weren’t paid for your labour, you would be given proper food and somewhere to stay. In actual fact, indentured workers were often treated no better than enslaved workers, with beatings, and even death, a common factor. Enslavement goes on today. Look at the links on the right to find out about enslavement in the 21st century and its abolition. Teachers' notes This lesson offers graphic evidence of the cruelty on which enslavement was based. The Court Records from Dominica reveal all kinds of details about the way enslaved African society worked. Most of all, however, it shows the punishments meted out to enslaved people, in all its brutality. From this point the whole story of enslavement – why the enslaved were there, who ran the plantations, why they ran away – can be explored. It is also an important piece of evidence of the reasons why the abolition campaign proceeded beyond 1807 to full abolition of the institution of enslavement in 1833. The story of enslavement often ends in 1833. But that was not the end of enslavement, even in the Americas. It was not abolished in the USA until 1863, after a bloody Civil War had been fought over the issue. It was not abolished in Brazil until 1888. Britain’s high moral line about enslavement after 1833 is not often dealt with. Sources 2a, b and c reveal just how much effort Britain put into its anti-enslavement activities in several parts of the world right through the 19th century. Sources Illustration ZPER 34/29 – an illustration from the Illustrated London News showing a slave sale in South Carolina around 1856 Source 1 CO 71/51 – these are extracts from the court records for Dominica showing punishments for enslaved Africans Sources 2 a, b, c FO 84/1310 – these photographs are a set showing East African enslaved people rescued by the British naval ship, HMS Daphne. HMS Daphne was often used to rescue enslaved people from slave runners after the 1833 abolition of slavery by Great Britain. Enslaved people who were rescued were often taken to a nearby island where they would then set up new colonies. External links	i don't know
What two-verb expression refers to a formal notification to stop an activity, prior to legal action?	Definitions for Common Labor Terms \| Teamsters Definitions for Common Labor Terms Unions have developed a special vocabulary to describe much of what we do. Definitions are given here for the most commonly used terms: A \| B \| C \| D \| E \| F \| G \| H \| I \| J \| K \| L \| M \| N \| O \| P \| Q \| R \| S \| T \| U \| V \| W \| X \| Y \| Z Accretions: Employees added to the bargaining unit once a union is certified as a representative of the bargaining unit. ADA: See Americans with Disabilities Act . Administrative Law Judge (ALJ): A civil service appointee of the National Labor Relations Board who conducts unfair labor practice hearings in the region where such cases originate. Advisory Arbitration: Form of arbitration often referred to as fact finding where the decision of the arbitrator is not binding. Agency Shop: A contract provision under which employees who do not join the union are required to pay a collective bargaining service fee instead. This service fee is usually the same as monthly dues. In some states public workers choose to pay service fee based on a percentage of the Union’s budget spent on representing the bargaining unit’s time and money spent on organizing and political action, not considered to be directly representing members. Alter Ego Employer: An employer who changes the name and outward appearance of a business but is in fact the same employer. An employer cannot rid himself of his obligation to recognize the legitimate bargaining representative through an alter ego. ALJ: See Administrative Law Judge . Americans with Disabilities Act: National law forbidding discrimination against employees on the basis of disability and requiring reasonable accommodations for qualified disabled employees. The ADA is enforced by the Equal Opportunities Employment Commission (EEOC) and by private lawsuit. Annuity: A form of investment plan usually provided as a retirement plan that provides for income for a specified period of time, such as a number of years or for life. Arbitration: A method of settling a labor-management dispute by having an impartial third party decide the issue. The decision of the third party (arbitrator) is usually binding. Area Standards Picketing: A form of picketing with the purpose of encouraging an employer to observe the standards in that industry in that locality. This kind of picketing has formed legal restrictions than picketing to force an employer to recognize a union or to impress employees noneconomic benefits. Areawide Bargaining:Collective bargaining agreement which covers all the unionized employers and their employees in a specific geographical and industrial setting. Association Agreements:A collective bargaining agreement which governs a group of employers who ban together for mutual aid when bargaining with labor organizations. All employers belonging to the association are bound by the agreement that was negotiated by the association and the union. Attrition:Reduction in the labor force of a company through natural causes such as voluntary quits, retirement, or death as opposed to layoffs. Authorization Card:A union card filled out by pro-union workers during a representation campaign. The card usually specifies the union as a collective bargaining agent of the employees and must be dated and signed. The NLRB will accept 30% of the employees signatures on cards or petitions as the "showing of interest" required to conduct an election. Usually unions will not file for an election unless a majority of the bargaining unit members have signed authorization cards. Award:The final decision of an arbitrator which is binding on both parties. Back Loaded:Providing a greater wage increase near the end of a contract. B.A.:See Business Agent . Bargaining Agent:Union designated by a government agency, such as the National Labor Relations Board, or recognized voluntarily by the employer, as the exclusive representative of all employees in the bargaining unit for purposes of collective bargaining. Bargaining Rights:The rights outlined in Section 7 of the National Labor Relations Act. Rights of workers to negotiate the terms and conditions of employment through chose representatives. The bargaining agent is designated by a majority of the workers in a bargaining unit to represent the group in collective bargaining. Bargaining Unit:A group of workers who bargain collectively with the employer. The unit may include all the workers in a single location or in a number of locations, or it may include only the workers in a single craft or department. Final unit is determined by the NLRB, or agreed to jointly by the union and the employer. Base Rate:The straight time rate of pay, excluding premiums and incentive bonuses. Benefits Cafeteria Plan:A benefit program that offers a choice between taxable benefits, including cash, and non-taxable health and welfare benefits. The employee decides how his or her benefits dollars are to be used within the total limit of benefit costs agreed to by the employer. Blocking:An NLRB decision not to proceed with an election in a bargaining unit where there are unresolved unfair labor practice charges. Boycott:A concerted refusal to work for, purchase from, or handle the products of an employer. Where the action is directed against the employer directly involved in the labor dispute, it is termed a primary boycott. In a secondary boycott, the action is directed against a neutral employer in an attempt to get him/her to stop doing business with the company with which the union is having a dispute. Secondary boycotts are illegal under the Taft Hartley Act. Business Agent (B.A., Union Representative):A full-time representative of a local union whose job is to represent members in the local. Call-in Pay:Compensation to workers who report for work and, for a variety of reasons, the employer decides to send back home. Examples of call in pay include: "show up pay" when a worker is called into work by error for overtime work and is sent back home; or, wages paid when the worker is required to report and there is insufficient work for a full day. Canvass:A method of talking individually to every member of a bargaining unit to either convey information, gather information on a survey, or plan for united action. Canvass Coordinator:A term sometimes used for the person at the "top" of a member-to-member action network. Other terms include "network coordinator" or "campaign coordinator". This person is responsible for establishing the one-on-one network and for planning and scheduling activities of the network. Captive Audience Meeting:A union term for meetings of workers called by management and held on company time and property. Usually the purpose of these meetings is to try to persuade workers to vote against union representation. Card Check:Procedure whereby signed authorization cards are checked against a list of employees in a prospective bargaining unit to determine if the union has majority status. The employer may recognize the union on the basis of this card check without the necessity of a formal election. Often conducted by an outside party, e.g., respected member of the community. Cease and Desist Order:An order to stop an action, to not repeat the action, and to take action to undo the wrong. A cease and desist order issued by the NLRB is a final order in an unfair labor practice case. It requires the guilty party to stop any conduct found to be in violation of the law and to take positive action to remedy the situation. Certification:Official designation by a labor board of a labor organization entitled to bargain an exclusive representative of employees in a certain unit. Certification Bar:The NLRB and many public sector agencies will prohibit another election in a bargaining unit for one year after a union has been certified following an election. Certified Union:A union designated by federal or state labor relations boards as the exclusive bargaining agent of a group of workers. Change of Operations:A change of terminal cities, breaking points, routes, or equipment which affects Teamster trucking industry employment opportunities. The union's permission, through the grievance procedure, is often required for such changes. Charge:Written statement of alleged unfair practices. Filing a charge with the NLRB State Labor Board is the first step in an unfair labor practice proceeding. Charging Party:The party filing a grievance or an unfair labor practice charge. Check-Off:A contract clause authorizing the company to deduct union dues from paychecks of those members who so authorize deductions. The company then transfers the money to the union. Closed Shop:An agreement between an employer and a union that, as a condition of employment, all employees must belong to the union before being hired. The employer agrees to retain only those employees who belong to a union. The closed shop was declared illegal by the Taft-Hartley Act. Collective Bargaining:A process which workers, through their bargaining committee, deal as a group to determine wages, hours and other conditions of employment. Normally, the result of collective bargaining is a written contract which covers all workers in the bargaining unit. Common Law:The law of a country or state based on custom, usage, and/or the decisions and opinions of a court. Common Situs Picketing:A form of picketing in which employees of a struck employer who work at a common site with employees of at least one neutral employer may picket only at their entrance to the worksite. The employees of neutral employers must enter the workplace through other gates. Picketing is restricted to the entrance of the struck employer so as not to encourage a secondary boycott on the part of the employees of a neutral employer. Comparable Worth:The evaluation of jobs traditionally performed by one group of workers (such as women or minorities) to establish whether or not the worth of those jobs to the employer is comparable to the worth of the jobs traditionally performed by white men and the payment of extra wages to those occupying comparable jobs but receiving less income. Company Union:An employee organization, usually in one company, that is dominated by management. The NLRA declared that such employer domination is an unfair labor practice. Complaint:Formal papers issued by the NLRB to start an unfair labor practice hearing before an Administrative Law Judge. The complaint states the basis for the Board's jurisdiction and the alleged unfair labor practice. Concerted Activity:The rights, protected by the National Labor Relations Act, of two or more employees to act in concert to form, join, or assist labor organizations in order to affect their wages, hours or work or working conditions. Conciliation:See Mediation . Consent Decree:An order of a court or agency which is entered into by agreement of all parties. In 1989 the General Executive Board of the IBT signed a consent decree which provided for rank and file elections of International Teamsters officers. This consent decree also established an Independent Review Board with the power to investigate and penalize officials judged to be corrupt. Consent Election:An election for union representation agreed to by management, employees, and the unions. The NLRB oversees the election. Constructive Discharge:A form of discrimination that forces a worker to "quit." Consumer Picketing:Picketing of a retail establishment that is legal if directed toward getting consumers not to buy a particular product of a supplier or of a producer with whom a labor dispute exists. Such picketing is illegal if it is aimed at getting customers to stop shopping at the store or at other parties, such as store employees or delivery to prevent personnel from crossing the picket line. Continuing Violation:A violation of a law or contract which is continuing in nature, and which therefore is not barred by any time limitation, even though the violation began before the time limitation period began. Contract Bar Doctrine:Once a contract is executed, the NLRB does not (usually) permit a representation election in the unit covered by the contract until the contract expires up to a 3 year limit. This rule applies to a petition by another union to represent the employees, a petition filed by the employees to decertify, or a petition filed by the employer. Contracting Out:See Subcontracting . Coordinated Bargaining:Joint or cooperative efforts by several unions in dealing with an employer that has employees represented by each of the several unions. Corporate Campaign:The use of strategic pressure on an employer's weak areas to gain leverage during a contract campaign or organizing drive. These campaigns involve analyzing an employer's social, financial, and political networks and mobilizing union members and community members in a comprehensive approach which does not rely on the strike alone as the basis of the union's power. Craft Union:A union whose membership is restricted to workers possessing a particular skill. Most craft unions today, however, have broadened their jurisdictions to include many occupations and skills not closely related to the originally designated craft. Decertification:Withdrawal by a government agency, such as the National Labor Relations Board, of a union's official recognition as exclusive bargaining representative. The NLRB will withdraw certification if a majority of employees vote against union representative in a decertification election. Deferral:A policy of the NLRB not to process unfair labor practice charges if the charge can be filed as a grievance and taken up through a grievance and arbitration procedure. The NLRB reviews the resulting grievance settlement or arbitration decision. If it is "clearly repugnant" to the NLRA, the NLRB issues a complaint. DFR:See Duty of Fair Representation . DOL:U.S. Department of Labor. Double Breasted Operation:A condition where an employer operates two closely related companies—one with a union contract and one without. Under such operation, the employer will normally assign most of the work to the non-union segment of his two companies. Dual Unionism:Union members' activities on behalf of, or membership in, a rival union. Duty of Fair Representation (DFR):A union's obligation to represent all people in the bargaining unit as fairly and equally as possible. This requirement applies both in the creation and interpretation of collective bargaining agreements. A union is said to have violated its Duty of Fair Representation when a union's conduct toward a member of a collective bargaining unit is arbitrary, discriminatory, or in bad faith. A union steward, for example, may not ignore a grievance which has merit, nor can that grievance be processed in a perfunctory manner. It should be noted, however, that the employee in the bargaining unit has no absolute right to have a grievance taken to arbitration. The union is obligated to give fair representation to all union members, and also to collective bargaining unit members who have not joined the union in "right-to-work" states or in public service units. Economic Recourse:A strike, picket, or boycott by a union, or a lockout by an employer. Economic Strike:A work stoppage by employees seeking economic benefits such as wages, hours, or other working conditions. This differs from a strike which is called solely to protect unfair labor practices. EEOC:See Equal Opportunities Employment Commission . Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA):This law requires that persons engaged in the administration and management of private pensions act with the care, skill, prudence, and diligence that a prudent person familiar with such matters would use. The law also sets up an insurance program under the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (PBGC) which guarantees some pension benefits even if a plan becomes bankrupt. Employee Stock Ownership Plans:A form of compensation in which employees receive shares of stock in the company for which they work. Equal Opportunities Employment Commission (EEOC):Federal Government agency which administers most discrimination lawsuits. ERISA:See Employee Retirement Income Security Act . Escalator Clause:Union contract provision for the raising and lowering of wages according to changes in the cost of living index or a similar standard; most commonly referred to as a Cost of Living Adjustment (COLA). Escape Clause:A provision in maintenance of membership union contracts giving union members an "escape period" during which they may resign from union membership. Members who do not exercise this option must remain members for the duration of the contract. ESOP:See Employee Stock Ownership Plans . Excelsior List:Established in the case of "Excelsior Underwear", the list of names and addresses of employees eligible to vote in a union election. It is normally provided by the employer to the union within ten days after the election date has been set or agreed upon at the NLRB. Exclusive Bargaining Rights:The right of a union which has been certified by the NLRB or other government agency to be the only union representing a particular bargaining unit. Executive Order 10988:Issued by President John F. Kennedy in 1962, the order recognizes the rights of federal employees to bargain with management. Exempt Employee:An employee who is not covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act and is therefore not eligible for time-and-one-half monetary payments for overtime. Exempt employees are generally paid a salary rather than an hourly rate. Expedited Arbitration:An effort to streamline the arbitration hearing by reducing both time and cost. Transcripts and post hearing briefs are usually eliminated. Often the arbitrator issues a decision upon the completion of the hearing or shortly thereafter. Fact Finding:Investigation of labor-management disputes by a board, panel, or individual. A report is issued by the panel describing the issue in dispute, and may make recommendations for a solution. Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA):The 1938 federal Wage-Hour Law which establishes minimum wage, maximum weekly hours and overtime pay requirements in industries engaged in interstate commerce. The law also prohibited the labor of children under 16 years of age. Fair Share:Under a union security clause of a union contract, the amount a nonunion member must contribute to a union to support collective bargaining activities. This arrangement is justified on the grounds that the union is obliged to represent all employees faithfully. Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA):Federal law establishing a basic floor of 12 weeks of unpaid family and medical leave in any 12-month period to deal with birth or adoption of a child, to care for an immediate family member with a "serious health condition", or to receive care when the employee is unable to work because of his or her own "serious health condition." Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (FMCS):Independent agency created by the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 to mediate labor disputes which substantially affect interstate commerce. Federal Service Impasse Panel:In federal employment, it provides assistance in resolving negotiating impasses. The various techniques it employs are to serve as a substitute for the right to strike. Field Examiner:An employee of the NLRB whose primary duties are to conduct certification elections and carry out preliminary investigations of unfair labor practices. Free Riders:Used in an open shop to refer to non-union members who receive all the benefits derived from collective bargaining without paying union dues or equivalent fees. Front Loading:The concentration of wage and benefit increases in the beginning of a contract. Garnishment:Deductions made by an employer from an employee's wages and rendered to a creditor of the employee. General Strike:A strike by all or most organized workers in a community or nation. Geographic Wage Differentials:Differences in wage rates based upon locations of plants or industries. Good Faith Bargaining:Negotiations in which two parties meet and confer at reasonable times with open minds and the intention of reaching agreement over a new contract. Grandfather Clause:A contract provision specifying that employees on the payroll before a specified time will retain certain rights and benefits even though newer employees are not entitled to these rights. Grievance:Any type of worker dissatisfaction including violations of the collective bargaining agreement, violations of law, violations of employer policies, violations of fair treatment, and violations of past practices. The definition of a grievance is usually part of the contract, and therefore may vary from one contract to another. Grievance Procedure:A procedure usually established by a collective bargaining agreement to resolve disputes, problems or misunderstandings associated with the interpretation or application of the collective bargaining agreement. It consists of several steps with the last step of the procedure, usually being arbitration. Group Grievance:A grievance signed by many people in a workplace in order to show management that members as one in their opposition to a management's action. Hiring Hall:The process of the union dispatching workers to employers as needed. A hiring hall may be operated by a union alone or by an employer and union jointly. Hiring halls are monitored by the government to help prevent favoritism. Homework:Work by workers who produce goods for an employer in their home, from materials furnished directly or indirectly by the employer. Hot Cargo Clauses:Clauses in union contracts permitting employees to refuse to handle or work on goods shipped from a struck plant or to perform services benefiting an employer listed on a union unfair list. Most hot cargo clauses were made illegal by the Taft-Hartley Act, but there are some exceptions. Housevisits, Homecalls, and Housecalls:Terms used to describe visits by union staff, volunteers, or organizing committee to the homes of workers they are attempting to organize. Such visits give organizers an opportunity to discuss the union and answer questions of unorganized workers in a relaxed and secure atmosphere. Illegal Strike:A strike that is called in violation of the law, such as a strike that ignores "cooling off" restrictions, or a strike that disregards a "no strike" agreement signed by the Union or imposed by a court of law. Impartial Umpire:Term often applied to a permanent arbitrator, named for the life of an union contract, and usually selected by mutual agreement. The term indicates his function of presiding over the union contract to enforce observance of it by both parties. Impasse:In general usage, a term referring to a situation where two parties cannot h agree on a solution to a dispute. In legal usage, if impasse is reached, the employer is legally permitted to unilaterally impose its latest offer. Independent Review Board (IRB):The three-person board established as part of the 1989 consent decree signed by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and the US Department of Justice as a settlement of the U.S. Government's RICO lawsuit. The IRB has the power to investigate and penalize officers it considers to be corrupt. The IRB has the power to investigate and penalize Teamster officials it considers to be corrupt. Industrial Union:A union whose membership includes all workers in a particular industry, regardless of the particular skills the worker exercises. Informational Picketing:Picketing done with the express intent not to cause a work stoppage, but to publicize either the existence of a labor dispute or information concerning the dispute. Picketing done with the express intent not to cause a work stoppage but to publicize either the existence of a labor dispute or information concerning the dispute. Injunction:A court order which either imposes restraints upon action, or directs that a specific action be taken and which is, in either case, backed by the courts power to hold disobedient parties in contempt. Interest Arbitration:Used no police. Intermittent Leave:Leave taken in separate periods of time due to a single illness or injury. This is permitted under the FMLA. Inside Strategy:The use of mass grievances, working to rule, rolling sick-outs, informational picketing, and other forms of resistance designed to pressure an employer to meet the union's demands without the union resorting to a strike. Intervenor:A union which wants to be on the ballot when another union has already petitioned for an election. LEC:See Local Education Coordinator . L-M Reports:The annual financial statement of income and expenses, including the salaries of union officers and staff. Unions are required by law to file with the Labor Management (LM) Division of the U.S. Department of Labor. Landrum-Griffin Act of 1955:Also known as the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (LMRDA), it provides safeguards for individual union members, requires periodic reports by unions, and regulates union trusteeships and elections. Litigate:To carry on a legal contest by a judicial process. For example, the employer will often go to the courts (litigate) to appeal a decision by the NLRB. LMRDA:See Landrum-Griffin Act . Local Education Coordinator (LEC):In the Teamsters Union, a member designated by the local union and trained by the International Union to plan and implement educational programs for the members of the local. Lockout:A suspension of work initiated by the employer as the result of a labor dispute. A lockout is the employer counterpart of a strike. Used primarily to pressure employees to accept the employer’s terms in a new contract. Made Whole:A catchall phrase used in grievance and other legal action where a remedy is sought from an employer. Often used in discharge and discipline cases where the union seeks to have a worker who had been wrongly discharged or disciplined returned to work and reimbursed all wages, benefits, or other conditions lost due to an employer's unjustified action. Maintenance of Membership:Form of union security used in contract language under which the employee is not required to join a union but agrees to remain a member of the union for the duration of the contract if he/she is already a union member or does join the union during the life of the contract. Management Rights or Prerogatives:The claimed rights of employers to control operational aspects of the workplace. Mandatory Subject of Bargaining:Those items included under wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment over which an employer must bargain. An employer may not make a change in a mandatory bargaining subject without providing prior notice to the union and an opportunity to bargain. Mass Picketing:Patrolling by large numbers of people in close formation, often preventing access to company premises. Master Contract:A union contract covering several companies in one industry, for example, NMFA. Mediation:(Conciliation) The efforts of a third party to help parties to reach agreement in a labor dispute. Mediators help clarify issues and suggest possible solutions. Under the RLA mediators have the authority to recommend to the NMB when the parties can be released from further bargaining union and the ___ strike and management implement terms of an agreement. Member in Good Standing:A union member in good standing is one who has fulfilled requirements for the organization and who has not voluntarily withdrawn from membership, been expelled, or suspended. Member-to-Member Network:A communications system designed to allow the leaders of a local union to communicate rapidly and personally with the members. A coordinator at the top of a pyramid communicates with approximately 10 leaders, each of whom communicates with approximately 10 members, each of whom may communicate with 10 other members, etc. See Canvass . Merit Increase:Increase in wages given to one employee by the employer to reward good performance. Unions often oppose merit increases because of a general lack of objective criteria for awarding increases, and thus allowing favoritism to enter into the decision to award the increase. National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA):Federal law guaranteeing workers the right to participate in unions without management reprisals. It was modified in 1947 with the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act, and modified again in 1959 by the passage of the Landrum-Griffin Act. National Labor Relations Board (NLRB):Agency created by the National Labor Relations Act, 1935, and continued through subsequent amendment, whose functions are to define the appropriate bargaining units, to hold elections, to determine whether a majority of workers want to be represented by a specific union or no union, to certify unions to represent employees, to interpret and apply the Act's provisions prohibiting certain employer and union unfair practices, and otherwise to administer the provisions of the Act. National Mediation Board (NMB):Established under the Railway Labor Act, the NMB conducts representation elections, regulates major disputes, and appoints arbitrators and boards to decide minor disputes in the railway and airline industry. Nonmandatory Bargaining:See Voluntary Subject of Bargaining . No Raiding Pact:An agreement between unions not to attempt to organize workers already under represented by another union. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA):The Law which authorizes the OSHA agency to set standards, obligates employers to provide a safe workplace, and provides for enforcement of the standards. The law encourages the states to develop their own safety laws which displace the federal law. One-On-One Network:See Member-to-Member Network . Open Shop:Where employees do not have to belong to the union or pay dues to secure or retain employment in a company, even though there may be a collective bargaining agreement. The Union is obligated by law to represent members and non-members equally regardless of whether it is an open shop or a union shop. organizing Committee:The employees in a non-union shop who are designated to represent their co-workers during the representation campaign. organizing committee members, among other things, usually sign up their coworkers on authorization cards or petitions, hand out leaflets, attend meetings and visit workers at home to gain support for the union effort. organizing Model of Unions:The concept that the primary function of a union's officers and staff is to organize members to exert collective power to solve problems. This is in contrast to the Service Model of Unions. OSHA: See Occupational Safety and Health Act . Past Practice:A customary way of doing things not written into the collective bargaining agreement. Past practices can sometimes be enforced through the grievance procedure if the practice has been longstanding, consistent, and accepted by the parties. Pattern Bargaining:Collective bargaining in which the union tries to apply identical terms, conditions, or demands to a number of employers in an industry although the employers act individually rather than as a group. Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (PBGC):A Federal Corporation which guarantees that vested participants in private pension plans will receive some pension benefits even if a pension plan becomes bankrupt. Permanent Replacements:Under current labor law, when employees engage in an economic strike, the employer has the right to hire permanent replacements. After the strike has ended, if there is no back to work agreement reached between the union and the employer, employees replaced during the strike are put on a preferential hiring list and must wait for openings to occur. Permissive Subject of Bargaining:See Voluntary Subject of Bargaining . Phone Banking:The organized telephoning of large numbers of members to inform them of a union policy or action or to gather information. This is often done by volunteers who come into the union hall and telephone members during a certain time period. Phone Tree:A network of volunteer members in which one member calls a list of members, each of whom calls another list of members, etc. Piece Work:Pay by the number of units completed. The theory is that the faster you work, the more you will get paid. Many workers have learned that if they exceed a certain quota, the piece rate will be lowered. Plant Rules:Management procedures to enforce discipline and maintain efficient production. A plant rule may be grieved because it is unreasonable, in conflict with the contract, unknown to workers, or not enforced equitably. Premium Pay:An extra amount over straight time rates, sometimes a flat sum, sometimes a percentage of the wage rates, paid to workers to compensate them for inconvenient hours, overtime, hazardous, or unpleasant conditions, or other undesirable circumstances. Prevailing Wage:Generally the wage prevailing in a locality for a certain type of work. It is a wage determinant for many federal construction projects. (Prevailing wage does not necessarily refer to union wages.) Quality of Worklife Programs:See Team Concept Plans . Raiding:A union's attempt to enroll workers belonging to or represented by another union. Railway Labor Act of 1926 (RLA):This law regulates labor relations in the railway and airlines industries, guaranteeing workers in these industries the right to form a union and bargain collectively. The RLA severely controls the timing and right to strike. Also, bargaining units under the RLA are usually nation-wide, making it more difficult for workers to form a union. Racketeering Influenced and Corrupt organizations Act (RICO):Federal law allowing the federal government to place in trusteeship organizations which are convicted of being dominated by racketeers or organized crime. The U.S. Department of Justice filed suit against the IBT under the RICO Act, and this lawsuit was settled by the 1989 Consent Decree. Rank and File:The members of a union. Ratification:Formal approval of a newly negotiated agreement by vote of the union members affected. Recognition:Employer acceptance of a union as the exclusive bargaining representative for all employees in the bargaining unit. Recognition Picketing:Picketing to pressure or coerce an employer to recognize a union as a bargaining agent for the employees. Recognition picketing is subject to certain restrictions under the amendments to the NLRA. Red Circle:A method of targeting certain job classifications for special treatment in wage negotiating, with both good and bad results possible. Reopener Clause:Clause in a collective bargaining agreement providing for reopening negotiations on wage rates, etc., during the term of the agreement. Replacement:Workers hired to replace employees on strike. In the case of economic strikers, the strikers retain their employee status while on strike; however, the company may hire permanent replacements, and may legally refuse to reinstate strikers who have been permanently replaced. In this situation, if there are permanent replacements, economic strikers are generally entitled to reinstatement when the replacements leave. In the case of unfair labor practice strikes, the strikers must be reinstated with few exceptions. Representation Election:Election conducted to determine by a majority vote of workers whether they want a union. RICO Act:See Racketeering Influenced and Corrupt organizations Act . "Right-to-Work" States:States which have passed laws prohibiting unions from negotiating union shop clauses in their contracts with employers covered by the NLRA. In 1997 there are 21 "right-to-work" states. Unions often refer to these as "right to work for less" states. Runaway Shop:A plant transferred to another location, usually another city, in order to destroy union effectiveness and evade bargaining duties. The best block to a runaway shop is unambiguous contract language which prohibits any move of a plant. Secondary Activities:Strikes, picketing, boycotts, or other activities directed by a union against an employer with whom it has no dispute, in order to pressure that employer to stop doing business with, or to bring pressure against another employer with whom the union does have a dispute. Service Model of Unions:The concept that the primary function of a union, its staff, and its officers is to service the members or solve the members' problems for them. This is in contrast to the organizing Model of Unions. Showing of Interest:A requirement by the NLRB that must be met by a union when a union wishes to represent a group of employees. There are several showing of interest requirements used by the NLRB. A) A petitional union needs 30% of the eligible members in the union. B) Where a union has petitioned and another union wishes to intervene, the second union must have 30% of the unit it seeks. C) Where a union petitions and another union wishes to intervene in the same unit to the extent of blocking a consent election agreement, it must have 10%. D) Usually, a showing of one or two cards is enough for a second union to intervene only to have their name on the ballot or to participate in a hearing. E) A current or recently expired contract is also a criterion for showing of interest. Sitdown Strike:A work action which is currently illegal in which strikers refuse to leave the employer’s premises. Sixty Day Notice:The notice that, under the Taft-Hartley Act, must be given by either party to a collective bargaining agreement when desiring to reopen or terminate it. No strike or lockout may begin during these 60 days. Speed Up:Any system designed to increase worker productivity without a compensating increase in wages. Split Shift:Any form of shift work where there are semi-regular work hours. In some cases, workers may work three different shifts in a work week. In all the various types of shifts, there is usually a break of several hour between the reporting times of the workers. Stewards Council:An organization of the stewards within a local, stewards councils take some of the workload from the paid staff of the local and give the stewards an opportunity to compare their experiences and be more involved in the affairs of the union. Stewards councils are governed either by their own bylaws or by a clause in the local union’s bylaws. Strategic Campaign:See Corporate Campaign . Strike Force:A group of volunteer members who have agreed to help picket or leaflet in support of an organizing drive, strike, or other campaign which the local has initiated. Strike Sanction:In order for a Local Union to receive strike benefits from the International, the strike must be sanctioned by the General Executive Board. Struck Work:A term to define a product which is produced by an employer during the period of a labor dispute with his employees. An employee who refuses to handle struck work is engaged in a sympathy work action. Workers who refuse to do the work of workers engaged in a strike may be replaced; however, they generally cannot be discharged. A struck work clauses in some collective bargaining agreements protect the rights of workers not to handle goods of a struck employer. There are limitations on such clauses in Section 8(e) of the NLRA. Subcontracting:(Contracting Out) An employer's practice of having work performed by an outside contractor and not by regular employees in the unit. Successor Employer:An employer which has acquired an already existing operation and which continues those operations in approximately the same manner as the previous employer, including the use of the previous employer's employees. Supervisor:Those employees who have management rights such as the rights to hire, fire, or recommend such action. The employees who are defined as supervisors under the NLRA are not permitted to become members of the bargaining unit at the work location. In organizing campaigns, most employers will try to enlarge the ranks of their supervisory personnel. The employer will try to keep a certain group of supervisors as his anti-union workforce for future labor disputes. Surface Bargaining:Often referred to as a perfunctory tactic whereby an employer meets with the union, but only goes through the motions of bargaining. Such conduct on the part of the employer is considered as violation of the employer's duty to bargain, Section 8(a)(5) of the NLRA. Sweetheart Contract:Term of derision for an agreement negotiated by an employer and a union with terms favorable to the employer. The usual purpose being to keep another union out or to promote the individual welfare of the union officers rather than that of the employees represented. Taft-Hartley Act or Labor Management Act (LMRA) of 1947:An amendment of the NLRA which added provisions allowing unions to be prosecuted, enjoined, and sued for a variety of activities, including mass picketing and secondary boycotts. Team Concept Plans:Methods of reorganizing work in ways which blur the traditional lines of distinction between union work and management work. These plans are usually initiated by management, and may be referred to by a variety of names, including Quality Circles, Quality of Worklife, and Re-engineering. If a union does not respond with an aggressive program of member education and mobilization, these plans generally weaken a union's ability to mobilize its members effectively and thereby undermine the union's bargaining power. Trustee:An elected union official whose duty is to monitor the finances of a local union, joint council, conference, or international union. Also, an official appointed by the Independent Review Board or General President of the International Union to manage a local union in trusteeship. Trusteeship:The assumption of control over a local union by an international union, or by the federal government under the RICO Act. Provided for by the Constitutions of most international unions, trusteeships suspend the normal governmental process of a local union and take over management of the local's assets and the administration of its internal affairs. Article VI, Sec 5 of the Teamsters Constitution empowers the General President to appoint trustees to take charge of local unions or other subordinate bodies. The Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959 established controls over the establishment and administration of trusteeships. Unfair Labor Practices:Those employer or union activities classified as "unfair" by federal or state labor relations acts. Under the NLRA, employer unfair labor practices include employer threats against protected collective activity, employer domination of unions, discrimination against employees for collective activity, and employer failure to bargain in good faith with union representatives. Union unfair labor practices include failure to represent all members of the bargaining unit and failure to bargain in good faith, secondary boycotts. The RLA and many state public sector labor laws contain definitions of unfair labor practices which are similar to the NLRA definitions. Unilateral Change:Any change an employer makes without the union's consent. The subject of unilateral change is ever changing due to Board and Court Rulings. However, unilateral change falls into 3 categories; unilateral change before a first time contract, during bargaining, and during the contract's terms. The Board recognizes that an employer must bargain all changes in regards to hours of work, rate of pay, and other conditions of employment with the employee's bargaining representatives. Generally, these changes must be bargained to impasse before a change is implemented. Union Buster:A professional consultant or consulting firm which provides tactics and strategies for employers trying to prevent unionization or decertify unions. Union Label or Bug:A stamp or tag on a product or card in a store or shop to show that the work is done by union labor. The "bug" is the printer's symbol. Union Security Clause:A provision in a collective bargaining agreement designed to protect the institutional life of the union, such as union ship and union dues check-off clauses. Union Shop:Form of union security provided in the collective bargaining agreement which requires employees to belong to or pay dues to the union as a condition of retaining employment. It is illegal to have a closed shop which requires workers to be union members before they are hired. The union shop is legal, except in so-called right-to-work states, because it requires workers to join the union or pay dues within a certain time period after they are hired. Vesting:The amount of time that an employee must work to guarantee that his/her accrued pension benefits will not be forfeited even if employment is terminated. Voluntary Subject of Bargaining:Subjects of bargaining other than those considered to be mandatory (see mandatory subject of bargaining). Either party may propose discussion of such a subject, and the other party may voluntarily bargain on it. Neither party may insist to the point of impasse on the inclusion of a voluntary subject in a contract. For example, the employer may not legally insist on bargaining over the method of selecting stewards or the method of taking a strike vote. Volunteer organizing Committee (VOC):Term sometimes used to describe union members who volunteer for the union during organizing campaigns. Volunteers may donate their time and/or be compensated for lost wages while they assist the campaign by visiting workers at their homes, distributing leaflets, and attending meetings, etc. Weingarten Rights:The rights of employees covered by the NLRA to request union representation during investigatory interviews if they reasonably believe that the interview could result in their being disciplined. Weingarten rights also guarantee the rights of union representatives to assist and counsel employees during interviews which could lead to discipline. White Paper Contract:Term used in the Teamsters Union to refer to collective bargaining agreements covering individual companies as opposed to national contracts such as National Master Freight Agreement and the UPS agreement. Wildcat Strike:A strike undertaken without official union authorization. Although not necessarily illegal, they are not necessarily protected by the NLRB.	Cease and desist
Imperative, perfect, pluperfect, perfect, and infinitive are types of?	What does law mean? definition, meaning and pronunciation (Free English Language Dictionary) law firm (a firm of lawyers) Conservative Judaism (Jews who keep some of the requirements of the Mosaic law but allow for adaptation of other requirements (as some of the dietary laws) to fit modern circumstances) bar ; legal community ; legal profession (the body of individuals qualified to practice law in a particular jurisdiction) Department of Justice ; DoJ ; Justice ; Justice Department (the United States federal department responsible for enforcing federal laws (including the enforcement of all civil rights legislation); created in 1870) BJA ; Bureau of Justice Assistance (the bureau in the Department of Justice that assists local criminal justice systems to reduce or prevent crime and violence and drug abuse) FBI ; Federal Bureau of Investigation (a federal law enforcement agency that is the principal investigative arm of the Department of Justice) circuit court of appeals (one of the twelve federal United States courts of appeals that cover a group of states known as a 'circuit') circuit ((law) a judicial division of a state or the United States (so-called because originally judges traveled and held court in different locations); one of the twelve groups of states in the United States that is covered by a particular circuit court of appeals) military court (a judicial court of commissioned officers for the discipline and punishment of military personnel) moot court (a mock court where law students argue hypothetical cases) demur ; demurral ; demurrer ((law) a formal objection to an opponent's pleadings) disclaimer ((law) a voluntary repudiation of a person's legal claim to something) verification ((law) an affidavit attached to a statement confirming the truth of that statement) subornation (perjured testimony that someone was persuaded to give) alibi ((law) a defense by an accused person purporting to show that he or she could not have committed the crime in question) caveat ((law) a formal notice filed with a court or officer to suspend a proceeding until filer is given a hearing) jactitation ((law) a false boast that can harm others; especially a false claim to be married to someone (formerly actionable at law)) dictum ; obiter dictum (an opinion voiced by a judge on a point of law not directly bearing on the case in question and therefore not binding) written agreement (a legal document summarizing the agreement between parties) matter of law ; question of law (a disputed legal contention that is generally left for a judge to decide) sidebar ((law) a courtroom conference between the lawyers and the judge that is held out of the jury's hearing) pretrial ; pretrial conference ((law) a conference held before the trial begins to bring the parties together to outline discovery proceedings and to define the issues to be tried; more useful in civil than in criminal cases) arbitration ((law) the hearing and determination of a dispute by an impartial referee agreed to by both parties (often used to settle disputes between labor and management)) citation ((law) the act of citing (as of spoken words or written passages or legal precedents etc.)) deposition ((law) a pretrial interrogation of a witness; usually conducted in a lawyer's office) cross-examination ((law) close questioning of a hostile witness in a court of law to discredit or throw a new light on the testimony already provided in direct examination) direct examination ((law) the initial questioning of a witness by the party that called the witness) redirect examination ; reexamination ((law) questioning of a witness by the party that called the witness after that witness has been subject to cross-examination) affidavit (written declaration made under oath; a written statement sworn to be true before someone legally authorized to administer an oath) night court (a criminal court (in large cities) that sits at night) admiralty law ; marine law ; maritime law (the branch of international law that deals with territorial and international waters or with shipping or with ocean fishery etc.) law of the land (a phrase used in the Magna Carta to refer to the then established law of the kingdom (as distinct from Roman or civil law); today it refers to fundamental principles of justice commensurate with due process) martial law (the body of law imposed by the military over civilian affairs (usually in time of war or civil crisis); overrides civil law) commercial law ; law merchant ; mercantile law (the body of rules applied to commercial transactions; derived from the practices of traders rather than from jurisprudence) military law (the body of laws and rules of conduct administered by military courts for the discipline, trial, and punishment of military personnel) statutory law (the body of laws created by legislative statutes) securities law (the body of laws governing the issuance and selling of securities) tax law (the body of laws governing taxation) domicile ; legal residence ((law) the residence where you have your permanent home or principal establishment and to where, whenever you are absent, you intend to return; every person is compelled to have one and only one domicile at a time) defendant ; suspect (a person or institution against whom an action is brought in a court of law; the person being sued or accused) advocate ; counsel ; counsellor ; counselor ; counselor-at-law ; pleader (a lawyer who pleads cases in court) amicus curiae ; friend of the court (an adviser to the court on some matter of law who is not a party to the case; usually someone who wants to influence the outcome of a lawsuit involving matters of wide public interest) assignee ((law) the party to whom something is assigned (e.g., someone to whom a right or property is legally transferred)) assignor ((law) the party who makes an assignment) attorney general (the chief law officer of a country or state) barrister (a British lawyer who speaks in the higher courts of law) international law ; law of nations (the body of laws governing relations between nations) case law ; common law ; precedent (a system of jurisprudence based on judicial precedents rather than statutory laws) civil law (the body of laws established by a state or nation for its own regulation) provost court (a military court for trying people charged with minor offenses in an occupied area) police court (a court that has power to prosecute for minor offenses and to bind over for trial in a superior court anyone accused serious offenses) probate court (a court having jurisdiction over the probate of wills and the administration of estates) quarter sessions (a local court with criminal jurisdiction and sometimes administrative functions) superior court (any court that has jurisdiction above an inferior court) high court ; state supreme court ; supreme court (the highest court in most states of the United States) traffic court (a court that has power to prosecute for traffic offences) trial court (the first court before which the facts of a case are decided) judicial branch (the branch of the United States government responsible for the administration of justice) panel ; venire ((law) a group of people summoned for jury service (from whom a jury will be chosen)) grand jury (a jury to inquire into accusations of crime and to evaluate the grounds for indictments) hung jury (a jury that is unable to agree on a verdict (the result is a mistrial)) petit jury ; petty jury (a jury of 12 to determine the facts and decide the issue in civil or criminal proceedings) blue ribbon jury ; special jury (a jury whose members are selected for special knowledge for a case involving complicated issues) administrative law (the body of rules and regulations and orders and decisions created by administrative agencies of government) chief justice (the judge who presides over a supreme court) attestation (the action of bearing witness) execution ; execution of instrument ((law) the completion of a legal instrument (such as a contract or deed) by signing it (and perhaps sealing and delivering it) so that it becomes legally binding and enforceable) citation (a summons that commands the appearance of a party at a proceeding) monition ; process of monition (a summons issued after the filing of a libel or claim directing all parties concerned to show cause why the judgment asked for should not be granted) ticket (a summons issued to an offender (especially to someone who violates a traffic regulation)) bill of Particulars (the particular events to be dealt with in a criminal trial; advises the defendant and the court of the facts the defendant will be required to meet) pleading ((law) a statement in legal and logical form stating something on behalf of a party to a legal proceeding) affirmative pleading (any defensive pleading that affirms facts rather than merely denying the facts alleged by the plaintiff) alternative pleading ; pleading in the alternative (a pleading that alleges facts so separate that it is difficult to determine which facts the person intends to rely on) answer (the principle pleading by the defendant in response to plaintiff's complaint; in criminal law it consists of the defendant's plea of 'guilty' or 'not guilty' (or nolo contendere); in civil law it must contain denials of all allegations in the plaintiff's complaint that the defendant hopes to controvert and it can contain affirmative defenses or counterclaims) evasive answer ((law) an answer by a defendant that fails to admit or deny the allegations set forth in the complaint) plea ((law) a defendant's answer by a factual matter (as distinguished from a demurrer)) counterplea (a plaintiff's reply to a defendant's plea) dilatory plea (a plea that delays the action without settling the cause of action; it can challenge the jurisdiction or claim disability of the defendant etc. (such defenses are usually raised in the defendant's answer)) libel (the written statement of a plaintiff explaining the cause of action (the defamation) and any relief he seeks) defective pleading (any pleading that fails to conform in form or substance to minimum standards of accuracy or sufficiency) demurrer ((law) any pleading that attacks the legal sufficiency of the opponent's pleadings) rebuttal ; rebutter ((law) a pleading by the defendant in reply to a plaintiff's surrejoinder) interdict ; interdiction (a court order prohibiting a party from doing a certain activity) garnishment (a court order to an employer to withhold all or part of an employee's wages and to send the money to the court or to the person who won a lawsuit against the employee) gag order (a court order restricting information or comment by the participants involved in a lawsuit) habeas corpus ; writ of habeas corpus (a writ ordering a prisoner to be brought before a judge) venire facias (a judicial writ ordering a sheriff to summon people for jury duty) mandamus ; writ of mandamus (an extraordinary writ commanding an official to perform a ministerial act that the law recognizes as an absolute duty and not a matter for the official's discretion; used only when all other judicial remedies fail) attachment (a writ authorizing the seizure of property that may be needed for the payment of a judgment in a judicial proceeding) fieri facias (a writ ordering a levy on the belongings of a debtor to satisfy the debt) scire facias (a judicial writ based on some record and requiring the party against whom it is brought to show cause why the record should not be enforced or annulled) sequestration (a writ that authorizes the seizure of property) writ of detinue (a writ ordering the release of goods that have been unlawfully detained) writ of election (a writ ordering the holding of an election) writ of error (a judicial writ from an appellate court ordering the court of record to produce the records of trial) writ of prohibition (a judicial writ from a higher court ordering a lower court not to exercise jurisdiction in a particular case) writ of right (a writ ordering that land be restored to its rightful owner) authorisation ; authorization ; mandate (a document giving an official instruction or command) process ; summons (a writ issued by authority of law; usually compels the defendant's attendance in a civil suit; failure to appear results in a default judgment against the defendant) subpoena ; subpoena ad testificandum (a writ issued by court authority to compel the attendance of a witness at a judicial proceeding; disobedience may be punishable as a contempt of court) subpoena duces tecum (a writ issued by a court at the request of one of the parties to a suit; it requires a witness to bring to court or to a deposition any relevant documents under the witness's control) replication ((law) a pleading made by a plaintiff in reply to the defendant's plea or answer) rejoinder ((law) a pleading made by a defendant in response to the plaintiff's replication) First Amendment (an amendment to the Constitution of the United States guaranteeing the right of free expression; includes freedom of assembly and freedom of the press and freedom of religion and freedom of speech) Fifth Amendment (an amendment to the Constitution of the United States that imposes restrictions on the government's prosecution of persons accused of crimes; mandates due process of law and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy; requires just compensation if private property is taken for public use) Fourteenth Amendment (an amendment to the Constitution of the United States adopted in 1868; extends the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as to the federal government) Eighteenth Amendment (an amendment to the Constitution of the United States adopted in 1920; prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages; repealed in 1932) Twentieth Amendment (an amendment to the Constitution of the United States adopted in 1920; guarantees that no state can deny the right to vote on the basis of sex) cause of action (a claim sufficient to demand judicial attention; the facts that give rise to right of action) submission ((law) a contention presented by a lawyer to a judge or jury as part of the case he is arguing) evidence ((law) all the means by which any alleged matter of fact whose truth is investigated at judicial trial is established or disproved) testimony (a solemn statement made under oath) corpus delicti (the body of evidence that constitute the offence; the objective proof that a crime has been committed (sometimes mistakenly thought to refer to the body of a homicide victim)) direct evidence (evidence (usually the testimony of a witness) directly related to the fact in dispute) res gestae (rule of evidence that covers words that are so closely associated with an occurrence that the words are considered part of the occurrence and as such their report does not violate the hearsay rule) circumstantial evidence ; indirect evidence (evidence providing only a basis for inference about the fact in dispute) corroborating evidence (additional evidence or evidence of different kind that supports a proof already offered in a proceeding) hearsay evidence (evidence based on what someone has told the witness and not of direct knowledge) state's evidence (evidence for the prosecution in criminal proceedings) Bill of Rights (a statement of fundamental rights and privileges (especially the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution)) libel (a false and malicious publication printed for the purpose of defaming a living person) connivance ; secret approval ; tacit consent ((law) tacit approval of someone's wrongdoing) special pleading ((law) a pleading that alleges new facts in avoidance of the opposing allegations) surrebuttal ; surrebutter ((law) a pleading by the plaintiff in reply to the defendant's rebutter) surrejoinder ((law) a pleading by the plaintiff in reply to the defendant's rejoinder) plea bargain ; plea bargaining ((criminal law) a negotiation in which the defendant agrees to enter a plea of guilty to a lesser charge and the prosecutor agrees to drop a more serious charge) legislative act ; statute (an act passed by a legislative body) enabling act ; enabling clause (a provision in a law that confers on appropriate officials the power to implement or enforce the law) ordinance (a statute enacted by a city government) special act (a legislative act that applies only to a particular person or particular district) rule of evidence ((law) a rule of law whereby any alleged matter of fact that is submitted for investigation at a judicial trial is established or disproved) legal code (a code of laws adopted by a state or nation) penal code (the legal code governing crimes and their punishment) U. S. Code ; United States Code (a consolidation and codification by subject matter of the general and permanent laws of the United States; is prepared and published by a unit of the United States House of Representatives) building code (set of standards established and enforced by local government for the structural safety of buildings) fire code (set of standards established and enforced by government for fire prevention and safety in case of fire as in fire escapes etc) health code ; sanitary code (set of standards established and enforced by government for health requirements as in plumbing etc) specification ((patent law) a document drawn up by the applicant for a patent of invention that provides an explicit and detailed description of the nature and use of an invention) declaration ((law) unsworn statement that can be admitted in evidence in a legal transaction) contractor ((law) a party to a contract) marital status (the condition of being married or unmarried) get off (cause to be acquitted; get off the hook; in a legal case) pardon (grant a pardon to) amnesty (grant a pardon to (a group of people)) extenuate ; mitigate ; palliate (lessen or to try to lessen the seriousness or extent of) convict (find or declare guilty) condemn ; doom ; sentence (pronounce a sentence on (somebody) in a court of law) capacitate (make legally capable or qualify in law) recuse (disqualify oneself (as a judge) in a particular case) file ; register (record in a public office or in a court of law) docket (make a summary or abstract of a legal document and inscribe it in a list) docket (place on the docket for legal action) verify (attach or append a legal verification to (a pleading or petition)) plead (make an allegation in an action or other legal proceeding, especially answer the previous pleading of the other party by denying facts therein stated or by alleging new facts) challenge ; take exception (raise a formal objection in a court of law) vouch in (summon into court to defend a lawsuit against another and to be made liable to pay any judgment secured for the plaintiff) re-examine (question after cross-examination by opposing counsel) marriage ; matrimony ; spousal relationship ; union ; wedlock (the state of being a married couple voluntarily joined for life (or until divorce)) bigamy (having two spouses at the same time) civil union (a voluntary union for life (or until divorce) of adult parties of the same sex) common-law marriage (a marriage relationship created by agreement and cohabitation rather than by ceremony) rule of law (a state of order in which events conform to the law) legal representation (personal representation that has legal status) diplomatic immunity (exemption from taxation or normal processes of law that is offered to diplomatic personnel in a foreign country) limitation ((law) a time period after which suits cannot be brought) republish (revive (a cancelled will or a libel)) attorn (acknowledge a new land owner as one's landlord) prove (obtain probate of) recuse (challenge or except to a judge as being incompetent or interested, in canon and civil law) filiate (fix the paternity of) charge (instruct (a jury) about the law, its application, and the weighing of evidence) plead (enter a plea, as in courts of law) plea-bargain (agree to plead guilty in return for a lesser charge) demur (enter a demurrer) counterclaim (set up a claim in opposition to a previous claim) fungible (of goods or commodities; freely exchangeable for or replaceable by another of like nature or kind in the satisfaction of an obligation) ancestral ; hereditary ; patrimonial ; transmissible (inherited or inheritable by established rules (usually legal rules) of descent) intra vires (within the legal power or authority or a person or official or body etc) ultra vires (beyond the legal power or authority of a person or official or body etc) major (of full legal age) minor ; nonaged ; underage (not of legal age) covert ((of a wife) being under the protection of her husband) moot (of no legal significance (as having been previously decided)) testate (having made a legally valid will before death) intestate (having made no legally valid will before death or not disposed of by a legal will) null ; void (lacking any legal or binding force) evidentiary (pertaining to or constituting evidence) appellant ; appellate (of or relating to or taking account of appeals (usually legal appeals)) residuary (entitled to the residue of an estate (after payment of debts and specific gifts)) reversionary (of or relating to or involving a reversion (especially a legal reversion)) therefor ((in formal usage, especially legal usage) for that or for it) revertible (to be returned to the former owner or that owner's heirs) consensual (existing by consent) unqualified (lacking specific legal qualifications) give (accord by verdict) convey (transmit a title or property) render ; submit (make over as a return) prefer (give preference to one creditor over another) probate (establish the legal validity of (wills and other documents)) bind over (order a defendant to be placed in custody pending the outcome of a proceedings against him or her) aggrieve (infringe on the rights of) adjective ; procedural (relating to court practice and procedure as opposed to the principles of law) essential ; substantive (defining rights and duties as opposed to giving the rules by which rights and duties are established) alienable (transferable to another owner) undue (not appropriate or proper (or even legal) in the circumstances) alterable ((of the punishment ordered by a court) capable of being changed to one less severe) unalterable (of a sentence; that cannot be changed) citizenship (the status of a citizen with rights and duties) conveyancer (a lawyer who specializes in the business of conveying properties) owner ; proprietor ((law) someone who owns (is legal possessor of) a business) legal assistant ; paralegal (a person with specialized training who assists lawyers) party (a person involved in legal proceedings) complainant ; plaintiff (a person who brings an action in a court of law) prevailing party (the party in a lawsuit who obtains a judgment in their own favor) promulgator ((law) one who promulgates laws (announces a law as a way of putting it into execution)) prosecuting attorney ; prosecuting officer ; prosecutor ; public prosecutor (a government official who conducts criminal prosecutions on behalf of the state) public defender (a lawyer who represents indigent defendants at public expense) referee (an attorney appointed by a court to investigate and report on a case) reversioner ((law) a party who is entitled to an estate in reversion) Richard Roe (an unknown or fictitious party to legal proceedings) solicitor (a British lawyer who gives legal advice and prepares legal documents) transferee ((law) someone to whom a title or property is conveyed) transferor ((law) someone who conveys a title or property to another) trial attorney ; trial lawyer (a lawyer who specializes in defending clients before a court of law) trial judge (a judge in a trial court) ordinary (a judge of a probate court) notary ; notary public (someone legally empowered to witness signatures and certify a document's validity and to take depositions) next friend ((law) a person who acts on behalf of an infant or disabled person) client (a person who seeks the advice of a lawyer) defense attorney ; defense lawyer (the lawyer representing the defendant) divorce lawyer (a lawyer specializing in actions for divorce or annulment) filer (a party who files a notice with a law court) intervenor ((law) a party who interposes in a pending proceeding) Jane Doe (an unknown or fictitious woman who is a party to legal proceedings) John Doe (an unknown or fictitious man who is a party to legal proceedings) judge advocate general (the senior legal advisor to a branch of the military) jurist ; legal expert (a legal scholar versed in civil law or the law of nations) justice of the peace (a local magistrate with limited powers) lawgiver ; lawmaker (a maker of laws; someone who gives a code of laws) attorney ; lawyer (a professional person authorized to practice law; conducts lawsuits or gives legal advice) legal representative (a personal representative with legal standing (as by power of attorney or the executor of a will)) legislator (someone who makes or enacts laws) liquidator ; receiver ((law) a person (usually appointed by a court of law) who liquidates assets or preserves them for the benefit of affected parties) litigant ; litigator ((law) a party to a lawsuit; someone involved in litigation) trier (one (as a judge) who examines and settles a case) legal guardian ; trustee (a person (or institution) to whom legal title to property is entrusted to use for another's benefit) reversion ((law) an interest in an estate that reverts to the grantor (or his heirs) at the end of some period (e.g., the death of the grantee)) escheat (a reversion to the state (as the ultimate owner of property) in the absence of legal heirs) recognisance ; recognizance ((law) a security entered into before a court with a condition to perform some act required by law; on failure to perform that act a sum is forfeited) record (a document that can serve as legal evidence of a transaction) legal relation (a professional relation that is regulated by law (as between a lawyer and a client)) fiduciary relation (the legal relation that exists when one person justifiably places reliance on another whose aid or protection is sought in some matter) bank-depositor relation (the responsibility of a bank to act in the best interests of the depositors) confidential adviser-advisee relation (the responsibility of a confidential adviser to act in the best interest of the advisee) conservator-ward relation (the responsibility of a conservator to act in the best interests of the ward) director-stockholder relation (the responsibility of corporate directors to act in the best interests of stockholders) executor-heir relation (the responsibility of an executor (or administrator) of an estate to act in the best interests of the heir) attorney-client relation ; lawyer-client relation (the responsibility of a lawyer to act in the best interests of the client) partner relation (the responsibility of partners to act in one another's best interests) receiver-creditor relation (the responsibility of receiver or trustee in bankruptcy to act in the best interests of the creditor) trustee-beneficiary relation (the responsibility of a trustee to act in the best interests of the beneficiary) legal status (a status defined by law) legal fee (a fee paid for legal service) exemplary damages ; punitive damages ; smart money ((law) compensation in excess of actual damages (a form of punishment awarded in cases of malicious or willful misconduct)) nominal damages ((law) a trivial sum (usually $1.00) awarded as recognition that a legal injury was sustained (as for technical violations of a contract)) ux ; uxor ((legal terminology) the Latin word for wife) vouchee ((law) a person called into court to defend a title) attestant ; attestator ; attestor ; witness ((law) a person who attests to the genuineness of a document or signature by adding their own signature) witness ((law) a person who testifies under oath in a court of law) estate for life ; life estate ((law) an estate whose duration is limited to the life of the person holding it) assignment ; grant ((law) a transfer of property by deed of conveyance) heritage ; inheritance (that which is inherited; a title or property or estate that passes by law to the heir on the death of the owner) accretion ((law) an increase in a beneficiary's share in an estate (as when a co-beneficiary dies or fails to meet some condition or rejects the inheritance)) bequest ; legacy ((law) a gift of personal property by will) devise ((law) a gift of real property by will) jointure ; legal jointure ((law) an estate secured to a prospective wife as a marriage settlement in lieu of a dower) heirloom ((law) any property that is considered by law or custom as inseparable from an inheritance is inherited with that inheritance) interest ; stake ((law) a right or legal share of something; a financial involvement with something) vested interest ((law) an interest in which there is a fixed right to present or future enjoyment and that can be conveyed to another) relief ((law) redress awarded by a court) actual damages ; compensatory damages ; general damages ((law) compensation for losses that can readily be proven to have occurred and for which the injured party has the right to be compensated) civil death (the legal status of a person who is alive but who has been deprived of the rights and privileges of a citizen or a member of society; the legal status of one sentenced to life imprisonment) vexatious litigation (litigation shown to have been instituted maliciously and without probable cause) false verdict (a manifestly unjust verdict; not true to the evidence) general verdict (an ordinary verdict declaring which party prevails without any special findings of fact) quotient verdict (an improper and unacceptable kind of compromise verdict) special verdict (a verdict rendered on certain specific factual issues posed by the court without finding for one party or the other) acquittal (a judgment of not guilty) robbery conviction (conviction for robbery) dispossession ; eviction ; legal ouster (the expulsion of someone (such as a tenant) from the possession of land by process of law) ouster (a wrongful dispossession) actual eviction (the physical ouster of a tenant from the leased premises; the tenant is relieved of any further duty to pay rent) constructive eviction ; eviction (action by a landlord that compels a tenant to leave the premises (as by rendering the premises unfit for occupancy); no physical expulsion or legal process is involved) retaliatory eviction (an eviction in reprisal for the tenant's good-faith complaints against the landlord; illegal in many states) legalisation ; legalization ; legitimation (the act of making lawful) legitimation (the act of rendering a person legitimate) trial ((law) legal proceedings consisting of the judicial examination of issues by a competent tribunal) directed verdict (a verdict entered by the court in a jury trial without consideration by the jury) compromise verdict (a verdict resulting from improper compromises between jurors on material issues) conclusion of law ; finding of law (a finding as to the applicability of a rule of law to particular facts) notification ; presentment (an accusation of crime made by a grand jury on its own initiative) naturalisation ; naturalization (the proceeding whereby a foreigner is granted citizenship) judgement ; judgment ; judicial decision ((law) the determination by a court of competent jurisdiction on matters submitted to it) default judgement ; default judgment ; judgement by default ; judgment by default (a judgment entered in favor of the plaintiff when the defendant defaults (fails to appear in court)) non pros ; non prosequitur (a judgment entered in favor of the defendant when the plaintiff has not continued his action (e.g., has not appeared in court)) final decision ; final judgment (a judgment disposing of the case before the court; after the judgment (or an appeal from it) is rendered all that remains is to enforce the judgment) judgement in personam ; judgment in personam ; personal judgement ; personal judgment (a judgment rendered against an individual (or corporation) for the payment of money damages) judgement in rem ; judgment in rem (a judgment pronounced on the status of some particular subject or property or thing (as opposed to one pronounced on persons)) judgement on the merits ; judgment on the merits (judgment rendered through analysis and adjudication of the factual issues presented) judgement on the pleadings ; judgment on the pleadings ; summary judgement ; summary judgment (a judgment rendered by the court prior to a verdict because no material issue of fact exists and one party or the other is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law) opinion ; ruling (the reason for a court's judgment (as opposed to the decision itself)) Bakke decision (a ruling by the Supreme Court on affirmative action; the Court ruled in 1978 that medical schools are entitled to consider race as a factor in their admission policy) finding (the decision of a court on issues of fact or law) finding of fact ; verdict ((law) the findings of a jury on issues of fact submitted to it for decision; can be used in formulating a judgment) trial ((law) the determination of a person's innocence or guilt by due process of law) Scopes trial (a highly publicized trial in 1925 when John Thomas Scopes violated a Tennessee state law by teaching evolution in high school; Scopes was prosecuted by William Jennings Bryan and defended by Clarence Darrow; Scopes was convicted but the verdict was later reversed) annulment ; invalidation ((law) a formal termination (of a relationship or a judicial proceeding etc)) amnesty ; free pardon ; pardon (the formal act of liberating someone) spoliation ((law) the intentional destruction of a document or an alteration of it that destroys its value as evidence) permissive waste ; waste ((law) reduction in the value of an estate caused by act or neglect) parole ((law) a conditional release from imprisonment that entitles the person to serve the remainder of the sentence outside the prison as long as the terms of release are complied with) probation ((law) a way of dealing with offenders without imprisoning them; a defendant found guilty of a crime is released by the court without imprisonment subject to conditions imposed by the court) reprieve ; respite (the act of reprieving; postponing or remitting punishment) bar ((law) a railing that encloses the part of the courtroom where the judges and lawyers sit and the case is tried) bench ((law) the seat for judges in a courtroom) court ; courtroom (a room in which a lawcourt sits) courthouse (a building that houses judicial courts) dock (an enclosure in a court of law where the defendant sits during the trial) messuage ((law) a dwelling house and its adjacent buildings and the adjacent land used by the household) color of law ; colour of law (a mere semblance of legal right; something done with the apparent authority of law but actually in contravention of law) effect ; force ((of a law) having legal validity) drug war (conflict between law enforcement and those who deal in illegal drugs) condemnation ((law) the act of condemning (as land forfeited for public use) or judging to be unfit for use (as a food product or an unsafe building)) legal separation ; separation ((law) the cessation of cohabitation of man and wife (either by mutual agreement or under a court order)) review ((law) a judicial reexamination of the proceedings of a court (especially by an appellate court)) judicial review (review by a court of law of actions of a government official or entity or of some other legally appointed person or body or the review by an appellate court of the decision of a trial court) plea (an answer indicating why a suit should be dismissed) double jeopardy (the prosecution of a defendant for a criminal offense for which he has already been tried; prohibited in the fifth amendment to the United States Constitution) criminal prosecution ; prosecution (the institution and conduct of legal proceedings against a defendant for criminal behavior) test case ; test suit (a representative legal action whose outcome is likely to become a precedent) defence ; defense ; demurrer ; denial (a defendant's answer or plea denying the truth of the charges against him) entrapment (a defense that claims the defendant would not have broken the law if not tricked into doing it by law enforcement officials) mistrial (a trial that is invalid or inconclusive) retrial (a new trial in which issues already litigated and to which the court has already rendered a verdict or decision are reexamined by the same court; occurs when the initial trial is found to have been improper or unfair due to procedural errors) hearing ((law) a proceeding (usually by a court) where evidence is taken for the purpose of determining an issue of fact and reaching a decision based on that evidence) administrative hearing (a hearing that takes place outside the judicial process before hearing examiners who have been granted judicial authority specifically for the purpose of conducting such hearings) competence hearing (a hearing to determine legal capacity (to determine whether the defendant can understand the charges and cooperate with a lawyer in preparing a defense)) fair hearing (a hearing that is granted in extraordinary situations where the normal judicial process would be inadequate to secure due process because the person would be harmed or denied their rights before a judicial remedy became available (as in deportation or loss of welfare benefits)) quo warranto (a hearing to determine by what authority someone has an office or franchise or liberty) divorce ; divorcement (the legal dissolution of a marriage) infection ((international law) illegality that taints or contaminates a ship or cargo rendering it liable to seizure) custody battle (litigation to settle custody of the children of a divorced couple) impounding ; impoundment ; internment ; poundage (placing private property in the custody of an officer of the law) barratry (the offence of vexatiously persisting in inciting lawsuits and quarrels) champerty (an unethical agreement between an attorney and client that the attorney would sue and pay the costs of the client's suit in return for a portion of the damages awarded) criminal maintenance ; maintenance (the unauthorized interference in a legal action by a person having no interest in it (as by helping one party with money or otherwise to continue the action) so as to obstruct justice or promote unnecessary litigation or unsettle the peace of the community) false pretence ; false pretense ((law) an offense involving intent to defraud and false representation and obtaining property as a result of that misrepresentation) resisting arrest (physical efforts to oppose a lawful arrest; the resistance is classified as assault and battery upon the person of the police officer attempting to make the arrest) sedition (an illegal action inciting resistance to lawful authority and tending to cause the disruption or overthrow of the government) sex crime ; sex offense ; sexual abuse ; sexual assault (a statutory offense that provides that it is a crime to knowingly cause another person to engage in an unwanted sexual act by force or threat) kidnapping ; snatch ((law) the unlawful act of capturing and carrying away a person against their will and holding them in false imprisonment) actual possession ((law) immediate and direct physical control over property) constructive possession ((law) having the power and intention to have and control property but without direct control or actual presence upon it) criminal possession ((law) possession for which criminal sanctions are provided because the property may not lawfully be possessed or may not be possessed under certain circumstances) intervention ((law) a proceeding that permits a person to enter into a lawsuit already in progress; admission of person not an original party to the suit so that person can protect some right or interest that is allegedly affected by the proceedings) objection ((law) a procedure whereby a party to a suit says that a particular line of questioning or a particular witness or a piece of evidence or other matter is improper and should not be continued and asks the court to rule on its impropriety or illegality) recusation ((law) an objection grounded on the judge's relationship to one of the parties) debarment (the act of prevention by legal means) recusal ; recusation ((law) the disqualification of a judge or jury by reason of prejudice or conflict of interest; a judge can be recused by objections of either party or judges can disqualify themselves) neglect of duty ((law) breach of a duty) criminal negligence ; culpable negligence ((law) recklessly acting without reasonable caution and putting another person at risk of injury or death (or failing to do something with the same consequences)) contributory negligence ((law) behavior by the plaintiff that contributes to the harm resulting from the defendant's negligence) award ; awarding (a grant made by a law court) appointment ((law) the act of disposing of property by virtue of the power of appointment) remission ; remit ; remitment ((law) the act of remitting (especially the referral of a law case to another court)) novation ((law) the replacement of one obligation by another by mutual agreement of both parties; usually the replacement of one of the original parties to a contract with the consent of the remaining party) subrogation ((law) the act of substituting of one creditor for another) disbarment (the act of expelling a lawyer from the practice of law) derogation ((law) the partial taking away of the effectiveness of a law; a partial repeal or abolition of a law) recission ; rescission ((law) the act of rescinding; the cancellation of a contract and the return of the parties to the positions they would have had if the contract had not been made) abatement of a nuisance ; nuisance abatement ((law) the removal or termination or destruction of something that has been found to be a nuisance) production ((law) the act of exhibiting in a court of law) law ; practice of law (the learned profession that is mastered by graduate study in a law school and that is responsible for the judicial system) law practice (the practice of law) civil wrong ; tort ((law) any wrongdoing for which an action for damages may be brought) delinquency ; juvenile delinquency (an antisocial misdeed in violation of the law by a minor) comparative negligence ((law) negligence allocated between the plaintiff and the defendant with a corresponding reduction in damages paid to the plaintiff) concurrent negligence ((law) negligence of two of more persons acting independently; the plaintiff may sue both together or separately) alienation ((law) the voluntary and absolute transfer of title and possession of real property from one person to another) lawmaking ; legislating ; legislation (the act of making or enacting laws) class action ; class-action suit (a lawsuit brought by a representative member of a large group of people on behalf of all members of the group) countersuit (a suit brought against someone who has sued you) criminal suit (a lawsuit alleging violations of criminal law by the defendant) moot (a hypothetical case that law students argue as an exercise) bastardy proceeding ; paternity suit (a lawsuit filed to determine the father of a child born out of wedlock (and to provide for the support of the child once paternity is determined)) antitrust case (a legal action brought against parties who are charged with limiting free competition in the market place) counterclaim (a claim filed in opposition to another claim in a legal action) custody case (a legal action to determine custody (usually of children following a divorce)) lis pendens (a pending lawsuit) legal proceeding ; proceeding ; proceedings ((law) the institution of a sequence of steps by which legal judgments are invoked) adoption (a legal proceeding that creates a parent-child relation between persons not related by blood; the adopted child is entitled to all privileges belonging to a natural child of the adoptive parents (including the right to inherit)) appeal ((law) a legal proceeding in which the appellant resorts to a higher court for the purpose of obtaining a review of a lower court decision and a reversal of the lower court's judgment or the granting of a new trial) reversal (a judgment by a higher court that the judgment of a lower court was incorrect and should be set aside) affirmation (a judgment by a higher court that the judgment of a lower court was correct and should stand) bankruptcy (a legal process intended to insure equality among the creditors of a corporation declared to be insolvent) receivership (a court action that places property under the control of a receiver during litigation so that it can be preserved for the benefit of all) civil suit (a lawsuit alleging violations of civil law by the defendant) case ; causa ; cause ; lawsuit ; suit (a comprehensive term for any proceeding in a court of law whereby an individual seeks a legal remedy) action ; action at law ; legal action (a judicial proceeding brought by one party against another; one party prosecutes another for a wrong done or for protection of a right or for prevention of a wrong) trust busting ((law) government activities seeking to dissolve corporate trusts and monopolies (especially under the United States antitrust laws)) enactment ; passage (the passing of a law by a legislative body) law enforcement (insuring obedience to the laws) legal duty (acts which the law requires be done or forborne) judicature ; justice (the administration of law; the act of determining rights and assigning rewards or punishments) false imprisonment ((law) confinement without legal authority) imprisonment (putting someone in prison or in jail as lawful punishment) commutation ; re-sentencing ((law) the reduction in severity of a punishment imposed by law) contempt (a willful disobedience to or disrespect for the authority of a court or legislative body) contempt of Congress (deliberate obstruction of the operation of the federal legislative branch) contempt of court (disrespect for the rules of a court of law) civil contempt (a failure to follow a court order that benefits someone else) contumacy (willful refusal to appear before a court or comply with a court order; can result in a finding of contempt of court) criminal contempt (an act of disrespect that impedes the administration of justice) obstruction of justice (impeding those who seek justice in a court (as by trying to influence or intimidate any juror or witness or officer of the court); can result in a finding of contempt of court) due process ; due process of law ((law) the administration of justice according to established rules and principles; based on the principle that a person cannot be deprived of life or liberty or property without appropriate legal procedures and safeguards) judicial proceeding ; litigation (a legal proceeding in a court; a judicial contest to determine and enforce legal rights) antitrust law ; antitrust legislation (law intended to promote free competition in the market place by outlawing monopolies) homestead law (a law conferring privileges on owners of homesteads) poor law (a law providing support for the poor) Riot Act (a former English law requiring mobs to disperse after a magistrate reads the law to them) criminal law (the body of law dealing with crimes and their punishment) court order (a writ issued by a court of law requiring a person to do something or to refrain from doing something) decree ; edict ; fiat ; order ; rescript (a legally binding command or decision entered on the court record (as if issued by a court or judge)) consent decree (an agreement between two parties that is sanctioned by the court; for example, a company might agree to stop certain questionable practices without admitting guilt) curfew (an order that after a specific time certain activities (as being outside on the streets) are prohibited) decree nisi (a decree issued on a first petition for divorce; becomes absolute at some later date) divestiture (an order to an offending party to rid itself of property; it has the purpose of depriving the defendant of the gains of wrongful behavior) judicial separation ; legal separation (a judicial decree regulating the rights and responsibilities of a married couple living apart) prohibition (a law forbidding the sale of alcoholic beverages) stay (a judicial order forbidding some action until an event occurs or the order is lifted) stay of execution (an order whereby a judgment is precluded from being executed for a specific period of time) cease and desist order ; enjoining ; enjoinment ; injunction ((law) a judicial remedy issued in order to prohibit a party from doing or continuing to do a certain activity) mandatory injunction (injunction requiring the performance of some specific act) game law (a regulation intended to manage or preserve game animals) gag law (any law that limits freedom of the press) blue sky law (a state law regulating the sale of securities in an attempt to control the sale of securities in fraudulent enterprises) statute of limitations (a statute prescribing the time period during which legal action can be taken) constitution ; fundamental law ; organic law (law determining the fundamental political principles of a government) Constitution of the United States ; United States Constitution (the constitution written at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 and subsequently ratified by the original thirteen states) public law (a law affecting the public at large) legislation ; statute law (law enacted by a legislative body) enabling legislation (legislation that gives appropriate officials the authority to implement or enforce the law) federal job safety law ; occupational safety and health act (a law passed by the United States Congress that created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration to prevent employees from being injured or contracting diseases in the course of their employment) advice and consent (a legal expression in the United States Constitution that allows the Senate to constrain the President's powers of appointment and treaty-making) statute book (a record of the whole body of legislation in a given jurisdiction) bill ; measure (a statute in draft before it becomes law) appropriation bill (a legislative act proposing to authorize the expenditure of public funds for a specified purpose) bill of attainder (a legislative act finding a person guilty of treason or felony without a trial) bottle bill (a statute that would require merchants to reclaim used bottles) farm bill (a statute that would regulate farm production and prices) trade bill (a statute that would regulate foreign trade) blue law (a statute regulating work on Sundays) final injunction ; permanent injunction (injunction issued on completion of a trial) interlocutory injunction ; temporary injunction (injunction issued during a trial to maintain the status quo or preserve the subject matter of the litigation until the trial is over) arrest warrant ; bench warrant (a warrant authorizing law enforcement officials to apprehend an offender and bring that person to court) death warrant (a warrant to execute the death sentence) cachet ; lettre de cachet (a warrant formerly issued by a French king who could warrant imprisonment or death in a signed letter under his seal) reprieve (a warrant granting postponement (usually to postpone the execution of the death sentence)) commutation (a warrant substituting a lesser punishment for a greater one) licence ; license ; permit (a legal document giving official permission to do something) letters patent ; patent (an official document granting a right or privilege) judgement ; judgment ; legal opinion ; opinion (the legal document stating the reasons for a judicial decision) concurring opinion (an opinion that agrees with the court's disposition of the case but is written to express a particular judge's reasoning) dissenting opinion (an opinion that disagrees with the court's disposition of the case) majority opinion (the opinion joined by a majority of the court (generally known simply as 'the opinion')) amnesty ; pardon (a warrant granting release from punishment for an offense) acquittance ; release (a legal document evidencing the discharge of a debt or obligation) judicial writ ; writ ((law) a legal document issued by a court or judicial officer) assize (an ancient writ issued by a court of assize to the sheriff for the recovery of property) certiorari ; writ of certiorari (a common law writ issued by a superior court to one of inferior jurisdiction demanding the record of a particular case) search warrant (a warrant authorizing law enforcement officials to search for objects or people involved in the commission of a crime and to produce them in court; the warrant describes the locations where the officials may search) warrant (a writ from a court commanding police to perform specified acts) muniments (deeds and other documentary evidence of title to land) brief ; legal brief (a document stating the facts and points of law of a client's case) amicus curiae brief (a brief presented by someone interested in influencing the outcome of a lawsuit but who is not a party to it) testament ; will (a legal document declaring a person's wishes regarding the disposal of their property when they die) probate ; probate will (a judicial certificate saying that a will is genuine and conferring on the executors the power to administer the estate) codicil (a supplement to a will; a testamentary instrument intended to alter an already executed will) living will (a document written by someone still legally capable requesting that they should be allowed to die if subsequently severely disabled or suffering terminal illness) deed ; deed of conveyance ; title (a legal document signed and sealed and delivered to effect a transfer of property and to show the legal right to possess it) assignment (the instrument by which a claim or right or interest or property is transferred from one person to another) bill of sale (a deed transferring personal property) deed poll (a deed made and executed by only one party) enfeoffment (under the feudal system, the deed by which a person was given land in exchange for a pledge of service) mortgage deed (deed embodying a mortgage) title deed (a legal document proving a person's right to property) deed of trust ; trust deed (a written instrument legally conveying property to a trustee often used to secure an obligation such as a mortgage or promissory note) conveyance (document effecting a property transfer) quitclaim ; quitclaim deed (document transferring title or right or claim to another) execution ; writ of execution (a routine court order that attempts to enforce the judgment that has been granted to a plaintiff by authorizing a sheriff to carry it out) anti-racketeering law ; Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ; RICO ; RICO Act (law intended to eradicate organized crime by establishing strong sanctions and forfeiture provisions) advowson (the right in English law of presenting a nominee to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice) freedom from cruel and unusual punishment (a right guaranteed by the 8th amendment to the US constitution) freedom from involuntary servitude (a civil right guaranteed by the 13th amendment to the US constitution) equal protection of the laws (a right guaranteed by the 14th amendment to the US constitution and by the due-process clause of the 5th amendment) right to vote ; suffrage ; vote (a legal right guaranteed by the 15th amendment to the US constitution; guaranteed to women by the 19th amendment) freedom from discrimination (immunity from discrimination on the basis of race or sex or nationality or religion or age; guaranteed by federal laws of the United States) equal opportunity (the right to equivalent opportunities for employment regardless of race or color or sex or national origin) eminent domain (the right of the state to take private property for public use; the Fifth Amendment that was added to the Constitution of the United States requires that just compensation be made) enfranchisement ; franchise (a statutory right or privilege granted to a person or group by a government (especially the rights of citizenship and the right to vote)) patent right (the right granted by a patent; especially the exclusive right to an invention) right of election (in probate law: the legal right of a surviving spouse to elect to take either what the deceased spouse gave under the will or the share of the estate as set forth by statute) right of entry (the legal right to take possession of real estate in a peaceable manner) right of re-entry (the legal right to resume possession (a right that was reserved when a former possession was parted with)) right of offset ((banking) the legal right of a bank to seize deposited funds to cover a loan that is in default) right of privacy (a legal right (not explicitly provided in the United States Constitution) to be left alone; the right to live life free from unwarranted publicity) enjoyment ; use ((law) the exercise of the legal right to enjoy the benefits of owning property) usufruct (a legal right to use and derive profit from property belonging to someone else provided that the property itself is not injured in any way) right to confront accusors (a right guaranteed by the 6th amendment to the US constitution) right to an attorney (a civil right guaranteed by the 6th amendment to the US constitution) right to speedy and public trial by jury (a civil right guaranteed by the 6th amendment to the United States constitution) human right ((law) any basic right or freedom to which all human beings are entitled and in whose exercise a government may not interfere (including rights to life and liberty as well as freedom of thought and expression and equality before the law)) easement ((law) the privilege of using something that is not your own (as using another's land as a right of way to your own land)) privilege ((law) the right to refuse to divulge information obtained in a confidential relationship) entitlement (right granted by law or contract (especially a right to benefits)) civil right (right or rights belonging to a person by reason of citizenship including especially the fundamental freedoms and privileges guaranteed by the 13th and 14th amendments and subsequent acts of Congress including the right to legal and social and economic equality) civil liberty (fundamental individual right protected by law and expressed as immunity from unwarranted governmental interference) habeas corpus (the civil right to obtain a writ of habeas corpus as protection against illegal imprisonment) freedom of religion ; freedom of speech (a civil right guaranteed by the 1st amendment to the US constitution) freedom of the press (a right guaranteed by the 1st amendment to the US constitution) freedom of assembly (the right peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for redress of grievances; guaranteed by the 1st amendment to the US constitution) freedom to bear arms (a right guaranteed by the 2nd amendment to the US constitution) freedom from search and seizure (a right guaranteed by the 4th amendment to the US constitution) right to due process (a right guaranteed by the 5th amendment to the US constitution; reaffirmed by the 14th amendment) freedom from self-incrimination ; privilege against self incrimination (the civil right (guaranteed by the 5th amendment to the United States Constitution) to refuse to answer questions or otherwise give testimony against yourself) freedom from double jeopardy (a civil right guaranteed by the 5th amendment to the US constitution) visitation right (the right granted by a court to a parent (or other relative) who is deprived of custody of a child to visit the child on a regular basis) jurisdiction ; legal power ((law) the right and power to interpret and apply the law) rundown ; summation ; summing up (a concluding summary (as in presenting a case before a law court)) instrument ; legal document ; legal instrument ; official document ((law) a document that states some contractual relationship or grants some right) derivative ; derivative instrument (a financial instrument whose value is based on another security) negotiable instrument (an unconditional order or promise to pay an amount of money) docket ((law) the calendar of a court; the list of cases to be tried or a summary of the court's activities) passport (a document issued by a country to a citizen allowing that person to travel abroad and re-enter the home country) ship's papers (official papers which a ship is legally required to have; related to ownership, cargo, etc.) manifest (a customs document listing the contents put on a ship or plane) copy ; transcript (a reproduction of a written record (e.g. of a legal or school record)) joint resolution (a resolution passed by both houses of Congress which becomes legally binding when signed by the chief executive (or passed over the executive's veto)) debenture (a certificate or voucher acknowledging a debt) power of attorney (a legal instrument authorizing someone to act as the grantor's agent) letters of administration (legal document naming someone to administer an estate when no executor has been named) letters testamentary (a legal document from a probate court or court officer informing you of your appointment as executor of a will and empowering you to discharge those responsibilities) act ; enactment (a legal document codifying the result of deliberations of a committee or society or legislative body) law (legal document setting forth rules governing a particular kind of activity) relation ; relation back ((law) the principle that an act done at a later time is deemed by law to have occurred at an earlier time) pre-emption ; preemption (the judicial principle asserting the supremacy of federal over state legislation on the same subject) jus soli (the principle that a person's nationality at birth is determined by the place of birth) venter (the womb) presumption ((law) an inference of the truth of a fact from other facts proved or admitted or judicially noticed) principle ; rationale ((law) an explanation of the fundamental reasons (especially an explanation of the working of some device in terms of laws of nature)) malice aforethought ; mens rea ((law) criminal intent; the thoughts and intentions behind a wrongful act (including knowledge that the act is illegal); often at issue in murder trials) premeditation ((law) thought and intention to commit a crime well in advance of the crime; goes to show criminal intent) mitigating circumstance ((law) a circumstance that does not exonerate a person but which reduces the penalty associated with the offense) probable cause ((law) evidence sufficient to warrant an arrest or search and seizure) nuisance ((law) a broad legal concept including anything that disturbs the reasonable use of your property or endangers life and health or is offensive) legal system (a system for interpreting and enforcing the laws) bail (the legal system that allows an accused person to be temporarily released from custody (usually on condition that a sum of money guarantees their appearance at trial)) jury system (a legal system for determining the facts at issue in a law suit) patent system (a legal system for protecting the rights of inventors) tax system (a legal system for assessing and collecting taxes) Islamic law ; sharia ; sharia law ; shariah ; shariah law (the code of law derived from the Koran and from the teachings and example of Mohammed) statutory law (the body of laws created by legislative statutes) securities law (the body of laws governing the issuance and selling of securities) commercial law ; law merchant ; mercantile law (the body of rules applied to commercial transactions; derived from the practices of traders rather than from jurisprudence) martial law (the body of law imposed by the military over civilian affairs (usually in time of war or civil crisis); overrides civil law) law of the land (a phrase used in the Magna Carta to refer to the then established law of the kingdom (as distinct from Roman or civil law); today it refers to fundamental principles of justice commensurate with due process) international law ; law of nations (the body of laws governing relations between nations) case law ; common law ; precedent (a system of jurisprudence based on judicial precedents rather than statutory laws) civil law (the body of laws established by a state or nation for its own regulation) canon law ; ecclesiastical law (the body of codified laws governing the affairs of a Christian church) administrative law (the body of rules and regulations and orders and decisions created by administrative agencies of government) tax law (the body of laws governing taxation) Sense 3 law of motion ; Newton's law ; Newton's law of motion (one of three basic laws of classical mechanics) Ohm's law (electric current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance; I = E/R) Weber's law ((psychophysics) the concept that a just-noticeable difference in a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus) power law ; Stevens' law ; Stevens' power law ((psychophysics) the concept that the magnitude of a subjective sensation increases proportional to a power of the stimulus intensity) principle of relativity ((physics) a universal law that states that the laws of mechanics are not affected by a uniform rectilinear motion of the system of coordinates to which they are referred) Planck's radiation law ((physics) an equation that expresses the distribution of energy in the radiated spectrum of an ideal black body) Planck's law ((physics) the basis of quantum theory; the energy of electromagnetic waves is contained in indivisible quanta that have to be radiated or absorbed as a whole; the magnitude is proportional to frequency where the constant of proportionality is give by Planck's constant) Mendeleev's law ; periodic law ((chemistry) the principle that chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers) exclusion principle ; Pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons or protons or neutrons in a given system can be in states characterized by the same set of quantum numbers) Pascal's law ; Pascal's law of fluid pressures (pressure applied anywhere to a body of fluid causes a force to be transmitted equally in all directions; the force acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid) law of averages (a law affirming that in the long run probabilities will determine performance) Kirchhoff's laws ((physics) two laws governing electric networks in which steady currents flow: the sum of all the currents at a point is zero and the sum of the voltage gains and drops around any closed circuit is zero) Boyle's law ; Mariotte's law (the pressure of an ideal gas at constant temperature varies inversely with the volume) Bose-Einstein statistics ((physics) statistical law obeyed by a system of particles whose wave function is not changed when two particles are interchanged (the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply)) Benford's law (a law used by auditors to identify fictitious populations of numbers; applies to any population of numbers derived from other numbers) Bernoulli's law ; law of large numbers ((statistics) law stating that a large number of items taken at random from a population will (on the average) have the population statistics) Avogadro's hypothesis ; Avogadro's law (the principle that equal volumes of all gases (given the same temperature and pressure) contain equal numbers of molecules) Archimedes' principle ; law of Archimedes ((hydrostatics) the apparent loss in weight of a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid) principle ; rule (a rule or law concerning a natural phenomenon or the function of a complex system) all-or-none law ((neurophysiology) a nerve impulse resulting from a weak stimulus is just as strong as a nerve impulse resulting from a strong stimulus) Coulomb's Law (a fundamental principle of electrostatics; the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them; principle also holds for magnetic poles) Dalton's law ; Dalton's law of partial pressures ; law of partial pressures ((chemistry and physics) law stating that the pressure exerted by a mixture of gases equals the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture; the pressure of a gas in a mixture equals the pressure it would exert if it occupied the same volume alone at the same temperature) distribution law ((chemistry) the total energy in an assembly of molecules is not distributed equally but is distributed around an average value according to a statistical distribution) equilibrium law ; law of chemical equilibrium ((chemistry) the principle that (at chemical equilibrium) in a reversible reaction the ratio of the rate of the forward reaction to the rate of the reverse reaction is a constant for that reaction) Fechner's law ; Weber-Fechner law ((psychophysics) the concept that the magnitude of a subjective sensation increases proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity; based on early work by E. H. Weber) Fermi-Dirac statistics ((physics) law obeyed by a systems of particles whose wave function changes when two particles are interchanged (the Pauli exclusion principle applies)) Charles's law ; Gay-Lussac's law ; law of volumes ((physics) the density of an ideal gas at constant pressure varies inversely with the temperature) Henry's law ((chemistry) law formulated by the English chemist William Henry; the amount of a gas that will be absorbed by water increases as the gas pressure increases) posse ; posse comitatus (a temporary police force) Schutzstaffel ; SS (special police force in Nazi Germany founded as a personal bodyguard for Adolf Hitler in 1925; the SS administered the concentration camps) secret police (a police force that operates in secrecy (usually against persons suspected of treason or sedition)) Mounties ; RCMP ; Royal Canadian Mounted Police (the federal police force of Canada) Mutawa ; Mutawa'een (religious police in Saudi Arabia whose duty is to ensure strict adherence to established codes of conduct; offenders may be detained indefinitely; foreigners are not excluded) gendarmerie ; gendarmery (French police force; a group of gendarmes or gendarmes collectively) European Law Enforcement Organisation ; Europol (police organization for the European Union; aims to improve effectiveness and cooperation among European police forces) Sense 7	i don't know
What popular spirit drink brand includes a bat in its logo?	Top 10 Alcohol Logos \| SpellBrand® Top 10 Alcohol Logos 0 Alcohol beverages are popular throughout most of the world, making this a huge global industry. However, this is an image-conscious industry where a drink must have not only a certain taste, but a certain image as well. Some of these logos are more than a century old, while others are relatively new, but one thing they all have in common is good food and drink logo design. 1. Bacardi Logo Design There is more to this well-recognized logo design than most people realize and should have been featured in our Top 10 Beverage Logos . First, the bat that is the central image is indeed a significant part of the company’s history. When the founder of Bacardi acquired the distillery in 1862, there were many bats living inside the buildings. Because bats are a symbol of good luck in Cuba, where the company originated, this figure seemed like an auspicious choice. The circular shape is also important, because it creates a friendlier feeling to the logo. The red is eye-catching and bold, while the gold communicates quality. The company name is written in a serious, straightforward font that gives the image a little more weight. 2. Hpnotiq Logo Design This logo design ties directly into the company name with a whirlpool-like figure that is indeed hypnotic. The colors here are significant; not only is blue a calming color (read more about color theory), but one that implies that the product is clear and clean as pure water. Again we see the combination of a friendly circle along with straightforward writing, but in this case the writing is underlined for maximum effect. 3. Jagermeister Logo Design This logo design is successful because it is so different from most alcohol logos. However, the unusual images maintain heavy significance in the company lore. It is based on a local legend of a man named Hubertus, who hunted in forbidden woods and came upon a deer, who had a cross between his antlers. Luckily, the animal forgave the hunter, but the story retained enough meaning throughout the years that it was given center position in this popular drink’s logo design. The heavy Gothic writing is reminiscent of the German name and adds to the traditional image. 4. Dos Lunas Logo Design This tequila has a logo design that relates directly to its name, with ‘Dos Lunas’ meaning ‘two moons’ in Spanish. The ‘O’ in the first word is clearly and cleverly formed of two quarter moons, while the rest of the writing is plain and unobtrusive. The blue is graded so that it is lighter at the bottom, implying a night sky with the two moons rising. 5. Johnny Walker Logo Design Again, this logo design refers to the company’s history, which can be important in the alcohol product industry where tradition is a powerful selling point. The man walking in the image is the company founder, Johnny Walker. The writing is arranged to look like a signature, relating back to the founder. The black that is the main color is sophisticated and velvety, while the gold refers to wealth and quality in a way that is likely to appeal to the consumer. 6. Crown Royal Logo Design It’s hard to think of a more crown royal image than the one in this logo design. The crown in this image is situated on a gold edged pillow, which clearly refers to the name. The royal blue and gold both are parts of the same theme. The scrolling font adds to the traditional image, while the wavy accents give a feeling of movement. The touches of red draw viewers’ attention to the image. 7. Smirnoff Logo Design This logo is far more modern than most alcoholic beverage logos, which shows that this company is trying to present itself as a choice more friendly to the modern consumer. The silver and red is ultra modern while also attracting attention to the bottle. The bird images imply movement, while the crown above implies quality worthy of a royal. The name is printed in a banner, another implication of quality. The hard edges of the image add to this image, while hard edges imply strength while adding to the modern feeling of this logo design. 8. Le Tourment Vert Logo Design Absinthe is gaining popularity as an alcoholic beverage in the United States, with this French brand leading the pack. The logo design has a bright green color that is reminiscent of this famously green beverage, while the image of a bottle and ornate glass relates directly to the product. The writing is traditional and bold, like the drink, while the wave-like accents give a feeling of movement. This implies that absinthe is not just a drink of the past, but of the future as well. 9. Explorer Vodka Logo Design This vodka logo design uses a blue color that is clean and reminiscent of the water, which is common in this industry due to a general preference for clean-tasting vodka. The red is bright and contrasts well against the blue. The image of sails clearly ties into the name of the beverage, but also into the sense of movement that the name implies. The simple, square writing is more modern than most of the company’s competitors, which gives a modern, straightforward feeling to the logo. 10. Seagram’s Seven Logo Design This alcohol logo design features the company name with just a few accents. First, a crown sits on top of the number seven, which gives a royal image to the liquor. The ultra-traditional writing with sharp serifs adds to the image. The silver color scheme is plain, but implies wealth and riches like the metal it is named after. As you can see, there are many different ways to create a successful logo design for an alcoholic beverage. Some companies try to portray a classic and traditional image that expresses the company’s past, while others aim for a more modern image. A variety of color schemes and fonts are used, but all with good effect. The important thing about a logo design of any kind is that it expresses important and unique information about the company that it represents. Mash Bonigala Mash is the Founder & CEO of SpellBrand. Since 1998, Mash has helped 100s of companies differentiate themselves from the competition through Brand Strategy and Brand Identity design. Schedule a call with Mash to discuss how to clearly communicate your brand story. (Follow him on Google+ and Twitter ) Recent Posts Brand Identity Featured Clients Food Beverage Logos Package Designs Hand Made Jewelry Logo Design Logo Designs Luxury Logos	Bacardi
The 'Tube' in the website name YouTube also refers informally to what traditional display technology, abbreviated to CRT?	25 World Famous Company Logos and Their Meaning \| DdesignerR 25 World Famous Company Logos and Their Meaning Facebook Twitter A brand is known more by its logo than by its advertisements and publicity. Almost all the leading iconic brands have logos which are recognized worldwide. An impressive logo is the one to which people can relate themselves to. The amount of hard work that goes into maintaining a brand’s identity through its logo is tremendous. Below we are listing some of the world famous company logos: 1. The Adidas Logo Founded by Adolf (Adi) Dassler, Adidas is the world’s leading sports equipment and accessories brand. Adi’s aim was to provide all the athletes with the best and the most comfortable equipments. He followed three guiding principles: design the best for specific requirements, protection from injury and durability. The clothing and shoe logo designs of the company exhibit three parallel stripes. This is the current official logo of Adidas. This logo replaced the initial trefoil logo design which symbolized the spirit of the Olympic Games as well as the history, legacy and heritage of the brand. In January 1996, the three stripes became the brand marks for Adidas worldwide. The logo symbolizes the excellent performance and future of the brand. Over time, it has become synonymous with Adidas and its will to manufacture high quality products for athletes worldwide. 2. The Apple Logo The owners of Apple Inc. selected an apple as their main form of branding. The initial logo depicted a small apple silhouette sitting under a tree with a computer from the company. It is this apple which has been used continually. The first logo was perceived as complex and typical to view. The bite mark was introduced by Regis McKenna for symbolizing the seduction of customers as well as the marketplace. This monochrome version was later replaced with a rainbow colored symbol. This depicted the apple tree in the story of Adam and Eve which symbolizes the Tree of Knowledge. It inspires people to pursue their wishes. Not a deliberate goal in the beginning, but it boosted the business and made the consumers consider Apple Inc. 3. The Audi Logo The usage of the four rings as the logo generates back to Claus Detlof from Oertzen. He described the concept as coming together of groups and related to Olympiad and the Olympia. It is in sync with the fusion of the four Audi companies- Audi, Horch, DKW and the Wanderer. 4. The Bacardi Logo This famous brand was started in 1862 by the Cuban wine merchant Facundo Bacardi. Having origins in Spain, he acquired a distillery in Santiago de Cuba. He refined sugar and liquor to white, mild rum. The logo was inspired by the large colony of bats residing under the distillery roof. Ironically, the fruit bats are considered auspicious and good luck harbours in Cuba. 5. The BMW Logo The BMW company logo represents as well as is derived from the Bavarian components for engines which first constituted the company strata in 1917. This is also evident in the Bavarian national colours of while, blue and black. The internal and external enclosed rings and the adjoining black ring represent the previous enterprise “bayerische flugzeug-werke (BFW)”. It later formed the BMW company. The shining disks, the engine shades, the bright blue gleams and the two silver divides represent the sky in the logo. 6. The Burger King Logo Established by David Edgerton and James McLamore in 1954, the Burger King was christened Insta Burger King. It was rebranded as the Burger King in the 1980s. Gaining reputation internationally very fast, the company’s logo was first modernized in 1994. It constituted smoother fonts with round edges. In 1999, the logo was again updated which was the stylized version of “bun-halves” logo. This new look had a blue coloured swirl which made the logo look more contemporary. 7. The Intel Centrino Logo The logo used by the Intel Corporation is the split design. It shows the convergence between technology and information. The two wings used by the designer suggest a bridge between the advancing technology and the lifestyle and progression towards a smarter future. The use of the magenta colour for the lower wing balanced the contrasting vibrant blue and offers high energy visual stimulus to the viewer. The Intel’s famous “hanging E” is also visible in the logo. This was in initially used in the original iteration and is today carried over as an embodiment for the commitment to founding corporate philosophies. 8. The Chanel Logo The house of Chanel was established in 1910 by Gabrielle Bonheur “coco” Chanel; one of the prominent fashion designers of the time. She revolutionized women’s wear and set forth new standards for the contemporary style. With time, Chanel as the corporate name became the symbol of elegance and synonymous with wealth and elitism. It set the standards for international fashion industry. The log was designed by Coco herself in 1925 and has remained unchanged ever since. It is one of the most recognised symbols in the fashion industry and is frequently visible on purses, shoes, accessories and perfumes. 9. The Nike Logo Founded in the 60s by Phil Knight, Nike was called The Blue Ribbon Sports at that time. The trademark Swoosh sign and the name Nike were brought around later. The name Nike is derived from the Greek mythology after the goddess of victory. The name suggested the company a strong association and brand image which was appropriate for a sports company. The swoosh sigh along with its just do it tag, presents the essence of the brand and its philosophies. The swoosh logo has become synonymous with the company name and the brand. It inspires the consumers to be determined and ambition for desired goals in their athletic activities. It not only expressed the high ambition and will for triumph but also made the company a part of its brand and corporate culture. 10. The Ciba Specialty Chemicals Logo The logo of specialized chemistry section of Ciba Company exhibits the pixilated multicolored butterfly. This symbol depicts Ciba’s transformation into the future growth and expansion. The bright, multiple colours of the butterfly represent the large number of divisions which make up the enterprise. 11. The Cisco Logo The Cisco Corporation was founded in 1984 by Len Bosack and Sandy Lerner, two computer science professionals. Ranked today amongst the top few specialist companies in routing and switching, the Cisco Corporation has permeated technology sales around the globe. The logo of Cisco is synonymous with the company’s original formation place, San Francisco and the Golden Gate Bridge which is also referred to as the gateway to the pacific. This logo hopes for eternal success. 12. The Coca Cola Logo This international soft drink brand defies those who say one needs a dash of romance to achieve success. Ironically, coca cola was invented as a patent medicine by John Pemberton, a pharmacist. The logo is accounted to have been created by John’s bookkeeper Frank Mason Robinson in 1885. The script is believed to be cursive but is actually Spencerian typeface, a predominant writing form adopted by the era’s bookkeepers. The icon carries legacy because of its white letters against the bright red background, the curvy, cursive letters, and rollout names and last but not the least, the seductive hobble skirt bottle of the fuzzy drink. Moreover, the two Cs stand out which make the logo all the more appealing. 13. The Dove Logo Unilever is the world’s most widely used and accepted skin care brand today. However, it initially developed its products as an aid to the military personnel in the 1950s. During that time, the navy needed washing soaps and detergents to assist cleansing in the inconsistent saline seawater and sand exposure as both these elements removed the nourishment and moisture from the skin. The dove symbolizes peace and harmony. The logo evidently honors the memory of the original cause for which the brand was established. 14. The Dr. Oetker Logo This establishment was the dream pharmacy of Dr. August Oetker. The head embellished in the logo highlights the initial marketing phrase used for the consumer marketing of baking powder: “a bright head is the one which uses Dr. Oetker’s baking powder”. The red and white silhouette is the depiction of a commercial artist’s daughter and is on the packaging even today. The logo is representative of the high standards of quality present in the products. 15. The Federal Express Logo The original corporate logo for federal express was designed in 1973 by Richard Runyan. Due to the company’s global presence, its logo is one of the most recognized logos all around the world. At first glimpse, the logo appears quite plain and simple. However, on observing minutely, there is one tiny detail which changes the perception of the emblem: there is a right pointing arrow situated in the negative space between the E and X. This arrow subtly points out to a soft marketing strategy by symbolizing forward thinking and movement. 16. The Fedora Logo The fedora company is the leading manufacturer of fine pralines and quality chocolates. The logo of the company is the signature of princess fedora, sister of the last empress of Germany. This has been the logo for the company since 1910. History explains that the key reason for usage of this insignia is when princess fedora sampled the company’s fine wares at a charity event; she was so impressed that she permitted the company to market its wares under her name. Moreover, the coat arms in the upper left hand corner depict the family coats of the founding family of the business- The Mayors. 17. The Ferrari Logo Ferrari Company was founded by Enzo Ferrari in 1929. It is an Italian car manufacturing company dominantly involved in the F-1 championships. The infamous insignia of the brand is a black, galloping horse on a yellow background with the letters SF for Scuderia Ferrari. The prancing black horse is Rampante Cavallo. It honours an Italian flying ace Francesco Baracca, a martyr in World War I. The magnificent black silhouette of the horse also recognizes the popular belief that a horse on the top of a car would guide its driver victorious to the destination. The yellow background honours the city Modena’s historic colour-yellow. 18. The Ford Logo The oval trademark of the Ford company is one of the best known symbols in the corporate worlds. The symbol used today is a blue oval shape with Ford written in flowing cursive font. The oval appeared around 1928. Over years it has been modernized into a Centennial version which was released on Ford’s 100th anniversary in 2003. The symbol gives the company a powerful brand image and is recognized and honoured by the world as the leading manufacturer of great products. 19 The Google Logo Google is the pioneer of web search industry. It aims at providing relevant information to the worldwide web users. Started as a research project by Sergey Brin and Larry Page of Stanford University, Google is a multibillion empire now. The official logo represents the name Google Inc on catull typeface. It was created by Ruth Kedar. It is significant historically because of its amateurish simplicity which is synonymous with the simplicity of the search engine. 20. The Harley Davidson Logo Harley Davidson is not a name. It is a legacy. The name itself evokes images of long, dusty highways in the classic American landscape, the engine roaring like a thunder clap and the polished chrome magnificently shining to imitate lightening. The logo of Harley Davidson is commonly referred to as the “ bar and shield” logo and was created in 1910. Interestingly, each dealership of Harley Davidson has its own shop logo which tells something about that dealership and sets it apart from the other dealerships of the world. 21. The Nestle Logo The Nestle Company was set up by pharmacist Heinrich Nestle in 1867. Nestle started from selling milk products for the mothers and started manufacturing and selling milk chocolates in 1904. The bird in the logo is symbolic and dates back to the family coat of arms. It symbolizes the nestle name: a small, little nest. 22. The Hyundai Logo Hyundai motor company is a South Korean automobile manufacturer. They have their footprints all over the globe. The logo of Hyundai motors is an oval shaped H letter which signifies the company itself. The ellipse symbolises the global expansion of the company. The stylized, italicised H is two people, the customer and the company shaking hands. 23. The IBM Logo The IBM logo is a geometrically constructed slab with serif typeface designed along identical lines. The square negative spaces in the B give way to unity and uniqueness, depicting strength and power. 24. The Playboy Logo This popular gentleman’s magazine was first introduced by Hugh Hefner. Running since 1953, the magazine has become an international brand today. The logo displays the image of a hare due to its funny and seductive connotation. The bowtie gives it a playful look. Hugh was of the belief that the tuxedo on the hare was both charming and amusing. 25. The McDonald’s Logo The largest and the best known food joint in the world today, McDonald’s is everyone’s first choice. The two golden arches on the logo’s M are the most recognizable and strongest symbols of our day. The traditional yellow and red and the simplicity of the letter M depicts the powerful business traits. The logo was created in 1962 by Jim Schindler. The idea behind the logo was from the investor’s point of view rather than the consumer. It signifies that the franchise of McDonald’s is similar to owning a gold mine. The arches also depict a place to offer recluse, an escape; ideal for a break. 446	i don't know
The development of what sort of pumping engine in 1785 gave rise to the description 'draught/draft' for its pumped product?	Text Only--Richmond: A Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary • A large lock is adjacent to Byrd Park Pump House . • A number of historic buildings line the canal, including the old Virginia Electric and Power Company (VEPCO) hydroelectric plant dating to 1899 and located at the base of 12th Street. Further west, at the base of Gamble’s Hill, lies the Tredegar Iron Works complex. Tredegar, which employed more than 2,000 people at its peak and produced 90 percent of the cannons for the Confederate Army, now houses an industrial museum and the Civil War Visitor Center . The James River and Kanawha Canal Historic District extends approximately 10 miles from the Ship Lock at the south end of Peach St. in Richmond, westward to the intersection of an extension of Sleepy Hollow Rd. and the C & O Railroad tracks (outside the City in Henrico County). The linear district consists of earthen excavations that comprise the greater part of the canal system as well as the stone locks, bridges, culverts, walls, towpaths and other related objects. The buildings adjacent to the canal are not part of the district. Visitors can experience a re-routed version of the original canal system on the Canal Walk , which winds 1 ¼ miles through downtown Richmond alongside reconstructed portions of the Haxall Canal and the James River & Kanawha Canal. The Canal Walk parallels the north bank of the James River from 17th St. on the east to 5th St. on the west, and features interpretive displays and wonderful vantage points of the James River as well as some of Richmond’s early 20th century industrial buildings. The public pathway is open 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. For more information, search for the Canal Walk in the official tourism website for the Commonwealth of Virginia . The canal area is the site of many public festivities, concerts, and after-hours events. Brown’s Island, a popular spot for outdoor recreation and music events, is open from sunrise to sunset. The James River Park offers a variety of activities. The James River and Kanawha Canal Pumphouse and the Tidewater Connection Locks have been documented by the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey. The Jefferson Hotel The Jefferson Hotel is one of the nation’s most outstanding examples of late 19th-century eclectic architecture. Major Lewis Ginter, the hotel’s patron, commanded the architects to provide Richmond with the finest hotel in America. In an era when sumptuous hotels were being erected throughout the country, the design and amenities of the Jefferson Hotel made Ginter’s dream into a reality. Completed in 1895, the hotel is a massive but graceful building of buff-colored brick and stone. Its design is typical of the work of New York architects Carrere and Hastings in that it effectively blends a number of architectural forms and styles, although the exterior elements are primarily from the Italian and Spanish Renaissance. Four towers rise from the main block of the hotel, combining with the large entrances, loggia, varied window forms, and architectural ornament to make the Jefferson an important Richmond landmark. Independent of its outstanding architectural merit the hotel, as originally completed, contained an abundance of technological advances such as service telephones, electrical lighting, central steam heating, and hot and cold running water for all 342 of its guest rooms. The building also has within it to this day an exceptional collection of late 19th century paintings as well as the famous life-size statue of Thomas Jefferson by Richmond sculptor Edward Valentine. The Jefferson Hotel continues to be known as “the” place to stay for important persons visiting Richmond. Notable guests include Teddy Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Charles A. Lindberg, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, and Calvin Coolidge. The hotel has been the scene for many important Richmond social events. Historically, the hotel had three principal entrances: the Main Street entrance leading into the Rotunda for commercial travelers; the Franklin Street entrance, known as the “Ladies Entrance” for those attending social functions; and the covered side entrance used by carriages. A fire in 1901 resulted in the rebuilding and redesign of the Main Street façade and replacement of the cast iron atrium with one of stone. The Carrere and Hastings designed rooms in the north end display a diverse range of styles and retain many of the original features. They are the fancifully named Louis XVI Grand Salon and the Pompeian Palm Court, and a number of small reception and waiting rooms in various French styles. The southern wings were reconstructed to run north south, rather than east west, to allow more light and air into the rooms. Overall, the exterior remains similar to the original design. Today, the hotel has 262 guest rooms and 19 well-appointed meeting and banquet rooms. Visitors can relax in the spacious and luxurious lobby (which originally featured a fountain and pool with live alligators) with its 70’ high ceilings, mezzanine, stained glass skylight, faux marble columns, sweeping staircase, tapestries, and replica period furniture. Period memorabilia is on display in the Great Hall, which is accessible by the Main Street entrance. The Jefferson Hotel is located at 104 W. Main St. The Jefferson is a full service hotel that is open to the public. Call 804-424-8014, or consult The Jefferson website for additional information. The Jefferson Hotel has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . The hotel is a member of the National Trust for Historic Preservation's Historic Hotels of America . John Marshall House The John Marshall House, home of the distinguished Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court for 45 years, is a surviving early residential building in a section of Richmond that now has office and hospital buildings. Like many Richmonders during his time, Marshall owned a “square”, or four large lots that comprised a city block. Famous Richmond preservationist Mary Wingfield Scott referred to such properties as "plantations-in-town," with their auxiliary buildings and gardens in addition to the main houses. Marshall's square included the house, his law office, a laundry, kitchen, carriage house and stable, and garden. Begun in 1788 and completed in 1790, the house became Marshall’s home when he was emerging as leader of the Federalist Party in Virginia. While serving in Congress and in President John Adams’ cabinet, Marshall was often away in Washington D.C. After becoming Chief Justice in 1801, however, he was able to spend significantly more time at home in Richmond, when the Supreme Court was not in session. He traveled to Washington, D.C. when the court was in session. He also traveled when serving as a Federal district judge. Marshall undoubtedly wrote many of his important opinions at this address, where he resided until the end of his distinguished judicial career and his death in 1835. Justice Marshall participated in more than 1,000 decisions during his 30 years on the Supreme Court, some with lasting importance in strengthening the Federal Government and the Supreme Court. The brick house with its temple-front, four-room plan, and Adamesque interior looks much as it did when Marshall owned it. It combines Federal characteristics such as Flemish-bond brickwork, a Roman temple pediment, and Neo-classical motifs with Georgian elements including rubbed brick lintels, an English-bond brick water table, and paneled interior walls and wainscoting. Archeological and architectural analysis of the house revealed that the porches on three sides of the house were not part of the original construction. Declarations of insurance issued by the Mutual Assurance Society indicate that Marshall made several modifications to the house prior to 1815. The property remained in the Marshall family until 1911. The City of Richmond then bought it to build the now demolished John Marshall High School, which stood directly behind the house. Today the John Marshall Courthouse fills half of the original square. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities Preservation Virginia administers the house, which has been open to the public since 1913. < The John Marshall House, a National Historic Landmark , is located at 818 E. Marshall St. between 9th and Marshall Sts. in downtown Richmond. Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . Operated as a house museum by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA), the house features a collection of furnishings and artifacts, many belonging to the Marshall family, and is open to the public Tuesday-Saturday 10:00am to 4:30pm, Sunday 12:00 to 5:00pm. A Court End Passport includes admission to the John Marshall House, the Valentine History Center, the Wickham-Valentine House, and Monumental Church (open weekends May through October). Fees for adults are $10, seniors/students $7. For additional information call 804-648-7998 or visit the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities Preservation Virginia or the John Marshall Foundation websites. The John Marshall House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . The John Marshall House is the subject of an online lesson plan, The Great Justice at Home. The lesson plan has been produced by the National Park Service’s Teaching with Historic Places program, which offers a series of online classroom-ready lesson plans on registered historic places. To learn more, visit the Teaching with Historic Places home page . Joseph P. Winston House Built in 1873-74 for successful wholesale grocer Joseph P. Winston, this three-story house in downtown Richmond features one of the city’s most elaborate and unique cast-iron porches. The Joseph P. Winston House is one of the few remaining 19th-century residential buildings on Grace Street, which is now predominantly commercial. With its curved mansard roof and intricate iron porch and fence, the house stands as an isolated example of 19th-century building practices and styles used during the period of Reconstruction in the South following the Civil War. Constructed when prefabricated building components were gaining popularity, the home incorporates many mass-produced elements featured in builder catalogs of the time. These include the cornice, ironwork, and interior doors and moldings. Winston’s home is significant architecturally and also as a document of the city’s changing residential trends. In the 1870’s, affluent professionals and merchants occupied its Grace Street neighborhood. Winston was a prosperous merchant who came to Richmond in 1850, most likely from Hanover County. He conducted a brisk wholesale grocery and commission business until his death 30 years later. His family occupied the house until 1895. The home had a succession of owners until the Joel family purchased it in 1929. The Joels founded the Richmond Art Company and constructed the building next door, which remains attached to the Joseph P. Winston House. Prominent Richmond architect Duncan Lee designed the Richmond Art Company building in 1920. Together, the two buildings illustrate a residential neighborhood that later turned largely commercial. The Joseph P. Winston House is located at 101-103 East Grace St. and now houses the offices of the Richmond branch of Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA). For information, call 804-646-0516. Kent-Valentine House Richmond merchant Horace L. Kent commissioned Boston architect Isaiah Rogers to design this Franklin Street mansion in 1844. Most of Rogers’ works, including several important hotels, have been destroyed. The Kent-Valentine House is one of his few surviving residential designs. The building was originally a three-bay Italianate-style dwelling skirted by an intricate cast-iron veranda. In 1904, Granville G. Valentine, owner of a meat-extract company, engaged the Richmond architectural firm of Noland and Baskervill to expand the house into a five-bay composition, extending the veranda. The veranda was replaced by the present Ionic portico around 1909. The final result is a successful amalgamation of antebellum and early 20th-century styles. The original Italianate bracketed cornice was extended across the addition to unify the composition. Portions of the cast-iron veranda were reused for the portico railing. Surviving on the interior are Rogers’ exceptional Gothic Revival double parlors, some of the best examples of Gothic-style rooms in the state. These have been handsomely restored with prior color schemes and furnishings. The parlors provide an interesting contrast to Noland and Baskervill’s Georgian Revival stair hall and drawing room. The latter is embellished with Corinthian pilasters. The property was placed under preservation easement donated to the state by the Valentine family in the early 1970s. It was subsequently sold to the Garden Club of Virginia which uses it as its state headquarters and makes it available for special functions. The Kent-Valentine House is located at 12 East Franklin St., adjacent to Linden Row. The interior can be visited by contacting the Garden Club of Virginia at 804-643-4137. The Kent-Valentine House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Linden Row The eight attached Greek Revival row houses of Linden Row are reputed to be the last survivors of a series of rows built on Franklin Street between c. 1840 and c. 1860. They are distinguished examples of their style and housed some of Richmond’s most prominent citizens and influential families. In 1839, James Fleming bought the site on which they sit. In 1847, he built a row of five houses he called “Linden Square” after the linden trees planted in Charles Ellis’ garden. Ellis and his business partner John Allan had previously owned the property on which they created a beautiful garden. Allan and his wife were the adoptive parents of Edgar Poe, who during his childhood played in the garden with the Allan children. The author later referred to the property as Ellison, and local legend has it that this was the "enchanted garden" that Edgar Allan Poe mentions in his famous poem "To Helen." Samuel and Alexander Rutherford built five additional houses to complete the remainder of the row, after they purchased the western end of the block in 1853. Just before and during the Civil War (1861-65), D. Lee Powell's school, the Southern Female Institute, occupied the two most western houses. Virginia Pegram, widow of General James Pegram the famous Mexican war hero, ran another noted girls school, Mrs. Pegram's school, on the row from 1856 to1866. For many years before and after the war, Linden Row was the home of some of Richmond’s most prominent citizens: Dr. William H. Scott, a well-known druggist; Major Robert Stiles, a distinguished jurist and former officer on the staff of Robert E. Lee; Mary Johnston, noted novelist; and the Mayo, Montague, and Tompkins families. From 1895 to 1906, the highly respected school of Miss Virginia Randolph Ellet, now known as St. Catherine's School, was on the row. Among its early pupils were Irene Langhorne Gibson (“The Gibson Girl”) and Lady Astor, the first female member of the British Parliament. Collectively, Linden Row is one of Richmond’s finest examples of Greek Revival architecture and a superb Greek Revival row. Each of the houses is three stories high with a basement. They have thin-jointed red brick exteriors, matching Doric entrance porticos, granite window lintels, and a simple wood cornice that runs the entire length of the attached façades. In 1922, the two easternmost houses were demolished to make room for the Medical Arts office building, as the city’s central business district grew westward. The remaining houses on the row were rezoned for business use sometime before 1950, and their interiors were reconfigured to be used for offices and apartments. Around 1950, noted Richmond preservationist Mary Wingfield Scott began buying up the remaining buildings of Linden Row to ensure their future preservation. In 1971, Linden Row was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and in 1980, Ms. Scott donated the row to Historic Richmond Foundation, which to this day holds easements that are intended to protect and maintain the architectural integrity of the buildings. Linden Row is located at 100-114 E. Franklin St. and is now an inn with accommodations and facilities for gatherings. Free tours of the rooms are available on request. For information on accommodations, arranging for an event or gathering, or seeing the inn, call 804-783-7000 or visit the Linden Row Inn website. Linden Row has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Maggie L. Walker House The Maggie L. Walker House, a two-story home with architectural elements in both the Italianate and the Gothic styles, was home to one of the country's most celebrated African American women. Constructed in 1883 by George Boyd, a black builder, the home is in a prime location in the heart of Jackson Ward, the center of Richmond's African American business and social life at the turn of the 20th century. Maggie Lena Walker was born on July 15, 1864. Her mother was a former slave and servant in the home of Elizabeth Van Lew. At the age of 14, Ms. Walker joined the local council of the Independent Order of St. Luke, a fraternal burial society established in 1867 in Baltimore. The Order administered to the sick and aged, promoted humanitarian causes, and encouraged individual self-help and integrity. As a member of the Order, Maggie Walker held a number of offices including delegate at the Order's biannual national convention. In 1899, the organization elected her as Right Worthy Grand Secretary, a position of leadership she held until her death. In 1902, Walker established the St. Luke Herald so that the Order could better communicate with the public. The following year she opened the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank and served as its first president—earning her the distinction of being the first woman to charter and serve as president of a bank in the United States. Walker later served as the chairperson of the bank after it merged with two other Richmond banks to become The Consolidated Bank and Trust Company. The latter is still in operation today, across the street from its earlier location at 1st and Marshall Streets, and was the longest continually African American operated bank in the country. In addition to her work with the bank and the Order, Mrs. Walker was active in her community in many ways. Over the course of her life, she served on the board of several women's organizations, including the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) and the Virginia Industrial School for Girls. She also served as vice-president of the Richmond branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and was a member of the national NAACP board. Maggie Walker and her husband purchased the Leigh Street house in 1904. They soon began making changes, including the introduction of central heating and electricity. With the addition of several bedrooms and enclosed porches, the home increased from nine to 28 rooms. In 1928, they added an elevator to the rear of the house to accommodate Mrs. Walker, who was confined to a wheelchair. The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1975. The Walker family owned the home until 1979, when the National Park Service and Eastern National Parks and Monuments Association purchased the home and all its contents. The house was then restored to its 1930's appearance. With the renovation of adjacent buildings, the National Park System unit now includes Mrs. Walker's residence of 30 years as well as a visitor center detailing her life and the Jackson Ward community in which she lived and worked. The furnishings found throughout the home today are original family pieces and provide a tangible link to Mrs. Walker's occupancy from 1904 to 1934. Together, the house and the furnishings help visitors learn more about Maggie Walker and the world in which she lived. The surrounding community of Jackson Ward is a National Historic Landmark district. Main Street Banking Historic District Main Street Banking Historic District is the historic heart of Richmond’s financial district. Laid out in 1780, the district was part of an expansion of Richmond in conjunction with its designation as Virginia’s capital. Originally known as “E” Street, Main Street became the primary commercial corridor and primary east-west route through Richmond in the late 18th century. The Richmond evacuation fire of 1865 during the Civil War resulted in destruction of the two to five-story buildings that composed the antebellum financial district. Richmond rebounded after the war, and Richmond’s business community worked rapidly to reconstruct the financial district. The rebuilding made extensive use of prefabricated cast iron because of the speed of erection for cast-iron modular buildings. The distinguished Stearn’s Building at 1007-1013 East Main Street is one of the best examples of a cast-iron row in the district. A Baltimore foundry cast the elaborate facades in 1866 to the designs of George Johnston, who modeled the extraordinarily intricate facades after the facades of Italian Renaissance Palazzos. Design details include entrances framed by Corinthian columns and rounded arches with spiraling vines topped by a garland and rosebud. Iron fronts made the Italianate style predominant for Richmond’s commercial buildings in general and those along Main Street in particular. Richmond builders used a variety of material combinations for Italianate commercial buildings such as brick, cast-iron, wood, and pressed metal, but seldom erected complete cast-iron facades after the initial wave. Additional examples of Italianate architecture include 1112 -1116 East Main of 1866 and 814-818 East Main Street of 1893. Many other Italianate buildings were along Main Street before their demolition for various 20th century developments. Prior to their destruction by the evacuation fire, several important bank buildings stood along Main Street. Banks reestablished themselves during Reconstruction. One of the finest examples is the Romanesque Revival style Planters Bank that Charles H. Read Jr. designed in 1893. This individually listed National Register building at 1200 East Main Street is a fine brick and brownstone Romanesque Revival style edifice. Several buildings from the opening decades of the 20th century reflect the development of Beaux Arts Classical Revival architecture. The Virginia Trust Building of 1919 at 821 East Main Street is an outstanding terra cotta-clad building in the form of a Roman triumphal arch. New Yorker Alfred Bossom and Richmond’s Carneal and Johnston were the architects. That same year Mowbray and Uffinger, another New York firm, designed the American Trust Building at 1005 East Main Street. Its beautifully detailed classicism inside and out is preserved as part of the adaptive reuse of the building as a restaurant. The exterior of the building is limestone with rusticated Ionic Columns. The limestone clad former Bank of Virginia at 800 East Main Street dating from 1931 is another Beaux Arts bank. Main Street became one of the first streets in the American South to develop as a district of skyscrapers. The tall buildings of the early 20th century reflected the development of classical skyscrapers in New York. One of the first high rises in Richmond was The Mutual Building that New Yorkers Clinton and Russell designed in 1904 at 901 East Main Street. This fine Neoclassical Revival building follows the pattern of a classical column with a massive base, smooth shaft, and projecting capitol. Originally nine stories, it received a three-story addition with Doric pilasters in 1909. Financial leaders who wanted to revive Richmond’s economy founded First National Bank in April of 1865, a mere eight days after Lee’s surrender at Appomattox. Richmond was without a bank until several citizens met with northern banker Hamilton G. Fant and associates, who agreed to establish a bank under Federal charter. By the end of the 19th century, First National had the highest total assets of all banks in Richmond. Completed in 1912 at 823 Main Street, the individually listed 19- story First National Bank building crowned the city’s skyline in height until 1930. Constructed using early steel-frame technology, the building combines a monumental scale with fine detailing and Neoclassical Revival design. First National Bank hired the New York firm of Clinton and Russell whose architect Alfred Charles Bossom clad the revolutionary steel-frame building in limestone, granite, and brick and incorporated 50-foot tall fluted Corinthian pilasters and columns and heavily-molded terra cotta ornamentation in a learned application of Neoclassical design and proportion. Windows fill the areas between the columns and pilasters around the base of the building, making it a clear predecessor to the curtain wall construction that dominated commercial high-rise architecture after c. 1950. The interior, though altered somewhat, retains many of the original details such as marble-clad columns, groin vaults, and bronze elevator doors. The district includes a number of other important early skyscrapers that date from the opening decades of the 20th century. The 9-story American National Bank from1911 at 1001 E. Main Street is the design of Wyatt and Nolting of Baltimore. The Travelers’ Building of 1910 at 1106-1108 East Main Street is an 11-story building by Clinton and Russell. The 14-story State and City Bank and Trust Company of 1923 is also by Clinton and Russell. Main Street Banking Historic District is located along East Main Street between 7th and Governors (13th) Sts. in the heart of downtown Richmond. Two building in this district, the Stearns Iron Front Building and the Virginia Fire & Marine Insurance Building have been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey. Monumental Church Monumental Church is a nationally significant memorial in honor of the victims of a disastrous theater fire. The building is also among America’s earliest and most distinctive Greek Revival churches designed by one of the nation’s most important early architects. The Richmond Theatre was in a wood-frame building that stood on the site of Monumental Church in the opening decades of the 19th century. This theater was a center of activity in Richmond during the busy winter social season. Tragically, disaster struck in December 1811. Stage scenery caught on fire. The fire spread quickly and engulfed the building. More than 70 citizens, including the governor, burned or suffocated in the melee to escape. The toll would have been greater without the heroic efforts of Gilbert Hunt, a slave blacksmith, and others who rescued individuals from the conflagration. The fire was so intense that ashes were all that remained of most of the victims. The remains were enclosed in a brick vault. Richmond’s civic leaders sought an appropriate way to memorialize the victims and agreed to a combination memorial and church. United States Supreme Court Justice Marshall served as head of the committee to raise funds by public subscription for the project. The church would serve the rapidly growing Shockoe Hill section of Richmond. Planners considered several designs for the monumental building, including those by Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Robert Mills. Mills, America’s first native-born architect, won the competition in 1812. The building he designed was substantially complete by 1814. Mills’ design is a masterpiece of Neoclassicism with four distinct components. The first is a three-sided portico that shelters the marble monument to the victims of the fire. The portico functions as a separate structure to house the monument. It consists of four niches that face the interior, a ceremonial entrance to the sanctuary, and a ceiling of ornamental plasterwork. In the center of the portico is the monument itself, a square marble sarcophagus topped by an urn. The monument on view today is a careful reconstruction of the original, which had substantially deteriorated. The monument reflects the racial diversity and racial hierarchy of the more than 70 victims of the fire, with whites listed on the upper portion of the monument and African Americans listed below. The second component of the design, the north and south stair towers, serve as the regular entrances to the sanctuary, and the elaborate cantilevered stairs provide access to the second floor galleries. The third component is the octagonal auditorium-type sanctuary topped by a round dome. The first floor of the sanctuary has the original box pews owned by the pew holders. Richmonders purchased pews to raise money for the church, and since most of the pew holders were Episcopal, their affiliation determined the denomination of the church. Pew holders in the church included such notables as Justice Marshall; attorney and prominent property owner John Wickham; and John Allan, the stepfather of Edgar Allan Poe. The large gallery in the sanctuary accommodated the non-pew holders who worshipped at the church. A number of notable persons worshipped in Monumental Church, including the Marquis de Lafayette in 1824. The round dome of the sanctuary is constructed with the Delorme laminated timber method. Mills designed several churches with such domes including those in Philadelphia, Charleston, and Richmond. Monumental is the only one of these to survive. The Delorme dome is similar to one used at Monticello, where Robert Mills studied architecture. On top of the dome is a large lantern. At the rear of the church is the fourth component of the Mills design, a massive brick tower. The tower contains a large brick niche where the pulpit is located, as well as offices and storage space. Mills designed the tower to support a large steeple that was never constructed. The ornamentation of the building is full of funerary symbols. On the exterior, the Doric entablature decoration includes lachrymatories (Greek funerary urns). On the interior, column capitols and window moldings are in the form of sarcophagus lids. The Ionic columns flanking the pulpit have upturned torches symbolizing the extinguishing of light. Mills originally intended even more funerary symbolism, such as an unexecuted allegorical sculptural group that was to be atop the portico. Monumental Church remained an active congregation until 1965, and for a time served as the chapel of the Medical College of Virginia. The building is at present owned by Historic Richmond Foundation, which is restoring it. Monumental Church, a National Historic Landmark , is located at 1224 E. Broad St. near Capitol Square and the Court End neighborhood. Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . The church is open to visitors on weekends only, May through October. Visitors may purchase a Court End Passport, which includes admission to the church, the Valentine Richmond History Center, the Wick-ham-Valentine House, and the John Marshall House. Fees for adults are $10, seniors/students $7. For information, call the Valentine Richmond History Center at 804-649-0711, or visit the Historic Richmond Foundation website. Monumental Church has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Morson's Row Governor Street is an 18th century roadway that provided an important connection between the upper and lower portions of Shockoe Hill. The area to the east of the street, known as Council Chamber Hill, was an important early Richmond neighborhood. The houses in Morson’s Row are the last surviving neighborhood residences. Morson’s Row is named after James Marion Morson, a Richmond and Goochland County attorney who constructed the row as upscale tenements or rental property in 1853. Morson built one of the finest groupings of buildings from Richmond’s late antebellum period. By the time Morson built his row, Governor Street was a prominent thoroughfare and one of Richmond’s most prestigious residential addresses. Morson provided the commission for the design of his row to Alfred Lybrock, a German trained architect. Upon immigrating to the United States, Lybrock worked in New York, and came to Richmond to supervise the United States Court House in 1852. Lybrock's background gave him a thorough knowledge of the latest architectural fashions and the newest technology of his day. Morson’s Row is one of the earliest and most important examples of Italianate architecture in Richmond. The three buildings are distinguished by their bow fronts and the stepping of the facades to correspond to the slope of Governor Street. Constructed of Brick covered in stucco rendered to give the appearance of stone, they are ornamented with elaborate cast iron window hoods, door surrounds, and bracketed cornices. Morson’s Row is a remarkable survivor of antebellum architecture in downtown Richmond. The row is an important prototype for a popular Richmond building style and building form: the Italianate row house, one of the ubiquitous building types in late 19th-century Richmond. Morson’s Row is located at 219-223 Governor St. bordering Capitol Square. The buildings are state offices that are not generally open to the public. Old City Hall Old City Hall is a masterpiece of monumental High Victorian Gothic design. This grand edifice remains a testament to the ambition and pride in democracy of the people of Richmond. Completed in 1894, eight years after the groundbreaking ceremony, Old City Hall served as Richmond’s city hall until the 1970s, when a new city hall was constructed. The third Richmond municipal building on this site, Old City Hall occupies an entire city block overlooking Capitol Square. The original City Hall and Courthouse stood on this site from 1816 to 1875. City Engineer Wilfred Cutshaw led the efforts to build a new and substantial replacement for the 1816 building. A national architectural competition resulted in the selection of Elijah Myers of Detroit, the designer of the State capitols of Michigan, Colorado, Texas, and Idaho and winner of the international competition for the Parliament Buildings in Rio de Janeiro. The bids for the elaborate Gothic Revival design came in vastly over budget due to massive materials and extensive ornamentation. City Engineer Wilfred Cutshaw futilely attempted to manage the cost of the project by serving as the project contractor and hiring day laborers. In the end, the project cost an astounding $1.3 million dollars, a colossal expenditure for a public building in that era, greatly exceeding the original $300,000 estimate. Dominated by two large asymmetrical towers, the Broad Street façade of the building is reminiscent of town halls in Belgian cities. The stone exterior is beautifully detailed ashlar with buttresses and pointed arches. Of monumental scale, Old City Hall measures 170 feet by 140 feet culminating with the clock tower, which rises to a height of 195 feet. The most notable interior feature is an impressive skylighted central court surrounded by arcaded galleries. An important specialist, James Netherwood was the subcontractor for the stone portion of Old City Hall’s construction. Netherwood, an English immigrant, provided the “Petersburg” granite quarried locally along the James River. Netherwood’s workers made the vast amount of smooth and “pitched” ashlar blocks of building stone used in the construction of the building. They relied on steam-driven saws and polishing tools developed in Britain in the 19th century. Netherwood's beautifully detailed and finished exterior represents a high point for the Richmond granite industry. Old City Hall is the largest granite building in the Richmond. Another specialist, Richmond iron founder, Asa Snyder, cast the grills and fencing along with the magnificent cast iron atrium, a masterpiece of cast iron architecture. Snyder, a New York immigrant, was a leader in the development of architectural cast iron in Richmond. Restored to its original polychrome color scheme, the atrium is an outstanding example of, and a high point for cast iron architecture in Richmond. Old City Hall survives despite at least two proposals to demolish it. In 1915, a scant 20 years after completion of the building, a proposal for a civic center suggested removing the building to create a mall extending north from the capitol. After the building closed in 1971, demolition was again seriously considered. Saving the building was a significant preservation victory, and rehabilitation in the early 1980s as offices returned it to its former glory. At present, the building is being considered for use as state offices. Old City Hall occupies an entire city block, bounded on the west by 10th St., on the east by 11th St., on the south by Capitol St., and on the north by E. Broad St. The first floor of the building is open to the public and may be visited Monday-Friday, 8:00am to 5:00pm, for free. Old City Hall has been designated as a National Historic Landmark . Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . Old City Hall has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Old First Baptist Church Famed architect Thomas U. Walter of Philadelphia provided the restrained but authoritative Greek Revival design for the Old First Baptist Church. Walter, best known as architect for the dome of the U.S. Capitol, designed some 10 buildings for Virginia. Old First Baptist is his only remaining Richmond work. Construction began in 1839, and two years later, the congregation moved in. Walter’s design, dominated by a Doric portico in muris, had a strong influence on the city’s ecclesiastical architecture. At least four Baptist churches were modeled directly after it, including the old First African Baptist church just two blocks away. During the Civil War, the church was used as an emergency hospital for Confederate wounded. The congregation sold the building to the Medical College of Virginia in 1928. The Baptists subsequently built a large new church on Monument Avenue and gave it a Greek Doric portico modeled on that of the parent church. Threatened with demolition on in the 1970s, Old First Baptist has since been sympathetically renovated by Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine to serve as a student study center. The sanctuary is largely intact and preserves its original three-sided gallery. A handsome plaster ceiling medallion accents the space. Despite the surrounding tall buildings of the medical school complex, the building maintains a strong architectural presence on Broad Street. Old First Baptist Church is located on the corner of E. Broad and 12th Sts. one block from Capitol Square. Although its primary importance is its exterior, the interior can be visited by inquiring within. Putney Houses Built in 1859 for Samuel Ayres, the Putney Houses at 1010 and 1012 East Marshall Street are fine examples of antebellum Italianate town houses. They are particularly noteworthy for their ornamental ironwork, which the Phoenix Iron Works produced locally. From 1862 until 1894, Samuel and Stephen Putney owned and lived in the two town houses. Both father and son were in the shoe manufacturing business. Samuel Putney’s house at 1010 is a three-story Italianate row house with a stucco façade scored to look like stone. The exterior features rich architectural decoration, including a paneled frieze below the bracketed cornice and windows topped with heavy semi-circular lintels. A cast iron one-story porch across the front is one of the building’s most delicate but distinguishing features. Stephen Putney’s home at 1012, while not as ornate as the father’s house, is nonetheless a fine example of antebellum residential architecture in Richmond. A richly carved entablature over the front door graces the otherwise simple façade, but the east side of the building features a magnificent two-story cast iron veranda that is unique in Richmond, and an outstanding example of its type. The Putney Houses are located in the once-fashionable Court End area, which housed many of Richmond’s early elite. Although the streets once had elegant residences like these, the neighborhood has changed with the growth of Virginia Commonwealth University’s Medical College of Virginia campus in the area. Along with the Valentine Museum behind them, these houses help give a sense of the historic quality and domestic scale to this important block. Today, the Samuel Putney house is home to various administrative offices for the health sciences and external affairs divisions of the medical campus. The Stephen Putney house contains administrative offices for the vice president for health sciences and the Medical College of Virginia Foundation. The Putney Houses are located at 1010 and 1012 E. Marshall St. They generally are not open to the public. 1010 E. Marshall St. has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey. Second Presbyterian Church Completed in 1848, Second Presbyterian Church was the first Gothic style church built in a city known for its allegiance to classical architecture. Patterned after a design by Minard Lafever, author of the 1829 publication Young Builder’s General Instructor, the church was enthusiastically described in a local paper of the day as “a great ornament to the city” and “the most perfect and beautiful specimen of Gothic architecture.” Its inspiration is believed to have been Lafever’s “new National Scotch Church” from Plate LXVI depicted in the Instructor. Second Presbyterian was known for many years as “Dr. Hoge’s Church.” Reverend Moses Drury Hoge became pastor of First Presbyterian Church in 1845 and served the congregation for 50 years. He was an inspired orator, and the man who spurred his small congregation to build what was called “the most beautiful church in Virginia.” Stonewall Jackson was among the church’s most distinguished parishioners. As originally built, the church was a long rectangular building with aisles and galleries running its length on either side. Rooms containing a library and the pastor’s study flanked each side of the pulpit, and at the opposite end of the building was the entrance vestibule with curving stairs leading to the galleries. In 1873, the addition of a 100’ long transept modified its original design (with just a nave). The ceiling was remodeled at this time, and the original paneled galleries were continued into the two transept arms. Inside the church, an impressive hammer beam ceiling of dark stained wood lends elegance to an otherwise simple interior with plaster walls (painted at one point in time to look like coursed stone) and lancet windows, a feature typical of Gothic architecture. Except that the brick is no longer painted the original gray, the exterior of Second Presbyterian looks very much as it did at the time of its construction in the mid-19th century. The building stands as a landmark on the edge of Richmond’s growing central business district. In 1945, John Knox Press of Richmond published Wyndham B. Blanton’s book The Making of a Downtown Church, which tells the history of Second Presbyterian from 1845 to 1945. Second Presbyterian Church is located at 9 North 5th St. and is open to the public. For information, call 804-649-9148 or visit the church's website. Shockhoe Hill Cemetery The City of Richmond established Shockoe Hill Cemetery in 1822 reflecting a developing nationwide trend at the time to have cities provide safe, sanitary places for burials in suburban settings. Shockoe Hill superseded the first public burial ground in Richmond at St. John’s churchyard, which was largely full by 1820, and provided a public burial ground removed from the developed portion of the city. The cemetery is historically significant for the layout of its grounds, the remaining 19th-century botanical specimens, the great variety of stone and metal art works, and as the final resting place for distinguished individuals. The oldest portion of Shockoe Cemetery is the four-acre northwest section. The purchase of additional land in 1833, 1850, and 1870 expanded the cemetery to the present 12.7 acres. Richard Young, the Richmond City Surveyor, laid the cemetery out on a regular grid with sections for burial. Families could purchase full, half, and quarter sections for family burials. The city reserved the eastern side for single burials. Roadways named A, B, C, and D divided the cemetery into nine islands. A brick wall from the early 19th century encloses the cemetery. The city landscaped the cemetery in the 19th century with trees and ornamental shrubs planting it extensively with Virginia elms, willows, and other suitable trees. In addition, families planted their sections with roses and other ornamental shrubs. Despite a decline in the number of trees over the years, surviving trees include Virginia elm, pin oaks, Kentucky coffee, lilac, silver maple, eastern red cedar, locust, and yew. Shockoe Cemetery is the final resting place for many prominent early Richmonders and others. Revolutionary war hero Peter Francisco is interred in the cemetery, as is United States Supreme Court Justice John Marshall and early Virginia Governor William H. Cabell. Richmond’s first mayor, William Foushee; prominent Richmond attorney and property owner, John Wickham; and Edgar Allan Poe’s foster parents, John and Frances V. Allan also rest there. Graves of Civil War soldiers who fought for both the North and the South lie in the cemetery. The United Daughters of the Confederacy placed a granite marker there in 1938 to commemorate them. Directional signage guides visitors to the most noteworthy residents of the cemetery. A diverse array of 19th-century funerary art in stone and metal by master artists commemorates those interred there and illustrates the new more positive attitudes toward death and eternal life and the influence of nature in the 19th century. Flowers, evergreens, and trees embellish artworks. Fraternal insignias on the monuments reflect the importance of fraternal organizations like the Odd Fellows. Some of the earliest monuments are tabletop graves. Granite and marble obelisks are scattered throughout the cemetery as are a number of ornate marble monuments executed in a variety of Classical and Gothic motifs. Many of the monuments are marked as the work of Richmond stonecutters. The cemetery has wrought iron entrance gates and cast iron section enclosures. Many of the enclosures are from Richmond foundries and consist of fencing used to enclose a family-owned section. All of the once-common wood and most of the iron enclosures are now gone. Granite coping around sections became common in the closing decades of the 19th century. Shockoe Cemetery long ago ceased to have active burials. For much of the last 100 years it suffered from a lack of attention. National Register designation and the 250th anniversary of the birth of John Marshall, arguably the most famous occupant of the burial ground, fostered interest in preservation. The Friends of Shockoe Cemetery are working diligently to preserve the historic elements of the cemetery and were instrumental in erecting a Virginia historic highway marker. The City of Richmond owns and maintains the cemetery as a place of historic burial. Shockoe Hill Cemetery is located at the junction of Hospital and 2nd Sts. on the north side of Richmond just across Interstate 95 from downtown. It is across the street from Hebrew Cemetery and near the Barton Heights Cemeteries. For additional information, visit the City of Richmond cemeteries website. St. Paul's Church Philadelphia’s noted architect of the Greek Revival, Thomas S. Stewart, designed St. Paul’s Church. Stewart was also responsible for the monumental Egyptian Building , completed in the same year as the church, 1845. St. Paul’s is a noteworthy example of Greek Revival architecture. Built of stuccoed brick in the form of a Roman temple, the church has a podium base and side bays separated by pilasters modeled after St. Luke’s in Philadelphia. The Roman form incorporates Greek Revival styling with a high degree of detail. A massive entrance portico of eight columns with ornate Corinthian capitals dominates the exterior of the building. An octagonal dome replaced the original 225 foot-high spire, long since removed due to fear of its instability. On the interior, impressive plaster reliefs on the ceiling and Tiffany stained glass windows complement the grand Corinthian columns that frame the building’s nave and circular apse. The original pews are still in use. The architect also designed the intricate, locally-made cast iron fence that rings the property. Richmond architects Baskervill & Son designed the 1959 stuccoed parish house and connecting colonnade that admirers describe as a restrained and handsome asset to the church complex. St. Paul’s has served as a house of worship for some of the South’s most famous citizens including Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, and many of Virginia’s governors. During the morning service at St. Paul’s on April 2, 1865, President Davis received word that General Lee and the Confederate army were on the brink of defeat at Petersburg, Virginia. Thus began the infamous evacuation of Richmond and subsequent fire that would destroy much of the city. This is just one of the many historical associations that make the church one of the South’s most significant landmarks. St. Paul’s Church is located at 815 E. Grace St. on the southwest corner of 9th and Grace Sts. The church is open to the public. For information, call 804-643-3859 or visit the St. Paul's Episcopal Church website. St. Peter's Church Dating from 1834, St. Peter’s Church is considered one of the gems of 19th century ecclesiastical architecture in Richmond. The oldest Roman Catholic Church in the city, St. Peter’s served as a cathedral until the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart at Cathedral Place and Laurel Street superseded it in 1905. Designed loosely in the Greek Revival style, the building is constructed of stuccoed brick and features a tall and narrow pedimented entrance portico with paired Doric columns. This latter arrangement is similar to that on the White House of the Confederacy of 1818 at 1201 East Clay Street, albeit at a larger scale. A graceful Doric entablature encircles the church, and the stepped parapet leads up to a square cupola and octagonal dome, similar to the arrangement of St. Paul’s Church across the street to the east. Pilasters topped with Ionic capitals divide the bays on the interior. Short transept arms and a semicircular apse subtly reinforce the cruciform shape of the building. In its early years, the church congregation consisted of a large number of Irish and German immigrants, a number of whom worked on the James River and Kanawha Canal. Many important people later attended St. Peter’s including Littleton Tazewell, Governor of Virginia from 1834 to 36; various French consuls who made Richmond their home; Civil War General Beauregard; and Pearl Tyler, daughter of President Tyler, who had her wedding there. The building received a substantially renovation in 1854 and is still used today as a downtown parish church. St. Peter’s Church is located at 800 E. Grace St. The church is open to the public. For information, call 804- 643-4315. Sterns and Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Buildings The Stearns Iron-Front and Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Buildings, known collectively as “the Iron Fronts”, are a series of cast iron-fronted commercial buildings. Construction began in 1866, a mere year after downtown Richmond burned to the ground near the end of the Civil War. Representing the ability to strive forward following the setbacks of the Civil War, the Iron Fronts are not only a technological achievement for their time, but one of the most important surviving examples of commercial architecture from late 19th-century Richmond. In 1865, a Richmond businessman Franklin Stearns purchased the land for $32,100. Stearns bought the property from the President and Directors of the Farmer’s Bank, which was lost in the calamitous 1865 Richmond evacuation fire started by the retreating Confederate army. Completed in 1869, the four-story, Stearns Iron-Front Building occupies more than half a city block, creating an impressive iron façade along the south side of Main Street, known as Stearns Block. The building is in the Main Street Banking Historic District , once known as “Richmond’s Wall Street” for the number of financial businesses located there. Constructed in four distinct sections, the building’s cast iron façades are extraordinarily intricate. Details include entrances framed by Corinthian columns and rounded arches with spiraling vines, topped by a garland and rosebud. Vines, garlands, and rosebuds also decorate the windows, and a heavy cornice with large and ornate brackets draws the eyes up from the street level. The Stearns Iron-Front Building displays a high level of craftsmanship rarely found today. John Asher and Williams S. Donnan began construction on another iron-fronted building two blocks to the east in 1866. One of the finest and most ornate iron-front rows surviving in the city, the four-story Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Building is in Italianate style and is reminiscent of Venetian Renaissance palaces. The façade remained unaltered until 1966, when the construction of a modern entrance for a ground-story shop removed the original architectural elements in all four bays of the building. The Donnan-Asher block is in the Shockoe Slip Historic District , Richmond’s oldest mercantile center. Only two blocks apart, the Stearns Iron-Front Building at 1007-1013 E. Main St. and the Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Building at 1207-1211 E. Main St. are located in the Main Street Banking Historic District and the Shockoe Slip Historic District respectively, bridging two of the most important historic trade areas of Richmond. The ground levels of the buildings are open to the public during normal business hours. The Stearns Iron-Front Building now houses a variety of offices, with retail and restaurants on the ground level. The Shockoe Slip Historic District, which contains the Donnan-Asher Iron Front-Building, is an area of cobblestone streets and alleys that is home to many popular restaurants, cafes and shops. Both the Stearns Iron-Front Building and the Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Building have been documented by the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey. Stewart-Lee House Originally part of a group of five houses built by tobacco merchant Norman Stewart between 1844 and 1849, the Stewart-Lee House is the solitary domestic survivor of what once was one of Richmond’s finest residential blocks. The house ranks among the best-preserved remaining examples of the three-story Greek Revival town houses popular in Richmond from c. 1840 to c. 1850. The building still survives largely because of its brief historical connection to General Robert E. Lee. When Norman Stewart died in 1856, he left the building to his nephew John Stewart, who rented it to General George Washington Custis Lee, Robert E. Lee’s son, and a group of young Confederate officers. The officers used the house as the “bachelor’s mess” until 1864, when Robert E. Lee’s wife and daughters arrived to live there after the confiscation of their home, Arlington. General Lee retired to the house joining his family on April 15, 1865, following the surrender of the Confederate army at Appomattox. The family left Richmond together for the country in June of that same year. Matthew Brady took his famous photographs of General Lee while he lived in the house. Constructed to harmonize with other dwellings on “Stewart’s Row”, the house is a freestanding building. A three-story duplex originally flanked it on the east and a row of 2½-story gable-roofed houses on the west. These tall, “shoe box-shaped” buildings generally had a side hall plan and a full basement. They occupied most of their relatively small lots. The Steward-Lee House is located at 707 East Franklin St. and now houses offices. It may be possible to arrange a visit. For information, call 804-643-2797. The Steward-Lee House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . A cast iron fence decorated with Greek frets, fluted posts topped with pineapples, and a diamond and star pattern encloses the shallow front yard. Except for the gate, the fence is identical to that at the Barret House , dating from the same year. An iron boot-scraper mounts a stone block to the left of the front portico, and a stone block set into the red brick façade of the building reads, “The residence of the family of General Robert E. Lee 1864-1865 and to which he retired after Appomattox.” When a high-rise office building was built next door in 1967, underpinnings were placed under the west wall of the house, and steel beams were driven into the ground near its front. On the east side of the house a brick herringbone wall and granite steps descend towards the rear garden, which now faces a parking lot. Renovated for use as offices, the building now house the Home Builders Association of Virginia. The Stewart-Lee House is located at 707 East Franklin St. and now houses offices. It may be possible to arrange a visit. For information, call 804-643-2797. The Stewart-Lee House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Taylor-Mayo House Built in 1845 by Samuel Taylor for his son William F. Taylor, the Taylor-Mayo House, now known as the Mayo Memorial Church House, is the only surviving private residence in Richmond in the form of a Greek temple. The building stands at the northeast corner of Franklin and Jefferson Streets set back from a shallow front yard surrounded by a decorative cast iron fence. The two-story brick mansion is covered in stucco and has a five-bay façade dominated by a portico with a pediment and massive Ionic columns. In 1872, Peter H. Mayo, one of Richmond’s wealthiest citizens, bought the house. He was the owner of P.H. Mayo & Bros., who introduced cigarette manufacturing to Richmond. Having built the family tobacco fortune back up following the destruction of the Civil War, Mayo was in a position to purchase and leave his mark on what was already a fine building. He raised the original one-story flanking wings to two stories, altered the windows, and put a long addition on the west side of the house. The house retained the original design of the façade with its two-story Ionic portico. Mayo spent enormous sums renovating the interior of the house to incorporate lavish materials such as the polished mahogany with which he finished the parlors, dining rooms, and a library. He also added chambers of olive, walnut, and bird’s eye maple; and inlaid flooring of various hardwoods on the main floor. An elaborate stairway, lit from above by a leaded-glass skylight, features a curved handrail and a fanciful newel post depicting a griffin in carved oak. After many years of association with the Mayo family, Mr. Mayo’s daughters, Mrs. Benehan Cameron and Mrs. Thomas N. Carter, gave the house to the Episcopal Diocese of Virginia. The building now contains the offices of the bishop and staff of the diocese, which uses it for various church functions. The house still has many of its significant features preserved even after construction of a new addition. The Taylor-Mayo House is located at 110 W. Franklin St. and is used by the Episcopal Diocese of Virginia. For information about visiting the house, call 804-643-8451. United States Post Office and Customs House Built in 1858 to house Richmond’s Federal customs house, post office, and courthouse, the original portion of the United States Post Office and Custom House is an imposing Italianate building. Its exterior is of local “Petersburg” granite, while the interior makes extensive use of cast iron structural components. Ammi B. Young, supervising architect of the U.S. Treasury Department, designed the original center section. Young, an important architect of the period, was the designer of a number of innovative government buildings in the middle of the 19th century in cities throughout the United States. When the Congress of the new Confederate States of America selected Richmond as its capital, the building played a significant role in the Civil War. It provided offices for Confederate President Jefferson Davis and other executive staff, including the Confederate Treasury Department. At the end of the Civil War, the Richmond evacuation fire of 1865 left much of Richmond in ruins. With its stout granite walls and inflammable roof, the courthouse was the only building in the area to survive the fire. Following the conflict, the Federal Government reoccupied the building. Ironically, in 1866, the Grand Jury of the United States District Court met on the third floor and indicted Jefferson Davis for treason. Davis returned to the courthouse in 1867 for a hearing but was granted amnesty and never stood trial. For much of the 19th century the building represented the extent of the Federal Government in Richmond. During that period, it housed the customs house, post office, and Federal courts under one roof. Later additions expanded the building to its current proportions. Mifflin E. Bell, the Federal supervising architect of that era, provided direction for the addition of one-bay-wide wings at the corner of the building in 1887-89. Additional expansions took place in 1910 and the early 1930s. These enlargements used the same locally quarried granite as the original section and continued the use of the Italianate style. The continuity of style and material has made the expansion of the building into its present-day three-part architectural composition relatively seamless. The United States Postal Service vacated the building by 1991; only judicial functions remained. The courts did a master plan for the renovation and preservation of some of the most significant spaces within the original building, hoping to restore the finishes to their 1858 appearance. The first phase of the work took place in 1996-99, and included the restoration of a part of the Main Street lobby and office space on the third floor. The building remains in use by the Federal District Court and the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. The building is one of Richmond’s oldest and finest examples of government architecture. The United States Post Office and Customs House is located at 1000 E. Main St. close to Capitol Square. The building is accessible only to those doing business in the Federal courthouse. Hours are Monday-Friday from 8:00am to 5:00pm. Virginia Governor's Mansion The Virginia Governor’s Mansion, formally referred to as the Virginia Executive Mansion, is the oldest governor’s mansion in the United States built for that purpose. Its residents have had an important impact on the history of the nation as well as the Commonwealth of Virginia. Alexander Parris, a New England builder and architect, who resided in Richmond for three years, designed the Governor’s Mansion between 1811 and 1813. It replaced an earlier house adjacent to the present mansion that Governor Thomas Jefferson leased and subsequent governors occupied after the state acquired it in 1782. The dilapidated condition of the original wooden building prompted its replacement by the present executive mansion. The center-hall Governor’s Mansion is in the Federal style. A hipped roof and a balustrade that connects the four chimneys distinguish the two-story painted brick residence. The building has a slightly projecting center bay where a four columned portico in the “Tower of the Winds” Corinthian order creates a monumental entrance to the building. The façade is ornamented with decorative panels of garlands and swags. The interior of the house evolved in two primary phases. The stair hall and two front rooms on the first floor retain their original early 19th-century appearance and feature decoration and furnishings of that period. A major renovation in 1906 by the architect Duncan Lee opened up the rear rooms of the building and added a large ballroom decorated in a suitably classical mode. The private apartments of Virginia’s governors are on the second floor of the mansion. A sunken garden is to the south of the house. Overlooking the garden are the original kitchen quarter and stables where the slaves and servants of Virginia governors resided and worked. Family and staff of the governor use the dependencies and garden. The Virginia Governor’s Mansion is the oldest building continuously used as an executive residence in the United States. Virginia governors who occupied the house witnessed and played a role in a number of important events in the history of the state and the nation such as Nat Turner’s Rebellion, John Brown’s raid, the Civil War, Reconstruction, and the reception of dignitaries including Winston Churchill and Admiral Byrd. In 2007, Virginia’s governor received Queen Elizabeth II at the mansion on her royal visit in honor of the 400th anniversary of the founding of Virginia. The Virginia Governor’s Mansion, the Virginia Executive Mansion, is located at the northeast corner of Capitol Square near the intersection of Broad and 12th Sts. in downtown Richmond. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark . Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . The Governor’s Mansion can be viewed from Capitol Square daily from 7:00am to 11:00pm and is open for interior tours by appointment and during certain open houses. Call 804- 371-2642 for information or visit the Governor's Mansion website by searching for it in the official tourism website of the Commonwealth of Virginia . The Virginia Governor's Mansion and its Summer Kitchen have been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey. Virginia State Capitol The Virginia State Capitol, which Thomas Jefferson designed with Charles-Louis Clérisseau, was the first Roman Revival building in America and the first American public building in the form of a classic temple. The building was the site of significant events in American history while it was the Virginia State Capitol and in its role as the Capitol of the Confederate States of America from 1861 to 1865. In 1779, the Virginia General Assembly authorized relocation of the seat of Virginia’s government from Williamsburg to Richmond. In the legislation, the state established Directors of Public Buildings, whose job was to expand the city to the west of present-day 12th Street and to acquire six squares (city blocks) of land for government buildings. The relocation authorization called for using two squares for an executive mansion and one square each for the executive offices, legislature, courts, and a market. Governor Thomas Jefferson and his fellow Directors of Public Buildings supervised the planning of Shockoe Hill, including the Capitol Square area, in 1780. The first step toward construction of a new capitol occurred in 1782 when the Virginia General Assembly agreed to consolidate the executive, legislative, and judicial branches into a single site with one building. By 1784, Virginia’s Directors of Public Buildings acquired six contiguous city squares. This 12-acre site included the original executive mansion and space for construction of a new capitol building. In 1785, the directors hurriedly broke ground on a new capitol building when the Virginia General Assembly began discussion of moving the state capital out of Richmond. At that time, one of the directors, Thomas Jefferson, served as the United States Ambassador to France. Jefferson intervened during the initial construction of the capitol and convinced his fellow directors to adopt an alternative design. From France, Jefferson sent an architectural model (which is on display in the capitol) and plans for a temple-form capitol to house all three branches of Virginia’s government. Jefferson and his French architectural collaborator Charles-Louis Clérisseau modeled their design on the Maison Carrée, a Roman Temple in Nimes, France, considered a model of perfect classical design. Construction of Jefferson’s capitol progressed slowly, and the stucco-clad brick building was not complete until 1800. Although Capitol Square provided a dramatic setting for the capitol, the square remained an unimproved and raw tract for a number of years. In 1816, Maxmilian Godefroy designed and the Commonwealth of Virginia began implementation of a formal landscaping plan. In 1850, landscape designer John Notman of Philadelphia received a commission to redesign the square grounds, on the strength of his 1847 landscape design of Hollywood cemetery. In his redesign of the square, Notman overlaid the right-angled formal landscaping of the Godefroy plan in the curvilinear “natural” style popular in the middle of the 19 century. In 1807 John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, presided over Aaron Burr’s trial for treason in the building. Several Virginia constitutional conventions took place there, as did the state secession convention in 1861. General Robert E. Lee accepted command of the Virginia armed forces before the secession convention in the capitol in April 1861. During the Civil War, the Virginia State Capitol served as the Capitol of the Confederacy where the Confederate Congress met from July 1861 to April 1865. The interior of the capitol collapsed during a sensational trial in the Supreme Court chamber in 1870, and for a time, the state considered demolishing the building. The first major renovation came at the turn of the 20th century. Architect John Kevan Peebles led a major renovation of the capitol from 1904 to 1906, removing and replacing all of the original stucco on the building. The new stucco coating reshaped the curvature of the portico columns on the front. The renovation also included removing the exterior stairs on each side of the building and replacing them for the first time with stairs front of the portico. Steel was used extensively inside to reinforce the structural systems, but the spaces remained essentially intact. The most significant changes to the building came in the form of two new wings, an eastern or right hand wing to house the House of Delegates and a western wing for the State Senate. Between 2005 and 2007, the Capitol underwent another major renovation. This work created a new entrance and underground visitor center on Bank Street and restored the building to the c. 1907 appearance on the interior and exterior. Other changes included constructing a major new extension to the building beneath the hill in front of capitol and a major public entrance on Bank Street. The Commonwealth of Virginia led by the Capitol Square Preservation Council adopted a new landscape master plan in 2004 that is now being used to rehabilitate many aspects of the 19th-century landscape. The Capitol, a National Historic Landmark , is located downtown on Capitol Square bounded by 9th, Capitol, Governor, and Bank Sts. Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . The building is open free to all visitors Monday-Saturday 8:30am to 5:00pm, Sunday 1:00pm to 4:00pm. The Capitol Square Grounds are open daily from 7:00am to 11:00pm. For more information, visit The Virginia State Capitol website. Adjoining the Capitol are the Governor’s Mansion , Old City Hall , the Bell Tower , the United States Post Office , and St. Paul’s Church . The Virginia State Capitol has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Virginia Wasington Monument The Virginia Washington Monument became the first of Richmond’s many outdoor monuments and the second equestrian statue of George Washington in the United States. The monument influenced others across the nation to erect representational memorial statues. Interest in establishing an outdoor Virginia Washington Monument in Capitol Square began even before the Virginia General Assembly established a public subscription fund for it in 1817. The French émigré architect, Maximilian Godefroy, proposed a monument design in 1816, a large triumphal arch monument in front of the Virginia State Capitol portico. The Godefroy monument never came to be, but his extensive formal landscaping was in place by 1820. This early master plan for the square proposed a never constructed combination water tower and observatory on the site later chosen for the Washington Monument. Virginia’s Washington Monument effort gathered subscriptions for a number of years but did not gain momentum until 1849 when a group of patriotic Richmonders stirred the project into action. The Virginia General Assembly held an architectural competition that year and selected a design by Thomas Crawford, an American sculptor working in Rome. The winning design Crawford submitted largely conforms to the completed Virginia Washington Monument in place today with its base in the shape of a star fort and the three-tiered pedestal for sculptural figures. The stonework of the base was complete by 1854. Crawford designed three tiers of pedestals with George Washington on top, Virginia patriots in the middle, and a series of allegorical female figures and shields with inscriptions in memory of Revolutionary war principles or events on the bottom. The trophy figures represent the virtues of the revolutionary era and battles and places representing those virtues. The second tier consists of standing figures of Virginia’s leaders during the Revolution: Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, John Marshall, Andrew Lewis, Thomas Nelson, and Patrick Henry. Atop the pedestal is the equestrian statue of Washington. Crawford only finished the sculptures of Washington, Jefferson, and Henry before his death. Crawford’s protégé, another important sculptor Randolph Rogers, completed the remaining pedestal sculptures after the Civil War. Crawford had the Washington equestrian statue cast in Munich, Germany shortly before his death. A United States frigate transported the figure to Richmond. A group of men and boys hauled the statue to Capitol Square from Rocketts Landing, breaking down a section of fence in the process. The engineer Charles Dimmock rigged an ingenious wooded derrick to hoist the statue on the base, and legend has it he threatened workers at gunpoint when they appeared to be letting go of the rope. The unveiling of the statue was an event of national importance, which took place on Washington’s birthday, February 22, 1858. The statue was one of Richmond’s most prominent attractions, and the Commonwealth erected a cast iron fence around the base in the 1870’s to prevent climbing on the base. The monument represents the height of the “cult of Washington” in the 19th century. The Commonwealth of Virginia proposed to relocate the remains of Washington there in 1816, but his heir Bushrod Washington refused the request. The hope of making Capitol Square Washington’s last resting place persisted, and Crawford’s design reflects this hope. The base of the monument includes a tomb with a massive stone door to secure the remains of the first president. Efforts to obtain Washington’s remains did not succeed in the 1850’s, and Washington’s intended tomb remains empty. The Washington Monument is a highly significant work of art by one of the most important early-19th century sculptors in the United States. Recognizing the value of the monument, the Commonwealth of Virginia has undertaken conservation of the granite base and bronze figures in recent years. The Virginia Washington Monument is located at the northwest corner of Capitol Square, near the intersection of 9th and Broad Streets adjacent to the Virginia State Capitol , the Governor’s Mansion , Old City Hall , and St. Paul’s Church . The monument can be viewed from the grounds of Capitol Square, which are open daily from 7:00am to 11:00pm. The Washington Monument has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey. West Franklin Street Historic District West Franklin Street Historic District is an outstanding collection of monumental buildings and grand residences from the late-19th and early-20th centuries. The district provides a dramatic and contiguous streetscape between the Monroe Park Historic Distric t to the east and Monument Avenue Historic District to the west. The city extended Franklin Street into this area from the downtown core in the 19th century. The variance of this axis from the neighborhood to the south creates the diverging street pattern from which the Fan neighborhood derives its name. After the annexation of the area west of Belvidere Street into the city in 1867, the West End became one of the most fashionable residential enclaves in Richmond. The founding of the Richmond Professional Institute, now Virginia Commonwealth University or VCU, in 1917 resulted in the adaptive reuse of many of the older residential buildings along Franklin Street. Today VCU owns and uses the majority of the historic buildings in the 800 and 900 blocks of West Franklin for classrooms and offices. Prominent Richmonders made the district Richmond’s preferred residential address in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. The architecture on the street closely followed national architectural trends. VCU Founder’s Hall at 827 West Franklin Street with its mansard roof is an important example of the Second Empire style. Construction of the Lewis Ginter mansion c.1890 inaugurated the Richardsonian Romanesque style of architecture in the city. Harvey Reed of Washington, D.C. designed this impressive mansion at 901 West Franklin Street. The building, with its deep red brick and brownstone, is one of the finest residences of the period. Lewis Ginter merged his firm of Allen and Ginter with James B. Duke in 1890 to create the American Tobacco Company, the biggest American manufacturer of cigarettes until 1911. Gintner’s home became the social center of Richmond. Many row houses along West Franklin Street followed the lead of the Ginter Mansion. The facades of these dwellings are ornamented with local granite or various combinations of brownstone brick and terra cotta. Queen Anne style buildings at 800 and 826 West Franklin Street feature prominent porches and corner towers. The architecture of the street shifted to more classical styles architects influenced by the Beaux Arts movement designed in the 1890s. In 1895, the Virginia Commonwealth University President’s House became the first Georgian Revival style home in Richmond. The distinguished Hammond-Harwood House in Annapolis, Maryland provided the model for this ornate brick home at 910 West Franklin Street. The Richmond firm Noland and Baskervill designed the 1909 Scott-Bocock House at 909 West Franklin and the c. 1919 Hunton House at 810 West Franklin, both important examples of the Renaissance Revival style. The Scott Bocock House features a stone façade and Corinthian portico and the Hunton House a more vertical façade with a one story Corinthian portico and bay windows. The West Franklin Street District was also the scene of pioneering Richmond efforts in the development of steel frame high-rise apartment buildings in the opening decades of the 20th century. The Renaissance Revival Chesterfield of 1903 at 900 West Franklin Street is a seven-story corner building with oriel windows and a prominent cornice. Carneal and Johnston designed the similar Gresham Court Apartments at 1030 West Franklin Street in 1910. The attractive setting of the district prompted construction of the fine Noland and Baskervill designed Beth Ahaba Synagogue at 1125 West Franklin Street. The synagogue, which dates from 1904, is an outstanding example of the Renaissance Revival style influenced by Jeffersonian Classicism. Its prominent Doric portico and a dome topped by a lantern are shown off to good advantage by its dramatic site and the terminus of Ryland Street. The Beth Ahabah Congregation Hall is a handsome early 20th century Georgian Revival building housing the Beth Ahabah Museum and Archives. The grand mansions, town houses, apartment high rises, and religious buildings make the West Franklin Street Historic District one of the great architectural ensembles in any American city. The quality of design and materials make it a noteworthy place to visit. West Franklin Street Historic District is located on both sides of the 800, 900, 1000, and 1100 blocks of W.Franklin St. between Laurel and Ryland Sts. in close proximity to the Belvidere exits of Interstates 95, 64, and the Downtown Expressway. Because Franklin St. is one-way going east drivers must approach the district from Lombardy St. Many of the buildings are used by Virginia Commonwealth University. The Beth Ahaba Museum and Archives at 1109 West Franklin Street is open to the public. For information, visit the Beth Ahaba website or call 1-804-353-2668. The Palmer House at 211 W. Franklin St. has been documented by the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey . White House of the Confederacy The White House of the Confederacy served as the Executive Mansion of the Confederacy from 1861 to 1865, when Richmond was the capital of the Confederacy. The mansion was the official quarters during the Civil War of the only President of the Confederate States of America, Jefferson Davis. From this house, Davis fled Richmond on April 3 1865, just before the April 9, 1865 surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox. The house was the birthplace of his daughter Winnie, “Daughter of the Confederacy,” and where his son Joseph died in a fall from a porch. Originally built in 1818 for Dr. John Brockenbrough, the home is one of the finer examples of Federal style homes in the City of Richmond. Celebrated architect Robert Mills designed the mansion. Mills was also responsible four years earlier for the design of the nearby Monumental Church at 1313 East Broad Street. In addition to its historic interest as the seat of the Confederacy during the Civil War, the home and attached museum rank as the most outstanding repository of Confederate memorabilia in the United States. The Confederate Memorial Literary Society, a group of Richmond women, acquired the house in 1893. Three years later, on February 22, 1896, the building opened as the Confederate Museum and “promptly became the premier national repository of Confederate artifacts, acquiring the majority of its world-famous collection between 1896 and World War I” ( Museum of the Confederacy ). The white house continues to house an astounding collection of objects associated with the Confederacy and President Davis. The contemporary museum building next door now houses most of the institution's vast collection which includes the Appomatox uniform and sword of Robert E. Lee, “Stonewall” Jackson’s sword and cap, and items of clothing and equipment associated with other noted Confederate leaders. Richmond architect Henry E. Baskervill provided direction for fire-proofing and restoring the mansion to museum status in 1895. Another renovation of the house occurred from 1977 to 1988 to restore the white house to its Davis-era elegance complete with period decor, furnishings, and objects. The museum building next door houses three floors of exhibits as well as the Eleanor S. Brockenbrough Library and the conservation and preservation efforts. The house and the modern museum building together comprise the Museum of the Confederacy, which serves as an international center of study on the role of the Confederacy in the American Civil War. The White House of the Confederacy is located at Clay and 12th Sts. in the historic Court End neighborhood, an area surrounded by the growing hospital complex of the Medical College of Virginia (MCV). The White House of the Confederacy has been designated a National Historic Landmark . Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . The house and the museum are open Monday-Saturday 10:00am to 5:00pm, Sunday 12:00 to 5:00pm. Fees are charged except for members, children under 7, and active duty military personnel. Call 804-649-1861 or visit the Museum of the Confederacy website for more information. Wickham-Valentine House The Wickham-Valentine House is an elegant neoclassical building constructed in 1812 by prominent Richmond attorney John Wickham and is currently operated as a historic house museum by the Valentine Richmond History Center. Designed by Alexander Parris in the Federal style popular in the early 19th century, the house is brick covered in stucco scored to look like stone blocks. Its back portico gazes upon extensive gardens that at one time stretched across the entire block. Inside, notable features include a dramatic cantilevered staircase with mahogany balustrade, baseboards with hand-carved magnolia buds and blossoms, rare and well-preserved decorative paintings, and a refined Federal style drawing room with an original pair of Charles-Honoré Lannuier card tables. The home’s wall paintings alone are worth the visit. In keeping with the neoclassical principle that decorations should reflect the purpose of the room, many of the walls in the house are painted according to a specific theme. The library ceiling, for example, pays homage to John Wickham’s passion for knowledge and learning with a painting of a compass, books, protractor, and an astronomical instrument called an astrolabe. The center of the painting is original and has been carefully restored. In the drawing room, merry scenes from Thomas Hope’s Costume of the Ancients (1809) remind the visitor that this space was used to entertain and relax. The dining room is adorned with food and wine motifs. John and his second wife Elizabeth raised 19 children in the house, with the help of 15 slaves and one paid housekeeper. After Elizabeth’s death in 1853 (John passed away in 1839), the house changed hands several times before Mann S. Valentine II, a successful entrepreneur and collector of artifacts, purchased the house in 1882. Mann made his fortune through the curiously named Valentine’s Meat Juice, a health tonic of pure beef juice. Rumor had it that his collection began with a cigar box filled with arrowheads. As his personal collection grew, Mann envisioned a museum devoted to history, art, and culture and began in 1892 to go about establishing just such a place. Upon his death the following year, he bequeathed both the house and his personal collection of art and artifacts to the people of Richmond, along with an endowment. In 1898, the house became the Valentine Museum, the first museum in Richmond. Mann’s brother Edward, a renowned sculptor, served as museum president until his death in 1930. The museum is fortunate to have in its collection all of the sculpture, papers, furniture, and memorabilia that Edward Valentine bequeathed in his will and has carefully restored Edward’s sculpture studio. By 1928, the collection had moved entirely to adjacent row houses acquired by the institution, and the Wickham House became a house museum. The house underwent several transitions in the 20th century, most recently returning to the Federal era/Wickham period. This last restoration, which took place in the 1990s, was driven in large part by the discovery of the original surviving wall paintings. Since then, the museum has continued to acquire items belonging to the Wickham family, including a Breguet mantle clock, decorative urns, and original furniture. The Valentine Museum became the Valentine Richmond History Center in 2001 and has as its mission to engage, educate, and challenge a diverse audience by collecting, preserving, and interpreting Richmond's history. Guided tours of the Wickham House are included with admission to the History Center and offer visitors a glimpse into the public and private world of the Wickham family. Visitors also may access the basement level of the house, where a self-guided tour explores the lives and private spaces of the family’s slaves. The Wickham-Valentine House, a National Historic Landmark , is located at 1015 E. Clay St. Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . The house is part of the Valentine Richmond History Center, which includes exhibitions, archives (available by appointment), Edward V. Valentine’s sculpture studio, Café Richmond, the Valentine Gift Shop, and meeting and event facilities. The History Center is open to the public Tuesday-Saturday 10:00am to 5:00pm, Sunday 12:00 to 5:00pm. Visitors may purchase a Court End Passport that includes admission to the Valentine Richmond History Center, the Wickham-Valentine House, the John Marshall House, and Monumental Church (open weekends May through October). Fees for adults are $10, seniors/students $7. Tours of the Wickham-Valentine House are available every hour Tuesday-Saturday from 11:00am to 4:00pm and Sunday 1:00pm to 4:00pm. For information, call 804-649-0711 or visit The Valentine Richmond History Center website. The Wickham-Valentine House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Shockoe Valley and Riverfront Main Street Station and Trainshed Main Street Station is an ornate and imposing five-story building with a steep hipped roof and a clock tower at its southwest corner. Regarded as one of Richmond’s most renowned buildings since its opening day in 1901, the depot is a prestigious ornament for the city. Built when rail travel was at the peak of its importance, its architectural grandeur provided a powerful symbol as a gateway to the city. Constructed over a two-year period spanning the turn of the 20th century and designed in an eclectic variation on the ornate French Renaissance style, Main Street Station originally functioned as the train depot and offices for the Chesapeake and Ohio (C & O) and Seaboard Air Line Railroads. It marked the crossroads of the two lines, with Seaboard Air Line being the major north-south line in the country. The station was at the center of a monumental effort to elevate the entire rail network of central Richmond, and replaced Broad Street Station three miles to the west. The latter, designed by architect John Russell Pope, now houses the Science Museum of Virginia . Wilson, Harris, and Richards of Philadelphia, a firm that specialized in railroad architecture, designed both the monumental depot building and the attached 400’ long industrial train shed. In 1907, Wilson, Harris, and Richards also designed the French Renaissance style building at 1552 East Main Street, the former Railroad YMCA. It originally catered to railroad workers from the many local rail lines. The building now houses the Old City Bar to the immediate east of Main Street Station’s elevated tracks. Architecturally, Main Street Station ranks as an excellent example of the influence of the French École des Beaux-Arts ("School of Fine Arts") on American architecture and building. Adapted from French Renaissance architecture, the style of the station is associated with what has been termed Second Renaissance Revival, a style fostered in America by architect Richard Morris Hunt between c. 1880 and c. 1890. Main Street Station is a particularly lavish and imposing example of this style, of which relatively few examples remain. The large cast iron train shed attached to the rear of the building is far more industrial and utilitarian in character, but remains impressive as one of the last examples of its age and type in the country. The once-bustling transportation hub closed in 1975 due to a decline in passenger rail service. The reopening of the historic station in 2003, however, marked the culmination of years of renovation to this 102-year-old landmark and the return of passenger train service to downtown Richmond. In the years to come, planned upgrades to the station include the integration of bus, trolley, airport shuttle, taxi and limousine services. As Main Street Station continues to transform into a significant multi-modal transportation center, it will once again serve as a gateway to the City of Richmond and its metropolitan region. Main Street Station and Trainshed, a National Historic Landmark , is located at 1520 E. Main Street. . Click here for the National Historic Landmark registration file . An active train station, hours of operation are Monday–Thursday 9:30am to 6:00pm, Friday 9:30am to 9:00pm , and weekends 9:00am to 8:30pm. Main Street Station and Trainshed has been documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey . For more information, visit the Richmond Metropolitan Authority website. Mason's Hall Standing aloof from the bustle of the surrounding restaurants, shops, and warehouses of Richmond’s Shockoe Valley, Mason’s Hall is the oldest Masonic Hall in continuous use in the country. The building was completed in 1787 for Richmond Lodge Number 13 of the Ancient Free and Accepted Masons. James Mercer, Grand Master, laid the cornerstone with the assistance of Edmund Randolph, governor of Virginia and a mason himself. Shortly thereafter, the citizens of Richmond met in the hall to instruct their delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Edmund Randolph and John Marshall belonged to what was originally Lodge Number 13, and the masons elected both of them to be Grand Masters of Masonry. The Marquis de Lafayette was made an honorary member when he visited the hall in 1824. The building served as a hospital during the War of 1812. When Federal troops entered Richmond in 1865, a Union General, who was a mason, posted a guard at the building to prevent it from being burned. The late-Georgian, weatherboarded building, capped by a jaunty cupola, was remodeled in the mid-19th century when much of its exterior trim was replaced by Greek Revival work. The façade is distinguished by a slightly projecting pedimented pavilion with a dwarf portico. The interior has a remarkable set of rooms decked out in Masonic architectural and decorative paraphernalia on all three floors, all relating to the various Masonic rituals Much of the fabric is original. The building is now the home of Richmond Randolph Lodge No. 19. Mason’s Hall is located at 1807 E. Franklin St. The exterior is visually accessible at all times. The interior is visible to the public only during rare special tours. Mason’s Hall as been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Old Stone House The Old Stone House, one of Richmond’s only remaining colonial period dwellings, now serves as part of a museum dedicated to the life and work of American poet and storywriter Edgar Allan Poe. Poe never lived in the house, although it stands just blocks away from his first home in Richmond and his first place of employment, the Southern Literary Messenger. Poe worked as editor for the Messenger under Thomas W. White, a position he held from December 1835 to January 1837. After leaving Richmond, Poe continued to edit and write his sensational tales in Philadelphia and New York. The house is a rare example of early stone construction in the city, and its coursed rubble stonework probably is of stones from the nearby James River. Although tree-ring dating has suggested a construction date of 1754, the earliest written records of the house date it to 1783. City land-tax books show that a Mr. Samuel Ege, a local flour inspector, lived in the house. He likely inherited the property from his father Jacob Ege, a German immigrant and tailor. The house’s location in Shockoe Bottom (then called Shaccos or Shockoes) afforded convenient access to the many 18th-century flourmills that stood along the canals and millraces adjacent to the river. Architecturally, the house is of a simple design with a gable roof, two end chimneys, and three asymmetrical dormers on the façade. The interior has a hall-parlor plan typical for the period, plaster walls, and minimal wood trim. A steep staircase leads to the second floor. Behind the house is a handsomely landscaped formal garden, installed sometime in the 20th century. An annex containing an entrance foyer and museum room is an addition to the northwest corner of the house that dates to the same period as the garden. Two buildings on the east side of the garden house additional museum rooms and a gift shop. The southernmost of these two buildings is partially of materials salvaged from the offices of the Southern Literary Messenger where Poe worked. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA) acquired the house in 1911. Because the Edgar Allan Poe Museum complex has been in the house since 1922, the public often refers to the house itself simply as the Poe House. The official Poe Museum website says the following of its namesake: “Called "America's Shakespeare," Edgar Allan Poe created or mastered the short story, detective fiction, science fiction, lyric poetry and the horror story. His dark genius has invited children and adults to read and love literature for over 150 years.” The Old Stone House is located at 1914 E. Main St. at the corner of 19th and Main Sts. in the heart of the historic Shockoe Bottom neighborhood. The Poe Museum in the house is open to the public for a fee: $6 for adults and $5 for seniors and students. Guided tours are offered on the hour Tuesday-Saturday 10:00 to 5:00pm, Sunday 11:00am to 5:00pm. For information, visit the Poe Museum and Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities websites. The Old Stone House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey Pace-King House Located in the Shockoe Valley and Tobacco Row Historic District , the Pace-King House is a rare survivor of the grand mansions built in Richmond just prior to the Civil War. Completed in 1860, the house is an important early example of the Italianate style in Richmond. The home gets its name from two of its occupants, James B. Pace in the 1870s and Mrs. Jane King in the 1880s and '90s. This Italianate mansion is of a grand scale with elaborate embellishment, such as its fine cornice, clearly designed to impress. Most notable is the festive cast iron porch, outstanding in a city already famous for its ironwork. The Philadelphia firm of Wood and Perot, who cast the 1857 James Monroe Tomb in Hollywood Cemetery, is the most likely maker. Other features of the property include a full-width two-story rear porch and a well-preserved kitchen quarter at the rear of the property. Built by black Africans, this auxiliary building is an important African American architectural resource. Many personalities prominent in Richmond’s commercial and political history have associations with the house. It was originally home to Charles B. Hill, an active member of the local Democratic Party and a long-time alderman of the old Jefferson Ward. Mr. Hill made his living as an auctioneer, and his home was testament to his professional success. Mr. Hill died only two years after moving into the house. After his death, Philip K. White acquired it. A newspaper account from the late-19th century stated that for a time Charles G. Memminger, Secretary of the Confederate Treasury lived there, though Confederate archives do not list the house as an official address. Mr. Memminger may have been a guest of either Mr. Hill or Mr. White, until he found more permanent quarters. That same account reported that here “. . . some of the finest entertainments were given and most brilliant receptions held that distinguish the brief but brilliant days of ‘Dixie’.” Mr. White died in 1865. James B. Pace, a prominent Richmond businessman, purchased the house at auction. Pace owned and operated the J. B. Pace Tobacco Company on nearby North 22nd Street. He was also a president of the Planters National Bank, one of the founders of the Virginia Trust Company, and a City Treasurer from 1905 until his death in 1920. In 1881, Pace sold the house to Mrs. Jane King, who ran a fuel company and wholesale and retail ice company that her late husband founded in 1856. She enlarged two of the house’s outbuildings for use in the ice business. A series of three more owners, including the Richmond Methodist Missionary Association, held the property until 1975, when it became a tenement. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities owned it for a time before selling it to a private owner. The Pace-King House is located at 205 N. 19th St. It is a not open to the public. Shockoe Slip Historic District Shockoe Slip Historic District, Richmond’s oldest mercantile district, is a dense area of late 19th-century commercial buildings. The district takes its name from and centers around a triangular cobblestone plaza bounded by East Cary, South 13th, and Canal Streets. Because of its proximity to the canal and the James River, steady quantities of tobacco and produce passed through “The Slip,” especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. Nearly all of the original buildings burned to the ground during the calamitous Richmond evacuation fire of 1865 during the Civil War. Because of the fire, the historic buildings that survive in Shockoe Slip today date mostly to the late 19th century, reflecting the quick rebuilding of the area after the war. An ornate fountain in the center of the plaza dates from 1905 and originally supplied water for the teams of horses that once hauled goods through the area. The fountain has an urn-type design in the Italian Renaissance style, with an octagonal base in solid stone. Charles S. Morgan donated the fountain whose inscription on one side reads “In memory of one who loved animals.” Most of the historic buildings in the district are from two to four stories in height and were constructed as mills, warehouses, and wholesale outlets, with some serving light industry. The majority are of brick construction in a modified Italianate style, with cast iron detailing (some locally-made) such as window lintels and storefronts. Most of the district’s buildings have new adaptive uses. They now house restaurants, cafes, shops, offices, and residences. Consequently, Shockoe Slip has a new life as a fashionable entertainment and retail center following preservation efforts that began between c. 1970 and c. 1980. The district retains a compact urban feeling and contrasts strongly with the cluster of tall modern bank buildings to the immediate west. Prominent buildings within the district include the Columbian Block of 1871 at 101 Shockoe Slip and the 1870 Bowers Brothers Coffee Building at 104 Shockoe Slip, both of which front Shockoe Slip proper. The W.R. Hill Building at 114 Virginia Street dates to 1879 and features a 20 bay long cast iron shop front produced by Richmond architectural ironworker Asa Snyder. The four-story Donnan-Asher Iron-Front Building at 1207-1211 East Main Street from 1866, the year following the evacuation fire, is one of Richmond’s most impressive iron-fronted buildings. It is in an Italianate style reminiscent of Venetian Renaissance palaces. Other notable buildings are the former Ladybird Hat Factory of 1907 at 140 Virginia Street, recently renovated for office and restaurant use; and, at 125 South 14th Street, a circa 1910 industrial building housing a contemporary furniture store. Shockoe Slip Historic District is located from 12th St. to 15th St. and Main St. to Dock St. on the southeastern outskirts of Richmond’s central business district. Shockoe Slip Historic District is Richmond’s oldest mercantile center and home to a lively assortment of restaurants, shops, and entertainment venues in close proximity to the Canal Walk and Capitol Square. For information, visit the Richmond River District website. A number of buildings in the Shockoe Slip Historic District have been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Shockoe Valley and Tobacco Row Historic District Shockoe Valley and Tobacco Row Historic District lies between Shockoe Hill and Church Hill at the southern end of Shockoe Valley. The district is the site of the earliest settlement of Richmond and the first residential, commercial, and manufacturing development. Richmond architectural historian Mary Wingfield Scott proclaimed this area the “Valley Where Richmond Began.” The district takes its name from Shockoe Creek, once the western boundary of the original settlement. The now enclosed creek ran up the valley from the James River more or less along the line of present-day 15th Street. Shockoe is the Native American term for flat rock, in this case referring to the large flat rock where Shockoe Creek entered the James River. A trading post was in this vicinity in the late 17th century. In the 1730s, William Byrd III founded the town of Richmond and commissioned William Mayo to survey the new town. Mayo’s plan of 1737 covered the area bounded by Shockoe Creek on the west, present-day Broad Street on the north, present-day 25th St. to the east, and a town commons along the James River to the south. The right-angled streets of the Mayo Plan provided the plan axis (orientation) for the future expansion of Richmond, and the squares (city blocks) of four ½-acre lots became a module used in future expansions of Richmond. The oldest building in Richmond, the Old Stone House (now the Poe Museum), may date from this period. The Ege family, pioneering Richmond settlers, constructed this vernacular stone building. In the 1750s, Henrico County built the first of three courthouses at the corner of 22nd and Main Streets. The third jail and courthouse, at 2117 and 2127 East Main Street, is a Romanesque building, which architect Carl Ruhermund designed in 1892. Another important early building in the neighborhood is Mason’s Hall, a Palladian Masonic lodge dating from 1785-87. This handsome building at 1805-1807 East Franklin Street is the oldest Masonic lodge in the United States, and one of the oldest continuously used Masonic lodges in the world. Main Street served as the route for travelers passing east and west through Richmond, and early on taverns, inns, and shops grew up along this street. The construction of a public market building in 1796 at 17th and Main Streets boosted the commercial vitality of the area. The present market building is the fourth on the site where farmers and food vendors have sold their wares on market days for more than 200 years. The district around the market and Main Street developed as Richmond’s first major commercial area in the 18th and 19th centuries and contains a wide variety of antebellum to late 19th and 20th-century commercial buildings. They are located on the 00 and 100 blocks of North 17th and 18th Streets and the 1700 and 1800 blocks of East Main and Franklin Streets. These two and three-story brick buildings have granite, wood, and iron storefronts, and often pressed metal cornices. Franklin and Grace became important residential streets early in the history of the neighborhood. One of the oldest houses in Richmond is the Adam Craig House at 1812 East Grace Street. Built in 1785, this large frame house has an 1822 brick kitchen and slave quarter and is situated on an original ½-acre lot. The neighborhood around the Craig House includes the best examples of early residential buildings in the neighborhood. Across Grace Street from the Craig House are brick and frame double houses from the first decades of the 19th century. At 19th and Broad Streets is Elmtree Row, a fine example of a Greek Revival row dating to 1853-1854. The Pace-King House at 205 North 19th Street is an outstanding Italianate mansion with an ornate bracketed cornice and cast iron porch. The house is noteworthy because of the large slave quarters in the rear of the property. It marks the end of residential development in the neighborhood. The Greek Revival and Italianate buildings at 202-208 North 19th Street date from the 1840s to the 1870s. Once threatened with demolition, the front portions of these buildings became part of the recording studio on the site in 1996. The tobacco industry began in the district in the 18th century with the establishment of tobacco inspection warehouses, where farmers bought their hogsheads of tobacco for storage and inspection. Certificates from the warehouses were a medium of exchange with local tobacco merchants. In the early 19th century, the nature of the tobacco business changed from exporting cured tobacco to the North or Europe as a raw product to manufacturing chewing tobacco in Richmond factories. In tobacco factories such as the William Grant Factory, at 1900 East Franklin Street, slave workers stemmed tobacco leaves and pressed them into cakes of chewing tobacco. The tobacco industry continued to grow in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tobacco factories and warehouse from the 1880-1930 periods are throughout the district. The finest grouping of these is “Tobacco Row” on the north side of Cary Street from the 1800 to the 2600 blocks. These buildings range from traditional brick and wood frame construction of the 19th century to the sleek steel and concrete buildings that date from after 1910. None of the Tobacco Row buildings is an operating factory today. Like most of the industrial buildings in the area, they have been or are being converted to office or residential use. Improvements in transportation made possible the industrial development of the neighborhood. The Richmond Navigation or Ship Canal was the earliest of the improvements. The canal allowed sailing vessels to come up into the center of Richmond and, with the Tidewater Connection, provided access to canal boats from the canal turning basin. At one time, many warehouses were along the canal where the Richmond Flood Wall now stands. Starting in the 1860s with the Virginia Central Railroad and continued by the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad after the Civil War, railroads began to shape the character and economy of the neighborhood. Elevated railroad tracks were a part of the improvements to the railroad network. The confluence of so many railroads prompted construction of Main Street Station in 1902 at 1520 East Main Street. The elevated railroad tracks along the western and southern boundaries of the district date from the same time period as Main Street Station. The railroad boom in the area prompted construction of buildings to serve the transient population of the city. The Railroad YMCA of 1902, at 1552 East Main Street, served railroad workers. Baltimore architects Archer and Allen designed another building from this era, the Branch Public Baths from 1909 at 1801 East Broad Street. The Kenneseth Israel Synagogue at 209 North 19th by D. Wiley Anderson and the Jewish Settlement House at 215 North 19th Street from the same period were for Richmond’s Jewish immigrants. All of these buildings have been adaptively reused for commercial and residential purposes. Richmond’s transportation network further helped to develop Shockoe Valley as a warehouse and distribution area early in the 20th century. Two freight depots in the district: the Chesapeake and Ohio at 18th and Marshall Streets from around 1880, and the Seaboard Airline Depot from around 1919 at 15th and Franklin Streets. The Richmond Cold Storage complex in the 200 Block of North 18th, c. 1910, and the Virginia Bonded Warehouses Scarborough and Howell designed at 17th and Cary Streets of 1911 were a part of the specialized warehousing developed during this period. Other warehouse buildings from this period are on Oliver Hill Way and North 18th Streets. The Shockoe Valley and Tobacco Row Historic District is Richmond’s oldest neighborhood, dating back to the very founding of the city. The many layers of the neighborhood’s history and the varied styles and types of buildings make it one of the most interesting historic districts in Richmond. Shockoe Valley and Tobacco Row Historic District is roughly bounded by 15th St. to the west, Broad and Franklin Sts. to the north, Pear St. to the east, and Dock St. to the south. The district is an urban neighborhood that is accessible for viewing at any time. Many of the buildings are open to the public. For information on when the farmers’ market is open, visit the 17th Street Farmers Market website. The Poe Museum website has its hours of operation. A number of buildings in the district have been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . South Richmond Forest Hill Park Forest Hill Park is a 105-acre urban park located on the south side of the James River in Richmond amidst the neighborhoods of Forest Hill, Woodland Heights, and Westover Hills. The park contains a dramatic landscape consisting of steep heights, wooded areas, open spaces, former stone quarries, and streams. The area’s dramatic terrain, which slopes towards the James River, is one of the park’s most appealing attributes. Located on the “heights” above the river, the area was once touted for its healthful atmosphere and cooling breezes. In addition to these natural features, the park contains several notable buildings. During the 19th century, Holden Rhodes, a locally prominent businessman, lawyer, and teacher, owned the land that now makes up the park. Between 1836 and 1843, he constructed his Greek Revival style home, Boscobel, using granite quarried from the land. This 1½-story granite house, now often referred to as the Stone House, continues to be a focal point in the park. After Rhodes’ death, the land passed through several owners including the Southside Land & Improvement Company, which renamed it Forest Hill Park and began selling off land east and north of the park in the Woodland Heights suburb. By 1890, the Richmond and Manchester Railway Company owned the property, using it as the terminus of the company’s electric streetcar line and constructing an amusement park with rides and other attractions. The company altered the Stone House to house a penny arcade. Accessible by trolley, the park was popular for year-round entertainment with activities such as ice skating, sledding, fishing, and swimming. By about 1930, the trolley line was no longer in use, and the amusement park closed. In 1932, the Forest Hill Community Library opened and moved into the Stone House. The City of Richmond acquired the parkland in 1934, restored the Stone House using Civil Works Administration funds under the Emergency Relief Administration, and built stone and brick walkways, picnic shelters, and other amenities. Since that time, the park has remained an area of picturesque natural beauty. In 1938, the Forest Hill Garden Club received an award from the National Council of State Garden Clubs for establishing a 10-acre tract in Forest Hill Park as a wildflower preserve and bird sanctuary. The project was enthusiastically described as “the most outstanding piece of civic achievement accomplished by a garden club in the nation.” Today, the park is popular for picnics, walking, running, and mountain biking on a network of trails that connect to the James River Park System. The park is second in size only to Joseph Bryan Park and Byrd Park – the “grand dame” of the Richmond city park system. Forest Hill Park is located south of the James River between Riverside Dr. and Forest Hill Ave. and 42nd and 34th Sts. The park is open from sunrise to sunset and has hiking and biking trails, picnic shelters, and tennis courts. The Stone House can be reserved for community and civic group meetings open to the public for modest fees. Contact the City of Richmond, Department of Parks and Recreation, Permits and Scheduling Office at 804-636-0761 to reserve a picnic shelter or the Stone House. For further information, visit the Forest Hill Park website. Manchester Industrial Historic District Manchester Industrial Historic District is located at the falls of the James River on the south bank. The industrial area of Manchester developed between 1880 and 1949 with a wide variety of high quality masonry buildings, solidly constructed and handsomely detailed. The district is significant for its pattern of uninterrupted commercial and industrial enterprise historically associated with the former independent city of Manchester. As early as the 1730s, developers, who recognized the commercial potential in the vicinity of the falls, built textile, tobacco, and flour mills, and warehouses along the James River. The Manchester Commons, mill ruins, and segments of the canal and millraces survive as tangible reminders of the progressive industrial development that has characterized the area for more than three centuries. The steady industrial development of Manchester is not surprising given its numerous commercial advantages: easy access to a deep-river port, an abundant supply of raw materials, the early establishment of railroad depots, a continuous influx of immigrants who provided cheap labor, and a growing statewide population that constituted a market for manufactured goods. The Manchester Industrial Historic District also symbolizes Richmond’s effort to industrialize and diversify the region’s agrarian economy in the wake of the devastation the city experienced because of the Civil War. The buildings in the district exemplify Richmond’s emergence as an industrial city of the New South. Most of the buildings date the period between 1880 to 1949 and are fine examples of commerical and industrial architecture of this period. Visually cohesive in scale and materials, the district's high quality masonry historic buildings reflect a variety of architectural styles. A majority have finely articulated brickwork and distinctive architectural detailing. Styles represented in the area include Art Deco, Beaux Arts Classicism, Commercial, Italianate, Moderne, and Queen Anne. Most buildings have few alterations on their exteriors since the time of their construction. Built in 1880 for the William G. Green Carriage & Wagon Makers, a business that enjoyed a relatively long-lived prosperity, the oldest surviving building in the district is at 18 West 7th Street. This two-story brick building has a hipped roof, simple wood cornice, segmental arches, and six-over-six wood, double-hung sash windows. The carriage door is filled in with brick, but the attached outhouse remains intact. A faint but legible shadow of the Green Carriage & Wagon advertisement is visible on the west elevation façade. Organized in 1894, the Southern Railroad was the third railway system in Richmond. The elegant c. 1919 Queen Anne style Southern Railroad Depot is at 102 Hull Street. The one-story depot has fine Flemish bond brickwork with glazed headers, as well as quoins at the corners, and a splayed tile roof supported by decorative brackets. Architectural details include corbelled chimneys, three-course brick arches over windows, stone sills, and unusual sixteen-over-two wood double-hung sash windows. The primary north elevation has symmetrical entrance doors separated by the original ticket window. After the depot closed, the Old Dominion Chapter of the National Railway Historical Society became the building’s owner. A handsome collection of brick industrial buildings lies in the area bounded by Hull, Decatur, 2nd and 4th Streets. Constructed for the Crawford Manufacturing Company, a diversified manufacturer specializing in fabric novelties, awnings, marine textiles, and automobile seat covers, the buildings at 17, 27, and 104 East 2nd and 300 Decatur date from between 1915 and 1928. The A. S. Kratz Folding Paper Box Factory at 320 Hull Street from 1915 centers around a vast, single-story manufacturing area bracketed by two three-story corner blocks containing office space. The company expanded the building to the south and west as business grew. Additions include the 1949 shipping and finishing room at the rear of the original warehouse and a second addition on the west side dating from c. 1955. Today, the building recalls two distinct moments in the history of Manchester’s industrial architecture: the early 20th century when companies relied on a traditional vocabulary of stringcourses and pediments to reflect their success, and the mid-20th century when sleek lines, machine-made brick, and fixed-pane aluminum windows placed a fresh emphasis on foresight and technical innovations. Many buildings in the district continue to this day to serve industrial purposes, but a growing number are being adapted for residential uses. A burgeoning community of artists now is established in the area, renewing public interest in the historic resources in the neighborhood. The Manchester Industrial Historic District is adjacent to Highway 301 roughly bounded to the north by the James River, to the east by Stockton and Everett Sts., by McDonough and Perry Sts. to the west, and Commerce Rd. and 7th St. to the south. The district is located across the James River from downtown and is accessible via crossings at 9th and 14th Sts. Manchester Residential & Commercial Historic District Manchester Residential and Commercial Historic District is on a rise above the south bank of the James River in what was Manchester, a separate city that became a part of Richmond in 1910. The Lee, Mayo, and Manchester Bridges link the district, sometimes referred to as Old Manchester, to Richmond’s central business district. Manchester began as an English settlement called “Rocky Ridge” in the 17th century and in the 18th century became a trading center at the falls of the James River, with Richmond across the river to the north. Tobacco trade was at the center of its development. Manchester incorporated in 1874, becoming the seat of Chesterfield County at the time. Manchester’s historic properties illustrate its growth from a scattered settlement to a thriving port and manufacturing center. The district contains a significant concentration of mid-19th and early-20th century residential and commercial buildings in a variety of styles. In the early 18th century, Manchester was primarily along the James River and Manchester Canal, an area now within the adjacent Manchester Industrial Historic District. Later, outward development to the south and west brought scattered residential and commercial development, primarily wood frame buildings. More substantial buildings gradually replaced these earlier buildings beginning in the late 19th century. Hull Street, the main east-west thoroughfare, which runs along the southern edge of the district, has primarily commercial and civic buildings. Bainbridge, Porter, and Perry Streets, parallel to and north of Hull Street, are predominantly residential in character with a scattering of historic churches and schools. The earliest building in the district is the Archibald Freeland House at 1015 Bainbridge Street. Built before 1797, this two-story Georgian-style brick dwelling has a Victorian era porch on the façade that replaced the original two-story porch. The district also contains a number of mid-19th century Greek Revival style buildings. Bainbridge Baptist Church dating from 1857 and remodeled in 1901 is at 1101 Bainbridge Street, the Turner-BaldwinHouse (pre-1859) at 1209 Porter Street, and the John B. Anderson House (pre-1860) at 12-14 East 12th Street. The Anderson House, which stands on the property of the former Farmer’s Tavern demolished c. 1913, is a surviving example of the wood frame buildings that were once more common throughout Manchester. Most buildings date from after the Civil War from the period between 1866 and 1917. Recovery and reconstruction in the years following the Civil War came slowly. Manchester's working class community consisted of 3,207 white and 1,935 black citizens by 1874, and its population had grown to 9,246 by 1890. Manchester’s mills widely exported the flour they produced. This, in conjunction with the railroad, and shipping and manufacturing industries, helped generate prosperity in the area. The first business directory of Manchester in 1906 documents that whites owned all the boarding houses and black citizens owned all the eating houses and 16 of the grocery businesses, and that three of the 14 physicians were African Americans. Along Bainbridge, Porter, Perry, and the numbered cross streets residences are the predominant historic building type, with a few scattered schools and churches. The Ingram House from 1876 at 1201 Porter Street is the earliest Italianate style dwelling remaining in the area. Its full-width cast iron front porch is one of only two surviving in the Manchester historic district. The other is another brick Italianate house at 1109 Bainbridge Street that dates from 1886. Examples of the well-represented Queen Anne style include the 1300 block of Bainbridge, the Ligouri House at 1415 Perry Street (with a nearly identical neighbor at 1417 Perry Street), the 1500 block of Perry Street, and the 1100 and 1400 blocks of Porter Street. The Church of the Sacred Heart at 1401 Perry Street, dating from 1901, is a brick 1½-story Renaissance Revival style building that Joseph Hubert McGuire designed. Hull Street has long been the commercial artery serving Manchester and connecting southside Virginia with Richmond and trade on the James River. Commercial buildings in the Hull Street corridor form a dense urban landscape punctuated by governmental buildings clustered in a block or at a major intersection. In contrast with the earlier wood frame dwellings, the commercial buildings tend to be attached brick buildings in the Italianate, Colonial Revival, and commercial vernacular styles. Architect D. Wiley Anderson designed The Beattie Block at 1119 to 1125 Hull Street, the earliest commercial building in the district. Even though its storefront is altered, the building still has a stone in the center of the brick Italianate façade inscribed with “The Beattie Block 1887.” Other historic commercial buildings include the Baldwin Building, a brick Italianate department store dating from 1905 at 1209 Hull Street and 1309-1311 Hull Street, a brick building from 1895. This Beaux Arts style building with a metal storefront featuring cast iron Corinthian columns is one of the few of its type in the district. Banks include the Classical Revival Bank of Commerce and Trusts at 1128 Hull Street from 1921, and the Art Deco American Bank and Trust at 1518 Hull Street from 1930. Built in 1871 and individually listed in the National Register of Historic Places, the Manchester Courthouse dominates the entire 900 block on the south side of Hull Street. Designed by architect Albert West, this one-story brick Colonial Revival building has a Tuscan-style portico with paired columns. The Manchester Post Office, a brick and stone Georgian Revival building built at 1019 Hull Street in 1910 is another significant government building. The area is currently seeing a surge in redevelopment and rehabilitation of historic buildings, especially along the Hull Street corridor. Plant Zero Art Center at 0 East 4th Street is an anchor. Manchester Residential and Commercial Historic District roughly includes the area bounded by 9th St., McDonough St., Cowardin Ave., and Stockton St., and 1211-17, 1301-1305 and 1418 McDonough St., 310-12 W. 12th St., 309 W. 13th St., and 314 and 400 W. 14th St. Some buildings are open to the public including the Manchester County Courthouse and churches open for services. West End Agecroft Richmond’s Agecroft is a large manor house influenced by the Tudor and early Stuart periods. The estate is important for its architectural splendor and gardens and as a reflection of the social and aesthetic ideals of Virginia’s upper class citizens in the 1920’s. They appreciated Anglo-Saxon heritage and saw themselves as heirs of the landed gentry. Originally built in Lancashire, England in the late 15th century, Agecroft Hall was for several centuries the dignified home of England's aristocratic Langley and Dauntesey families. At the end of the 19th century, the estate fell into disrepair. The property sold at auction in 1925 to the high bidder, Thomas C. Williams, Jr. of Richmond, who ambitiously had it dismantled, crated, and shipped across the ocean. Between 1926 and 1928, he had the central portion of the originally sprawling building reassembled in Richmond’s west end in the prosperous Windsor Farms neighborhood. Its present-day setting on rolling bluffs above the James River is said to be reminiscent of the original site on Lancashire's Irwell River. Although not a reconstruction, the grand Tudor Revival house incorporates many of the decorative features and some of the structural elements of the original Agecroft Hall and a stairway from 16th century Warwick Priory, another English house. The building boasts a Great Hall with a large leaded-glass window transported intact from England. The ornately paneled wood interior has carved staircases, a 1610 lantern clock, and paintings and furnishings dating from 1485 to 1660 that include a 1566 portrait of William Dauntesey and a 17th-century painted wood bedstead. The grounds around Agecroft are as appealing to visitors as the building itself. Noted American landscape architect Charles Gillette designed the site, which embodies both the order and splendor of English gardens. The pond garden at England's Hampton Court Palace provided inspiration for the sunken garden full of blooming annuals. According to Agecroft’s website, “A walk through these gardens feels much like a stroll back in time, with elaborately clipped herbs of the knot garden, a collection of exotic plants once recorded by John Tradescant the Younger, and a living exhibit of medicinal, flavoring and aromatic plants.” Agecroft is located at 4305 Sulgrave Road in Windsor Farms, a short drive from downtown Richmond with convenient access from Interstates 95 and 64. The house and gardens are open to the public for a fee Tuesday –Saturday 10:00pm to 4:00pm, Sunday 12:30 to 5:00pm (closed on Mondays and national holidays). The admission charge includes an introductory film and guided tour of the museum (garden tours are self-guided). Reduced admission fees are available for seniors, children, and students. Group tours and educational tours may be scheduled by appointment. Call 804-353-4241. Visit the Agecroft Hall and Gardens website for more information. Boulevard Historic District and Confederate Memorial Chapel for Needy Confederate Women Boulevard Historic District is a grand avenue that connects one of Richmond’s largest parks, Byrd Park, on the south, to Broad Street, a major transportation corridor on the north. In the center of this historic corridor is the cultural campus the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts and the Virginia Historical Society. Lining the rest of the street are mostly town houses and apartments in a variety of architectural styles dating from 1915 to 1930. The Sydney subdivision of 1817 provided the initial impetus for the development of the neighborhood. This large speculative subdivision provided the layout of the streets and blocks in a large portion of the West End of Richmond. Sydney became a rural enclave of country homes and farms. The farms included the large tract of land north of Grove Avenue that Anthony Robinson and his heirs owned from the 1820’s to 1879. The Robinson house of 1860, expanded in the 1870s to the present three stories, remains on the grounds of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. It took nearly 100 years for this area to become a built out urban neighborhood. The first real step toward the development of the neighborhood came with the establishment of Reservoir Park, now Byrd Park, in 1873. By 1890 the designer of the park, City Engineer Wilfred Cutshaw reconfigured Clover Street as the Boulevard. This broad avenue extended from the reservoir in the park to West Broad Street providing a grand formal approach to the park. In 1884, the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered the Robert E. Lee Camp # 1, a home for needy Confederate Civil War veterans, and purchased the Robinson family estate to accommodate this residential facility. In addition to reusing the Robinson House, the state constructed cabins for veterans from various southern states. The state demolished the cabins in the 1930’s, but with the Robinson House, the Confederate Memorial Chapel of the Lee Camp from 1887 that Marion Dimmock designed remains. The Boulevard as an urban neighborhood really began to take form with the building of the Confederate Battle Abbey, now the Center for Virginia History, which is the home of the Virginia Historical Society. Philadelphia architects Bisell and Sinkler designed the original portion of this complex, a temple dating from 1911, as a home for Confederate-themed art and records of the Southern Confederacy. Shortly after Battle Abbey's construction, Richmond entered a period of tremendous growth and development. The neighborhood of the Battle Abbey became the focus of Richmond developers. The Davis Brothers, a design and build firm, became the largest and most successful developer on the Boulevard. The firm created common floor plans for town houses and large apartment buildings. The fevered pitch of speculative development by the Davis Brothers and others resulted in the building out of the neighborhood between 1915 and 1930. Both apartments and town houses of this era were of brick and filled nearly the full width of each lot. Because of their density, only narrow side passages separated the buildings making the sides and rears of the buildings difficult to see. This provided a rationale for constructing the sides and rear of each building in an unadorned manner with plain common brick. The distinctive architecture of each building came in the ornamental facades in one or a fusion of the following styles: - Colonial Revival with Flemish bond brickwork and classical details. - Arts and Crafts with steep-pitched gables, fine brickwork, and half timbering characteristic of British Arts and Crafts architecture. - Spanish Eclectic with stucco cladding and tile roofs that evoke the architecture of the Mediterranean. The town houses of the Boulevard were generally groupings of architecturally unified rows of detached side-hall town houses that speculators built. Each town house typically has a full-width porch deck covered with either a full width porch, a one-bay entrance porch, or a cantilevered porch hood. The typically three story apartment buildings tend to dwarf the town houses of the street. Massive porches, often with large classical columns, provided exterior porch rooms for the units fronting the Boulevard. These buildings represented a new kind of fashionable urban living. Their distinctive names such as “William Byrd” and “Lakeview” signified the cache of Boulevard apartment living during that era. One of the largest apartment developments is the Tuscan Villa, a block-long Italian influenced courtyard apartments dating from 1920, at 501 to 515 North Boulevard. When the Boulevard became an attractive residential district, houses of worship chose to locate there. Richmond architect Albert L. West designed the Boulevard Methodist Church at 321 North Boulevard in 1919 with its distinctive Ionic Portico. The Gothic Revival Grace Baptist Church, now a Jewish synagogue, at North Boulevard and Grove Avenue, dates from 1923. St. Marks Episcopal Church, which Noland and Baskervill designed at 20 North Boulevard, is a grand Colonial Revival with a portico, multi-staged tower, and a spire in the manner of British Georgian architect James Gibbs. As the Confederate veterans began to die off, the site of the Robert E. Lee Camp developed as an institutional campus. The Home for Needy Confederate Women, a home for the elderly widows and daughters of Confederate veterans, is an elegant Neoclassical building Merrill Lee designed in 1932. Located at 301 North Belmont, the building is now a part of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. The original section of the Virginia Museum of fine Arts at the northeast corner of Boulevard and Grove Avenue dates from 1936 and is an outstanding Colonial Revival building, with a grand stair hall. The architects were Eggers and Higgins of New York with Peebles and Ferguson of Norfolk. The last of these institutional buildings is the international headquarters of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, a modernist building the Richmond architectural firm of Ballou and Justice did the plans for in 1955 at 300 North Boulevard. The Boulevard is an outstanding collection of architecture primarily from the second and third decades of the 20th century. The district has distinct entrances on the north and south, an instructional campus in the center, and a unified array of religious buildings, residences, and apartments that tie the avenue together into a unified harmonious landscape. The Boulevard Historic District is located at 10—300 S. Boulevard and 10—800 N. Boulevard between Idlewood Ave. on the south and W. Broad St. on the north. It is about two miles west of downtown Richmond in the West End and is accessible by the Boulevard exits of the Downtown Expressway and Interstates 64 and 95. The individually National Register listed Confederate Memorial Chapel and Home for Needy Confederate Women are located at 2900 Grove Ave. and 301 N. Sheppard St. respectively. Branch House Well-known American architect John Russell Pope designed the Branch House in 1916 as a winter residence for John Kerr Branch, a wealthy financier from a distinguished Virginia family. Pope also designed Broad Street Station, now Richmond's Science Museum, as well as the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, the National Archives, and the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. The Branch House is the only property individually listed in the National Register of Historic Places on Monument Avenue, which is a prestigious National Historic Landmark district. Completed in 1919, the mansion is one of the earliest surviving examples of Tudor Revival architecture in Virginia and the only house designed by John Russell Pope in this style that still has its historic interior intact. Pope’s partner, Otto R. Eggers, helped design the house. The home contains a sprawling 27,000 square feet of space, dispersed over 11 discrete levels (some only partial), and its timeless exterior belies an underlying construction that was undeniably modern with elements such as fireproof concrete floors. When he had the house built, Branch was a partner in the investment firm Thomas Branch and Company, president of the Merchants National Bank, and director of both the Petersburg Savings Insurance and Continental Insurance companies. He was an avid collector and intended his Richmond house to be an exhibition space for his collection of Italian Renaissance objects. Its imposing size and Tudor Revival style provided an appropriately impressive setting for his collection of furniture, woodwork, tapestries, textiles, and even armor. Branch’s choice of style was in accord with social and aesthetic preferences of wealthy Virginians of English descent during the first decades of the 20th century. Notable features of the house include its surrounding brick privacy wall, the weathered brick and sandstone exterior, leaded windows, and interior ceilings with decorative plaster molding. The design incorporated an original Italian door and carved wood gallery screen from England, both dating to the Renaissance and part of Branch’s collection. The property remained in the Branch family until the 1950s, when the family bequeathed it to the United Givers Fund, a precursor to United Way. In 1982, the Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company bought it to use for its Richmond office. In that same year, the new owner donated a preservation easement to the Virginia Department of Historic Resources. In 2003 after a period of sporadic use and neglect, the Virginia Center for Architecture acquired the house. Following two years of substantial rehabilitation, the Center opened in 2005, making the Branch House accessible to the public for the first time ever as one of the country's few architecture museums. Designed to house Branch’s collection of art and antiquities, the rooms on the ground floor of the building are of a scale well suited for use as a gallery space. Exhibitions are displayed in two large rooms – a long gallery hall along the northern wall of the house and, behind that, a “great hall”, which was the former living room. In addition to these two primary gallery spaces, the ground floor of the building houses a wonderful museum shop. A smaller room originally used as a chapel may eventually house a permanent exhibit on Monument Avenue. The Branch House is located at 2501 Monument Ave. and is now the Virginia Center for Architecture museum. It is accessible to the public free of charge Monday-Friday 10:00am to 5:00pm, Saturday and Sunday 1:00pm to 5:00pm. Call 804-644-3041 for information or visit the website . The Branch House has been documented by the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey as part of the 2500 Block on Monument Avenue. Broad Street Station The only railroad station distinguished American architect John Russell Pope ever designed, this Neoclassical masterpiece served the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac (RF&P) Railroad lines from its completion in 1919 until 1975. The former Broad Street Station now serves as the Science Museum of Virginia, which recently completed a multi-million dollar renovation that retained the bulk of the building’s historic character. The history of Broad Street Station goes as far back as 1904, when RF&P bought the old fairgrounds at Broad and Davis Streets. The site was once the location of Civil War military encampments, hosted the annual state fair, and was home to ballparks for some of the country's first professional baseball teams. The railroad company first developed the site as the Hermitage Country Club, to encourage leisurely Richmonders to take the train on excursions out to what was then the western edge of the city. As Richmond grew, RF&P hoped to convert the old fairground property into a fashionable residential neighborhood akin to the then-new Fan District that was developing on the other side of Broad Street. The scheme for residential development never came to pass. In 1913, RF&P and the Richmond and Petersburg Railway (R &P), which cooperatively shared connecting rail lines, held an international competition for the design of a new "Union" Station. Later that year, they selected New York architect John Russell Pope as the designer. Pope, one of the most prominent architects of his time, had designed many government buildings, monuments, and private homes. Although he had never designed a commercial building before, his Neoclassical design for the new station made an impression. Pope’s legendary work includes the National Gallery of Art, the National Archives, and the Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C., as well as the one-of-a-kind Branch House in Richmond. Groundbreaking for the project began on January 6, 1917. Scheduled to take 18 months and projected to cost just over $1 million, the project suffered from a lack of skilled workers and increases in material prices due to World War I. After alteration and simplification of the plans, Union Station opened six months late and almost $2 million over budget. The first train pulled out at 1:07pm on January 6, 1919, two years to the day after the station's groundbreaking. Locally, the station quickly took on the name Broad Street Station and became increasingly busy over the next 25 years, peaking during World War II with an average of 57 trains a day. Following World War II, passenger rail traffic through Richmond steadily decreased, and slowly the city's railroad stations began to close. In 1958, the remaining Seaboard passenger trains shifted from Main Street Station to Broad Street Station. In 1971, Amtrak took over the remaining passenger trains in Richmond, and in 1972 moved operations to a new station off Staples Mill Road, west of the city. At 4:58 AM on November 15, 1975, the last passenger train rolled out of Broad Street Station. Broad Street Station is yet another of Richmond’s notable buildings that narrowly averted destruction; in 1976 RF&P sold the property to the State of Virginia, which began to make plans to demolish the station. Rather than spend the money necessary to convert the historic train station into modern office space, the state planned to clear the land and construct new buildings for a satellite office park. Fortunately, efforts to save the building proved effective. In 1976, the state allowed the nascent Science Museum to temporarily move into part of the old station while plans for the new office park were still on the drawing boards. The museum’s presence quickly became permanent, and the state subsequently agreed to build its office park around the building rather than destroy it. On January 6, 1977, Governor Godwin presided over the dedication of the Science Museum's first exhibit gallery, The Discovery Room. The event celebrated the 58th anniversary of the building, the rebirth of Broad Street Station, and the culmination of over 70 years of effort to establish the Science Museum of Virginia. Today, the station’s central copper dome and Doric portico in Indiana limestone continue to provide a prominent and lasting landmark along West Broad Street. Broad Street Station is located at 2500 W. Broad St. The Science Museum of Virginia, which is housed in the building, includes an IMAX Theater. The museum is open Monday–Saturday, 9:30am to 5:00pm and Sunday, 11:30am to 5:00pm. Call 804-864-1400 or 800-659-1727 or visit the museum's website . An admission fee is charged. The Science Museum is adjacent to the recently-developed Children's Museum of Richmond. Byrd Park Pump House The Byrd Park Pump House, also called the New Pump-House, is a wonderfully executed late 19th-century example of the Gothic Revival style, applied to a municipal industrial building whose purpose was to house the Richmond city waterworks. The building, which served as the city’s waterworks from 1883 until 1924, is conveniently situated to draw water from the James River and Kanawha Canal as well as its own smaller canal. The facility pumped water uphill from the canals to the Byrd Park Reservoir, the city’s main water supply. Far from being entirely utilitarian, however, the pump house was also a popular gathering place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The pump house is in a scenic location at the Three-Mile Locks of the canal system. The site inspired Colonel Wilfred Emory Cutshaw, Richmond’s City Engineer from 1874 until 1907, to design the building as a social venue as well as a waterworks. He included an open-air dance hall, or pavilion, on the second floor above the equipment room. The pump house had the reputation of being one of the only buildings in the country designed and used as both a public utilities building and a social hall. The solid and impressive pump house is made of local granite. It has Gothic features such as pointed arches, lancet windows, and steep gables. The high level of craftsmanship and refinement of the design make the pump house a fine example of the Gothic Revival style and belie its primary purpose as a municipal water-pumping facility. Wilfred Emory Cutshaw, who oversaw the building's design and construction, was a grand figure in the development of Richmond. During his 34-year tenure as City Engineer, Cutshaw's endeavors included roads, sidewalks, schools, armories, parks, markets, and the construction of Old City Hall, one of the city’s most magnificent buildings. He was an advocate for tree planting along streets, and oversaw the creation of a tree nursery at the Byrd Park Reservoir. In 1907, a reporter for the Richmond Times-Dispatch wrote that "Cutshaw's greatest ambition was to turn every available foot of space into recreation resorts for the public." Cutshaw received some criticism for the cost that the pump house pavilion added to the city-funded project, but the pavilion would become wildly popular. During the late 19th century, the pump house pavilion was a favorite destination for parties. Well-dressed Richmonders could board a flat-bottomed boat at Seventh Street and take a leisurely ride up the canal to the pump house and its festive ballroom overlooking the woods and water below. Sadly, the building closed in 1924, and had its machinery sold off for scrap metal before the outbreak of World War II. The city slated the pump house for demolition in the 1950s but sold it to First Presbyterian Church for one dollar instead. The city has regained ownership and is currently looking to rehabilitate the building for use as offices and a headquarters and interpretive center for the James River Park System. The Byrd Park Pump House (New Pump-House) is located at 1708 Pump House Dr. at the southern tip of Byrd Park next to the remains of the first operating canal system in the country, the James River and Kanawha Canal . The building is not open to the public. For information, call the City of Richmond Parks and Recreation at 804-646-5733. The New Pump-House has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Byrd Theatre The Byrd Theatre is an outstanding example of the grand movie palaces constructed in Richmond and around the country during the early 20th century. When it opened on Christmas Eve in 1928, the Byrd Theatre was comparable to the famed Paramount and Roxy theatres in New York City. The theatre opened with Waterfront and remained a showcase for major studios such as RKO, Universal, Fox, Disney, Paramount, First National, and Warner Brothers. While the limited backstage area would not support stage productions, major film stars appeared on stage to celebrate the Richmond premiers of their pictures. Significant not only for its role in the history of the motion picture industry, the theatre is also an architectural gem. Richmond’s Fred Bishop was the architect and contractor for the million dollar building that follows the Renaissance Revival style. The Brouet Studios of New York did the decoration and artwork. Highly decorative terra cotta ornamentation dresses up the smooth façade and is evidence of the popular extravagance of the 1920s. The plain but impressive box office is black Italian marble, a material also used in framing the main entrance. The numerous plate glass doors lining the front of the building have frames of brass. The interior of the Byrd Theatre is arguably more impressive than its exterior. The ceiling of the main lobby is 25 feet high, vaulted, and heavy with gold-leaf plaster decoration. A large crystal chandelier sheds light on the walls that have veined marble covering them half way to the ceiling. Three hand-painted murals, which the Brounet Studios executed, line one wall, while the other three sides open onto a mezzanine lounge heavily decorated with gold-leaf plaster, crystal chandeliers, wall brackets, and solid bronze handrails. The auditorium recalls an Italian opera house in the elegant and flamboyant Rococo style, expressed in a superabundance of marble, crystal, gold leaf, crimson velvet, and elaborate plaster decorations. The 1,396-seat room is spacious, yet retains a feeling of intimacy and elegance. A two-ton Czechoslovakian chandelier with 4,000 hand-cut crystals hangs from the central dome. Another eight smaller chandeliers provide light throughout the auditorium. Six hand-painted murals line the sidewalls and niches, and large murals flank each side of the stage, forming a background to the opera-style boxes that display a grand piano and harp. The Byrd Theatre has continuously operated seven days a week, 365 days a year since its grand opening in 1928. The “Mighty Wurlitzer,” the theatre’s historic organ, is played every Saturday night for the enjoyment of theater patrons. The theatre has a full schedule of second-run movies and is home to special events such as the Virginia Commonwealth University film festival. The Byrd Theatre Foundation recently purchased the theatre and is planning to restore the interior and exterior. The Byrd Theatre is located at 2908 W. Cary St., right in the heart of Carytown. Easily accessible from highway 195, the theatre has two film showings every night and runs matinees on the weekend. Tickets for second-run showings are available for only $1.99. For additional information, visit the Byrd Theatre website. Carver Residential and Industrial Historic Districts Settled as a working-class neighborhood in the 1840s and '50s, the Carver Residential Historic District sometimes went by the name of Sheep Hill. Located to the northwest of Richmond’s central business district, the area remained largely undeveloped until the mid-19th century, which saw the construction of modest brick dwellings for small shop owners, tradesmen, and their families. The residents of Carver were reputed to be among the city's hardest-working skilled laborers, and the neighborhood gave rise to many of Richmond's most successful industrial businesses, which supplied much of the millwork and bricks that built Victorian Richmond. Blue collar Jewish and German tradesmen first settled Carver, which became a thriving African American community by the turn of the 20th century. The creation of the Richmond Turnpike (later Broad Street) in 1804 opened the western hinterlands of the city for suburban development. Prior to that time, a single family, the Buchanans, held the property that today comprises the Carver district. Buchanan’s Spring cut a deep gully through the heart of the area as it flowed north toward Bacon Quarter Branch. In 1810, Parson John Buchanan began to subdivide and sell off the 500-acre estate centered around his home, Gielston, which stood near the 1000 block of present-day West Broad Street. Although the house disappeared in the second half of the 19th century, the name Buchanan’s Spring persisted. The spring provided water for a brewery near the property. By 1867, it was the Eagle Brewery, which became the Home Brewing Company in 1897, makers of Richbrau beer. The old Richbrau Brewery building still stands at 1201 West Clay Street. Carver’s 19th century houses were mostly attached frame or brick buildings in the Italianate style, with storefront buildings located at or near street corners. Detached frame dwellings, brick row and double houses, and a few tenements date from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The dwellings are generally spaced close together, with small front and side yards on narrow parcels running from the street front to a rear alley– a pattern that is common throughout many of Richmond’s older historic neighborhoods. Carver contains examples of Greek Revival, Italianate, and Queen Anne style buildings, although many are vernacular because of the use of traditional building forms and restrained ornamentation. Some of Carver’s notable nonresidential buildings include the Bethany Baptist Church at 900 Catherine Street, Moore Street Baptist Church at 1408 West Leigh Street, and the Maggie Walker Governor's School at 1000 North Lombardy Street. The Carver Industrial Historic District lies at the western end of Carver in a 6½-block, predominantly industrial area that developed between 1890 and 1930 along the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac (RF&P) Railroad. This was a period of rapid economic growth in the city, a time when the railroad was the dominant means of transporting goods to and from Richmond. The district contains a number of skillfully crafted and finely detailed brick buildings representing a variety of architectural styles including the Gothic Revival, Second Empire, Queen Anne, Romanesque, Colonial Revival, Italian Renaissance, and Art Deco. Unlike the early industrial development in the eastern part of the neighborhood, these industrial buildings were large, often three to four stories in height covering as much as half a block. The scale, materials, and details for the industrial buildings appear to follow the precedent of several large brick buildings constructed by the RF&P Railroad. All of the buildings are brick and display a wide variety of intricate brickwork. Other than those constructed by the railroad, the largest industrial buildings were part of the c. 1891 complex of the Peter Stumpf Brewing Company, which also owned and operated the Home Brewery located in the Carver Residential Historic District. The offices of the Peter Stumpf Brewing Company were at 1125 West Clay Street in a Second Empire-inspired brick building with a false mansard roof, twin projecting bays, and rough-hewn stone windowsills and lintels. The decorative brickwork on this building is typical of that found throughout the district. Carver’s industrial sector was home to a wide range of businesses including the Baughman Stationery Company, the Consumers Ice Company, the American Tobacco Company, the Eagle Paper Company, the Pin Money Pickles Company, the Virginia Railroad and Power Company, Export Leaf Tobacco Company, Cusson May & Co., Haines Jones & Cadbury Co., and the Saunders Oil Company. The National Park Service listed both of the Carver Historic Districts in the National Register of Historic Places in 2000, and the area has received many benefits from the incentives offered by the state and federal historic rehabilitation tax credit programs. Carver Residential Historic District is located in the 700-1500 blocks of W. Leigh, 700-1400 blocks of W. Catherine, Clay, and Marshall Sts., and 909-1011 W. Marshall St. Carver Industrial District is roughly bounded by Harrison St. on the east, W. Marshall St. on the south, N. Lombardy St. on the west, and W. Leigh and W. Clay Sts. on the north. The districts are adjacent to Virginia Commonwealth University. The districts include private homes and buildings with commercial and light industrial/ manufacturing uses. Visit Richmond’s Neighborhoods in Bloom website for Carver for more information. Fan Area Historic District The Fan Area Historic District is a large late 19th and early 20th-century residential neighborhood west of Richmond’s downtown commercial district. The neighborhood is unquestionably one of the city’s greatest cultural and architectural assets. Within its boundaries lies a rich, cohesive collection of historic buildings in a variety of architectural styles such as Italianate, Richardsonian Romaneque, Queen Anne, Colonial Revival, Bungalow, American Foursquare, Tudor Revival, Spanish Colonial, and Art Deco. The district developed largely from c. 1890 to c. 1930, a period of general economic prosperity for the City of Richmond and one of gradual westward expansion from its commercial center. The Fan has its roots in the Harvie family estate. The family subdivided part of its estate into streets and lots in 1817 naming an area to the north of Spring Street Sidney and an area to the south Belvidere. Little in the way of development occurred in the first half of the 19th century, and the neighborhood remained an unincorporated rural enclave. The Sidney stood at an angle to the original city grid. Today, the angling of certain city streets on the east and west sides of Belvidere Street near Monroe Park illustrates that original plan. Most of the Fan area now follows a strict grid pattern of linear streets and square blocks. The name of the district refers to the way in which certain streets radiate or “fan” westward from Monroe Park. Several of these streets originated as 18th and 19th-century turnpikes or trade routes leading westward from Richmond, like Scuffletown Road (now Park Avenue), the Westham Turnpike (now Cary Street), and the Richmond Turnpike (now Broad Street). These roads later became part of the grid pattern of blocks and streets extending west, as development of the area increased after 1900. Architecturally, most buildings in the district are brick row houses and semidetached or detached town houses, usually 2½ stories in height with a porch or stoop fronting the sidewalk. The historic density averages 12 houses per block, creating a rhythmic streetscape that is rarely broken by modern intrusions. The playful irregularity of rooflines, turrets, dormers, bay windows, cornices, projecting porches, and recessed entrances of the houses adds to the Fan's unique visual interest and charm. Guided by a deliberate plan of development with many buildings designed by the same architects or built by the same contractors, the Fan is remarkably cohesive. Most of the houses date from between c. 1900 and c. 1915, a period of economic prosperity in Richmond, when building contractors and real estate developers actively promoted the construction and sale of whole blocks of well-designed and fashionable residences for Richmond’s growing population. By the early 1920s, the area had many of the physical characteristics of the inner city neighborhood it still has today: a streetscape often characterized by repetition in scale, mass, height, building material, and ornamentation, with seemingly endless blocks of brick town houses and row houses. Originally containing predominantly middle-class houses, the Fan quickly became a desirable place to live, remaining so until World War II. The area thrives again today with many restaurants, corner stores, small businesses, and churches interspersed throughout the dense tree-lined residential neighborhood. Two antebellum houses in the district individually are listed in the National Register of Historic Places: the 1857 John Whitworth House, a frame house at 2221 West Main Street and on the same block at 2226 West Main Street, the 1859 William W. Morien House. Also individually listed is the Hospital of St. Sophia, Home of the Little Sisters of the Poor at 1401 Floyd Avenue. It initially was a brick house in the 1830s but became a larger Italianate and Second Empire building between c. 1880 and c. 1900. The building is now the Warsaw Condominiums. Another individually designated building is the former Stonewall Jackson School, dating from between 1886 and 1887, at 1520 West Main Street. This two-story brick building is an excellent example of the Victorian Italianate style. Sacred Heart School at 1122 Floyd Avenue is illustrative of the same style. The district includes two early 20th-century schools, the William Fox School at 2300 Hanover Avenue and the Binford School, a fine example of Tudor/Gothic Revival architecture, at 1701 Floyd Avenue. During the c. 1890 to c. 1910 period when the Queen Anne style emerged as the most fashionable and popular architectural style in America, architect-contractors designed and built entire blocks of buildings in this style along the principal streets in the district. Attractive to members of the middle class and conveniently located in proximity to Richmond’s new electric trolley system, these row houses offered an eclectic range of architectural diversity. The impressive Old Dominion Row in the 1500 block of Grove Avenue contains 12 two-story brick row houses with alternating turrets, towers, gables, and porches with decorative woodwork. Built by the Old Dominion Building and Loan Association in 1895 and attributed to architects B.W. Poindexter and C.K. Bryant, the row was an ambitious construction project for the 1890s. In the Fan area, as elsewhere in the city, a new architectural style, the Colonial Revival, emerged as the preference of builders and clients in the early 20th century. This style became popular because of renewed interest in the colonial American past. Davis Brothers Inc. built the three nearly identical Colonial Revival houses at 1903, 1905, and 1909 Stuart Avenue. Although the overwhelming majority of its buildings are residential, the Fan contains several excellent examples of late 19th and early 20th-century commercial architecture. Mostly located along the commercial corridors–West Main, North Lombardy, North Robinson, and Strawberry Streets–these buildings served the commercial needs of area residents. Most continue to operate as small businesses. Some of the oldest surviving commercial buildings retaining their original storefronts and upper façade treatments are at 1203, 1301, 1303, 1307, 1502, and 2215 West Main Street, and 6 North Robinson Street. The Fan Area Historic District is located roughly between Park Ave. on the north, W. Main St. on the south, N. Harrison St. on the east, and Boulevard on the west. The district is accessible by vehicle or on foot, and some buildings other than private residences are open to the public. Maggie L. Walker High School Maggie L. Walker High School has played an important role in the African American community and in secondary education in Richmond. Partially funded by Roosevelt’s Administration of Public Works, Maggie Walker was the first vocational high school built for the city’s black youth, the only high school named for a Richmonder, and the first school in Richmond to have an African American principal and faculty. The school is also a significant work of architecture. Throughout much of the period of segregated public education, Richmond had only one high school to serve African Americans, Armstrong High School. The 1920s and 1930s were a period of rapid growth for the city’s population, and the Richmond Public School System responded by building new school facilities. One of these was the Maggie L. Walker High School. A series of events in the 1930s prompted the creation of the new high school. In 1931, Hartshorn College, an institution of higher learning for African American women, merged with Virginia Union University. A marker on the school grounds notes this early history. The relocation of Hartshorn’s students and faculty made the 6½-acre campus available for purchase by the Richmond Public School System. In 1934, the great Richmond African American leader Maggie Lena Walker died. The school system, seeking to provide a badly needed second high school for African Americans and a memorial for Walker, purchased the Hartshorn campus in 1937. The School Board commissioned the prominent Richmond firm of Carneal, Johnston, and Wright to design the new Art Deco style high school. Much of the funding for the school came from the Federal Administration of Public Works. In 1938, the city completed construction and opened the new school, which offered vocational training for Richmond’s black youth. Despite the fact that Maggie Walker was a segregated school for African Americans built during the “Jim Crow” era, it was a very well designed facility. The school is three stories with projecting wings, monumentally located on Lombardy Street. The original footprint of the building consisted of two Y’s joined at the base. The gymnasium and auditorium are on the west side of the building. Carneal and Johnston designed the three-story symmetrical wings at the north and south ends of the building and one story additions on either side of the auditorium that were part of a 1963 expansion of the high school. Adorned with stylish Art Deco ornamentation, the building has a facing of dark red brick, dark green tile inlays, and exposed concrete. The central bays of the entry façade, the parapet of the building, and many of the windowsills are of limestone. The structure of the building is made of poured concrete, and the fenestration consists of groupings of steel windows. Maggie L. Walker High School was an exclusively African American school until the Civil Rights era. It continued as a high school after the desegregation of public education in Richmond in 1964. Because of the slow pace of integration and the school’s location in a neighborhood of African Americans, most of its students continued to be African American until 1979, when it ceased operating as a comprehensive high school. In 2002, after a major renovation, the building became the home of the Maggie L. Walker Governor’s School for Government and International Studies, a regional school for gifted children. Maggie L. Walker High School is located at 1000 N. Lombardy St. The school has restricted access. To arrange a visit, call 804-354-6800. For information about the school, see the Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies website. Maymont Maymont, a 100-acre public park adjacent to the James River, was once the estate of Major James H. Dooley and his wife, Sallie May. Dooley, a wealthy industrialist and member of the Virginia House of Delegates, commissioned Edgerton Stewart Rogers to design an elaborate mansion for the couple. Constructed in 1893, the main house was soon joined by several outbuildings, all of which still stand today. As an avid horticulturist, Mrs. Dooley oversaw care and the development of the gardens. The estate landscape, including formal Japanese and Italian gardens, and other original features, is historically significant. The original buildings and gardens remain unaltered since the death of the Dooleys in the 1920s. The restored 12,000 square foot mansion combines both Queen Anne and Richardsonian Romanesque stylistic elements. The three-story building of broken course sandstone has narrow windows with stained glass “eyebrows.” The rough stone, circular and polygonal corner towers and the one-story porch on the western façade convey the strength of the Richardsonian Romanesque style. The southern façade includes a porte-cochere leading to a front hall lighted by a large Tiffany stained-glass window. The first floor of the interior of the house has a spacious entrance hall, dining room and adjacent butler’s pantry, two drawing rooms, and several small reception rooms. Lavish furnishings that the Dooley family owned decorate the rooms. The recently restored basement floor of the mansion includes servants’ quarters, a kitchen, a wine cellar, pantries, and other work rooms. The restored second floor includes bedrooms, dressing rooms, bathrooms, and the morning room. The family had a large household staff, nearly all African Americans. Their work and that of 22 grounds workers was essential to running the large estate. Noland and Baskervill designed the carriage house, a three-storied stone barn, the water tower, and other outbuildings, most dating from the early 20th century. The grounds of the estate were landscaped as informal parkland, as pastoral scenes were highly popular at the time. Two formal gardens lie just south of the mansion. Noland and Baskervill designed the Italian parterre garden. Completed in 1910, the Italian garden features a columned pergola and an elaborate cascade surrounded by a serpentine stone staircase. The ease and flow of the Japanese garden further south on the grounds contrasts starkly with the rigid formality of the Italian garden. Designed and executed by Japanese master gardener, Muto, the Japanese garden includes waterways, arched stone bridges, and ornamental pavillions. Major and Mrs. Dooley died in the 1920s bequeathing the house and grounds at Maymont to the City of Richmond for use as a public park and museum. Outdoor animal exhibits and an elaborate nature center, completed in 1999, have become popular additions to the grounds. Maymont continues to be treasured by Richmond residents as one of the city’s most valuable environmental and cultural resources. Maymont is located in the city’s near west end, about two miles from downtown Richmond. Maymont House museum and gardens are accessible from the Hampton Street entrance at 1700 Hampton St. The entrance at the corner of Spottswood Rd. and Shirley Ln. provides easy access to the Children’s Farm and other wildlife exhibits. The Robins Nature and Visitor Center is located at 2201 Shields Lake Dr. bordering Byrd Park. The visitor center, grounds, and wildlife exhibits are open daily, 10:00am to 5:00pm, and several of the entrances to the park are open until 7:00pm, weather permitting. Maymont House Museum and the Nature Center are open Tuesday-Sunday 12:00pm to 5:00pm. Entrance into Maymont is free, but a suggested donation of $5 per person is encouraged. For more information, visit the Maymont website. Monroe Park Historic District Monroe Park Historic District is an outstanding collection of monumental religious, institutional, and apartment buildings surrounding one of the oldest municipal parks in the United States. The neighborhood includes significant streetscapes and an important and unique urban park. The district marks the beginning of the Fan neighborhood and the diverging street patterns that inspired the name of this area. Franklin Street, running southeast to northwest, follows the axis of streets in downtown Richmond laid out in 1780, and the streets south and west of Monroe Park follow the east-west axis of the historic Sidney subdivision planned in 1817. These diverging street patterns created the unusual shape of Monroe Park, a five-sided polygon. Monroe Park, originally known as Western Square, was in 1851 the first property the city acquired for a system of municipal public squares. The Trust for Public Land lists Monroe Park, the oldest municipal park in Richmond, as one of the 100 oldest city parks in the United States. After serving as the state fairgrounds in the 1850s and a military encampment during the Civil War, the City of Richmond developed Monroe Park as a landscaped public square in the 1870s. The formal plan of the park, with its radial arrangement of walks, dates to 1877, and was the design of the Richmond City Engineer’s Office under the direction of Wilfred Emory Cutshaw. The paths connect the seven park entrances to each other and the central fountain plaza, the focal point of the park. A master plan is at present being prepared to encourage a greater diversity of uses of the park and preserve its historic character. With the extensive planting of trees along the perimeter and all of the walks, the park had 26 species and nearly 320 individual trees by 1904. The walks and trees effectively framed vistas of the landmarks within and surrounding the park. The current cast iron fountain by the J.W. Fiske Company of New York replaced the original granite rockwork fountain around 1900. The 1938 park house replaced a wooden Victorian park house from around 1890. Four monuments in the park honor Richmond notables William Wickham and Joseph Bryan, the Spanish American War, and World War II veterans. After the city's annexation of the area west of Belvidere Street in 1867, the Monroe Park neighborhood became one of the most fashionable residential enclaves in Richmond. Surviving late 19th and early 20th-century dwellings reflect the high-quality residences in Richmond’s west end. Remaining residential enclaves sit along South Cathedral Place, at the northwest corner of Laurel Street and Cathedral Place, and at Belvidere and West Franklin Streets. One of most interesting groups of buildings is the Second Empire style row in the 800 Block of South Cathedral Place. In the early 20th century, religious, institutional, and high-rise buildings would literally overshadow the earlier residential architecture of the district. The Monroe Park neighborhood has two good examples of early steel frame high-rise apartment buildings from the first decades of the 20th century. The Monroe Terrace Apartments building (now Virginia Commonwealth University’s Johnson Hall) is at 26 North Laurel Street. Alfred Bossom designed this Jacobean Revival high-rise apartment building overlooking Monroe Park, which dates from 1923. Prestwould, another Bossom high-rise built in 1923, is at 610 W. Franklin Street. This dark brick castellated courtyard building has slate gable roofs. The attractive setting prompted construction of some of the finest religious architecture in Richmond. The oldest house of worship, Grace and Holy Trinity Episcopal Church at 8 North Laurel Street, is an 1870 building expanded in 1895. Its façade of random ashlar granite from a local quarry has three lancet windows set in a gable flanked by a tower reduced in size by a tornado in the 1950’s. Constructed between 1903 and 1906, the individually listed Cathedral of the Sacred Heart is another monumental building in Monroe Park. The Richmond Catholic diocese acquired the triangular site of the cathedral in 1867, but it stood vacant until the commissioning of a new cathedral. Virginia-born Wall Street financier Thomas Fortune Ryan provided the funds to build the Italian Renaissance design of architect Joseph H. McGuire. The hexastyle Corinthian portico of the building faces Monroe Park. Two bell towers with tent form roofs with cross finials flank the portico. The plan of the cathedral is a Latin cross topped by a lantern dome. The transepts have large ornamental rose windows. A majestic interior corresponds to the dramatic exterior. The former Bishop’s House and Priest’s House, an attachment to the rear of the building, now serve as offices and meeting spaces for the cathedral. The cathedral is completing a major restoration in recognition of its centennial. The Landmark Theater at 4 North Laurel Street is the lone monumental public building in the district. Designed by Marcellus Wright Sr. and Charles M. Robinson in 1926 and originally known as the Acca Shrine Mosque, the building is a whimsical example of Moorish Revival architecture, with a large Saracenic arch and tiled faux minarets. The interior is arguably even more lavish than the exterior in its Moorish decoration with extensive tile and polychrome ornaments. The building contains meeting rooms, an Egyptian Revival ballroom in the basement, and a large auditorium. The building served as the headquarters for Virginia’s Shriners, and since its acquisition by the city in 1940 functions as Richmond’s municipal auditorium. Monroe Park Historic District includes some of the finest examples of apartment and religious architecture in the City of Richmond. Virginia Commonwealth University adaptively reuses many of its residential buildings. The architecture in the district is even more impressive against the backdrop of Monroe Park. Monroe Park Historic District is roughly bounded by North Belvidere, W. Main, Cherry, Park, Laurel and Franklin Sts. The Cathedral of the Sacred Heart is on a triangular plot at the intersection of Laurel, South Cathedral Place (Floyd Ave.) and Cathedral Place. The neighborhood is located at the eastern edge of the Fan District abutting downtown Richmond. Consult the Monroe Park website for additional information about the park. Landmark Theater hosts a variety of events: Broadway, symphony, ballet, children’s theater, lectures, concerts, school commencements, fashion shows and the Richmond Forum. See the Landmark Theater website for a schedule of events. For information and a schedule for services, consult the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart website. The Virginia Commonwealth University Monroe Park Campus website has photographs and the addresses of historic buildings in the district the university uses. The park is free and open to the public. Monument Avenue Historic District Monument Avenue Historic District shares the distinction with Jackson Ward of being one of only two National Historic Landmark districts within the City of Richmond. Monument Avenue is the nation’s only grand residential boulevard with monuments of its scale surviving almost unaltered to the present day. The district is nationally significant for its architecture and as an example of city planning. A broad residential tree-lined street extending for some five miles from inner city Richmond westward into Henrico County, the avenue takes its name from the series of monumental statues that mark its major intersections, generally in the center of traffic circles. For many years, the street was Richmond’s ceremonial parade route. Included among those who have journeyed to the Governor’s Mansion along “The Avenue” are Marshall Foch, Commander Richard Evelyn Byrd, Winston Churchill, General Eisenhower, and Queen Elizabeth. The district contains some of the city’s finest residences and continues to be a fashionable neighborhood for Richmond’s elite. The earliest proposal for creating a broad avenue in Richmond to honor Confederate heroes appears on an 1888 plat showing the subdivision of the Allen Estate west of the present intersection of Franklin and Lombardy Streets. The 1890 unveiling of Jean Antoine Mercie’s great equestrian statue of Robert E. Lee revealed the first major element on this unique memorial street. Afterwards, Monument Avenue seemed the logical place to erect more statues to Civil War heroes. The Lee Monument is the largest and grandest of the statues on Monument Avenue, with a 12-ton, 21’ high bronze statue sitting on a 40’ high granite pedestal designed by French architect Paul Pujot. No houses appeared on the avenue before 1903, but in 1906 Richmond’s City Council approved the extension of the avenue west to Boulevard from its original terminus at Allison Street. As soon as Monument Avenue’s traffic lanes began to be paved with their distinctive asphalt paving blocks in 1907, the street came to be one of the most fashionable places to live in Richmond. Unveiled in May of 1907, the equestrian monument to James Ewell Brown (“Jeb”) Stuart, by local sculptor Frederick Moynihan, is at Monument Avenue and Lombardy Street. The statue is located in the center of Stuart Circle. Several large historic buildings front the circle, including Stuart Circle Hospital (1914, now condominiums) at 421 Stuart Circle; the Stuart Court apartment building (c. 1924) at 1600 Monument Avenue; First English Evangelical Lutheran Church at 1605 Monument Avenue; and St. John’s United Church of Christ at 503 Stuart Circle. June of 1907 saw the erection of the Jefferson Davis Monument at the intersection of Monument and Davis Avenues. Designed by Richmond architect William C. Noland and sculptor Edward V. Valentine, it features 13 Doric columns representing the 11 southern states that seceded from the Union plus the two states that sent delegates to the Confederate Congress. In October 1919, the Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson statue was unveiled at Monument Avenue and the Boulevard. F. William Sievers designed it as well as the Matthew Fontaine Maury Monument at Monument Avenue and Belmont Street, made public on Armistice Day, November 11, 1929. The sixth and last statue, the Arthur Ashe Statue, stands at the intersection of Monument Avenue and Roseneath Road on the last block of the historic district. The dedication in 1996 of this monument to Richmond’s native humanitarian, scholar, and athlete on Ashe’s birthday, July 10, drew thousands of spectators. Over a period of some 30 years, Monument Avenue became the site of a splendid series of architecturally dignified town houses and apartment buildings. These reflect the achievements of many prominent architects, such as John Russell Pope, William Lawrence Bottomley, Duncan Lee, D. Wiley Anderson, and Richmond’s Marion J. Dimmock and Baskervill & Lambert. The various housing types along the avenue demonstrate the vitality of urban living and a diversity of taste and means. At the denser eastern end of the district sit closely spaced town houses with five feet or less between buildings. They provide a contrast to the attached row houses predominating in other neighborhoods in the city. Progressing westward, these narrow town houses are interspersed amongst mansions and apartment buildings on wide lots; eventually they give way to more modest mansions and smaller cottages. A significant number of freestanding Colonial Revival mansions date from the 1920s. Where lots were not spacious enough to accommodate these statements of affluence the “two-thirds house” made its debut. As the name implies, these more modest suburban mansions for the growing middle class were a smaller version of their neighbors based on the same plan of a central hall flanked by two rooms. While both clients and architects seemed to prefer the Colonial Revival style for Monument Avenue, they also experimented with Spanish Colonial, Tudor Revival, French Renaissance, and Italian Renaissance styles. Famous American architect John Russell Pope designed the Branch House (1917), a large Tudor Revival mansion at 2501 Monument Avenue that now houses the Virginia Center for Architecture. Jaquelin P. Taylor designed the atypical but grand 1902 Italian Renaissance-style villa at 2315 Monument for Duncan Lee. Duncan Lee was also responsible for, amongst other homes, a large three-story Mediterranean villa at 2325 Monument. Well-known architect William Lawrence Bottomley did the designs for the Colonial Revival houses at 2301, 2309, 2320, and 2324 Monument Avenue and a Mediterranean-inspired building at 2315. At 2327 Monument Avenue facing the Davis monument stands a commanding 1913 plantation-style home with a two-story portico. Architect Walter D. Blair designed the building six years after the unveiling of the Davis monument. New York architects Carneal and Johnston did the designs for the two houses on the same block, a Tudor Revival mansion at 2312 and the house at 2304, one of the most expensive buildings on the avenue. A local doctor built this house basing it on Mompesson House in Salibury, England. Carneal and Johnston also designed an eclectic 1911 house at 3201 Monument on a triangular lot. This home is known largely for its association with novelist James Branch Cabell, who resided there with his wife Priscilla beginning in 1925. Monument Avenue also has numerous apartment buildings. Large, architect-designed low-rise apartment houses, frequently with Anglo-Saxon Protestant names such as Stratford Court (2512 Monument Avenue) or Lord Fairfax Apartments (3100 block), proliferated on the avenue in the 1920s and 30s. Many are west of the Boulevard, particularly on the 2900 and 3000 blocks of Monument. Some apartment buildings are not in the more typical Colonial Revival style such as Stuart Circle Hospital, built in 1914 at 421 Stuart Circle and now converted to condominiums. Across the circle at 1600 Monument Avenue stands the Stuart Court apartment building, a c. 1924 high-rise that, at 11 stories, is the tallest building on the avenue and in the entire Fan neighborhood. Originally unpainted red brick, the building was later painted white, accentuating the Mediterranean flavor of its architecture. Although the district is mostly composed of houses, institutional buildings, primarily churches, visually dominate portions of Monument Avenue. Most often designed in the Gothic or Classical Revival styles, they generally sit on spacious sites and create an architectural impact while buffering the surrounding residential neighborhood. Richmond firm Noland and Baskervill designed St. James Episcopal Church and Parish House at 1205 West Franklin Street. Other examples include First Church of Christ, Scientist at 2201 Monument, St. James Episcopal Church at 1205 West Franklin Street, and First Baptist Church at 2709 Monument (intersection of Monument and Boulevard). Two churches front Stuart Circle: St. John’s United Church of Christ (ca. 1900) at 503 Stuart Circle and First English Evangelical Lutheran Church at 1605 Monument Avenue. Monument Avenue Historic District encompasses the stretch of “The Avenue” between Stuart Circle in the east and Roseneath Rd. in the west, plus the adjoining 1200 block and 3100-3300 blocks of West Franklin St., and the 1500 block of West Ave. The portion of the Monument Avenue Historic District facing Monument Ave. from the 1200 block of W. Franklin St. to the intersection of Monument and Roseneath Rd. has been designated a National Historic Landmark . Some of the buildings in the district are open to the public. The Branch House at 2501 Monument Avenue houses the Virginia Center for Architecture, which is free (suggested documentation $5) and open to the public Monday-Friday, 10:00am to 5:00pm, Saturday and Sunday 1:00pm to 5:00pm. For information, call 804-644-3041 or visit the Virginia Center for Architecture website. Much of the Monument Avenue Historic District has been documented by the National Park Service’s Historic American Buildings Survey . Scott's Addition Historic District Scott’s Addition Historic District is one of the larger industrial and commercial districts in Richmond. The district contains brick and frame buildings in a variety of architectural styles, including Colonial Revival, Classical Revival, Mission, International Style, and Art Deco. Several skillfully crafted Moderne buildings are reflections of a style rarely seen in Richmond. The area remained largely undeveloped until the early 1900s, when it saw the construction of modest dwellings and businesses. A second wave of development occurred between the 1930s and 1950s with the building of large industrial plants, commercial buildings, and warehouses amongst the existing dwellings. The second phase of development largely defines the types of buildings located at present in the district. Named for General Winfield Scott, Scott’s Addition was a part of the vast, 600-acre Hermitage estate that Scott inherited in 1818 from his father-in-law, Colonel John Mayo. The portion of land known as Scott’s Addition remained in the family until the late 19th century. The earliest subdivision plan dating from November of 1890 called for residential development of the area. Subsequent plans followed this trend until the railroad emerged as a driving force in growth of the locality. Passenger and freight traffic for the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad (RF&P) increased dramatically in the early decades of the 20th century, and by 1916, the city decided to change some of the railroad traffic patterns. The Broad Street Station opened in January 1919, coinciding with the closure of other tracks and crossings in Richmond. The location of the railroad tracks along the north and west sides of Scott’s Addition and the nearby Acca freight yard made the undeveloped land in the area ideal for industrial development. The railroad extended spur lines into the area. Despite excellent rail service, Scott’s Addition was slow to emerge as an industrial area because of the residential nature of the original plats. It was not until the adoption of the 1927 Zoning Ordinance, which designated the area for industrial use, that construction of factories and plants began in the district. The advent of the federal highway system in the 1950s further reinforced industrial and commercial growth in Scott’s Addition. Scott’s Addition Historic District is still a thriving light industrial and commercial district for the city. One of Scott’s Addition’s greatest assets is its central location and convenient access. Along with its location and access, the size, variety, and affordability of buildings in the area make the district as attractive today for new businesses as it was 50 years ago. Many of the original companies that constructed buildings in the district are still in operation there. The auto repair shops and showrooms that were a staple of the district’s early development are still present. The names have changed, but auto-related businesses still play a vital role in the district. Today, Scott’s Addition is home to a diverse mix of businesses, including film studios, graphics and marketing companies, advertising groups, and architectural firms. Adaptive reuse and other preservation efforts have made this neighborhood attractive to not only businesses, but to residents as well, and the area has received renewed attention in recent years. Scott’s Addition Historic District is bounded roughly by The Boulevard to the east, the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad to the north and west, and Cutshaw Ave. to the south. The district is 1.6 miles away from downtown Richmond. For more information, click on the link to the Scott's Addition Business Association website. Virginia House Built for Alexander and Virginia Weddell and completed in 1928 just months before the onset of the Great Depression, Virginia House is a fine Tudor-style mansion that incorporates reconstructed components of three separate English houses. The grand estate is on a hillside overlooking the James River in the Windsor Farms area of western Richmond. The eclectic house blends three English Tudor designs in what was for its time a thoroughly modern home complete with seven full baths, central heat, modern kitchen, and commodious closets. Expansive and asymmetrical, the two-story stone and stucco building is truly a composite of several centuries of predominantly English architectural heritage: 12th century Anglo-Norman, 15th century Tudor, 17th century Dutch, and 1940s Classical Revival. Much of the history of Virginia House goes back more than 400 years and across the Atlantic Ocean. In the late 16th century, a man named Thomas Hawkins bought the property known as the Priory at Warwick and built a Tudor manor house set in a landscaped park. The house enjoyed such esteemed visitors as the newly crowned Elizabeth I. Subsequent owners of the property included Henry Wise, Royal Gardener to Queen Anne, who acquired the house in 1709. In the mid-19th century, the Lloyd banking family purchased the property but sold it in the early 20th century. Determined to rescue Warwick Priory from destruction, Americans Alexander and Virginia Weddell bought the house at a demolition sale in 1925 after it suffered years of decline and neglect. The Weddell’s plan to dismantle the house and ship its parts to Richmond for reassembly was controversial. The English press reported their purchase sparking a public outcry that the Weddells were pulling down an ancient landmark to reerect it in America. A member of the House of Commons even proposed a bill to invalidate the sale as an act of vandalism, but the bill did not pass. Others appreciated the Weddell’s rescue of the building’s components. Documentation shows that the company originally hired to demolish the priory thought that most of the building’s stonework would be too fragile to ship to America. Their dubious approach was to set off an explosion in the center of the building and salvage only the masonry that remained intact. Surprisingly, a majority of the stones survived. The Weddells had the stones and more fragile building components packed in boxes with sand to cushion them and shipped them to Richmond. New York architect Henry Grant Morse designed Virginia House to reflect three English houses. The central bays incorporated two Flemish gables salvaged from the demolition of the Thomas Hawkins’ priory in Warwickshire. The eastern bay is a reconstruction of the gate tower of Wormleighton Manor, ancestral home of the Spencers. The exterior of the west wing of the house is a replica of Sulgrave Manor in Northamptonshire, England, which once belonged to Lawrence Washington, an ancestor George Washington. The Weddells planned for the west wing to serve as a museum for the Virginia Historical Society, keeping in mind that the remainder of the house would one day serve as the Society's headquarters. In 1929, they deeded the house to the Virginia Historical Society, although they were tenants for the rest of their lives. The house remains much as it was when the Weddells lived there. Noted landscape architect Charles F. Gillette designed the plan for the elaborate landscape garden that cascades behind the house down toward the James River. Conceived by Gillette as a Tudor-style garden, the landscaping scheme complements the romantic, early Anglican character of the manor house. Virginia House is located at 4301 Sulgrave Rd. It is owned by the Virginia Historical Society and is open to the public as a museum. Tours of the house are offered for a fee Friday-Saturday 10:00am to 4:00pm, Sunday 12:30pm to 5:00pm. The last Friday and Saturday tours are at 3:00pm, and the last Sunday tour is at 4:00pm. The gardens and grounds are open Monday-Saturday 10:00am to 4:00pm, Sunday 12:30 to 5:00pm. For information, call 804-353-4251 or visit the Virginia Historical Society website. West of Boulevard Historic District West of Boulevard Historic District is a 69-block residential neighborhood in the West End of the city. Developed from about 1895 until about 1940, the district conforms to an irregular grid pattern of broad tree-shaded east-west avenues and narrower north-south side streets. Here one of Richmond’s most significant collections of early-20th century architecture conveys a uniformity of scale, materials, and setbacks while reflecting a rich variety of architectural styles of the period. Compact rows of brick row houses, detached town houses, apartment buildings, commercial buildings, three churches, a synagogue, and five schools are in the district. Architectural styles include Queen Anne, Romanesque Revival, Colonial Revival, Classical Revival, Craftsman, Mediterranean, Tudor Revival, and Art Deco. Western development in the city halted after the nationwide recession in 1873, but Richmond’s economy soon rebounded. City population rose from 63,600 in 1880 to 81,388 by 1890 creating a demand for more housing. Developers looked west beyond the city limits as a likely area of development. The arrival of the electric streetcar after 1888 allowed for the rapid expansion of residential development in the suburbs surrounding the central city. No streetcar lines extended into the West of the Boulevard area until 1909. In that year, the Virginia Railway and Power Company extended the Broad Street line west to Sheppard Street and then south along Sheppard and Belmont Avenue to West Cary Street. A streetcar line also extended along Floyd Avenue west of Robinson Street. Before the arrival of the streetcar lines, only small pockets of residences, mostly modest two-story frame dwellings, were in the West of Boulevard Historic District area. After 1900, development along Monument Avenue significantly affected the concurrent development of much of the West of Boulevard neighborhood, and the architecture for the district started to imitate the elegant brick and stone residences along the more prominent avenue. While Monument Avenue boasted upper-class residents who headed large corporations, the West of Boulevard area was home to middle-class individuals with more modest occupations. The oldest buildings in the district appear to be the three granite-faced dwellings at 2905, 2911, and 2915 Grove Avenue. Built in the late 1890s, these highly original interpretations of the Queen Anne style are among Richmond’s most interesting examples of late Victorian architecture. Each house has a lively outline with angled projections and a corner tower. Nearby, twin brick houses, at 2818 and 2902 Ellwood Avenue, are Queen Anne and Italianate inspired compositions local architect D. Wiley Anderson designed. Built around 1895, each house has projections, gables, a corner pyramidal-roofed tower, modillion cornices, decorative woodwork, and a porch with turned posts. Another D. Wiley Anderson-designed the dwelling is at 2904 Floyd Avenue. An unusual brick building with a slate mansard roof, decorative brick cornice, and gables flanked by pinnacles, it has Romanesque Revival features such as round-arched windows and a heavy stone-trimmed arched porch. Another Romanesque Revival-style building from 1907 is at 2821 Floyd Avenue. Notable individual examples of the Colonial Revival style dating from the 1910s include the dwellings at 3319 and 3321 Ellwood; 2815 and 2817 Floyd, local architect Isaac T. Skinner designed; 400 North Sheppard; and two houses at 2909 and 2921 Floyd. An unusually large frame Colonial Revival house is at 303 Grove Avenue. Built in 1914, it features an Ionic-columned porch and an entrance with fanlight and flanking sidelights. Fine collections of Colonial Revival houses dating from 1913 and 1914 are in the 2800 and 2900 blocks of Ellwood Avenue. Impressive rows of dwellings on both sides of the 500 block of North Sheppard date from 1917 and 1918, and several examples local contractor O. J. Davis built between 1912 and 1914 are in the 3100 block of Floyd. Another fine collection is in the 3100 block of Grove Avenue. Local contractor A. D. Sprinkle constructed four Colonial Revival houses at 3107-3113 Grove in 1912, and Matthias Kayhoe built three (3101-3105) dwellings in the same block the following year. Muhleman & Kayhoe built four similar houses in 1915 at 3101-3107 Stuart Avenue, and four houses with second-story bay windows at 3216-22 Stuart (builder unknown) are from 1917. City school architect Charles M. Robinson designed two schools in the district. Robert E. Lee Middle School at 3101 Kensington Avenue dates from 1919 and is unique to the city. This Colonial Revival building has a large flat-roof, parapeted central section embellished with engaged Corinthian columns, a modillion and dentil cornice, and tall round-arched windows. Three-story square towers lie at either end of the central section, each topped by a copper dome above a bracketed frieze and dentil cornice. Small two-story wings with grouped windows flank the towers. Robinson also designed the Albert H. Hill Middle School at 3400 Patterson Avenue. Constructed in 1926, this building is also unique in Richmond. Mediterranean in style, it consists of a three-story, flat-roofed, and parapeted central section skirted by a pantile pent roof supported by metal brackets. This section also contains three double doors, each topped by a fanlight. The central section has flanking two-story wings with rows of windows and projecting end pavilions. Colorful tile and terra cotta wall and parapet decorations adorn both the end pavilions and the central section. The elegant, largely intact collection of early 20th-century architecture makes the West of Boulevard Historic District a highly prized residential community in Richmond. Its close proximity to renowned museums and unique shopping experiences makes this neighborhood one of the more dynamic parts of town. West of Boulevard Historic District is generally bounded by Colonial Ave. to the east, W. Grace St. and Cutshaw Ave. to the north, Thompson St. to the west, and Ellwood Ave. to the south and is 1.5 miles west of downtown. Private homes are not open to the public. Wilton Constructed between 1750 and 1753, Wilton is an impressive example of a colonial-era plantation house that once hosted esteemed guests such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and the Marquis de Lafayette. Originally located on a 2,000-acre tobacco plantation several miles downriver from Richmond, the large two-story brick house is one of the most significant of the James River plantation mansions. Associated with the Randolphs, a family prominent in colonial Virginia affairs, Wilton is among an important group of mid-18th century houses with architectural designs related by plan or detail. The others include Westover, Elsing Green, and the Nelson House, although Wilton has the distinction of having the only known fully paneled interior in Virginia. Its plan and dimensions are similar to nearby Westover, which dates from approximately 20 years earlier. The Randolphs played an active role in Virginia life beginning with their arrival and settlement at Turkey Island in present-day Henrico County c. 1645. William Randolph III built Wilton between 1750 and 1753. Randolph’s son Peyton was the second owner. William Randolph III’s cousin, also named Peyton, is the most famous member of the Randolph family. He was a key figure in early Revolutionary politics in Virginia, serving as Speaker of the House of Burgesses from the 1760s until his death in Philadelphia in 1775. He presided over the first informal meeting regarding non-importation agreements in 1767, was chairman of the First Virginia Convention, and was elected president of the First Continental Congress. In the words of one scholar, he was “president of every important Revolutionary assemblage in Virginia.” Peyton Randolph married Lucy Harrison, whose father Benjamin Harrison (occupant of Berkeley Plantation) was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. William Randolph’s son Peyton’s daughters inherited the house in 1775 when he died. The Randolph family owned the property until the mid-19th century when Colonel William Carter Knight bought it. The house sat vacant for some time. In 1933, the National Society of Colonial Dames of America in the Commonwealth of Virginia moved Wilton to its present site on a bluff overlooking the James River in response to the development of the area surrounding its original location. Contractor and restoration consultant Herbert Claiborne oversaw the move. The property opened to the public as the Wilton House Museum in 1952. Its largely original interior showcases 200 years of American history with a collection of 18th and 19th-century furnishings, textiles, glass, ceramics, and silver. The museum’s mission statement is “to preserve the circa 1753 historic house, its collections and environs as an example of the late Colonial and early National periods in Virginia by sharing the stories of those who contributed to the history of Wilton Plantation during the first three generations of Wilton Randolphs.” Wilton is located on the north bank of the James River at 215 S. Wilton Rd. in the West End of Richmond nestled in a residential neighborhood of hills and large homes. The Wilton House Museum is open to the public Tuesday-Saturday 10:00-4:30, Sunday 1:30pm to 4:30pm. Regular admission is $10, seniors/AAA/students $8, adult group tours $6, student group tours $2.50-$5, and children 6 and under free. For information call 804-282-5936 or visit the Wilton House Museum website. Further Afield Richmond National Battlefield Richmond National Battlefield Park consists of several separate Civil War battlefields east and south of Richmond. Richmond stood as the capital of the Confederacy from 1861 to 1865. The city also became the industrial and political center of the fledgling nation. Northern generals repeatedly planned their campaigns to threaten Richmond. Consequently, the armies fought battles outside the city in May, June, and July 1862. They returned in May 1864 and remained nearly continuously until April 1865. Historians view the Seven Days battles in 1862 as one of the most significant campaigns of the entire Civil War. The Union army under General George B. McClellan had pushed within sight of Richmond and threatened to capture the capital. In June, Robert E. Lee ascended to command of the Confederate army and in an audacious series of maneuvers not only lessened McClellan's grip on the city but also actually drove the Northern army 25 miles south. The battles of Beaver Dam Creek, Gaines's Mill, Glendale/Frayser's Farm, and Malvern Hill were the four most severe fights of the Seven Days battles. The national park at Richmond preserves ground at all four sites, including approximately 1000 acres at Malvern Hill. Two years later General Ulysses Grant brought the Federal army back to the outskirts of Richmond. Lee blocked him at Totopotomoy Creek and then defeated Grant in a famous battle at Cold Harbor in June 1864. Undeterred, Grant positioned his army south of Richmond and threatened the city through the summer months and into the winter of 1864-65. His repeated jabs from that direction produced many battles below the city. When the town of Petersburg fell to Grant's army in April 1865, Confederate authorities abandoned Richmond without a further fight. Visitors to the Richmond area battlefields have a variety of options and combinations from which to choose. The park's primary visitor center is in the city at the Tredegar Iron Works . An extensive self-guided automobile tour proceeds out of town and through the surviving battlefields. Although separated by public roads, the national park's individual units are connected by signs and a driving tour map. Cold Harbor includes a visitor center that is open daily, with electric battle maps that address not only the 1864 battle there, but also the adjacent Gaines's Mill battlefield from 1862. Every stop along the driving tour contains modern signs that help visitors understand their surroundings and the events that occurred there in the 1860's. Most sites have walking trails through the battlefields. The southernmost sites in the park connect nicely with the northernmost destinations in Petersburg National Battlefield. The two national parks are best seen in tandem, time permitting. Richmond National Battlefield Park is located in central Virginia approximately 100 miles south of Washington, D.C. The park encompasses a large area with battlefield sites and visitor centers located in the City of Richmond, and Henrico, Hanover, and Chesterfield Counties. A driving tour of the battlefields outlined on the park map includes 13 separate sites with four visitor centers along an 80-mile route. A full day is required to experience the entire battlefield park. Visitors are urged to begin their visit at the National Park Service Civil War Visitor Center at Richmond's Tredegar Iron Works . For further information, call the National Park Service Civil War Visitor Center at 804-771-2145. The park also operates the the Chimborazo Medical Museum and visitor center at 3215 E. Broad St. in the Oakwood-Chimborazo Historic District. The Tredegar, Chimborazo, and Cold Harbor visitor centers are open year round daily from 9:00am to 5:00pm. Visitor centers at Glendale and Fort Harrison are operated seasonally from 9:00am to 5:00pm. The battlefields generally are accessible from dawn until dusk year round. All visitor centers and sites within Richmond National Battlefield Park are free. Visit the National Park Service Richmond National Battlefield Park website for detailed information about the battlefields and activities in the park. For further details, contact the park's headquarters at 804-226-1981, ext. 23. Visit the National Park Service Petersburg National Battlefield website for information to help plan a visit. Selected Bibliography for Richmond Richmond Tourism Information City of Richmond The official government site for the City of Richmond provides information on historic preservation and a neighborhood guide. City of Richmond Department of Parks, Recreation, and Community Facilities The official website for the City of Richmond parks department provides information on park facilities and the Passport to Fun program as well as points of interest , such as the City Hall Observation Deck. Richmond Metropolitan Convention and Visitors Bureau promotes tourism in the metropolitan Richmond area. The Valentine Richmond History Center maintains a renowned collection of archives, books, artifacts, textiles, and documents pertaining to Richmond history and operates the Wickham-Valentine House and the Valentine Sculpture Studio. Venture Richmond provides information on arts, culture, sports, and festivals and events. Virginia Tourism Corporation The Commonwealth of Virginia’s official web page for tourism with up to date information on Richmond. Things to Do In addition to the numerous historic places to visit described in the itinerary, Richmond has a plethora of other activities to enrich your visit. Click on a link below for a specific activity. Other activities Historic Theaters and Performance Venues Byrd Theatre Richmond’s landmark movie palace shows second run movies and weekend midnight movies, and hosts special events. Carpenter Theatre/Richmond Center Stage Under construction at present, Center Stage plans to present a full program is scheduled for 2009. Empire Theatre Theatre IV at the historic Empire Theatre offers a season of plays for children. Firehouse Theatre The Firehouse Theatre Project produces contemporary theater of the United States in an authentic urban space, the historic former Station House #10 of the Richmond Fire Department. Landmark Theater Richmond’s landmark theater, built in 1926 as the Acca Shrine “Mosque,” plays host to a variety of events: Broadway, symphony, ballet, children’s theater, lectures, concerts, school commencements, fashion shows, and the Richmond Forum. National Theater This historic theater, constructed in 1923, is being converted to a new music performance space. Museums American Civil War Center This museum in the Tredegar Iron Works presents the story of the Civil War, its causes, and its legacies from the viewpoints of Unionists, Confederates, and African Americans. Agecroft The restored house and grounds of Agecroft Hall. Beth Ahabah Museum and Archives A museum of Richmond’s Jewish history in the Beth Ahabah Synagogue. Black History Museum and Cultural Center of Virginia A museum of Virginia’s African American history in the Jackson Ward neighborhood. Children's Museum of Richmond A modern museum building dedicated to children’s programming. Library of Virginia The LVA mounts exhibits on Virginia history from its collection. Museum of the Confederacy The White House of the Confederacy house museum and an adjoining collection and archives building. Poe Museum Housed in the 18th century Old Stone House, the museum boasts a collection of Edgar Allan Poe's manuscripts, letters, first editions, memorabilia, and personal belongings. Science Museum of Virginia Located in historic Broad Street Station, the Science Museum houses a wide array of science exhibits and programming. St. John's Church This museum interprets the history of Richmond's oldest church, St. John's, constructed in 1742. The Valentine Richmond History Center maintains a renowned collection of archives, books, artifacts, textiles and documents pertaining to Richmond history and operates the Wickham-Valentine House and the Valentine Sculpture Studio. Virginia Center for Architecture invites the public to explore the power and importance of architecture through exhibitions, educational programs, publications, and its stewardship of a historic landmark. Virginia Historical Society A museum dedicated to all aspect of Virginia's history, located in the 1911 Battle Abbey building. Virginia Holocaust Museum Virginia’s museum dedicated to the Jewish Holocaust, housed in a historic tobacco warehouse. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts One of the largest fine arts museums in the South with a diverse collection. Virginia State Capitol The Capitol is open for tours. The Commonwealth of Virginia is developing exhibits on the history of the Capitol. Virginia Telephone Museum is maintained by the Richmond Life Member Club of the Old Dominion Chapter #43, Telecom Pioneers of America, which collects, stores, processes, and displays items of importance to the heritage of the telephone. Virginia House A significant house with collections and gardens of note. Wilton is a historic house museum. Other Activities City of Richmond Parks and Recreation lists city parks and their facilities. 17th Street Farmers Market continues a tradition of public markets in the Shockoe Valley/Tobacco Row Historic District going back to the 18th century. Canal Cruises/Canal Walk The history of the James River and Kanawha Canal is interpreted with the historic canal walk and cruises on the lower section of the canal. Carytown Merchants Association Carytown is one of Richmond’s most successful older commercial areas. Discover Richmond is an annual publication of the Richmond Times-Dispatch, offering a guide to the metro area. First Fridays/Artwalk First Fridays is a highly successful arts event in the Broad Street Commercial Historic District and other portions of downtown Richmond. Friday Cheers on Brown's Island Friday Cheers is a summer music series on Brown’s Island in the James River. James River Plantations Travel Itinerary This National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage travel itinerary explores a collection of 33 historic plantations that still overlook the tidal portion of the James River below the falls in Richmond. Explore the plantations in conjunction with a visit to Richmond. Richmond Folk Festival Richmond completed a successful three-year hosting of the National Folk Festival and now has a Richmond Folk Festival to supersede the national event. Richmond Shakespeare Festival Richmond Shakespeare holds a summer season at Agecroft Hall and a regular season at Second Presbyterian Church. Richmond Sports Backers is a group that promotes sporting events in Richmond. Places to Eat There are plenty of good places to eat in or near National Register of Historic Places listings. The following guides can help locate local restaurants. in-Rich.com Restaurant Guide includes a search engine that allows searching by area, location, and types of meals served. Richmond.com Check out the Eat Beat section for restaurant reviews and food-related happenings. Style Weekly/Food Section A good guide to local eating with a list organized by part of town. Places to Stay Richmond has abundant accommodations. Historic hotels and bed and breakfasts provide a way to get a sense of Richmond’s past and the flavor of its neighborhoods. Two of Richmond’s most distinctive lodgings, The Jefferson Hotel and Linden Row Inn , are featured in the itinerary. The Jefferson Hotel is one of the National Trust for Historic Preservation’s Historic Hotels of America . Bed and Breakfast Association of Virginia A statewide guide to bed and breakfasts that are members of this association. Transportation Richmond is located at the intersections of Interstates 95 and 64 in central Virginia and can be reached by car, train, plane, or bus. Richmond International Airport is just east of the city in Henrico County and is a short drive from the center of Richmond. Greater Richmond Transit Corporation (GRTC) is the public transit system in the Richmond area. GRTC provides service to Main Street Station, Richmond International Airport, and many of the places included in this travel itinerary. The Trip Planner on the site allows easy planning of trips on the system. Main Street Station is individually listed in the National Register of Historic Places and is located in the Shockoe Valley area of the city. The station is the Amtrack connection to downtown Richmond and accessible by walking and public transportation. Amtrak This is the official Amtrak website. A search for Richmond will provide information on the main Amtrak station in the Richmond area, Staples Mill, located in Henrico County outside of Richmond proper. Greyhound Bus Lines The Greyhound station is located in the near west end of Richmond at 2910 N. Boulevard near the intersection of Interstate 64 and Boulevard. Call 804-254-5910 for information. Taxis This is the Richmond Airport listing for taxis in the Richmond area. Other Relevant Websites Rarely Seen Richmond: a Virginia Commonwealth University Digital Collection Rarely Seen Richmond: Early twentieth century Richmond, Virginia as seen through vintage postcards. Richmond National Register of Historic Places files Electronic copies of all National Register nominations maintained by the Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Richmond Then & Now; a photo history Scrolling down this page allows one to see historic and contemporary images of Richmond. Teaching with Historic Places Teaching with Historic Places is a program of the National Park Service that offers a series of online classroom-ready lesson plans on registered historic places and other resources to help teachers and students use historic places in the classroom. The Valentine Richmond History Center maintains a renowned collection of archives, books, artifacts, textiles and documents pertaining to Richmond history and operates the Wickham-Valentine House and the Valentine Sculpture Studio. Virginia Department of Historic Resources The State Historic Preservation Office, whose mission is to foster, encourage, and support the stewardship of Virginia’s significant historic, architectural, archaeological, and cultural resources. Virginia Historical Society The Virginia Historic Society maintains substantial book, manuscript, and artifact collections on Virginia History. Links to Websites Pertaining to Places Featured in Itinerary Wilton House Museum Bibliography Berman, Myron. Richmond's Jewry, 1769-1976 : Shabbat in Shockoe. Charlottesville: Published for the Jewish Community Federation of Richmond, 1979. Bondurant, Agnes M. Poe's Richmond. Richmond: Garrett & Massie, Inc., 1942. Brownell, Charles E. et al. The Making of Virginia Architecture. Richmond: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 1992. Calcutt, Rebecca Barbour. Richmond's Wartime Hospitals. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Co., 2005. Carneal, Drew St. J. Richmond’s Fan District. Richmond: The Council of Historic Richmond Foundation, 1996. Cheek, Richard. Old Richmond Today. Richmond: The Council of Historic Richmond Foundation, 1988. City of Richmond Commission of Architectural Review. Old and Historic District of Richmond, Virginia: Handbook and Design Review Guidelines. Richmond: City of Richmond Department of Community Development, 2006. Clinger, David M. The Glories and Ghosts of Monroe Park Richmond, Virginia: A Sesquicentennial History. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1998. Chesson, Michael B. Richmond After the War, 1865-1890. Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1981. Crumley, Marguerite, and John G. Zehmer. Church Hill: The St. John's Church Historic District Richmond: The Council of Historic Richmond Foundation, 1991. Christian, W. Asbury. Richmond, Her Past and Present. Reprint Spartanburg: The Reprint Co., 1973; originally published Richmond: 1912. Davis, Veronica A. Here I Lay My Burdens Down : A History of the Black Cemeteries of Richmond, Virginia. Richmond: Dietz Press, 2003. Dementi, Elisabeth, ed. Celebrate Richmond. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1999. Dew, Charles B. Ironmaker to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works. Richmond: Library of Virginia, 1999. Driggs, Sarah Shields, Richard Guy Wilson, and Robert P Winthrop. Richmond's Monument Avenue. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Driggs, Sarah Shields and John L. Orrock. Save Outdoor Sculpture!: A Survey of Sculpture in Virginia. Richmond: Virginia Department of Historic Resources, 1996. Dulaney, Paul Summers. The Architecture of Historic Richmond. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976. Duke, Maurice and Daniel P. Jordan, eds. A Richmond Reader, 1733-1983. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983. Furgurson, Ernest B. Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. George, Lynne Ann. An Illustrated History of Forest Hill Park. Richmond: Friends of Forest Hill Park, 1999. Green, Bryan Clark, Calder Loth, and William M. S. Rasmussen. Lost Virginia: Vanished Architecture of the Old Dominion. Charlottesville: Howell Press, 2001. Kimball, Fiske. The Capitol of Virginia: A Landmark of American Architecture. Richmond: Library of Virginia, 2002. Kimball, Gregg D. American City, Southern Place: A Cultural History of Antebellum Richmond. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000. Kollatz, Harry. True Richmond Stories: Historical Tales from Virginia’s Capital. Charleston: History Press, 2007. Lee, Richard M. General Lee's City: An Illustrated Guide to the Historic Sites of Confederate Richmond. McLean: EPM Publications, 1987. Little, John Peyton. History of Richmond. Richmond: Dietz Printing Co., 1933.; Reprint from Southern Literary Messenger, 1851 Longest, George C. Genius in the Garden: Charles F. Gillette & Landscape Architecture in Virginia. Richmond: Virginia State Library and Archives, 1992. Loth, Calder, ed. Virginia Landmarks of Black History: Sites on the Virginia Landmarks Register and the National Register of Historic Places. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995. Loth, Calder, Ed. The Virginia Landmarks Register. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999. Tyler-McGraw, Marie. At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994. McKenney, Carlton Norris. Rails in Richmond. Glendale: Interurban Press, 1986. Michie, Peter S. Richmond, Virginia 1865. [Reprint of 1865 Map] Richmond: Richmond Civil War Centennial Commission, 1965. Mitchell, Mary H. Hollywood Cemetery: The History of a Southern Shrine. Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1985. Mordecai, Samuel. Richmond in By-Gone Days. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1946, Reprint, original Richmond: 1856. Munford, Robert Beverley, Richmond Homes and Memories. Richmond: Garrett and Massie, incorporated, c1936. Pember, Phoebe Yates. A Southern Woman's Story New York: G. W. Carleston & Co., 1879. Pierce, Don. One Hundred Years at the Jefferson: Richmond’s Grand Hotel, a History. Richmond: Page One Inc., 1995. Poindexter, G. W. An Illustrated History of Joseph Bryan Park. Richmond: Friends of Bryan Park, 2003. Richardson, Selden. Built by Blacks: African American Architecture in Richmond Virginia. Richmond: Alliance to Conserve Old Richmond Neighborhoods, 2007. Ryan, David D. Cornbread and Maggots--Cloak and Dagger: Union Prisoners and Spies in Civil War Richmond. Richmond: Dietz Press, 1994. Ryan, David D. Lewis Ginter's Richmond. Richmond: Whittet & Shepperson, 1991. Salmon, Emily J. and John Salmon. Historic Photos of Richmond. Nashville: Turner Pub. Co., 2007. Silver, Christopher. Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984. Scott, Mary Wingfield. Houses of Old Richmond. New York: Bonanza Books, 1941. Scott, Mary Wingfield. Old Richmond Neighborhoods. Richmond: Valentine Museum, 1980. Takagi, Midori. Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction: Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782-1865. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999. Ward, Harry M. and Harold E. Greer, Jr. Richmond During the Revolution, 1775-83. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977. Walthall, Ernest Taylor. Hidden Things Brought to Light. Richmond: Press of the Dietz Printing Co., 1933. Weddell, Alexander Wilbourne. Richmond Virginia in Old Prints, 1737 – 1887. Richmond: Johnson Publishing, 1932. Weisiger, Benjamin B. Old Manchester & Its Environs, 1769-1910. Richmond: B.B. Weisiger, 1993. White, Ralph R. Seeing the Scars of Slavery in the Natural Environment: An Interpretive Guide to the Manchester Slave Trail along the James River in Richmond. Richmond: James River Park System, 2002. Whiting, Sarah. A Guide to Historic Richmond: A Sampler of Historic Buildings and Sites in Central Richmond, VA. Richmond: Historic Richmond Foundation, 2001. Wilson, Richard Guy. Buildings of Virginia: Piedmont and Tidewater. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Winthrop, Robert P. Architecture in Downtown Richmond. Richmond: Junior Board of Historic Richmond Foundation, 1982. Winthrop, Robert P. Cast and Wrought: The Architectural Metalwork of Richmond, Virginia. Richmond: Valentine Museum, 1980. Winthrop, Robert P. The Jackson Ward Historic District. Richmond: Department of Planning and Community Development, 1982. Credits The Richmond Discover Our Shared Heritage travel itinerary was produced by the National Park Service's Heritage Education Services, the City of Richmond, the Richmond National Battlefield Park and Maggie L. Walker National Historic Site, and the Virginia Department of Historic Resources, in partnership with the National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers. The Richmond travel itinerary is based primarily on registration information on historic places in the National Park Service National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks collections. These archives are kept at 1201 Eye St., NW, Washington, D.C. and are open to the public. Some of the collection is online . All of the registration forms are also accessible online through the Virginia Department of Historic Resources . The Virginia Landmarks Register was another source of information. The itinerary was conceptualized by Michael C.Yengling, Historic Preservation Planner with the City of Richmond’s Planning and Preservation Division, and written mostly by Mr. Yengling and Tyler Potterfield, Architectural Historian and Senior Planner in the same division. Catherine Easterling, Intern, now Planner I with the City of Richmond's Preservation and Planning Division, provided support and editing, as well as writing several of the entries. With the support of Cynthia MacLeod, National Park Service Superintendent of Richmond National Battlefield Park and Maggie L. Walker National Historic Site, Bob Krick of Richmond National Battlefield Park wrote or edited the sections of the itinerary that relate to units of the National Park System. Acting Superintendent Dave Ruth provided advice and support. From the Virginia Department of Historic Resources, State Historic Preservation Officer Kathleen Kilpatrick provided advice and suggested additions and revisions, while Calder Loth, Senior Architectural Historian, wrote the descriptions of several historic places and Elizabeth Tune of the Department's staff provided additional details. Lesley Howson Bruno, Director of Public Relations and Marketing for the Valentine Richmond History Center provided the description of the Wickham-Valentine House and editorial revisions for several other sites. Mr. Yengling, Mr. Potterfield, and Ms. Easterling took most of the contemporary photographs or obtained them from Historic Richmond Foundation. Richmond National Battlefield Park and the Maggie L. Walker National Historic Site also provided photographs, as did the Valentine Richmond History Center and the Virginia Department of Historic Resources. The majority of historic images, used with permission, are from the Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) Libraries digital collection, “Rarely Seen Richmond: Early twentieth century Richmond, Virginia as seen through vintage postcards.” Carol Shull, Chief, Heritage Education Services, National Park Service edited and managed production of the itinerary. Kathryn Warnes, graduate student at George Washington University’s School of Business, Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management assisted in editing and making final corrections, and programmed the itinerary. Jaclyn Wright, graduate student in the American University Public History Program, also assisted in programming and making final corrections. Hyejung Kwon designed the computer template for the itineraries as the practicum for her Masters of Tourism Administration (MTA) at George Washington University’s School of Business, Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management. The itinerary was produced with the support of the National Park Service's Jon Smith, Assistant Associate Director for Heritage Preservation Services; Bryan Mitchell, Chief, Heritage Preservation Services; Paul Loether, Chief, National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks; and Richard O’Connor, Chief, Historical Documentation Programs. Assistant Associate Director for Historical Documentation Programs, Antoinette Lee provided suggestions on the content. Shannon Davis, National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers contractor, assigned to the NPS Battlefield Protection Program under Paul Hawke, and Jeff Joeckel of the National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks staff provided advice and assistance in the development of the itinerary. John Knoerl, Deidre McCarthy, James Stein, and Matthew Stutts of NPS's Cultural Resources Geographic Information Systems, Historical Documentation Programs under John Knoerl provided training and advice concerning Geographic Information System (GIS) maps used in the itinerary. Amber Young, National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers contractor with the NPS Museum Management Program under Lynn Black also provided advice and assistance. Thank you to John F. Berry, Jr. President and CEO, and Jennifer H. Carnam, Vice President of Marketing of the Richmond Metropolitan Convention and Visitors Bureau for their advice on the contents and for supporting and hosting the itinerary's launch. Thank you also to Rachel O’Dwyer Flynn, Director of the City of Richmond’s Department of Community Development; Historic Richmond Foundation, and the William Byrd Branch of the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities; the Alliance to Conserve Old Richmond Neighborhoods; Ryan Ramsey of Richmond City Watch; Ray Bonis, Special Collections archivist, VCU Libraries; the Library of Virginia; the City of Richmond Commission of Architectural Review; Doug Welsh, Project Coordinator for the National Historic Landmark John Marshall House; Edwin Slipek Jr., architectural critic for Style Weekly; Megan E. Stagg, Public Relations Specialist, The Museum of the Confederacy; and many others for their ongoing encouragement and support for the acknowledgement and preservation of Richmond’s cultural and architectural heritage and in some cases their help in improving the content of the itinerary. Thanks must also go out to the people of Richmond for sharing their historic places. Photo Captions for Homepage: The Virginia State Capitol, Congo Relief of Belgian Building, Broad Street Station, courtesy of Tyler Potterfield of the City of Richmond Department of Community Development; Gaines Mill Gun House, courtesy of Richmond National Battlefield Park; Leigh Street view of Maggie L. Walker House, courtesy of Tyler Potterfield of the City of Richmond Department of Community Development; Tredegar Iron Works, courtesy of National Park Service’s Richmond’s Visitors Center; Monument Avenue, Wickham-Valentine House Garden, and Belle Isle courtesy of Tyler Potterfield of the City of Richmond Department of Community Development.	Beer
What business model name derives from Old French 'free' and a late-Middle Ages English grant of legal immunity?	1 - THE JUBILEE BOOK 1958 - The History of Mather & Platt Limited The History of Mather & Platt Limited 1 - THE JUBILEE BOOK 1958 1 - THE JUBILEE BOOK 1958 Marcel A. Boschi, David Drew-Smythe & John F. Taylor Best viewed using F11 key. A History of Mather & Platt Ltd. Copyright © all rights reserved 27 november 2012 Chapter 2 - A Lancashire Business Chapter 3 - From Partnership to Company Chapter 4 - The Growth of the Company Chapter 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Chapter 6 - Education for Industry The Jubilee Book 1958 The first draft of this history was written in 1953 at the request of the Chairman, Loris Emerson Mather, by a team from the company itself. This draft is dated 1958. It reflects the birth, growth and life of an extraordinary entity and is both comprehensive and clear in its scope. Very few companies in the world can boast of the existence of such a profound body of researched work dating back - as this does - to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Almost fifty years have passed since this book was written. People and places are now gone. Mather & Platt no longer exists in Manchester; but the history of this remarkable company remains - rich, detailed and alive. It is reproduced here as a tribute to the company, incorporating some amendments based on new evidence of fact, to acknowledge the greater contributions of some other personalities in the company, and as a celebration of the work undertaken by the original writers. The book they wrote was never actually published, has been designed as an internet companion volume to "Marcel Boschi's History of Mather & Platt Ltd." which is a detailed text and photographic record of the companies, men and machines mentioned in this history. David Drew-Smythe & Marcel Boschi, February 20, 2012 (Update, September 10, 2012 by Marcel BOSCHI & John F. TAYLOR) CHAPTER 1 Introduction This book tells the story of the growth of a great engineering enterprise and is published to mark the end of the third of three periods in the history of Mather & Platt Limited each of approximately fifty years. It commemorates an era of great expansion, including the closing years of the nineteenth century when Mather & Platt Limited became a public limited company and the early years of the twentieth century when it was decided to build the works which is now the headquarters of the company at Newton Heath. The company had its origin in the early days of the nineteenth century when the first Mather in whom we are interested started a roller turning business in Salford. It had been in existence about fifty years when the partnership of William and Colin Mather changed the firm into Mather & Platt through the arrival on the scene of William Wilkinson Platt. The origin of the firm; the change to the partnership of Mather & Platt and the formation of the public company by the union of Mather & Platt with the firm of Dowson, Taylor & Company Limited, are the most important landmarks in the story. A story of the growth of what started out as a small north-country millwright’s works devoted mainly to the production of textile finishing machinery, into a large scale general engineering organisation with world wide ramifications. This story is far more than a tale of technical progress or the conquest of new markets, for in the course of its long history the company has acquired a tradition and an international reputation, which can now be counted amongst the biggest of its assets. It is hoped that the history of Mather & Platt will prove to be of interest not only to the shareholders, directors and workers but to a much wider circle of readers because it throws light on both local and national history as a whole, particularly in the social and economic fields. As Professor Richard Pares has recently written, “Until we can quote histories of representative banks, steamship companies, jerry-builders, tea planters, wine merchants, servants, registries, coal miners and the like, we shall still be talking about the history of economic policy, not about economic history. A particularly bad mistake to make about a country like Great Britain, where the efforts of society have usually counted for so much and those of the rulers of society comparatively speaking, for so little.” (1) He might have added to his list, cotton mills, bleaching dyeing and printing works as well as factories to make the machinery needed by these industries. It is an accepted fact that Lancashire cotton and Lancashire businessmen explain much in nineteenth century English history. It is fitting that the first draft of this book was written (1953) during a year of national festival, when it was timely to recall the industry and enterprise which made possible the development and expansion of the British economy. Also that it should be published during the year made memorable by the Coronation of Her Gracious Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. In telling the story, we have tried to set it against a national background as well as to select the facts of special interest and to discuss new techniques in terms of changing economic and social conditions. Too often there has been a barrier of misunderstanding between technicians and historians. The technicians concentrating on know-how and the historians trying to concentrate on know-why. At the present time there is a general interest in history; the history of anything and everything from governments to factories, from statesmen to machines. In this study of Mather & Platt limited, we have tried to talk about both men and machines which have helped to shape the world in which we live, and have often had to stray from the confines of the factory into the larger workshop of the world. This is because it has been so completely re-fashioned during the period of which we write. In telling this story it has proved impossible to mention, by name, more than a few of the employees of Mather & Platt Limited who have contributed to the success of the business. This is partly because it is often invidious to select certain names from among the rest since it is difficult to collect information about some worthy people who left their mark on the fortunes of the firm over fifty years ago or in the more remote periods of its history. Yet it was the efforts of these individuals who made this story possible, for economic progress was not achieved anonymously or automatically. The company has grown as a result of the loyalty and service of its directors, staff and workpeople, each of whom had their own story to tell. We have to thank so many people for helping with the compilation of the material for this history, for telling their own stories and for placing invaluable information at our disposal. These people are so numerous that it would be invidious to mention them all by name. The Chairmen, the directors, the managers, the staff, the foremen and the workers, have all helped us to learn much of Mather & Platt Limited, not only as it was, but as it is in the middle of the twentieth century. (1) Quoted by Richard Pares, a West Indian Fortune (1950), p.vii The Authors - Draft Dated 1958 CHAPTER 2 - A Lancashire Business “What Art was to the ancient world”, wrote Disraeli, in his novel, 'Coningsby', “Science is to the modern: the distinctive faculty, in the minds of men, the useful has succeeded to the beautiful. Instead of the city of the Violet Crown, a Lancashire village has expanded into a mighty region of factories and warehouses, yet, rightly understood, Manchester is as great a human exploit as was Athens”. (1) When Disraeli wrote these words in 1844, Manchester was a newly incorporated town and, along with Salford, which was separate from it by an administrative rather than economic boundary, was mainly pre-occupied with the production and distribution of cotton goods. It was cotton that had transformed villages lining the banks of the Irwell into crowded workshops, “the great metropolis of machinery”. By 1851, the year of the Great Exhibition, there were nearly half a million people in Manchester and Salford, where there had been only 25,000 eighty years before; at this time cotton goods made up about one third of the total value of British exports. The firm of Mather & Platt, whose history is told in this volume, was a characteristic product of the Manchester enterprise during that period of expansion. Mather & Platt Limited grew up to cater for the demands of local industry to manufacture, in the heart of the cotton area, plant and machinery for the bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing the textile materials. The engineers who serviced the cotton industry were small men making machines by hand but between 1800 and 1850, a revolution in tools and a differentiation in workers trades, helped to shape the engineering industry on which Britains industrial supremacy was based. Manchester was a centre of engineering as well as of cotton cloth production. It was there that Roberts, Fairbairn, Whitworth and Nasmyth applied and developed the principles of Henry Maudslay, whose automatic screw cutting lathe, built in 1800, marked the beginning of the engineering revolution. While these important developments were taking place, it is reasonable to suppose that the first Mathers and Platts of our story, were each pre-occupied with small scale production, seeking customers and exploring new techniques in the back streets of Salford. It was only after the move to Salford Iron Works in 1845, and the establishment of the partnership between the Mathers and Platts in 1852, that the first steps were taken in the evolution of the firm from a small business, mainly producing textile machinery, into an important general engineering undertaking. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, when textiles were already ceasing to overshadow all other branches of British industry, the firm of Mather & Platt took over new inventions at a critical stage and extended the horizons of its enterprise. In addition to the production of textile finishing machinery, it had already manufactured steam engines, bored artesian wells and supplied the associated pumping equipment. Having provided a host of other machines for special purposes, it now acquired the rights to make machines that were to lead industry forward from the nineteenth century into the twentieth century, three new important lines were developed. In 1873, Professor Osborne-Reynolds designed a turbine pump that was to mark a definite advance in centrifugal pumping. Mather & Platt developed and improved upon this new invention and in doing so laid the foundation for what eventually became a flourishing Pump Department. In 1883, the rights to manufacture Edison’s electric dynamo were acquired by the firm and, as a result of improvements by Dr. John Hopkinson, the Edison-Hopkinson dynamo reached a degree of perfection not previously known in such machines. This was the first stage of setting up the Electrical Engineering Department. Finally, also in 1883, William Mather, whilst on holiday in the United States, secured the sole rights to market the Grinnell automatic sprinkler in all parts of the world except the United States and Canada. This was the event that marked the beginning of yet another side of the firm’s activities, the foundation of the Fire Engineering Division. Events have proved that the manufacture of these new products was taken up at the right time. Technical innovation and business initiative went hand in hand. Business initiative was necessary to see the extent of the opportunity: technical invention was necessary to open up new horizons of industrial progress. Much of the basic scientific technique involved in new inventions depended upon research and experiment, often in fields of pure physics and chemistry. The city of Manchester was as important a centre of scientific and technical research as it was of business enterprise. Reynolds, working at Owens College, was first attracted to the problems of centrifugal pumping by his philosophic interest in fluid motion. (2) Hopkinson, also educated at Owens College and Trinity College, Cambridge, was interested in the fundamental theory of magnetism as well as in the construction of dynamos. (3) For both men, Manchester was an ideal centre, but their conception of science, which Disraeli had already considered a “distinctive faculty” in 1844, was far removed from the craftsman's skill of the eighteenth century textile inventors. The applied science of the twentieth century depended upon the large-scale organisation of research, both in factories and universities, along the lines inconceivable to Disraeli when he wrote Coningsby By learning the lessons of scientific advance and by building up a team of skilled workmen, the firm of Mather & Platt was able to become an engineering undertaking of worldwide renown. Flexible and adaptable enough to move without difficulty, after a period devoted to the mechanics of textile finishing machinery, into the age of oil and electricity. This move was made whilst maintaining its leadership in the field in which it had its origin. The production of textile finishing machinery continued and expanded but it was developed in association with new developments in industry. The firm, which grew up to serve the needs of the local manufacturers in the early phases of Manchester’s industrialisation, still claims, with pride, that it “can equip a textile print works of A to Z” in any part of the world. (1) Coningsby, Book IV, Chapter 1. “It is the philosopher alone who can conceive the grandeur of Manchester, and the immensity of its future. There are yet great truths to tell, if we had either the courage to announce them or the temper to receive them.” (2) R.W. Bailey, The Contribution of Manchester Researches to Mechanical Science, a paper read to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, June 1929. (3) J. Greig, John Hopkinson, 1849-1898, The Hopkinson Centenary Lecture, November 1949, printed in Engineering, 13 January 1950. It has been suggested that it was in its pre-occupation with foreign business, that the firm of Mather & Platt evolved its enlightened attitude towards invention and research. Lancashire was the home of the firm, but the world was its market. In concerning itself with the export trade during the early part of the nineteenth century, it was typical of Manchester business as a whole. In seeking particularly adventurous overseas outlets it was exceptional, as it was also in its constant willingness to learn technical lessons from teachers in other lands. Manchester was proud of the fact that it was the manufacturing centre of the world as well as the industrial centre of the kingdom. “Our treasures of iron and coal” wrote Henry Dunckley, in 1854, “our crystal mountain streams and convenient outlets to the ocean, could hardly have failed to render us distinguished in the annals of commerce”. If providence had never planted the cotton shrub, we would, in all probability, never have known that prodigious expansion of trade, which has distinguished the last hundred years. In that case, our exports would probably have been little more than half their present amount; our command over the productions of foreign climes would have been proportionally less. Also the magic impulse which had been felt during that period in every department of national energy, making us almost a new people, would never have been communicated. This wondrous plant had become one of the most powerful agents of civilisation and, associated with human skill, had given a broad and ineffaceable impress to the condition of the world. (1) The Manchester manufacturer had his attention drawn as naturally to the state and the problems of international trade, as, “that of the farm labourer to the state of the weather in the time of harvest”. (2) While Mather & Platt were still engaged mainly in the production of textile machinery, and before the manufacture of the centrifugal pump and electrical machinery played an important part in their programme, they were actively engaged in developing worldwide trade. In this respect, they were pioneers even among the many business firms centred in Manchester. As a youth, in the middle years of the nineteenth century, William Mather visited France, Belgium and Germany. In 1860, under the guidance of his uncle, Colin Mather, he first visited Russia, which in later years was to play a central part in the firms expanding trade and, reflecting later upon his commercial career, he claimed “I must have spent nearly half my life there, at intervals from that time up to the end of the century”. (3) In 1883 he first visited the United States and with bubbling enthusiasm, wrote of his stay that ”no like period was ever lived with so much mental and physical enjoyment of a high order before”. (4) Those Russian and American associations were no doubt uppermost in his mind when he christened his son, the present chairman of Mather & Platt Limited, Loris Emerson; “Loris” after Loris Melikoff, the Russian commander in Armenia in the Russian Turkish war, and “Emerson” after the American writer and philosopher. (1) H. Dunckley, The Charter of the Nations, an essay on the results of Free Trade to which the Council of the national Anti-corn Law League awarded its first prize (1854, pp.7-8.) (2) Ibid., p.13 (3) L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather (1925), p.32. (4) L.E. Mather, op. Cit., p.193. Both these statements and that quoted under footnote (3) come from diaries of Sir Williams’s travels. It should not be thought from this that William Mather was the first or only member of the original partnership to travel in Eastern Europe. From 1878, John Platt, another partner in this great enterprise, spent eleven winters in Russia, of which six months were in that part of Russia which lay two hundred miles inside the Arctic Circle. Colin Mather and his sons were also eager travellers. Colin Mather senior was one of the earliest travellers to Russia in search of business for the firm, and the younger Colin, travelled regularly and extensively in the United States and Canada. He negotiated a considerable amount of business for textile machinery in both countries, giving his personal attention to the design, erection and start-up of new plants. He would spend as much as six months of the year in the New World until the McKinlay tariffs came into force and put an end to shipments of textile machinery to America. For the great part of its long history, the Company has provided men to go abroad under contract to supervise the erection of plant and machinery. It has also been the policy to send its apprentices outside the home country to gain experience on the erection and start-up of new plant and as a result the firm acquired an international reputation. In 1928, on completion of a round the world trip, John Taylor, at that time, Vice Chairman of the company, said “It was inspiring to learn that the name of Mather & Platt was so highly considered wherever I visited.” (1) This reputation has been maintained through all the great historical changes of the last hundred years and the Company still retains its international outlook and the travel reminiscences of directors and employees would fill a book larger than this volume. A study of the early order books of the firm gives the same sense of a truly international undertaking. A sales book of 1866 is punctuated with recurring references to customers in Holland, Germany, Russia and the United States. Beneath one order, there is a characteristic footnote “The whole to be arranged as per plan agreed upon by Mr. William with them on the premises”. These foreign orders, which established the goodwill and prosperity of the firm, long before the days of government sponsored export drives, jostle with local orders, such as for a boiler for the Salford Union Workhouse. The blending of local and international was most aptly illustrated when the new works at Newton Heath were built round a machine shop that was originally the American machinery hall of the Paris Exhibition of 1900. From what has been written it is clear that even in its internationalism, the firm of Mather & Platt was a child of industrial Lancashire. The career of William Mather emphasises the relationship even more. It proved impossible in international Manchester, with its high-articulated interests, to separate business and politics, commercial and public life. Behind these different activities there was felt to be an underlying unity of purpose and theme. As chairman of the Company of Mather & Platt Limited, incorporated in 1899, William Mather could survey many years of business progress. As the Manchester Guardian said of him in later years, “The claims of a great business have never detracted from the labour and devotion with which Sir William Mather was ever ready to meet those of public duty.” (2) William Mather’s philosophy was shaped by the city in which he lived. At the age of seven he had driven all day long with his father in a large barouche at an Anti-Corn Law League demonstration and had been seated, wedged on the box seat between two large sheaves of corn. (3) Over fifty years later, as Sir William Mather, he still proclaimed himself true to the gospel of Cobden and Bright, which had made Manchester and Salford the centre of a crusade. (1) Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting, 29 February 1928. (2) The Manchester Guardian, 2 September 1913 (3) L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather, p.246. William Mather’s philosophy of life was far from narrow, though he strove hard for free trade and international amity, based upon the exchange of goods and services, he believed also in close relations between employer and employed founded on deeper ties than mere economic association. “Men are not doing their duty in simply making a prosperous business”, he once said, when addressing an influential Lancashire audience. “They are doing their duty in that business when, prosperity having come and means have accumulated, they determine that other people shall be helped and other institutions assisted, so as to make the world a little sweeter and happier.” (1) Making the world “a little sweeter and happier” meant recognition of duty both in international and local affairs. William Mather’s public career as a Member of Parliament, town councillor, and member of innumerable committees, was a tribute to his public spirit. When he encouraged trade with a country, such as Russia, he acquired a personal interest in it, which made him seek to understand its international point of view honestly and without bias and to communicate that knowledge and enthusiasm to his partners and fellow directors. As an advocate both of both Anglo-Russian and Anglo-American friendship, he stood out among his contemporaries, and in his belief in the entente-cordiale with France, he won the support and friendship of all concerned with good relations between the two countries. In local life Sir William was interested in the administrative problems caused by the artificial division of Manchester and Salford as he was in the broader questions of Alsace Lorraine or Poland. In his own workshop he saw that close relations between employers and employees were as important as close relations between the countries in the bigger workshop of the world. One of the last acts of his business career was to draft a scheme “for harmonising the interests of capital and labour”. It proclaimed that “class distinctions such as master and servant can have no party either as a definition or relationship in the future.” Long before the First World War focussed national attention on the problems of industrial relations, the firm of Mather & Platt had already evolved, under his direction, a policy based on the encouragement of technical education and the establishment of welfare services. In 1893, the firm had been one of the first to experiment with a 48-hour week and its labour policy always remained progressive and frequently pioneering in character. In 1917, when the phraseology was not very familiar, Sir William wrote to his son that he had “always had continuity and full employment before me all my life”. (2) When Disraeli wrote about Manchester, businessmen themselves were not finding it easy to fit into an established social order in which landed interests were supreme. Many of them had built their factories as monuments to the skill and power of “their order” as much as “to obtain a return for their great investment”. (3) In Victorian times they established their position and by the 1880’s many of them were anxious also to help labour to find a new place within the social order. That labour did find such a place, smoothly and without violent jolts, was due partly to its own developing organisation and partly to the attitude of enlightened employers like Mather & Platt who, in the words of Sir William, insisted that “labour must be regarded not as distinct from but as a actual partner with the shareholders in the concern”. (4) (1) Sir William Mather, The Textile Industry and its Future, an Address delivered to the Annual Conference of the Textile Institute, October 1915. (2) Sir William Mather to Mr Loris Mather, 21 October 1917. (3) Coningsby, Book IV, Chapter 3. (4) Sir William Mather, Ways to Industrial Peace in the Nineteenth Century, February 1917 A family business in Manchester and Salford, converted into a limited company in 1899, was in a favourable position to switch over from a paternal policy in labour relations to one of closer association with the democratic age. In the Salford of the late nineteenth century, Mather’s Queen Street Institute, opened by Bishop Fraser in 1873, stood for responsible interest in the welfare of others within the framework of a local community. “We bought a lot of wretched cottages in a slum” said William Mather, “and cleared a large space on which we built the Institute”. (1) In the years since 1900, which have seen the growth of Park Works, a large factory population has inevitably lost some of the intimate ties, which existed at Salford, but a labour policy based on the same ideals has been evolved. This evolution was made to fit a changing society and it has not only prevented friction but has encouraged active co-operation. Salford was a world in itself, when local worlds still remained coherent and self-sustained, even within the framework of international commerce. One man, asked for his opinion on the story of fifty years at Park Works, replied simply, “Well you see, I was a Salford man”, as though that should explain everything, which in a way, it did. Even though times have changed, Mather & Platt Limited still remains firmly rooted to its Manchester and Salford background. Traditionally its employees have been local men who have given long years of continuous service, in fact many of them have served the company for the whole of their working lives. The firm has been able to maintain a loyalty and cohesion which enterprises of more recent growth have not always enjoyed. Some of the workers in the firm have already seen their names pass into works legend, men like Joe Heap, Jack Greaves, Joe Mundy, Tom Roberts, George Taylor and Jim Clark. Others who have remained anonymous, helped to make the expansion of the firm possible, the early mill-wrights, working in Brown Street, Salford; the first travelling representative, touring strange lands and the broad ranks of skilled engineers. Of these it was written by a member of staff at the beginning of the twentieth century, while the Boer war was in progress, “We’re nobody particular, no lasting fame is ours, We’re but the parts that go to make the force that over powers, We’re soldiers, but every one of us, with tools upon our backs, We wage the war of commerce, but we leave no banner tracks. We nothing know of guns or spears, we’re simply engineers, But where the white man dares to tread, you’ll find us pioneers, We desolate no smiling land; we raise no battle cries, Let others fight to conquer men, we fight to civilise,” (2) These were the men who provided the high level of technical skill without which a great engineering concern could not expand. With outstanding works managers like Edwin Buckley, who rose from the ranks of manual labour, the Company was able to draw upon the talents and resourcefulness of the Manchester and Salford neighbourhood. The achievements of Manchester as a centre of free trade internationalism in the middle of the nineteenth century have often been appraised. Its contribution to the shaping of the twentieth century has less often been acknowledged. The leaders of the Manchester school would have been disturbed to see the way in which twentieth century wars have shattered the international society of which they dreamed. They would have hoped, like William Mather, that out of the struggles a New World would arise. (1) L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather, pp.93-94. (2) Memories, by Sea-Hay (C. Aitchison) (1899-1903). A world free from the “idiotic waste” and “scars of war”, when “the doors and windows of bounteous nature will pour out her riches so that we shall lack the store houses to contain them”.(1) Although Mather & Platt Limited was destined to make a large and important contribution towards the war efforts of the twentieth century, William Mather’s words still express the authentic vision of Manchester. For most part, the story of Mather & Platt is the story of the developing arts of peace, the making of the hidden machines that have helped to produce a world of vast potential plenty. Yet during the First World War, more employees of the firm were killed in the fighting than the total number of employees in the works during the middle of the nineteenth century. The history of Mather & Platt Limited takes us back far from an age of violence and international tension deep into the “Hundred Years Peace” which followed the final victory over Napoleon at Waterloo. An age of rapid economic expansion in which the firm was built up on sure foundations. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to describe the developing personality of the firm as reflected in one of the greatest characters and its close links with Manchester and Salford, the cradle of its activities. To understand its fortunes more fully, it is necessary to turn to another chapter and there examine the origins of the partnership between Mather and Platt and the growth of the modern Company. (1) Sir William Mather to Lord Eversley, Christmas Day 1915. CHAPTER 3 - From Partnership to Company The early nineteenth century, though separated from us by only a relatively short span, is something difficult for the present generation to comprehend. There was so much that was new which we take for granted, the machines themselves, the factories where they ran, and the industrial towns where men worked and lived. For the thinking man, these new social and economic phenomena raised strange problems which admitted of no easy answers but for the first generation of business men they merely provided the essential conditions of advance in an age of change. The pioneers of early industrialisation left few written records of their triumphs and defeats; they were men more interested in work rather than posterity. In working themselves to the bone as well as forcing others to work; in working without respite; in order to achieve success to expand their enterprises. At times they were men who seemed to be driven ahead by the logic of progress itself. They were not often men who lacked humanity or social sense, they were men whose views of economics were often expressed in religious language, even though at times they seemed to have no time to worry about the general environment they were creating. Material progress meant individual forging ahead. “Manchester streets may be irregular,” wrote an outside witness surveying the scene in mid-century. “Its trading inscriptions pretentious; its smoke may be dense, and its mud ultra muddy, but none of these things can prevent the image of a great city rising before us, a very symbol of civilisation foremost in the march of improvement and a grand incarnation of progress”. (1) That was what Disraeli discerned in Manchester more than ten years before the above words were written, but it was a clearer vision than that caught by the first industrial pioneers, who did not care to express their personal strivings in such sophisticated language. They saw their opportunities and they took them. It was said that the Mathers came to Manchester from Montrose, Scotland, at an unknown date and for unknown reasons; so far as we know, they certainly left no written records of their journeys or their objectives. Also since they left no records of the daily business of their first enterprise, we know far more of the opportunities open to them in Manchester than of the way they tackled them. The early nineteenth century is a dark age for that reason too, we know more of the world of necessities and opportunities than we do of the people who lived in it and shaped it. Manchester, primarily a cotton manufacturing centre, was a city to attract the enterprising pioneer. In 1800 there were 38 steam mills in Manchester and Salford and by 1820, no less than 66 cotton mills in the two towns. (2) Steam power was also employed in the bleaching, dying and printing branches of the cotton trade, and there were many finishing factories of this type in the Manchester neighbourhood. Lancashire was supplanting London as the chief centre of the calico printing trade and forging ahead of Scotland in bleaching and dying. (3) As a result, there was a flow of Scotsmen across the border, men like the Cheeryble Brothers, so well described by Charles Dickens in “Nicholas Nickleby”. (1) Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal, new series, Vol. IX (1858), p.251. (2) A. Redford, Manchester Merchants and Foreign Trade, 1794-1858 (1934, p.238. (3) G. Turnbull, A History of the Calico Printing Industry of Great Britain (1951), p109. Merchants had to link up to the fortunes of Lancashire with the development of cotton producing areas overseas, and machine manufacturers had to provide and repair the large wheels, the cylinders, boilers and pipes and the rollers for printing, without which the cotton factories would have come to a standstill. The demand for textile machinery often of a very simple character, brought into existence a large number of one man or family concerns making machines by hand; roller makers, iron turners and millwrights. Some of these men and firms survived; others disappeared, hit hard, no doubt, by commercial misfortunes and trade fluctuations, which suspended demand for their products, or by the competition of more powerful rivals. It is among the small men who survived that we first trace Colin Mather, cabinetmaker, of Gun Street, Salford, in 1817. (1) He is probably the same man who appears as Colin Mather, a machine maker, and just over ten years later at Waterloo Place. (2) The transition from cabinet making to machine making would be quite a natural one for an immigrant from a non-industrial area. By 1834, he had moved to Brown Street, Salford, (3) that has often been regarded as the birthplace of the present firm. The site was convenient, not far from the River Irwell, and by 1836, Colin had become associated with his brother William in an enterprise as that of “Engineers, machine makers and millwrights”, 23 Brown Street. (4) Compared with some rival ventures, Colin and William Mather’s establishment appears to have been small and unimportant. In the decade after the Napoleonic Wars, two of the most renowned engineering partnerships in Manchester, were Peel, Williams and Peel, of the Soho Foundry, Ancoats and Galloway, Bowman and Galloway of Great Bridgewater Street, (5) but by modern standards, these two firms were also small in size. Indeed, for some years Galloway and Bowman merely called themselves millwrights, although they employed pattern makers, iron and brass founders, smith's, firemen, hammermen and turners. Another firm, T.C. Herves, extensively employed in erecting mills and filling them with machinery, found work for 140 to 150 men. (6) (1) Pigot and Dean’s Directory (1817). There is an earlier reference in the same directory to Peter Mather, roller manufacturer of Gun Street, Salford; the first entry is 1804. In Dean’s Manchester and Salford Directory (1809) he appears at 12 Rushalm Lane: In Pigot’s Manchester and Salford Directory (1813) There are two Peter Mathers, one a roller maker at 3 Rushalm Lane, the other a whitesmith at 33 Gun Street. The name Mather was quite a common one in Lancashire and it was a branch of the Lancashire Mathers, which emigrated to America in the seventeenth century. The first reference, in a Manchester Directory, to a Colin Mather appeared in the 1817 edition. (2) Wardle and Kings Directory, (1828), his home was in Waterloo Place, his workshop in Foundry Street, according to the directory of the following years. (3) Pigot’s Directory (1834) (4) ibid., (1836) (5) J.T. Slugg, Reminiscences of Manchester Fifty Years Ago, (1881) p.102. The Peels were relatives of Sir Robert, the great calico printer. (6) Select Committee on Artisans and Machinery (1824), p.340, 27. There was one other active concern in Salford, which was to provide the eventual site for the Mather and Platt partnership at the Salford Iron Works. Indeed, the building was known as the Salford Iron Works when William Green drew his map of Salford in 1794. It was then owned by Bateman and Sherratt, (1) Bateman lost interest in the firm, and the Sherratts, a Westmorland Family became the dominant influence. (2) In 1795, Aikin wrote that, “a considerable iron foundry is established in Salford, in which are cast most of the articles wanted in Manchester and its neighbourhood. Mr Sharrard is a very ingenious and able engineer, who has improved upon and brought the steam engine to great perfection. Most of those that are used and set up in and about Manchester are of their make and fitting up. They are in general of a small size, very compact, stand in a small space, work smooth and easy and are scarcely heard in the building when erected. They are now in use in cotton mills and for every purpose of the water wheel, where a stream is not available and for winding up coals from a great depth in the coal pits, which is performed with a quickness and ease not conceived”. (3) This was an interesting forecast of the sort of claim that was to be made eventually for engineering operations carried out by Mather & Platt and as a reference, it also showed how established was the Sherratt firm before the Mathers had begun their operations at all. In 1834, when William and Colin Mather had begun their operations, a wage book dated 1829, established that William and Colin Mather were in business as millwrights and engineers at the date that J & T Sherratt were described as brass founders, engine makers and iron founders. (4) The description indicates that they were concerned primarily with general engineering rather than with the production of machinery for the textile trade, a task which was still left to small men, although from a later entry, it is clear that the Sherratts continued to do some textile machinery work. In the eighteenth century, many cotton mills grew up in the same neighbourhood as iron works, and the textile industry and the engineering trades flourished side by side. (5) As late as 1836, Sherratts still called themselves “iron founders, steam engine manufacturers, millwrights and hydraulic press manufacturers”. (5) In 1837, Thomas Sherrat died, and two years later, his trustees leased the Salford Iron Works to John Platt. (6) Little is known about John Platt, for he is not described in the Directories until 1836, when he was described as a “machine maker”, living in Roman Road Terrace, Higher Broughton. (7) His workshop before he moved to the Iron Works was in Greengate. (1) Evidently, Manchester men, like men elsewhere, had no idea of uniform spelling. Sherratt is sometimes rendered Sharratt and even in Aikin, as Sharrard. (2) F.S. Stancliffe, John Shaw’s, 1738-1938 (1938) p.87 (3) J. Aikin, A Description of the Country to Forty Miles Round Manchester, (1795) p.176. (4) Pigot’s Directory (1834). (5) L.C.A. Knowles, The industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great Britain during the Nineteenth Century (1922), p.29. (6) Pigot’s Directory (1836) (7) Ibid (1838) Platt had entered into partnership with George Yates, the two of them continuing Sherratt’s line of business. From their small workshop in Brown Street, the Mather’s could contemplate the roomy premises occupied by Platt and Yates at the Salford Iron Works across Chapel Street. For reasons which remain obscure, the Mathers and the Platts became connected when in 1845, John Platt leased the Salford Iron Works, or at any rate part of them, to William and Colin Mather. (1) The premises were to grow substantially in size in later years, but here was the beginning of a larger ‘Mather’ enterprise than had been envisaged before. Stepping into the shoes of the Sherratts, they advertised themselves in the Directory as “Engineers, Machine-makers, Millwrights and Iron-founders”, Garden Lane, Salford. (2) At the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, they referred to their premises not as “Garden Lane” but as “Salford Iron Works” and went to London to display “A calico printing machine for printing eight colours at one operation with drying apparatus, a sewing machine and patent pistons”. (3) The sewing machine for the batching of the pieces was a new invention of 1847. (4) The patent pistons were made at Brown Street. (5) One year after the Exhibition, Colin Mather entered into partnership with William Platt, the son of John Platt, who had died in 1847. It was this partnership which laid the foundations of the later business. The younger Platt, who had carried on iron founding work in the Salford iron Works, (6) provided land, buildings and money for the new partnership, while Colin, apparently, contributed technical skills and ideas. This sort of division of labour in industrial partnerships was by no means new, indeed it had already been established as a well-tried recipe for business success. Colin Mather, “Cast Iron Colin”, as he came to be called, was an engineer of ingenuity and brilliance. As the active head of the business, with Grundy as his manager, he not only built up an efficient organisation to produce textile finishing machinery, he also concerned himself with a wide range of ingenious ideas, including the design of piston rings, particularly for use in ships engines. There was also well boring, the production of magnesium in quantity in cast iron pots instead of in expensive platinum and porcelain vessels which had been used previously; and the method of preventing coastal erosion with a system of cast iron plates. He had something of Wilkinson’s zest for turning iron into a universal material and it was easy to see from the list of his pre-occupations how he came to earn his nickname. (1) Lease of 1845; J. Platt to W. Mather and C. Mather. (2) Slater’s Directory, 1845. (3) Official Catalogue of the Great Exhibition, p.38. (4) G. Turnbull, Calico Printing, p.37. (5) Manchester Mercantile Annual Directory (1854-55). Mather and Platt appear as iron founders, Salford Iron Works, Garden Lane and Deal Street, and Drying and Sizing Machine Makers, Deal Street and Brown Street. There was also a reference to them under Brown Street – Mather and Platt, Patent Piston Works. (6) Pigot and Slater’s Directory (1843). Such clever ideas have sometimes led engineers to their ruin, for as Campbell had written in the middle of the eighteenth century, “an engineer ought to have a solid not a flighty head, otherwise his business will tempt him to make useless and expensive projects”. (1) These did not prevent Colin from building up the solid side of the partnership’s activities for in 1852 the firm was employing about 125 men, (2) ten years later the number had increased to 300 and in 1875, about the same number were employed. (3) The entry of William Wilkinson Platt into the partnership coincided with the withdrawal of Colin’s brother William, who had been associated with him since the 1830’s. William had been more interested in public life and politics than in engineering and at the time of his death in 1858, he had few business interests. However, as a result of domestic circumstances, it was William's son, also called William, later Sir William Mather, rather than Colin’s sons who was destined to play the biggest part in the subsequent development of the business in the nineteenth century. Colin Mather had three sons, the eldest, William Penn, whom after spending a few years in the family business decided to emigrate to America. The second, John Harry was sent to Alsace to study tinctorial chemistry, in which the firm, as makers of dyeing machinery, had an active interest. The youngest, another Colin, spent over 40 years in the family business and in due course became a director of the Limited Company. Colin played a prominent part in the technical developments of the time and left his mark in many branches of engineering, especially that associated with the textile finishing trade. When Colin Senior met with an accident at work and was compelled to take a less active part in the affairs of the firm, it was to William, the second son of old William that he turned. (4) and not to his own children, who were still too young to accept important positions in the business. Young William was capable, far seeing and energetic and in 1850, at the age of twelve, he had begun three strenuous years of apprenticeship in the family business. He had broadened his industrial education by spending some time in Germany and had returned at the age of eighteen to work in the family business. It is on record that his hours of work extended from 6.00 am to 6.00 p.m. and most of his evenings were spent at night school in the Mechanics Institute, which both the Mathers and the Platts had sponsored three years before. This was learning the hard way, but it paid good dividends, for, as a result, William Mather always understood the value and dignity of manual work and the importance of establishing happy relations with his employees. As he said on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, in the course of a celebration at Belle Vue, he had “always loved working men from his youth”. Because he knew so much of them in his early life, he had “a profound respect for the honest, diligent, earnest, working man”. (5) (1) R. Campbell, The London Tradesman (1747), p.248. (2) The Manchester Guardian, 14 January 1852. In that year the firm was involved in the lockout between the newly set up Amalgamated Society of Engineers and the Engineering Employers. The dispute continued through February and March. (3) L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather, p.14. (4) The first son, also called Colin, died in 1857. (5) Quoted by Sir John Wormald in "The Sprinkler Bulletin" July 1908. In 1858, the year when his father died, William was made assistant manager at the Salford Iron Works. Five years later he was taken into partnership with Colin Mather and William Wilkinson Platt and the occasion was marked by a celebration at Belle Vue Zoological Gardens. All employees were given half a day’s holiday and invited to attend a social gathering, the first of many similar functions given by the firm. The programme included a characteristically Victorian meal and a feast of speech making and dancing. (1) Young William Mather represented a new generation, wider in its interests and more cultivated in its tastes, than the generation of pioneers who first saw the possibilities of advancement in the world of machines and factories. It was fitting that for a time he should be the sole figure on the stage of the story of the firm. Colin Mather retired soon after 1863 and William Wilkinson Platt in 1872. William Mather was thus left in sole control between 1872 and 1878 when he took into partnership young John Platt, the son of W.W. Platt. The men of the new partnership were different from those in 1852, representative of a changed age, about which we know more and of which we can find out more if we try. Indeed, we have numerous photographs, diaries, records and outside observers’ comments to help us. Of John Platt, who had served his apprenticeship at Hulses’ machine tool makers in Salford and who died in 1927 at the age of 79, we have fewer records. So far as can be traced from available documents, he spent much of his time travelling in search of business and frequently visited Italy, Austria, Germany and Russia. A study of old order books indicates that as a result of his efforts in these countries, he left a definite imprint in the commercial history of the concern. Between the beginning of the 1870’s and the end of the nineteenth century, the firm was expanding rapidly, both in the size of its plant and the scope of its operations. In 1873, adjacent property in Deal Street, known as Drinkwater’s Mill and the whole of Foundry Street were taken over. This increased accommodation provided new offices, a lodgeman’s house, stores, pattern and joiners shops and a light fitting shop and the number of employees increase to about 600. From 1888 onwards, land was being acquired from the Salford Corporation. In 1894 agreement was reached concerning the closing of a portion of Union Street in order that the area covered by the street and two rows of cottages, could be absorbed into the Salford Iron Works, thus providing space for a fine erecting shop and new offices. The new erecting shop soon became know as “Klondyke” as it was being erected about the time when gold was discovered at Klondyke in Alaska. The men working in the building through the winter felt that the term was a bright and apt one. “Klondyke” was more up to date than the rest of the buildings, but it marked the effective limit to the expansion of the Salford Iron Works site. In order to expand further the firm had to look outside, just as William and Colin Mather had looked across the way from Brown Street nearly fifty years earlier. As the firm expanded in size the partners had another problem to face, should it remain a partnership or be turned into a limited company? The Limited Liability Act of 1862 had codified previous legislation, but the limited liability Company had not yet become dominant or even a representative type of business organisation. However, between 1889 and 1891, there was an unprecedented increase in the number of changeovers from family businesses to limited liability companies, particularly in the north of England, and the question arose as to whether the partnership of Mather & Platt should follow the fashion. William Mather’s son-in-law, John Petro, who had been making a close study of the Companies Acts, discussed the idea with his father-in-law, who was at that time much opposed to the changeover. (1) L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather, p.14. This opposition was based on interesting, but at that time fairly commonly held grounds among family industrialists, he said that he could not part with what was “his creation” and that “the works would always remain the private property of the partners”. He thought that enterprise would not be fostered nor advancement made under the control of a board of directors; and that the personal element would depart from the Works. (1) This opposition was gradually overcome; indeed the roots of it had in fact been cut away before William Mather expressed himself so strongly. In 1888, Dowson and Taylor, a firm which had been installing automatic sprinkler systems and had just started to buy “Grinnell” sprinklers from Mather and Platt, the selling rights of which Mather had acquired from Frederick Grinnell in 1883, was turned into a private company to take over the sprinkler department of Mather and Platt and to merge it with Dowson and Taylor. The new company was called Dowson, Taylor and Co Ltd with Ralph Dowson, John Taylor and John Wormald as Managing directors, William Mather as non-executive Chairman and John Platt as a non-executive director. The Dowson and Taylor firm that had moved from Bolton to Blackfriars Bridge, Manchester had for some years been interested in fire fighting devices with their own “Simplex” sprinkler and patented alarm valve and had entered into an agreement with Mather and Platt to buy “Grinnell” sprinklers and use them in place of their own “Simplex” sprinkler. The success of this venture was calculed to make William Mather less sceptical in considering a general changeover in the status of the Mather & Platt partnership In 1892, he agreed to form Mather & Platt into a private limited company with a capital of £40,000. The first directors were, William Mather, John Platt, Dr. Edward Hopkinson, who had managed the Electrical Department since its foundation, and Hardman Earle, who was also connected with the Electrical Department. The funds of the company were increased by the private issue of mortgage debentures to members of the family. So certain were the directors that there would be no change in the constitution of the private company, that these debentures were issued as “irredeemable” and a “first charge on the works”. At this stage we must turn our attention to another partnership which affects our history, it is the Dowson-Taylor partnership which brief reference has already been made and which later amalgamated with Mather & Platt. The central figure in this part of the story is John Taylor, who was destined to become, for nearly 35 years, Managing Director and Vice Chairman of Mather & Platt Limited and the organising genius and driving force at Park Works. He comes on the scene as an ambitious young man of twenty; ready to work hard to ensure the success of the great enterprise to which he devoted his working life. On leaving school, he had joined the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company at Bolton and in the evenings, had studied shorthand and other commercial subjects in order to fit himself for office work. John soon discovered that life in the office of the Railway Company had little to offer to one of an adventurous outlook, so he obtained a position in the works of the Bolton Chemical Fire Extinguisher Company. Here he had his first real encounter with that stirring element “fire” and here he found adventure in plenty for he soon discovered that he was working in a sinking ship. Sales were not enough to keep the place going, the firm was losing money and it could not pay its way. No doubt the lessons he learned from its failure helped to develop that acute commercial sense which was such an asset to him in later life. Many young men would have lost heart when they saw the firm they worked for sinking and would have sought a safe job elsewhere. Not so John Taylor and a young colleague named Ralph Dowson who enjoyed his confidence and with whom he was prepared to embark on a business career. These two enterprising and energetic young men, confident in their own ability and possessing a great capacity for hard work, decide to strike out on their own at an age when most of today’s engineers are still serving their apprenticeship. (1) A statement of John Petro, quoted by L.E. Mather, Sir William Mather, p.21. In 1883 when the Bolton Chemical Fire Extinguisher Company finally closed down, Dowson and Taylor started their own firm, in Bolton, under the title “Dowson and Taylor, Fire Engineers”. Thus began a partnership which was to play a great part in the future of Mather & Platt Limited. The title “Fire Engineers” which Dowson and Taylor adopted was indicative of a new attitude towards that enemy of civilisation “Fire”. It told of the resolve of engineering science to place its resources at the service of a crusade which has since saved the world untold damage and many millions of pounds. John Taylor brought to this early venture the great qualities of the self-made Lancashire man, hard headed business sense, a determination to get the best out of himself and those about him and great energy. The first aim of the new firm was the perfecting and marketing of a Chemical Fire Extinguisher called the “Simplex”, it held five or six gallons of liquid, weighed about eighty pounds and was carried on the back as a soldier carried his pack. In 1884 it was awarded a medal at an International Exhibition in London and was soon installed in royal palaces, railway stations and public buildings. Following this early success, the next stop was to produce a more portable machine and it was not long before the well-known “2 gallon Simplex” extinguisher made its appearance. Today the modern “Simplex” Chemical Extinguisher is still recognised as an efficient hand appliance with which to fight small fires. If one were asked to name some of the secrets of John Taylor’s success, the reply might well be “his swiftness to learn from others; his ability to pounce upon a new idea and his eager eye for anything which might further his life’s work”. Thus, in 1881 when Bolton received a visit from an American fire-fighting enthusiast named Parmelee, John Taylor had been quick to see the possibilities of the automatic sprinkler. Parmelee was out to market an automatic fire extinguisher. Automatic! Here was a word to fire John Taylor’s mind. Some fire engineers ridiculed the idea, but Bolton was ready to learn. The Corporation allowed Parmelee to build a shed in the Wholesale Market ground for the purpose of giving practical demonstrations. According to eyewitness accounts, as published at the time, the demonstrations made a great impression on all present, but some months later Mr. Parmelee decided upon a more thorough test, under conditions approximating to a Cotton Spinning Mill. He adopted the bold policy of hiring the Spa Mill in Bolton, an old cotton-spinning factory of non-fireproof construction, five storeys in height, with wooden boarded floors, which were saturated with the oil of fifty years work. The building was fired on 22 March 1882 and the Bolton Evening News, of the same date, published the following report of the event. “It will be remembered that, in June last, a trial was made of a specially erected wooden building on the Wholesale Market, and it was then considered that the contracted space condensed the heat, therefore the Sprinklers came into operation sooner than would have been the case under less circumscribed conditions. The present experiment was therefore arranged, and on the fourth floor two pairs of spinning mules were erected, thirty-two sprinklers were fixed in this room and a similar number in the top storey. A quantity of shavings and combustible material was scattered around one pair of mules and a light applied. Within a very short time, the flames obtained complete mastery and dense volumes of smoke filled the room; in fact, it was all but possible to breathe within two minutes after the light was applied. At the expiration of a minute and a half, the first sprinkler came into operation and two others shortly followed. Within three and a half minutes, the fire was extinguished and the spectators, who had made a hasty and somewhat undignified exit, were able to return. It will, therefore, be seen that the experiment was entirely satisfactory and furnishes the best recommendation for the general adoption of the system”. The demonstration made a profound impression on the large and influential company present, but another result and one of more importance to our story- is that John Taylor, who was one of the eager spectators at the initial demonstration, had already been charged with enthusiasm and had decided that he would one day perfect a sprinkler of his own. Thus it came about that before long, Lancashire cotton mills were installing the “Simplex” Automatic Sprinkler, designed and manufactured by the firm of Dowson and Taylor. It was in 1883 after Parmalee had given his first demonstration, in Bolton, That William Mather made the visit to America, to which reference is made elsewhere and brought back from the United States, the world selling rights, apart from North America, for an automatic sprinkler called “Grinnell”. No sooner had John Taylor studied the mechanism of the “Grinnell” head and seen it tested under fire conditions, that he knew it to be the best sprinkler yet invented. Mather and Platt started to sell the “Grinnell” sprinkler and there was fierce competition between the two firms. John Taylor had invented and patented a sprinkler alarm valve which was by far and away better than anything else made at the time.So here we had two firms in competition both having the best designed working parts of a sprinkler system. Some-how the two inventions had to be brought together. At this point another important person comes on the scene. John Wormald who at the time was the surveyor for the Bolton Mutual Insurance Corporation and who had written and had published the first set of rules for the installation of sprinklers He had done this for the Bolton Mutual Insurance Corporation who were to offer discounts on fire insurance premiums for buildings protected by automatic sprinklers installed to their rules. Bolton Mutual’s decision to grant discounts for properly installed sprinkler systems was so successful that the larger fire insurance companies soon followed and so a means to incentivise factory owners to install automatic fire sprinkler systems was established. John Wormald was of course well known to John Taylor who had assisted him in drafting the rules one Sunday afternoon on a park bench in Bolton, he was also known to William Mather. John Wormald saw the fierce competition between Mather and Platt and Dowson and Taylor and appreciated that each owned the best products for a sprinkler system but that neither had the use of each other’s products. John Wormald knew that John Taylor would like to have available to his firm the “Grinnell” sprinkler he also knew that William Mather would like to have available the Taylor patented alarm valve. However Ralph Dowson was a formidable salesman and Mather’s sprinkler department were finding it difficult to over come the Dowson and Taylor competition. The first step to solve this, was an agreement in 1887 where Mather & Platt agreed to sell “Grinnell” sprinklers to Dowson and Taylor. This arrangement was so successful that John Wormald suggested to both John Taylor and William Mather that the two firms should come together and combine their activities and that in the event that this could be agreed that he would leave the Bolton Mutual Insurance Corporation and join the new combined enterprise to promote automatic sprinkler systems on a national scale. On the 10th May 1888 John Wormald’s efforts were rewarded and Mather and Platt and Dowson and Taylor signed an agreement for a new company called Dowson, Taylor and Co. Limited to be formed with Ralph Dowson, John Taylor, and John Wormald as Managing Directors and William Mather as non-executive Chairman and John Platt a non-executive Director. The purpose was for the new company to purchase the Mather and Platt Sprinkler business including it’s agency for the Grinnell sprinkler in exchange for 2500 Ordinary shares in Dowson, Taylor and Co. Limited plus £7,000 and to purchase the Dowson and Taylor business with it’s patents for 2,500 Ordinary shares plus stock equipment, tools and work in progress at a reasonable valuation. The new company wasted no time and soon a London office was opened under John Wormald in Victoria Street with him having responsibility for all sales south of River Trent. North of this the sales were the responsibility of the Manchester office. Thus we see that while still a young man, John Taylor had proved his capacity for big business by joining forces with men like Dowson and Wormald who could work hard with him to build up the business in which they were engaged. Typical of the man was the advertisement which first brought into service of the firm a boy who was later to become Secretary of the Company. It was brief and very much to the point, “Wanted, Office Boy, not afraid of hard work and with his head screwed on the right way”. There was no demand for matriculation standard ant not even a promise of a bright future in an age of golden opportunities, for John Taylor always held that work brought it’s own reward. How hard the three Managing Directors worked in the early days of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Limited. Can best be judged by the achievements of the first ten years. Once the big Insurance Companies had accepted the principle of allowing rebates on insurance premiums in respect of buildings protected by automatic sprinklers, and the efficiency of Grinnell Installations had been established by their satisfactory performance in extinguishing numerous mill fires, the future was assured. It was merely a matter of time before the cotton mills and warehouses of Lancashire were fitted with sprinklers as a matter of course. Some men might have been content to reap the local harvest, not so John Taylor and his colleagues on the board of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd. They lost no time in planning to cultivate a wider field and the minute books, covering their first twelve months as a limited company, contain references to the activities for negotiating business in the Metropolitan district; to the appointment of Resident Managers for Scotland and Ireland; to the establishment of branch offices in London and many provincial centres; to negotiations for agencies to cover special industries in the British Isles; to the completion of agency agreements to take the “Grinnell” system to France, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand and India as well as arrangements to stage demonstration fires in London for Press, Insurance Officials and leaders in Industry. Quite ambitious programmes for one year for a company still in its infancy! In view of William Mather’s business connections with Russia, it is not surprising to find that he was instrumental in bringing the “Grinnell” system to the notice of his many friends in that country. Thus he secured concessions from the Russian Insurance Companies, with the result that automatic sprinklers were soon installed there on a big scale. During his early years as Chairman of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd., William Mather himself could witness the success of the new company and so very soon John Wormald himself took overall charge of the Russian business. In due course John Wormald arranged for a branch office to be opened in Moscow under the supervision of Martin Cox, who later became a Director of Mather & Platt Limited. As a means of cementing and studying the technical problems of the country, John Taylor also spent some months each winter in Russia for many years. In 1890 John Taylor on a visit to the U.S.A. negotiated the right for Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd to manufacture the “Grinnell” sprinkler, so ending the need to import “Grinnell” sprinkler heads from America and at the same time licenced the Grinnell Company to manufacture his patented alarm valve for use in North America. For some years the story of Dowson Taylor & Co, was one of uninterrupted success but in May 1896, the Company suffered its first great loss. This was the death of Ralph Dowson, who died with tragic suddenness in Bombay, whither he had gone while on a ‘tour to further his company’s business interests in India. The untimely death of the man who had lent his name to the original Dowson-Taylor partnership, while still a young man and apparently at the heyday of his career, was a heavy blow to his colleagues in the firm and it robs our later history of the lustre of a man whose achievements would have added colour to our study of many great personalities. This is not idle speculation; conjecture it may be, but it is conjecture based on the considered opinion of John Taylor who, near the end of his business career, when he himself enjoyed an outstanding reputation among his business associates and had travelled in all parts of the civilised world in search of business and had met Kings, Princes, Government Officials and all men of Big Business in every country, described his original partner as “One of the finest business men I have ever met: a man of wonderful vision, a typical English gentleman and a man with whom it was a delight to work”. To the end of his life, whenever John Taylor spoke of Ralph Dowson he did so with deep emotion. From this point until the two firms went into voluntary liquidation in order to amalgamate and form Mather & Platt Limited the destinies of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd., were in the hands of John Taylor and John Wormald as joint Managing Directors, with William Mather and John Platt as non-executive Directors. This was a great combination and each man made an outstanding success of work in his own sphere: John Taylor, the engineer, carried the responsibility for the works production policy and all technical and commercial administration. John Wormald, from his headquarters in London devoted his tremendous energy to formulating and. carrying out an aggressive sales policy at home and overseas. Much of the success of Dowson, Taylor and Co. Ltd., was due to the ability of each in his own sphere and to the fact that each concentrated on his own work. There was no overlapping and in all phases of their business dealings each manifested supreme confidence in the other. Later they carried this same principle into good effect in administering the business of Mather & Platt Ltd, of which company they were destined to become managing directors, Some examples of the work carried out by John Taylor when as a boy in the office of the Railway Company he attended night school in order to fit himself for a position as a shorthand writer are still in existence. Work in his shorthand notebook was written with meticulous care and approached perfection in execution. The result is more like a page from a printing press than the handiwork of a student at an evening school. He displayed the same meticulous attention to detail throughout his life. He had a passion for learning and from every situation and from every new encounter he sought to draw a lesson. He had a great belief in concentration of effort avoiding, where possible, all diversions. As evidence of his devotion to the interests of his business we have the record of his wedding to Mary Ann Roberts. He married on Christmas day; but next morning was back at work at the normal time. "I could not spare the time for a honeymoon" said John " so long as there was work to be done".Mary Ann Roberts was the daughter of John Roberts and sister to Edward Roberts who was to play such an important part with John Taylor in the development of Dowson and Taylor& Co and later Mather and Platt Ltd. John Taylor, the engineer, would accept nothing but the best, he was a ruthless critic and his yardstick was engineering perfection. Men came to know that every job which survived his criticism was right and that, furthermore, it would have his complete support and the driving power of his constructive mind. Contemporary engineers recognised in John Taylor a man who brought a profound knowledge of engineering subjects to bear on the many problems connected with fire extinction and the wider activities of Mather & Platt Ltd after he joined that Company. His discerning eye was of the utmost value in the pioneer days of electrical machinery and centrifugal pump's. He took special pride in the development of the electrical side of the business and the value of his services to the electrical industry may be gauged from the fact that he served, for many years on the Council of the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers’ Association, and was one of its Vice-Presidents up to his death. This was one of the very few “outside” activities of John Taylor, who had neither time nor inclination to take part in public life. He felt that his work for Mather & Platt Ltd was a full-tine job and. demanded his undivided attention. He made an exception during the world war of 1914-18, which provided an opportunity for those in authority to set the seal on John Taylor’s position as an acknowledged master in his sphere. He was appointed Chairman of the Lancashire Anti-submarine Committee, a body appointed by the British Government of the day to investigate the possibilities of all measures which the ingenuity of engineers and scientists could devise to counter the menace of the German submarine. Although the work of the Committee was hidden behind the veil of war-time secrecy we may be sure that with John Taylor as Chairman, Mr. A. P. N. (later Sir Arthur) Fleming as Vice-Chairman and the late Lord Rutherford as Chief Technical Adviser, the local engineers and scientists who served in this body from 1917 to 1919 would not lack encouragement. John Taylor was also Chairman of the Board of Management of the Manchester and District Armaments Output Committee, an organisation to which the Ministry of Munitions delegated the work of co-ordinating the efforts of local engineering firms engaged on the production of munitions. When the Ministry of Reconstruction set up a number of Committees to investigate problems connected with industry, John Taylor was appointed a member of the Engineering Trades (Now Industries) Committee and Chairman of the Electrical Branch Committee of that body. In recognition of his work on those bodies Mr. Taylor was made a Companion of the Order of the British Empire but his work for Mather & Platt Ltd remains to be seen by all who visit the great engineering establishment he built up at Newton Heath. As we have now introduced the principal characters who were concerned with the decision of 1898 to amalgamate Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd. with Mather & Platt to form a new public limited Company called Mather & Platt Limited. The new public company was floated on the stock exchange on 25th January 1899 with the object of purchasing for shares and cash the two business of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd and Mather & Platt, with the old firms going into voluntary liquidation. At the time of the amalgamation the turnover and profits of both of the firms were about equal. It is fitting that we should at this point include an extract from the Chairman’s address at the first meeting of the directors of the new company. A minute of the Board meeting held on 25th January 1899, reads: - "Each firm had been successful in the past and there was every reason to expect that in the future they, as a united firm, would continue to prosper, but the Chairman reminded the Board that the union of the two firms must be looked upon very much like a marriage; They took each other “for better or worse”, “for richer or poorer” and, as in marriage, the future very much depended upon the mutual consideration, forbearance and regard of all members of the Company towards one another. Each one must look to the future with the intention of doing his best to maintain the traditions of the past….” The capital was fixed at £775,000 - 37,500 preference shares of £10 each and 40,000 ordinary shares of £10 each. The preference shares were entitled to a cumulative dividend. of 5%, and upon a distribution of assets to have the capital paid up on them, plus a premium of 10 shillings a share, repaid in priority to the ordinary shares. 37,500 of the ordinary shares and 10,800 of the preference shares were issued as fully paid in part consideration for the sale of the business. The remaining 2,500 ordinary shares were reserved, to meet applications from certain employees of the Company. Of the preference shares 5,000 were reserved for issue as and when required for further extensions of the business, and the balance of 21,700 5% cumulative preference shares was offered for subscription. In drawing up these plans it was overlooked until almost the last moment that the debenture issue of 1892 was “irredeemable”. Fortunately, the two debenture holders did not hold out for their ‘pound of flesh’, but loyally accepted an allotment of preference shares in exchange for their debentures. It was a propitious time to launch the new company. Prices were rising, business activity was high, prospects were good and the curve of limited company registration was rising fast. The issue was eleven times over-applied for, and the company soon got away to a good start. The year 1899, the first of the new limited company, was a record one for cotton, which made bigger profits than in the previous twenty years, and for engineering, which could not secure raw material supplies as fast as they were wanted. The unemployment figures of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in that year were down to 1.8% The launching of the Company and the first move to Park Works in 1901 marked as big an epoch in the history of the firm as did the drawing up of the articles of a partnership in 1852. It is worthwhile taking a more careful stock of’ the position of the enterprise at the beginning of a new phase of its history and at the beginning of a new century. Technically it had moved far from the roller making enterprise of the first Mathers: physically it had increased greatly in size from the Salford Iron Works plant of 1845. From a financial point of view it was a safe enterprise, far safer than most of the companies floated during the cheap-money atmosphere of 1894-6. The physical assets of the new company, before the acquisition of the Newton Heath property, consisted of three and a half acres of freehold land within half a mile of the Manchester Royal Exchange, and other leasehold properties, fixtures, machinery and stock, together worth considerably more than the preference capital. Other assets included ample working capital; the goodwill associated with one old established successful family business and the younger company of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd, as well as a set of patents sufficient to make any competitor feel envious. The annual average combined profits of the two firms in the middle nineties were sufficient to pay the dividend on the new issue of preference capital more than three times over (1). The hard work of “Cast Iron Colin” and his associates and successors was now paying good dividends, and the accumulation of capital through laborious personal savings in the middle years of the century had provided a successful basis for the appeal to the capital market. William Mather was Chairman of the new Company and there were four managing directors John Platt, Edward Hopkinson, John Taylor and John Wormald. The other directors were Colin Mather, son of “Cast Iron Colin", John Milligan, Hardman A. Earle, J. J. Holden, W. Ernest Mather and. Alfred Willett. The inclusion of Sir William’s son, Ernest Mather, who had just left Cambridge, showed that although the company had become a public one, the family tradition was to continue. It was to remain in the twentieth century as a distinctive element in the further growth of the firm. Of the present Board of Directors, six have direct family connections with their predecessors and. the other three are very long serving’ members of the Company. (1) Chartered Accountants’ Statements, 30 November and 21 December 1898. See Manchester Guardian. 21 January 1899. CHAPTER 4 - The Growth of The Company With the setting up of the new Company referred to at the close of the previous chapter the managing directors realised that the enterprise had outgrown the limits of the Salford Iron Works site. They saw clearly that the future of the business lay in its concentration and development on a scale beyond anything hitherto attempted. Such concentration and development entailed changes in organisation as well as changes in location, but the two sets of considerations went together. Even new brooms can best sweep clean on new premises. The three reasons for the move from Salford Iron Works to Newton Heath were first, to acquire satisfactory railway siding facilities; second, to find open spaces in which to be able to expand; and third, to provide scope for centralised and efficient management, control and production. The first of these reasons could in itself be regarded as a self-sufficient cause for removing the works. There were no railway siding facilities at the Salford Iron Works and consequently everything had to be carted through the streets, a state of affairs that placed a limit on business expansion. John Taylor and John Wormald caught a glimpse of an attractive site at Newton Heath through a railway carriage window, and the vision was gradually turned into reality To see major changes in to life of a firm in terms of such anecdotes is both to over-dramatise and to over-simplify the logic of cause and effect. In point of fact there was urgent need for expansion and for the re--siting of parts of the company’s enterprise, particularly the fire engineering business previously conducted by Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd. at Blackfriars: hence the merit of Newton Heath which was an undeveloped site, capable of gradual development. Before seeing the open space on which Park Works now stands Taylor inspected and half approved a site in Great Clowes Street, Broughton, but he felt that "the policy of the firm should be one of greater vision than this”. By contrast the scheme to acquire the extensive site at Newton Heath seemed too ambitious to some critics but they were proved wrong almost from the start. The third reason for a change the quest for a home offering scope for more efficient control of production - also made imperative the search for premises, where materials could be more easily handled and where workers could be effectively supervised. The growing use of jigs and automatic tools demanded systematic arrangement of machines to produce large quantities at low cost. Salford Iron Works with its buildings at varying angles to one another, differences in floor levels, rough floors and heavy galleries was an unsuitable place for development in production technique or departmental sub-division. Newton Heath was a big enough site to allow for the arrangement of workshops in such a way that unnecessary waste of time and effort could be eliminated. It was in 1900 that the fifty-acre plot of nearly level ground at Newton Heath was secured by the Company. It had direct access to the Lancashire and Yorkshire and The London and North-Western Railways, was on the bank of the Rochdale Canal, and was well served by main roads. Although the Boer War was in progress, building operations started at once. An administrative building two storeys in height was constructed, with the general office and drawing office open from end to end, the supervisory staff alone being provided with separate rooms. The building itself was of unusual construction being based on the design of an American firm which specialised in what they termed ‘slow burning’ buildings - solid wood built into an outer 'skin’ of brick. It is said that this remarkable structure is as good today as it was when first erected. At the same time the adjoining machine shop was erected. John Taylor’s energy and imagination made it all possible. Whilst visiting the Paris Exhibition of 1900, he negotiated and bought for the company the workshop, 380 feet long and 130 feet wide, and was the machinery hall for the exhibition. It incorporated all the latest ideas of a modern engineering factory building. He arranged for the building to be dismantled under the supervision of Edwin Buckley, using their own Dowson and Taylor engineers, and brought direct to Manchester along the Manchester Ship Canal. It was re-erected together with a smaller amount of steelwork fabricated in Manchester, at Newton Heath, where, as Bays Number 1 to 4, it formed a nucleus around which the present works have been built. The first department to transfer to the new home Fire Equipment moved over a single weekend. Such was the driving power and organising genius of John Taylor that after the employees ceased productive work at Blackfriars at twelve o’clock on Saturday, the machinery was dismantled and, transported to Park Works; the millwrights worked through the weekend and production started at Newton Heath at the normal time on Monday morning. This would have been a feat of considerable magnitude in the second half of the twentieth century when powerful cranes, mobile handling and lifting tackle, supported by a fleet of mechanical transport vehicles would have been employed on the transfer but it was a triumph of organisation fifty years earlier when much of the plant would be moved twice by manual labour and horse drawn lorries were employed to provide all the necessary transport. In accordance with an ordered scheme of development additions to the first building were made in 1903, 1905, 1909 and 1910. It was in 1909 that it was finally decided to make provision for the gradual removal of all remaining departments from the old works in Salford, and the construction of two new machine shops, each 379 feet long and 40 foot wide, enabled the Electrical Department to find a more congenial home. A year later, still following Taylor’s original plan, seven more shops, each 379 feet long, were constructed. In 1913 a building which now houses the Brass Foundry, the Forge and the Tank Shop was completed and the work of providing a new wing of four bays totalling 161 foot wide was put in hand and brought the number of bays to seventeen just prior to the 1914 war. There were further extensions in 1920, when fourteen of the bays were lengthened. In 1926 a building to accommodate the General Engineering Drawing Offices was erected and in 1939 and 1940 other shops were erected to provide new accommodation for the Tool Room and the Steel Rolling Shutter department. Among special buildings added at Park Works were the Staff Canteen (1917), the Research Iaboratory (1919), the Girls’ Canteen (1938) and the Iron Foundry (1938); while the Sports Ground at the front of the Works was not completed until 1950. The record of industrial production and general activities at Park Works is told in other chapters: looking at the story of the works in relation to the development of the Company, it is clear that without a new site Mather & Platt would have ceased both to expand and to adapt itself to the economic conditions of the twentieth century. It is of interest to note that the most significant developments had taken place before 1914. By that time Park Works had taken on its modern shape and had employed new methods of production, which were not generally accepted until the First World War period. At Newton Heath there was plenty of space for new development, and the firm was even able to hand over four of its bays, 14, 15, 16 and 17, completed just before the War, to the manufacturers of Avro Aeroplanes, Messrs. A.V.Roe and Company, one of Britain’s early firms in the Aeronautical industry who were producing aircraft at a factory on an adjacent site. The basis of the firm's internal organisation was the separation of the enterprise into distinct departments, for each of which a Director was responsible. Already before 1900 the accounts of the different departments were segregated and treated separately and as far as possible employees were attached to definite departments. At Park Works the departments could be built up and housed in more clearly defined areas than at Salford. The Fire Department moved in 1901, the Electrical Department in 1905-1909, and the Pump Department in 1911. The General Machinery Department was the oldest part of the firm, but did not move to Park Works until 1913. The gradual movement avoided serious problems of dislocation, and the sites were well prepared before any department was transferred to its new home. Once established at Park Works, the departments could operate distinctly and efficiently, with co-ordination but without overlapping, under the supervision of one Works Manager for the whole productive enterprise.(1) It took some time for modern specialised office services to develop, and some of the common services, like research, pattern making, costing and later on publicity, were developed to serve the whole concern without interfering with the individuality of each department. Businessmen who have grown up in an era of modern office equipment may be interested to -know that although there was a telephone switchboard in 1901 there were few typewriters, and juniors on the office staff were still copying letters with the aid of damp rags. Invoices and Orders were all written out by hand. The 1914—18 War left its mark on the development of the Company and the demand for engineering products for the armed forces superseded peace time production. In August 1915 Park Works was declared a controlled establishment under the Munitions of War Act, and there was a steady switch over to war production. Large quantities of shell casing and fuses were turned out and a howitzer re-lining department was established. Main propelling motors for submarines, gear boxes and hull plates for tanks, generators for searchlight duties and a multitude of other munitions of war were all produced at Park Works, the total output of munitions of one kind and another making an impressive war effort. (1) Edwin William Buckley, who began his career at Dowson and Taylor’s, became first Works Manager at Newton Heath. His predecessors at Salford were Grundy, Thorp, Hewitt, Sidebottom and Chorlton. With the war over the task of adjusting the Company’s activities to a newly emerging world was in the hands of experienced directors. Sir William Mather had retired as chairman in 1916 at the age of seventy eight nearly sixty years from the time when he completed his apprenticeship.The other directors had invited Loris E. Mather, Sir William’s son, to take the chair from then on. The directors at this new stage in the history of the Company were John Platt, Edward Hopkinson, John Taylor, John Wormald, James Robinson, Edward Roberts and Loris Mather. They faced the post-war period with confidence, knowing that for some time at least they would be fully occupied completing outstanding orders for all types of machinery and that the firm had an experienced staff of sales and service engineers capable of dealing with the problems of prospective clients in distant markets. They knew too that the firm retained its essential traditions, for as James Robinson, the Director in charge of the General Machinery Department, told a Sales Conference in 1920, “Success is not only of one kind; it does not only relate to monetary success, to big turnovers and making big profits, to build up a great company. Employing large numbers of men, finding work for them and living for their families, gathering round us a fine staff such as we have here tonight and which is only a part of a still greater one, that in itself is surely a success as great as any that we have achieved and one of which we are just as proud”. The inter-war years were marked by a depression which hit basic trades like cotton particularly hard and at times the new industries, like those devoted to the production of electrical goods, were unable to compensate entirely for the loss of export markets by the older industries. The twenty years between 1919 and 1939 were not, however, a period of stagnation and decline. The productivity of labour rose substantially and the rate of technical development was considerable. As Park Works developed, the older ties with Salford were gradually broken and production in the old works ceased entirely after the heavy Iron Foundry was transferred to a new building at Park Works in 1938. The old works had been a home of great character and tradition; its rambling bays and uneven floors still showed where a cottage had been absorbed or a neighbouring street roofed over. Its grimy walls and great wooden cranes epitomised the hard work and individual skill, which had carried the roller makers forward to become engineers with an international reputation. When the last moulders left the old Iron Works in Salford, they carried to their new modern Foundry at Park Works the skill that had helped to make the company’s products famous. It was not without pangs therefore, that the ownership of Salford Iron Works passed from Mather & Platt Ltd to Threlfall’s Brewery, “popular” neighbours in more senses than one during the nineteenth century. It is a legend of the old days that many Mather & Platt employees had their own methods of securing supplies of beer through a convenient hole in the wall, which separated the two buildings. From Threlfalls part of the works subsequently passed to a well-known firm of motor car spring manufacturers. A few of the nineteenth century landmarks, including the weighing-in machine still survive. The only production link between Mather & Platt Ltd and Salford, which still persists, is the Plate Metal Works, known as the Boiler Yard, which has had an interesting history. Originally owned by one John Platt a man not related to the Platt of the Mather & Platt partnership, but who occasionally did, some work for the firm — the Boiler yard, passed into the hands of the firm in 1870, when the same Platt was installed as foreman, in charge of about twenty-five men. Its one bay was extended in 1906, when the adjoining works of Edmondson and. Co., General Engineers, were absorbed and used as a machine shop and plate shop. The concentration of effort at Park Works made for a closer and more uniform control of the whole of the firm’s activities, although each department continued to trade as a separate unit. In spite of the efficiency of its new organisation Mather & Platt Ltd, in common with other companies which produced machinery for export, passed through an anxious period in the early 1920’s when would be customers lacked the money with which to buy British machinery. In addition, the Russian market which had been developed so surely for three-quarters of a century, was temporarily closed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution. The fall of money wages throughout many industries in the latter part of 1921, however, led to a reduction in selling prices and this in some measure helped to promote a steady flow of orders from overseas buyers. “Such benefit”, it was claimed, “together with economies in the management, assist us in securing work and in keeping most of our men employed.”(1) Piecework payments were adopted more generally and. output per man increased sharply. Mather & Platt Ltd. refused to follow the line advocated by some employers of increasing the length of the working day. “As a firm who have worked the present hours successfully for nearly thirty years, we look in other directions for this improvement. We have satisfied ourselves by paying special attention to our internal arrangements that the 47 or 48 hour week is an economical proposition in our particular business whatever may be the case in other trades.”(2) Output continued to increase, with the same hours, in 1923 and 1924. (1) Proceedings at the Twenty—fourth Annual General Meeting , 27th February, 1922. (2) Proceedings at the Twenty—fifth Annual General Meeting, 27th February, 1923. There was a revival in some home markets in the mid twenties, particularly for electrical engineering products, while trade was re-established with Russia in 1925 and continued successfully for several years. In 1927 there were again signs of gloom, partly as a result of the Coal Strike and partly as a result of depression in the textile industries. For Mather & Platt Ltd. 1929 was a relatively good year, even bright compared with the experience of many firms (1) but 1930, 1931, 1932 and 1933 were made difficult as a result of world depression. Throughout these years the Company continuing to believe in the export trade, maintained its full sales staff overseas, although this represented a heavy overhead charge. It turned also to the production of an entirely new line of business; food processing machinery. Such signs of initiative did more than keep the firm alive. In a period of depression they kept it mentally active and alert. Only in 1931 and 1932 and 1933 was the whole range of business depressed, when viewed in terms of countries, industries and departments as a whole. It was natural that a firm producing such a wide range of heavy plant and machinery should faithfully reflect the ups and downs of general industrial fluctuations. Trade had improved again by 1937 and remained at a satisfactory level until the outbreak of the Second World. War in 1939. The Second World War, like that of 1914-18, led to the firm being listed as a Government controlled enterprise. Its activities were varied. A portion of Park Works was laid out as a gun factory and the many new and unfamiliar products manufactured included special capstans for boom defence vessels, gun mountings for the Admiralty, Bofors predictors and rocket projectors, cordite rolling mills and machines for proofing the fabric of barrage balloons. There were few engineering firms in the country, which could have rivalled this record of diversified production. At the same time, there was a steady demand for standard peacetime products, often adapted to new uses. Many of the products of apparently routine work, familiar in days of peace, were earmarked for secret destinations and purposes. Thus we find that Mather & Platt high-pressure turbine pumps and motors were used for the "Pluto" scheme to pump oil through pipes under the English Channel to the Continent. Similar installations, totalling about 25,000 h.p. were parts of a system of underground pipelines from the principal British oil ports connecting to “Pluto” and to numerous airfields and bases scattered over the Kingdom. Made up into mobile units, Mather & Platt pumps were used by the Services in all theatres of war. At sea low-voltage generators produced by the firm were used for the excitation of the coils for degaussing the ships to meet the menace of the magnetic mine, and motor-alternators were produced as part of radar and wireless equipment. Even a new and pre-eminently peace time development like the food machinery department was employed to meet service needs, producing canning equipment for cooking and packing service rations, "dehydration" plant, grain drying equipment and milk sterilisers. Some of the equipment and machinery was sent under contracts with the Ministry of Supply to the Soviet Union, thereby maintaining a link, which went back long before the days of war and revolution. (1) One shareholder described Mather & Platt at the Thirty—second Annual Meeting in February 1930 as “a star in the firmament”. Another pointed out that it is very uncommon to have a balance sheet like this representing 1929 in Lancashire. The impact of war on the employees of the Company had different consequences in 1914-18 and in 1939-45. In 1914 several of the firms employees who were resident in enemy territory were interned in enemy countries while after a factory recruitment meeting there was an immediate rush of Park Works workers to join the armed forces. By contrast the gradual and compulsory call up scheme and the system of reserved occupations which operated from the outbreak of hostilities in 1939 prevented a chaotic rush from industry, with the result that the firm retained most of its employees throughout the first year of the fighting. Women were drawn into the firm in larger numbers than ever before and as the Chairman commented in 1942, “While many of these have had little training for the work on which they are now engaged, we are well satisfied with the way they tackle their jobs, and the energy and cheerfulness which they display.”(1) Finally, whereas in 1914 recent additions to the Park Works buildings were handed over to Avro for the manufacture of aeroplanes, in 1939 all available plant including the recent extensions were urgently required for the firm's own needs. Indeed, by the end of the War in 1945, the workshops were seriously congested, and the packed order book led to a search for new premises for the third time in the firm’s history. After negotiations with the Ministry of Supply, a ten year lease of the Royal Ordnance Factory at Radcliffe about ten miles North of Park Works, was arranged, thus providing the firm with an additional manufacturing space of about 30% of the area of Park Works, and accommodation for 800 to 1,000 additional workers. Although the post war years were to involve many problems of re-conversion in an awkward and unsettled period of economic history, the firm was expanding and again looking to the future. (1) Proceedings at the Forty-Fourth Annual General Meeting, 24th February 1942. PARK WORKS PERSONALITIES How far are people who live in any particular period of time qualified to write its history and to view events in correct perspective? There are many who give a stout denial to the possibility of such people dealing fairly with events in which they have played a part and they hold the view that the only reliable historian is he who views at a distance. That may be a good and sufficient reason for not dealing at great length with the events of today, but it would be no justification for failing to take advantage of the intimate knowledge of the period in which we are interested which is possessed by many who are still alive and can speak with authority of the achievements of the first half century after Mather & Platt became a limited company. The union with Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd., brought together a band of men, who shared the common resolve to build up for Mather & Platt Ltd a reputation which would be unsurpassed In this story of the growth of the Company in the twentieth century several outstanding personalities demand our attention. For forty years, Sir William Mather had been the driving force behind the business. When the move to Park Works started, he felt he had reached the age to hand over much of the responsibility to younger men. Such men were trained and ready for their new responsibilities. Mather had shown great foresight in obtaining the rights for the “Grinnell” Automatic Sprinkler; he had seen the future for the Electric Motor when he linked the designs of Thomas Edison and John.Hopkinson to produce the Edison-Hopkinson Dynamo, and he had visualised the possibilities of the Centrifugal Pump when developing the Mather-Reynolds Turbine Pump, which is the father of all modern turbine pumps. Those three developments not only linked up with his well established textile machinery business for all of them were required by the textile trade but they opened up new markets at home and overseas in new and expanding industries. While the Fire Engineering business was being well organised and energetically developed by Dowson, Taylor & Co, the expansion of the electrical and pump businesses was less spectacular and even the Textile Machinery Department was not responding as quickly as it might have done to the new markets which were opening up, and which were eager for these products. Mather was spending many months each year travelling abroad and building up an overseas business so as to be able to participate in the industrial development of other countries, as well as that of Britain. At home his duties as a Member of Parliament and public man kept him occupied and he was unable to devote as much of his own time to the organisation of the expanding business as it deserved. He was naturally on the lookout for a man of outstanding organising ability to bring his schemes to fruition. As Chairman of Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd. William Mather well knew the ability of its Directors and he must have noted how quickly they adapted themselves and their organisation to the Fire Protection market which they had opened up for themselves. He must have felt that, if Taylor and Wormald could bring these same qualities to the assistance of Mather and Platt, the great organisation could be created which was necessary to manufacture and sell his machinery in the waiting markets. To Taylor and Wormald, the wider horizons which were now opening up, offered greater scope for their abilities, as the merger of Dowson,Taylor & Co. Ltd and Mather and Platt partnership meant they were in control of a Company just twice the size of their own and took them into new fields of activity. It was not long before their energy and vitality was to set the pattern for the great expansion and drive for efficiency, entailing the move to new premises. . John Taylor, one of the managing directors of the new company, was the strong man of his generation. He has been called the original architect of the Park Works project. He supervised the layout and building of the new shops and later controlled the manufacture and sale of an ever-growing range of products. As the leading figure in the development of Park Works John Taylor laboured indefatigably for many years in the task of consolidation and expansion. It has been said that he knew the position of every drain and water pipe in the vast premises, which grew up, during his regime to meet the demand for the products of Mather & Platt Ltd. It was indeed the fusion of Mather & Platt with Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd which afforded John Taylor that wide scope for his great organising ability which would not have been open to him in the restricted field of the sprinkler business. In the larger organisation he was able to employ all his talents, first in the development of the electrical business this being the first of the Mather & Platt specialities to be transferred from Salford to Park Works. Then in establishing the centrifugal pump department on a firm footing when that section of the business was transferred to Park Works and later in making provision for the manufacture of a wide range of Textile Finishing machinery in the new home. Each individual department was henceforward to stand on its own feet; its design, production and sales policy being the direct responsibility of a director in charge with John Taylor himself exercising a controlling influence over all sections. One obvious advantage of this plan was that each director could concentrate on the specific needs of the users of the plant he offered. He thus became a specialist in his own field and while a general engineering background enabled him to understand all phases of the Company’s business, he could be relied upon to give expert advice to any prospective client who was disposed to make use of the specialised knowledge acquired in one particular branch of engineering. In putting this plan into execution John Taylor gathered round him a number of capable lieutenants to whose work reference will be made as we study progress in the departments for which they were responsible. While John Taylor was devoting his great energy to the general development of Park Works and its products his colleague John. Wormald, now working from headquarters in London, was engaged in increasing the demand for the company’s products, especially in territories overseas. As in the case of John Taylor the early business interest of John Wormald had centred around automatic sprinklers and the reduction of fire losses but he proved equally at home in the wider sphere of engineering in which he moved in the new formed Company of Mather & Platt Ltd. John Wormald was ideally suited for the task entrusted to him. He was a man of great initiative and imagination: a man of personality able to deal confidently with men interested in ‘Big Business’. He was essentially a super salesman who thought on the grand scale, which fitted in well with the manufacturing policy of John Taylor, who held that everything offered by the company must be the best and that success would be achieved by catering for the needs of buyers who appreciated the advantages to be gained by doing business with producers whose first aim was quality. Having established himself in the trading centre of the world John Wormald succeeded in spreading the fame of Mather & Platt Ltd. to all quarters of the globe and in leaving a lasting impression on the sales policy of the company. He was held in high esteem among the London businessmen of his day and his selection to serve on a wartime committee appointed by the Government of Mr. Lloyd George to control the distribution of non-ferrous metals indicated that his business ability was recognised in high places. He was subsequently knighted in recognition of services rendered to the Government during the 1914-18-war period. Sir John Wormald resigned his position as a Director of Mather and Platt Ltd in 1924 but there are still many in the employ of the company who pay eloquent testimony to the value of the training and encouragement received at his hands. Another of the outstanding personalities of this era was an engineer who enjoyed the distinction of being the first of three Salford Iron Works youths who, having joined the firm as ordinary apprentices, without the influence of family connections or financial backing, were selected for promotion and proved themselves capable of administering the affairs of a trading department at Park Works with such marked efficiency that they were, in turn, rewarded with a seat on the board of directors of Mather & Platt Ltd. James Robinson the son of a Clifton schoolmaster was educated at Manchester Grammar School, that nursery of distinguished and virile men. When young James decided on an Engineering career his father secured an introduction to Mr. William Mather at Salford. In later years James was very fond of quoting from his recollections of the interview; — Mr. Mather to’ Mr. Robinson: “So your boy has been educated at the Manchester Grammar School; I suppose he is a genius,” “No” replied Robinson Senior, “Just an ordinary boy”. “Oh. that’s a good job”, said Mr. Mather, “We’ve a lot of the other sort already!” That was in 1884. Eighteen years later in August 1902 we find Sir William Mather, M.P., in the Chair at the Annual General Meeting of his Company and James Robinson elected to the Board of Directors. Good progress for an ordinary boy! Although as an engineer he was destined to devote his energies to the world of textiles, James Robinson was wont to make a smiling boast that as an apprentice he worked on the Mather & Platt electric light installation at the Theatre Royal, Manchester, said to be the first theatre to produce its own electric light, where the current was generated by an Edison-Hopkinson Generator driven by a horizontal steam engine. While still a young man James Robinson decided to specialise on the textile engineering side of the firm’s activities and he became a great ambassador for the British Textile Engineering. He has been aptly described as ‘practical engineer, salesman, technician and advisor all in one’. The reason is not far to seek. Having decided to specialise on the needs of the Textile Industry, James Robinson devoted himself with typical thoroughness to every detail of its requirements. He studied every minute detail of each individual process until he could be described as a walking encyclopaedia on the textile finishing trade. He set out to know all there was to be known and he achieved his purpose to an unusual degree. As a result, whenever there was a prospect of finishing machinery being required James Robinson was capable of visiting the scene, studying all local conditions, noting the nature and quantity of fabric to be produced and giving expert advice on the plant necessary to achieve the desired results. He would then follow every detail from drawing board, foundry, machine shops, erection and testbed to satisfy himself that the customer would get exactly what was needed. The reputation of James Robinson was not confined to the British Isles. He travelled in the Far East, China and Japan in l902, He visited India in 1906; Brazil in 1895 and in 1912 (a revolutionary year), He made several visits to the United States and Canada. The Continent of Europe was familiar ground to him, Every year over a long period he visited Russia where he was held in high regard both for his character and his knowledge. A Paper he prepared for the Textile Institute of Great Britain was published in a book form and in the Russian language was regarded as the standard handbook on Textile Finishing. It is part of the job of an ambassador to create an impression of dignified integrity. James Robinson did this to a remarkable degree and wherever he travelled he made friends. His capacity for listening to the troubles of other men made him a confidant as well as a business acquaintance. His charm of manner, his enthusiasm for engineering achievement, his forward looking mind, created comradeship in industry just as surely with men in foreign lands as they did with customers at home. After the lapse of many years he could name every mill he had visited in distant lands. What is more, he remembered the name of every man with whom he had discussed business. To appreciate what it meant to be an Ambassador of trade one has only to read the diary of this man. We find every incident of any importance recorded in minute detail, A long day in business * followed by an evening devoted ostensibly to social events but in reality frequently spent in cultivating the acquaintance of people who mattered in the business community, sitting up late or rising in the small hour’s of morning to make written reports of one day before starting out to keep appointments of the next; always looking for any possible connection which might lead to a new application of the products of the firm — not only his own particular department but for other branches of the company. It was not just by accident that James Robinson built up big business in South America and other countries to which the export of Textile Machinery assumed considerable proportions. He was ever alive to an opening capable of convincing the client that he was the man to advise and that Mather & Platt Ltd, were the people to give technical advice; to design plant for any desired output and finally to undertake the manufacture and erection of all the necessary machinery. James Robinson continued to direct the policy of the General Machinery Department at Park Works until the time of his death in 1945. He served the Company with great distinction for over 60 years and as a workman in the erecting shop at Park Works said at the time of his death, “He was a very loveable man; I never heard anyone say an unkind word about him”. For some years before his death James Robinson had been assisted in the administration of the General Machinery Department by Roy C. Mather, a grandson of “Cast Iron Colin”. After leaving Uppingham School Roy Mather spent over three years in Germany studying engineering and the long summer vacations were spent mainly in textile works in Alsace with a view to the acquisition of knowledge regarding the processes of bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing. After leaving Germany he followed the usual procedure of passing through the various departments of the firm in the course of his training and naturally decided to specialise on textile finishing machinery in the development of which his forefathers had played a distinguished part. Towards the end of his apprenticeship he spent some time erecting textile machinery on the Continent of Europe and later made a visit to Russia with Mr. James Robinson. On his return he was transferred to Paris where he spent the next three years travelling extensively in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in the interests of the textile finishing machinery section of the business. In 1913-14 he visited the U.S.A. and Canada on his way to Japan and China where a fruitful harvest was reaped in later years from this ‘tilling of the soil”, In September 1914 his work with the firm was interrupted by the first world war during which he saw active service with the Manchester Regiment. He returned to Park Works on demobilisation but he still maintains a close interest in his old regiment and at the time of writing is president of the 19th Manchester’s Old Comrades Association. Between the two world wars Roy Mather travelled extensively on the Continent of Europe on the business of the company, in fact it may be said that he has visited, at one time or another, every country in Europe. At the outbreak of the second world war the manufacture of textile machinery was prohibited, except under licence and Roy Mather was given the job of co-ordinating the work entailed in the manufacture of the various new armaments and munitions which were turned out in considerable quantities by the firm, an appropriate task for one who had “practical experience of being in the field in the early days of the 1914 war with a very serious lack of the necessary equipment’ On the death of James Robinson responsibility for the design, production and sale of textile machinery and other products of the General Machinery Department was left in the hands of Roy Mather. He was elected to the Board of Directors in 1942. Occupying the position of Senior Director at the time of writing is Herbert Taylor, another man who was trained up under the eye of John Taylor and was for many years engaged in the management of the Electrical Department after its transfer to Park Works. Herbert Taylor joined Mather & Platt as an apprentice in 1890, He was not in any way related to John Taylor under whom he was destined to serve for many years but to quote words used by Sir William Mather when presenting him with a prize at the Queen Street Institute round about 1895, he was “A worthy son of a worthy Sire” because his father, George Taylor, as Sir William said “is a very fine character who has served Mather & Platt for many years”. After spending rather more than the first two years of his apprenticeship in the drawing office and fitting shops of the General Machinery Department at Salford Iron Works, Herbert Taylor was transferred to the Electrical department which then was still in its infancy, the remainder of his apprenticeship was spent in the Electrical manufacturing shops, on outside contracts in the British Isles and abroad and ended in the Drawing Office. Mention is made elsewhere of the work of Dr. John Hopkinson and his early development of the Edison Hopkinson dynamo but while Dr. John Hopkinson had a profound influence on the scientific work carried out in the pioneer days of electric machines and there is ample evidence that he was very active in the early days of experimental work - it would seem that for the greater part of his life be was lost to Industry because he was primarily an academic man. He met a tragic death at a relatively early age as a result of a climbing accident in Switzerland. His brother Edward was for some years the Manager of the original electrical department at Salford Iron Work but he never held a full time position at Park Works and he was not responsible for the work of the Electrical Department after the transfer to the new home, although he retained a seat on the Board of Directors until 1922. For some time after the Electrical department was moved to Park Works John Taylor himself with the assistance of his able lieutenant Fred Dowson accepted responsibility for moulding the business in his own way. He had made himself familiar with the essential facts concerning the department while still at Salford and decided to make certain changes before starting operations at Park Works. Among other things he had made up his mind to model the Commercial work on lines which had proved successful in his old company, relying for the execution of his plans on young men of sound technical ability who had received their engineering training in The Salford Works. One of these young men was Herbert Taylor who worked under the direction of Fred Dowson until he was appointed Commercial Manager of the Electrical Department in l911. He was given full charge of the Department in 1914 and was made a special director in 1918 acting in this capacity until he was given a seat on the board in 1927. Herbert Taylor was responsible for the management of the Electrical Department for nearly forty years and it would seem that he has already established a record for long service, which will remain unbroken. He is the only person still in the employ of the Company who was with the firm when Sir William Mather introduced the 48hr week at Salford in 1893, and he can recall many of the great events in the company's history for more than sixty two years. While James Robinson and Herbert Taylor were consolidating the work of the Textile Machinery and Electrical Department, as separate units, a third man was meeting with great success in his efforts to bring about a considerable expansion in the output of centrifugal pumps. He was the third Mather & Platt apprentice of this generation to prove his ability as an engineer as well as his capacity for organisation and as a result, to be rewarded with a seat on the Board of Directors. T.Y. Sherwell - the third of eleven sons of a Civil Engineer, served his apprenticeship at Salford Iron Works 1902 to 1904 but whereas his colleagues James Robinson and Herbert Taylor remained in the service of the firm in England after completing their apprenticeship young Sherwell was sent to take up a position with the Company’s Canadian agents Messrs. Drummond, McCall & Co. Montreal and later joined the Canada Foundry Co. Toronto who manufactured pumps to Mather & Platt designs, He remained in Canada gaining valuable ‘field’ experience until 1915 when John Taylor invited him to return to the service of Mather & Platt Ltd. and take charge of the design, production and sale of Centrifugal pumps in a separate department for which he was to he responsible. Thus we find T.Y.Sherwell returning to Park Works to place his services at the disposal of the Company with which he received his early training. He was made a Special Director in 1918 and was given a seat on the board in 1927. Under his guidance and with the assistance of a very capable staff the Pump Department made great strides and has enhanced the high reputation of the Company which now ranks with the world’s best known makers of Centrifugal pumps. We have seen how John Taylor exercised a guiding hand over the fortunes of all the Departments of the new company for many years after the removal to Park Works. The consistent growth of the Textile, Electrical and Pump departments was eloquent testimony to his wise management. A steady rise in output with a uniform profit was accompanied by ever increasing goodwill and confidence between producer and clientèle. But while John Taylor found time to take a great interest in the general Engineering side of the business he remained a leader in the realm of sprinkler protection and retained a paternal interest in the progress of his own Fire Engineering Department. The fact that he was able to devote so much of his time and energy to the work of other branches of the Company’s business was due to the fact that when he brought the Fire Engineering business to Park Works the administration was in the hands of men on whom be could rely. One such man was Fred Dowson a younger brother of Ralph, John Taylor’s original partner, who, as already mentioned had died while on a business trip to India. Fred Dowson was a born organiser. He joined Dowson, Taylor & Co. in 1893 and after service as an outside representative and a Branch Manager he was transferred to Manchester to take charge of the Commercial administration of the Home Section of the Fire Engineering Department. Under the guidance of’ Mr. John Taylor he assumed similar responsibility for the several commercial departments of Mather & Platt Ltd in their early years at Park Works, as and when the various sections were brought to the new home. He had a flair far assessing values in commercial enterprise and for separating the essential points from a mass of detail. For the first twenty-five years at Park Works he exercised a great influence on the business life of the company and many men who became senior officials in the concern received their early training at his hands. In recognition of his outstanding ability Fred Dowson was elected to the Board of Directors in 1924 and retained his seat until his death in 1930. One of the important duties of his later years was to assist in the commercial training of J. Noel Taylor, the only son of his Old chief, who was destined to take charge of the Fire Engineering Division and to carry on the work started by his illustrious father. Young Taylor took up full time duties with the Company in September 1925 on completion of his studies at Cambridge. He was no stranger at Park Works for he had served a vacation apprenticeship during his years at the university. During this apprenticeship which was continued after leaving Cambridge, he spent some time in the different sections of the Company’s business including a period of special training in the Works Manager’s office under Mr. Arthur Roberts and in the Executive Department of the Fire Engineering Division under Mr. Edward Roberts. In. l926 he accompanied Mr. John Taylor on a round—the—world tour visiting many of the Company’s branch offices and customers situated North of the Equator. This tour ended with a four months sojourn in U.S.A. to study American business methods. On the death of Mr. Dowson in 1930 Mr. Noel Taylor took charge of the Fire Engineering division. He remains in that capacity and has been a member of the Board since 1927. Another stalwart of the Dowson Taylor & Co. regime who was destined to play an important part in the history of the first fifty years of the new Company was Edward Roberts who for many years carried out the duties of technical director in the Fire Engineering Department. Edward Roberts was the son of John Roberts an Engineer of’ Church Bank, Bolton. His father originally had a millwright’s business but later devoted his attention to the manufacture of wringing machines. Edward was educated at Bolton Grammar School and was proud of his association with this old established foundation. But he placed the education of experience above academic qualifications and thus was representative of the old hard headed Lancashire school who concentrated upon plenty of work and unremitting devotion to duty. In 1881 be became an Indentured Apprentice of Charles Loxton Jackson of Jackson and Brother, of Bolton, and later as a draughtsman with John and Edward Wood of Victoria Foundry, Bolton, he gained experience, which was to prove of immense value in his subsequent career. After he had completed his apprenticeship he joined John Taylor in the newly established Fire Engineering business of Dowson & Taylor. He was with Dowson & Taylor when they produced the Simplex Automatic sprinkler and when arrangements were made for them to take over the development of the “Grinnell” Sprinkler in this country. To Edward Roberts was assigned the task of organising the Drawing Office work in connection with early Sprinkler Installations. He soon realised that systematic measuring up was essential to the effective erection of a Sprinkler Installation, no less than to its ultimate performance in case of fire, and he proceeded to establish the work of surveying on a sound basis. As the Sprinkler work developed he played an important part in everything appertaining to the erection of the plant. Thus it came about that Edward Roberts probably knew more about the technical side of sprinkler work than any other man associated with the automatic sprinkler business. He had a remarkable memory for the intricacies of some thousands of “Grinnell” installations and could recall a tremendous amount of technical detail about particular features of many important sprinklered buildings, both in Great Britain and on the Continent of Europe. When Mather & Platt Ltd. secured their first sprinkler business in new territory, Edward Roberts made it his personal responsibility to see the installation through, often making the first survey himself supervising every detail and later visiting the country concerned to make a final inspection; remaining on the site to see that every detail of the installation conformed to the Grinnell standard. This duty took him to many parts of the world and in the course of his life he established an international reputation as one of the foremost technical authorities on Automatic Sprinklers. By virtue of his early engineering training and active technical association with the “Simplex” and early “Grinnell” Installations, Edward Roberts might be described as a pioneer if not actually the first man who could rightly be termed a Fire Protection Engineer. He was a Director of Mather & Platt Ltd. from 1916 until his death in December 1944. His son, Arthur Roberts, joined the Board of Directors of the company in 1929 and. remains to carry on the family tradition. Like his father, Arthur Roberts was a pupil of Bolton Grammar School and after receiving his early engineering training at home and becoming an Engineering Honours graduate of Manchester University he spent a considerable time studying on the Continent of Europe and serving a year’s apprenticeship with Escher Wyss & Co in Switzerland before the first World War in which he served in. the Royal Engineers. On his return to civil life Mr. Roberts came back to Park Works as assistant to Edwin Buckley - an engineer of the Dowson Taylor regime who enjoyed a great reputation as Works Manager at Park Works. When Mr. Buckley died in 1923 Arthur Roberts was appointed to succeed him as Works Manager, he remains responsible for the Works Management and has been a member of the Board since 1929. At the time of writing he is President of the Manchester and District Engineering Employers Federation. It is appropriate that this story of some of the personalities who have controlled the trading departments of Mather & Platt Ltd. and thereby made outstanding contributions to the success of the Company during the present century, or have strengthened ties with the past by carrying responsibilities similar to those of their ancestors, should close with reference to the youngest branch of the business. This is the Food Machinery Department, which now has headquarters at the Radcliffe Works and is under the control of William L. Mather, grandson of Sir William Mather and elder son of the present Chairman of the Company. Young William received his early education at Oundle, a school famed for its engineering associations and spent a year before going to Cambridge, as an apprentice at Park Works. After taking his degree at Cambridge he returned to Park Works to complete his workshop training. He also spent some months of this training in the U.S.A. and France. This was followed by periods at the Paris, London and Calcutta Offices. When he had been in Calcutta 10 months war was declared in September 1939 and William, who for some years had been a territorial officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry was called up for service with his regiment. He returned to Park Works after the war and was a member of the commercial staff of the Pump Department under Mr. T. Y. Sherwell. Shortly after the transfer of the Food Machinery Department to the Radcliffe Works Mr. Mather was placed in charge of this section of the company’s business and has been responsible for many postwar developments to meet the increasing demands of a growing industry. Mr. W.L. Mather was appointed a director of the Company in 1947. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise When Disraeli's hero, Coningsby, visited Manchester, part of his education consisted in learning for the first time about machines, “those mysterious forms full of existence without life, that perform with facility, and in an instant, what man can fulfil only with difficulty and in days”. After visiting the spinning mills and. the weaving sheds, he turned to the making of machines themselves. “The mystery of mysteries is to view machines making machines; a spectacle that fills the mind, with curious, and. even awful speculation".(1) A hundred years later most of the mystery appears to have gone, and. economists talk learnedly about the relationship between the demand for machines and the demand for finished goods, while technologists continue to mechanise processes, which were previously dependent upon human labour. Yet even to an observer brought up in the atmosphere of a machine age, there is still an element of “mystery of mysteries” about some of the giant machines in workshops such as those of Mather & Platt Ltd. Machines constructed by the Company fall into certain definite categories, corresponding to the several trading departments of’ the modern business. The General Machinery Department is primarily concerned with the design, manufacture and installation of textile finishing machinery but, in addition, is responsible for the production of certain special plant for the chemical and other industries; the Pump Department concentrates in the supply of a wide range of centrifugal pumps applicable to the great majority of modern pumping duties; the main interest of the Electrical Department is the production of the larger sizes of A.C. and D.C. motors and generators: the products of the Fire Engineering Division are manifold, covering specialities for extinguishing and restricting the spread of fire: and. the Food. Machinery Department provides complete lines of machinery for the canning of vegetables, fruit, fish, meat and milk. Certain common features emerge in the story of each of’ the departments — the scientific background of new invention, the technical basis of design, the change from hand made to more mechanised methods of production, and finally the relationship between technical progress and business initiative. But before these general problems can be discussed, it is essential to trace the main lines of development separately. The relative economic importance of the different products has shifted in different periods of the history of the firm, just as have the opportunities of technical progress. (1)Disraeli, 'Coningsby', Book IV, Chapter II CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 1 - GENERAL MACHINERY Textile Finishing Machinery. The textile finishing machinery side of the business of Mather & Platt is the oldest part of the firm. Rapid expansion of the Lancashire cotton industry in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century led to an extension of’ the cloth bleaching and colouring trades which had grown up in the river valleys near to plentiful supplies of water. Yarn and fabrics coming from the spinner and weaver were in a rough unfinished condition- full of impurities, harsh to handle, grey in colour and unattractive to the eye. It was the business of the after—loom trades to eliminate these drawbacks and improve the fabrics by bleaching or dyeing and by printing and finishing (laundering) them. Salford Ironworks, a foundry and general engineering work’s already in 1795 "of considerable capacity and noted for improved steam engines", was centrally placed to serve the scattered bleaching and finishing firms. Probably its foundry bias accounts for its emphasis on finishing and the relative lack of interest in the design of’ the lighter mechanisms demanded by spinners and weavers. In studying the industrial revolution, historians have perhaps paid too much attention to the primary processes of the cotton industry, spinning and weaving, and neglected the many chances in the finishing side of the industry in the nineteenth century. Salford Iron Works played an important part in this second line of development. Bleaching had become a chemical proposition after Tennents exploitation of the use of chlorine as hypochlorite (bleaching powder) about 1799. Lancashire soon followed Scotland and by mid-century Mather & Platt at Salford were largely occupied in providing machinery for all bleaching processes and doing much to develop the technology of the central process of “kiering” or scouring. The bleaching kier is a large cylindrical vessel in which grey cotton —loose yarn or cloth — is boiled with alkaline liquor. The two main technical problems involved in kiering were those of heating and of securing an efficient circulation of scouring liquor inside the kier, In the early years of the industrial revolution, kiers were heated. by direct furnaces; later on steam from a central boiler installation was substituted; and in 1853 Colin Mather patented a device which employed the injector principle in the heating and circulation of the liquor by steam. Finally in 1885 the Mather kier was invented, and patented by William Mather. It treated the yarn or fabric in waggons, within a horizontal cylindrical vessel, and utilised a sluice valve door, which allowed for the change of the contents of the kier in a few minutes instead of several hours. By means of a centrifugal pump the circulation was maintained more efficiently than before and the heating in the later models was provided by a multi-tubular heater, which prevented the weakening of the liquor by the condensation of steam and made for economy in the use of chemicals. These improvements marked a big advance on the previous system, and Mather kiers have been supplied to more than 300 of the principle bleaching, printing and dyeing works in various parts of the world, and are still in steady demand. Kiering was the central process of bleaching but improvements were also made in other techniques, such as “singeing” and printing. Cotton fabrics are “singed” before scouring in order to burn off fibre ends projecting from the surface of the fabric. Mather & Platt produced both plate-singeing and gas-singeing machines. In singeing techniques the firm was a pioneer, manufacturing internally heated revolving roller machines, plate machines with oil firing and traversing motion for the cloth, and gas singeing machines with exhaust suction chambers drawing the flame round the threads of the cloth. In the case of textile printing, the basic invention had been made by a Scotsman, Thomas Bell, who in 1783 patented a continuously running engraved roller printing machine for calicoes, which could take the place of the earlier and extremely laborious method of printing by hand with engraved wooden blocks. This machine made possible the production of the most accurate work at relatively great speed, and at a labour cost with which handwork could never have competed. This important machine was introduced into Lancashire in 1785 and although displacement of hand block printing was slow, and not nearly complete a century after Boll’s patent, the demand for the new machine increased rapidly. The invention was aptly timed, for the rollers were easily driven first by water and then by steam. The advantages of its use were obvious, for one roller machine could produce as much as a hundred block printers.(1) England led the Continent in the development of the printing machine and Bell’ s wooden framed prototype gave way to a more durable roller printing machine with cast iron sides, central ‘bowl” and radially placed printing rollers - which has altered little in its main characteristics to this day. William and. Colin Mather were very early makers of these printing machines. An ancient three-colour machine was sold by auction in 1950 for demolition with a proviso against further use in production! It bore the name “W. & C. Mather, Manchester” and so must have been made before the Mather and. Platt partnership was formed in 1852. A study of the surviving early order books of the partnership, which go back to 1866, shows the importance and wide range of finishing machinery amongst the firm’s products in the middle years of the nineteenth century. In 1866 no less than 13 printing machines, 18 shearing machines used for providing a cloth surface free from thread and fibre ends measuring and lapping machines, and 13 drying machines were sold. In addition there were sales of calenders for smoothing and flattening the surface of fabrics; raising machines for changing the smooth surface of fabrics to a degree of “nap” or hairiness, which made them soft to handle and. warm to use; dyeing, damping, folding, padding, rolling, piece—end sewing (2), stretching, drying, and. wool—burring machines; squeezers, steaming cottages and mangles. In that year, 1866, only two kiers were sold, but in 1886, after the introduction of the Mather Kier, 25 were entered in the order book. (1) J. Wheeler, Manchester; its Political, Commercial and Social History, Ancient and Modern (1836), p.169. (2) Sewing machines were not of course domestic sewing machines but factory machines for joining fabrics end to end. In the 1840’s competition in the textile finishing machinery industry was extremely keen, and this led the firm to follow three lines of action — first, to try to reduce processing costs by inventions such as the Mather Kier; second, to seek markets overseas; and third to take up new lines of manufacture. There was much inventiveness in the firm in those days, particularly on the part of Colin Mather, one of the liveliest engineering minds of his age. He was versatile, practical and imaginative, and his schemes provided the technical basis for the success of the Mather & Platt partnership. Just as William Mather, his nephew, later looked to Germany for ideas on technical education, so Colin searched Europe for ideas concerning new methods in the finishing trade. In 1852 we find him sharing a patent for ”certain improvements in -printing, damping, softening, opening and. spreading woven fabrics” with Ernest Rolffs, “of Cologne, in the kingdom of Prussia, gentleman”(1). Later on he sent one of his sons John Harry Mather to Mulhouse in Alsace, which was then the great centre of learning for the chemistry of dyestuffs, to study and qualify in the use of textile processing machinery. In order to expand an engineering business in the so-called golden age of Victorian industry, it was necessary to have a shrewd eye for openings, particularly when home competition was acute. The discovery of overseas markets was the obvious way to meet the keen competition, which resulted from a fluctuating home demand. Down to 1843 the export of many types of textile machines was prohibited by law, but during the 1850’s and 1860’s Great Britain was able to act as a central source of supplies for foreign manufacturers. Representatives of Mather & Platt, particularly “Cast Iron Colin” and the young William Mather, paid prolonged visits to countries far and near, to study the requirements of prospective customers, to give them the benefit of technical knowledge and to undertake the equipment of complete works designed to suit the particular country and the tastes of its business men. Careful use was made of a detailed knowledge of local conditions, fuel and power supplies, and transport methods. Hence we find that Mather & Platt helped to carry the industrial revolution to overseas countries; in some countries, like Russia, blazing the industrial trail. The story of the quest for Russian trade is an interesting one and is best told at this point. Colin Mather had visited Russia as early as 1850 — his passport of that date still exists — and he was sufficiently familiar with that country to take with him on one of several subsequent journeys his oldest daughter Martha. In 1859, when the English textile machinery industry was in a comparatively depressed condition the long life of the equipment already supplied meaning that there was no replacement demand, and the lack of important new inventions meaning that there was little technical obsolescence — William Mather met William Thornton, founder of the greatest woollen and cloth mills in Russia. Thornton stressed the possibilities of industrial expansion there, and a year later Mather set out for Russia. In the meantime he had entered into correspondence with the firm of Knoops in Moscow, which later became agent for Mather & Platt in the chief manufacturing districts of Russia. (1) 11 March 1852, Patent No. 14,022, see The Manchester Courier, 13 March 1852. Rolffs’ family owned a printworks. William Mather’s first visit was so successful that regular visits were made in the following six years. From letters and diaries we glean an interesting picture of Mather’s travels through the wastes and how he takes in the beauties of the country without turning his eye from glimpses of business openings. For instance, in a letter to his wife in 1867, he described how “last night we met an immense wolf right in our path, as large as a donkey". He goes on “I am staying with an English manager here at a large cotton mill and print works. It is most probable we shall have the contract to build a complete new works here”. (1) Scattered about the diaries, between long descriptions of natural scenery, are desultory jottings of the dimensions of mill machinery. Occasionally other industrial projects, such as coal mining and railway building are described. At times he helped those responsible for the schemes to obtain financial backing. One of the biggest enterprises with which he was associated was the construction of a calico printing works at Schlusselburg in 1866. “England is so full of competition, so overdone in everything”, Mather wrote, “that all the energy one spends upon it brings no adequate return, while here it will bring great results.”(2) The opening up of intimate connections with Russia endowed Mather & Platt with a distinct personality among English firms; it also guaranteed useful markets during the period of depressed foreign trade after 1873. Routine orders continued to come in, such as a typical one for a pair of kiers in 1876: — “Same as last sent to 34 mill — Welded Rings and double riveted to Belts — To be sent via Reval, thro’ freight to Moscow. Consigned. to Geo. Malmras — Reval & invoiced direct to A.W.R. in Moscow.”(3) The perusal of such cryptic entries opens a window on to a world in which Russia was still dependent on the west for its basic industrialisation. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, there was a quest for even more distant markets. Largely as a result of the efforts of Colin Mather, son of “Cast Iron Colin” considerable quantities of machinery were shipped to the U.S.A. until the heavy McKinley tariff of 1890, succeeded in keeping out British finishing machines. It was then that one of Mather & Platt's technical experts, who had been working in the U.S.A. for some time decided to settle down there and in due course became the head of the United States Finishing Machinery Company. Other North American markets were not neglected. In 1883/4, for instance, the first Canadian calico printworks was built in Magog and equipped with machinery supplied by Mather & Platt. Mexican trade was developed during the same period when the only transport for travellers and for machinery alike was on muleback over the mountains. To meet these conditions machinery had to be designed specially and despatched in sections small enough to be carried by this primitive means. After Mexico had been explored, successful efforts were made to develop textile-finishing works throughout Brazil and India, both of which eventually became large importers of Mather & Platt machinery. In India a resident staff of experienced textile engineers gave technical service to machinery users and so established for the firm an enviable position in that market. Later still orders were secured from Japan and China and by l914 the firm had provided equipment for bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing in every country in the world where cotton fabrics were produced. (1) William Mather to Mrs. Mather, 2 March 1867. (2) William Mather to Mrs. Mather, 24 March 1869 (3)1876 Order book The expansion of markets was merely one side of the extension of the activities of the concern during the nineteenth century. The development of new lines of manufacture was of equal importance. From the eighteenth century onwards one of the central problems of technical progress was the harnessing of power, and when the Sherratts (Mathers predecessors) were at Salford Iron Works they produced steam engines for many industries. W.& C.Mather and later Mather & Platt continued this line of manufacture, producing not only large engines for driving whole factories and subsequently for generating electric power (one of their early orders in this field being the installation of a row of nine engines, each of 1,000 horsepower, with generators for the electrolytic alkali industry) but also engines of smaller types suitable for driving individual machines, Condensers and air pumps were also made and patented pistons and piston rings of an improved design were introduced at an early date. Steam engine manufacture continued, with a notable reputation for reliability until — largely as a result of the firm’s own pioneer work in the electrical field — engines for direct driving of machines were superseded by electric motors. The story of electrical engineering must be told in detail later, for it led the firm to branch out into many new lines of development, but the use of electrical power had important repercussions on the development of textile machinery and the firm became specialists in the provision of electric drives for all classes of textile machinery. Apart from developing new uses for electric power, Mather & Platt contributed to other improvements in the textile industries. There was a general tendency in the closing years of the nineteenth century to shift the firms production from single machines and small items like mandrels, pulleys, spur and bevel wheels, (the “universal provider” services of a textile town) to complete ranges and whole installations suitable for world markets. Since 1880 some of the large textile machines have been greatly developed and improved in design to fit the needs of an electrified and increasingly standardised age. Improvements in machine tools, many introduced by Manchester men like Roberts and Whitworth, led to a greater accuracy and reliability in the performance of machines which were no longer made entirely by hand, and thus encouraged a radical transformation of industrial methods in general. Mather & Platt contributed to this process, before and after 1914. For instance, in addition to improving the design and technique of finishing machinery the firm patented in 1907 an automatic warp—stop motion, a device that, as the name implies — automatically stopped a loom upon the breaking of a warp thread. In days of depression in the cotton industry, it was important that operatives should be enabled to attend a greater number of looms, and such devices contributed to the “more looms per weaver” arrangements. As well as saving labour, they improved the quality of the cloth by minimising the risk of broken threads and by making good work less dependent on the attention of the individual weaver (1). The Mather & Platt motion was simple, cheap, easy to attach to existing looms and in an improved form is still in operation. (1) Proceedings at the Thirty Fifth Annual General Meeting 28 February 1933. Another auxiliary for textile manufacture of which Mather & Platt were early producers was the “humidifier”; a device for producing in dry weather, and in hot countries, the moist atmospheric conditions which had rendered the Lancashire climate particularly suitable for cotton spinning and weaving. The Mather & Platt “Vortex” humidifier is still a valuable accessory in many weaving sheds. In the finishing trades there were important new developments, particularly as a result of changes in the chemical industry, and Mather & Platt not only continued to improve processing machinery, but also became general contracting engineers during the first World War for the erection and equipment of the great chemical factory for colours and war materials of British Dyestuffs Corporation (now I.C.I.) at Huddersfield. After the War, one of the early plants for manufacture of rayon, that of Nuera at St. Helens, was largely equipped with plant manufactured by Mather & Platt Ltd. In processing machinery itself there have been important developments in recent years. Processes which have stood out as being of special interest are electrolytic production of hypochlorite; stentering and mercerising; improvements in printing machinery; steaming after printing. In warm climates bleaching- powder (calcium hypochlorite, since Tennent, essential in cotton bleaching is not stable, and when exported to the tropics often loses a large part of its strength in transit. Mather & Platt met this difficulty by introducing their electrolyser and perfected a process based on the production of sodium hypochlorite (an equally effective and in some ways preferable bleaching agent) by electrolysis of a solution of common salt (sodium chloride). Mather & Platt Electrolysers make available in any part of the world from readily obtainable material (common salt) and at moderate cost, the excellent bleaching agent sodium hypochlorite. These Electrolysers have also other uses outside the textile industry. In the worst days of the first World War medical officers in the Near East demanded large supplies of a powerful disinfectant, and it was suggested by Dr. Dakin that hypochlorite might be obtainable from seawater. This project was presented to Mather & Platt Ltd and with the utmost urgency Electrolysers adapted for this purpose were produced and installed in the hospital ship “Aquitania”. “Dakin's solution”, as it was known, proved of immense value and greatly reduced the loss of’ life in the Near-East campaigns. Similar Electrolysers now form part of the equipment of many liners. Turning from bleaching to the processes of drying and finishing we find that Mather & Platt were responsible for great improvements. As early as 1875 Colin Mather patented the spiral bucket for removing condensed water from drying- cylinders while in the last quarter of the nineteenth century striking improvements were made in stentering and mercerising. Wet processing of textile fabrics necessitates a drying operation and in order to effect this with evenness, regularity of width and control of shrinkage, it was an early custom to fix the cloth by its selvedges on rows of pins projecting from adjustable rails in a warm drying room. The procedure was called “tentening”. For quicker production these rails were replaced by moving chains carrying pins on their links, which constituted a tentening machine or stenter. Spring clips instead of pins were next used, but both required skilled hand labour and limited the speed of the machine, and real progress remained slow until 1888 when Mather & Platt patented their “automatic self-feeding clip stenter” on to which the cloth could be fed without hand labour. The clip automatically gripped the edge of the fabric and tightened its hold as tension increased. This device saved much labour and allowed a greater running speed. The clip stenter was generally adopted throughout the cotton trade, but pin stenters continue in use in the silk and wool industries. For rayons, some of which are fragile when wet, and liable to permanent marking by clips, and for fabrics which must be permitted to shrink during drying, the pin stenter has again become the favoured machine. Mather and Platt resumed manufacture of the pin stenter in 1937 adopting a Continental patent for “overfeeding”, i.e. feeding to the chain somewhat more than its own length of fabric, so as to permit shrinkage during drying with full development of the crepe or other characteristic figure of the fabric. Both types of stenter — clip and pin, are of the greatest importance in the textile finishing trades, and both are manufactured in quantity by Mather & Platt. An important special application of the automatic clip stenter is in the process known as mercerising. It was in the middle of the nineteenth century that John Mercer, a calico printer of Accrington, investigated the action of strong caustic soda on cotton and obtained a permanent alteration of the cotton fibre, with the resultant shrinking of the yarn or cloth producing a distinctive type of finished fabric. Mercer took out a patent in 1850 and showed some crimped material produced by caustic shrinkage at the Great Exhibition of 1851. It provoked little interest, however, and the process had no commercial success even after Lowe in 1889 took out a patent for mercerising under tension, by which cotton could be given a permanent lustre. Characteristically, it was the Germans who re-discovered and exploited the process in 1895, when Thomas and Prevost of Krefeld secured new German patents for the manufacture of the lustrous and richly dyeable product originated by Lowe. Great interest in “mercerising”, as this cotton lustering process came to be called, arose in the late nineties and many proposals were made and patents registered for mechanisms to effect the necessary stretching of the caustic saturated cloth and its washing whilst stretched. Mather & Platt Ltd as leading makers of clip stenters, immediately adapted this machine for use with caustic soda and acquired Warr’s patent for counter-current washing during passage over the chain. The “chain merceriser”, first produced by the firm in 1898, proved most successful and has outlived all other types. The roller-printing machine continues to be a key item in the equipment of the textile processing trades. Although still embodying the fundamental principles of Bell’s invention and the general design so happily evolved by the early pioneer makers, the printing machine and its auxiliaries have been ceaselessly improved and adapted for particular purposes. In these modifications a prominent part has been taken throughout by Mather & Platt who have manufactured more machines for printing textiles than any other firm in the world. Machines have been supplied to print anything from one-colour up to as many as twenty-four colours and to print materials of all widths and of every texture from gauze to linoleum. Specialities have included high-speed single colour machines for the fastest production, duplex machines for the simultaneous printing of the same pattern on both sides of the cloth, and intermittent printing machines for the production of saris and other unit garments such as sarongs and kang’as whose patterns terminate in cross borders, so that printing must ‘be done alternately by different sets of rollers. Auxiliaries of the printing machines include machines for drying after printing, and blanket washing machines to enable the travelling blanket which passes with the fabric through the printing machine to be washed, dried, cooled and returned continuously. The latter type of machine was produced as early as 1865 but has since been greatly improved. It was first used in England and was adopted only much later ‘by Continental and American printworks. Progress in the use of synthetic dyes, started by William Perkin’s discovery in the mid-nineteenth century, of the first “Aniline” dyes, produced a new applied chemistry for the dyeing and printing trades. It inaugurated “the glorious era of a formerly unknown union of science and industry”(1), and demanded a continual adaptation of textile machinery, particularly that designed for the processes subsequent to printing. There were, in particular, great improvements in the most interesting and important of these processes, that known as “steaming”, carried out for fixing the printed colour upon the textile fabric. From the earliest days of calico printing, fixation of many colours depended upon “ageing” - long exposure to moist air — for which large hanging rooms and much time and labour were required. In 1879 Mather & Platt introduced their “Rapid Ager”, an enclosed metal steaming chamber with rollers for continuous running. It revolutionised the processing of prints and long outlived the types of colour (mordents and vegetable colourings) for which it was first devised. Indeed it has been of the greatest importance throughout the synthetic dyestuffs period. In the literature of printing in all languages it is referred too familiarly as the ‘Matherplatt”, and several languages have verb forms derived from it such as ‘Matherplattieren” (German) and “Plattning” (Swedish) which meant “Steaming in a Matherplatt”. In English the older expression of “ageing” has survived. The “ager” has been closely associated with all processes, employing short period steaming, from aniline black onwards. It was the obvious and for many years the only machine readily adaptable for steaming the important 'vat' dyestuffs and for discharge prints employing hydrosulphite reducing agents. During the later nineteenth century some then very important classes of printing colours - the alizarines, chrome mordant and ‘basic types required a much longer steaming time than the “Matherplatt” afforded. For those the “Festoon” continuous steamer was invented. In this machine the prints, hung over poles, travelled slowly along a very large steam filled chamber. (1) see J. G.. Crowther, British Scientists of the Nineteenth Century This replaced the inconvenient “Cottage” batch steamer and became standard equipment of large printworks in many countries. In the early twentieth century it was re-designed to suit the conditions required for the very important “vat” colours and it is today the most advanced form of print steaming equipment and still chiefly a Mather & Platt production. Dyeing, washing and soaping machinery in endless variety for all wet processes; mangles, drying machines, calendars of all types and bowls for calenders in iron, steel, brass, paper, cotton and jute, have all been the subjects of scientific study and technical improvements An early calico printer, making or losing his fortune in Manchester in the pioneer days of the eighteenth century industrial revolution, would be amazed to see how complicated and scientific the modern textile industry has become. Many different sciences have become the handmaids of’ the industry, and many major advances of recent years have been the result not of individual invention but of deliberate scientific research. Yet, however much technical conditions change, business initiative still remains the lever of’ the economic system, and during the difficult years of the depression which followed 1929, Mather & Platt profited from the fact that they were producing many different types of general machinery and were not tied to the textiles industry alone. The early 1930’s were years, which required perseverance and enterprise among textile machinery manufacturers, and there was a stimulus to improve once the corner had been turned. New departures were made in the production of machinery for the processing of rayon and for carpet—making. Wider markets were found. overseas in face of keen foreign competition. Permanent representation was maintained in India by engineering staffs at offices in Calcutta and Bombay, as well as in Brazil, Egypt and several countries on the continent of Europe. There is little doubt that both from a technical and a business point of view the expansion of Mather & Platt as a firm concerned with the production of machinery for many industries has been a wise and farsighted development. Board of Trade statistics indicate that in 1938, out of 512 firms wholly engaged in the production of textile machinery 450—470 were “small firms, chiefly engaged in making accessories or in general jobbing work”, (1) in other words they had advanced little from the economic structure of the mid-Victorian world. Mather & Platt had been able to improve its textile machinery business by increasing the scope of its production in other lines as well. By watching the broad horizons of technical change, it had seized its opportunities to grow into a well-balanced engineering enterprise. To realise the nature of its achievement the other branches of its activities will now be examined in turn. (1)See P.E.R.., The Textile Machinery Industry Planning, No. 12 July 1946. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 2 - PUMP DEPARTMENT Centrifugal Pumps The story of pumps, even more than the story of textile machinery, illustrates the dependence of industry on progress in scientific research. Many of the famous mechanical engineers of the eighteenth century were pump-makers, and although it is usually not possible to trace a direct line of descent from the first pump-making engineers to the great modern engineering firms, (1) Mather & Platt is something of an exception. Before William and Colin Mather took over the management of Salford Iron Works, their predecessors were makers of hydraulic machinery, including pumps for various purposes. Mather and Platt soon interested themselves in centrifugal pumps “Arrived. at the works 6.a.m.”, wrote William Mather in his Diary in 1858, “took round of shop, after which made experiments with centrifugal pump, rigged up on shop boiler with suction pipe inserted into a tub of water in fire hole, delivery pipe to wooden box bolted to the top to receive water”. (2) In 1866 there were orders for only a few pumps, practically all reciprocating, but the way had been prepared for subsequent expansion, and in the years ahead the supply of centrifugal pumps was to become a profitable side of the firms business. As early as 1857 the firm manufactured double-acting reciprocating pumps driven by steam engines for lifting water from boreholes. In the following twenty years various types of pumps were made, such as horizontal three-throw ram pumps, rotary pumps and centrifugal pumps for providing water supplies and for use with textile machinery. The most important invention, however, did not come until 1875 — Professor Osborne-Reynolds’ turbine pump made for the engineering laboratory of the Owens College. (3) Before that time pumps of the centrifugal type but of low efficiency were used for raising water at low heads. Reynolds produced a turbine pump of the series type, fitted with guide vanes, and a separate cell for each impeller. In his specification he stated that the novelty of his invention “in the case of obtaining motive power ... consists in repeating the action again and again causing the fluid to traverse one or more additional sets of moving passages alternating with fixed passages. (1) J.H Clapham, An Economic History of Modern Britain, Vol.1 (1939) p.. 154 (2) Diary, 5 August 1858. (3) See E. Hopkinson and A. E. L. Chorlton, The Osborne-Reynolds Pump and its Evolution, a paper read to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1912. In both cases, that is, in obtaining motive power and in raising and forcing fluids, instead of alternate sets of fixed and moving passages, all the passages may be in motion, but in that case the alternate sets of passages must move in opposite directions. It is not necessary that the several sets of moving passages should be connected with or move round the same axis or shaft.”(1) Reynolds's invention was the product of laboratory research (2) and demonstrated his remarkable combination of gifts as an engineer and a mathematical physicist, but before his pump was actually produced by Mather & Platt there was a considerable time lag. The theory of the pump preceded its commercial exploitation, and even after the firm began to produce Osborne-Reynolds pumps, theoretical and commercial considerations some times diverged. The “best efficiency”, as worked out by laboratory engineers, did not always imply the most suitable commercial design, and from the point of view of industrial development, it was always true that “against the requirements for the best theoretical conversion of kinetic energy must be matched. the allowable limits of dimensions conformable with commercial possibilities”. (3) In 1893 Mather & Platt exploited the Mather-Reynolds pump as a commercial proposition, and developed a series of sizes for dealing with “duties” varying from 100 to 1600 gallons a minute against heads up to 180 feet. Some of these early pumps had a very long life. After the end of the first World War one of them, of the vertical spindle type, was still at work in an artesian well in Russia, 100 foot deep, and from the time of its installation had only once been brought to the surface for examination, (4) Despite the efficiency of these early examples of pump craftsmanship in the 1890’s, there was an attractive competitive design on the continental market designed by Messrs. Sulzer Brothers of Winterthur Switzerland. This firm supplied centrifugal type pumps of multi-stage design to a mining company in Spain about 1896. In 1900 Mather & Platt entered into an agreement with its Swiss rival that both firms would manufacture the same type of multi-stage turbine pump, embodying the several improvements worked out by Sulzers. The casing of the pump was constructed in one piece, with intermediate pieces, guide vanes and impellers put in from one end. The impellers were arranged back to back to reduce the amount of end-thrust set up in the pump. The new design was an attractive one and a sharing of markets seemed a feasible commercial proposition, but Sulzers had at their disposal in Switzerland the high-speed electric motors which enabled the pumps coupled to them to be supplied at low cost. In 1904 the arrangement between the two firms to produce the same type of pump came to an end by mutual consent. (1) 0. Reynolds, Improvements in Turbines and Centrifugal Pumps - (Pat.Spec. No.724. 1395), Scientific papers, Vol.11, p.141. (2) See R.W.Bailey, The Contribution of Manchester Researches to Mechanical Science, a paper read to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 25 .June 1929. There was a good deal of English and French scientific writing on pumps, culminating in the papers of Dr. Unwin in the Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, 1877-78. Practical applications of accepted principles were developed by Appold, 1848-51, Professor James Thomson,1852-58 R.C.Parsons, 1877 and Dr.Stanton (3) A. E.- L. Chorlton,Notes on the Construction of Turbine Pumps, a paper read to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 18 May 1917. (4) Our Journal, October 1920. Mather & Platt then continued to develop the high-lift turbine pump based on the original Osborne-Reynolds design with all the eyes of the impellers facing the same way. This high-lift turbine pump became the main product of the Pump Department and present day pumps retain the feature. Under the capable supervision of Alan E. L.Chorlton, lasting improvements were made to the middle-body and during several years of experiment various designs were tried for balancing the endthrust. In 1904 a hand-adjusted needle valve was employed to produce the required balancing pressure. A mechanically operated needle valve actuated by the axial movement of the pump spindle was invented two years later, and finally a small disc valve was incorporated with the balance piston which eliminated the use of the needle valve altogether. An automatic disc-balancing device was introduced in 1912 and finally, three years later, the single disc balance valve was introduced in which the proportioning of the diameter enabled the hydraulic thrust to be balanced automatically. At the same time the shaft was extended at the free end and carried in an external bearing, which made for increased reliability. Before 1911 centrifugal pumps were manufactured in a department known as “Engine Pump and Water Purification”. In addition to centrifugal pumps this department undertook the manufacture of reciprocating borehole pumps; open vertical marine slow-speed type and small enclosed high speed steam engines; surface and jet condensers; filters for water supplies, water softening, purification and sewage treatment plant, but when the department was transferred to Park Works in 1911, the modern Pump Department was formed and the manufacture of these products was gradually discontinued. There were various reasons, technical and economic, for the dropping of the old lines of production. Markets were changing and engineering was becoming more specialised making it apparent to those in charge of the fortunes of the company that concentration on centrifugal pumps would make for great technical improvement in design. In 1911 the Pump Department was concentrating on three designs, the high-lift multi-stage turbine pump, suitable for municipal water supply, hydraulic pressure, colliery drainage, and boiler feed; the high-lift single-stage turbine pump for general service; and the low-lift turbine pump, for condenser circulation and sewage and other services operating on low heads. The low-lift turbine pump was superseded in 1911 by the Monovane pump, which was of the single-stage type, having only one guide vane, and which gave higher efficiency for those low lift duties. Each pump was manufactured individually and designed to suit the condition, with the result that the cost of production was very high. In spite of this many important contracts were secured and the satisfactory performance of pumps supplied did much to establish the name of Mather & Platt as pump makers. The type of job carried out by the firm in this period before 1914 is best illustrated from two tasks actually accomplished. In 1908 it installed for the Montreal Water and Power Company a three-stage high-lift turbine pump, direct coupled to an alternating current motor. The normal “duty” of the pump was 10,500 gallons of water per minute against a total head of 405 feet, the speed of the set being 465 r.p.m. This pump, which weighed 65 tons, was the largest built at that time, having branches of 24” bore. In 1912 the Birchenwood. Colliery Company was supplied with two high-lift turbine pumps, direct-coupled to alternating current motors of 850 b.h.p. for a “duty” of 1800 gallons per minute against a total head of 950 feet when running at a speed of 970 r.p.m. These pumps were the largest sets of this type working underground at the time of installation. The scale of operations in the Pump Department was relatively small in 1914. There was still plenty of scope for new ideas. Many of the existing designs needed substantial revision, new fields of practical application had to be explored, more efficient systems of production were required, and more orders from outside were necessary if the department was to expand. After 1915, the economic and technical sides of the pump business both began to show marked improvement, and the firm now boasts one of the largest centrifugal pump businesses in the world. It was realised at the beginning of this period of transition that of the designs then available the diffuser type pump was the only one which would be suitable in a world which was fast learning the advantages of the centrifugal pump. The obvious advantages of the horizontally split casing design were appreciated and experience with this type had been obtained in the manufacture and performance of a multi-stage split-casing turbine pump built for boiler feeding in 1909. The difficulties of construction were such that for high-pressure work a pump of the cell, type was preferred, but the advantages of the split-casing design for low-pressure units were not overlooked. When new designs were considered the split casing was adopted for moderate heads and several ranges of pumps were developed for low-lifts and medium-lifts. These technical names were cumbersome in use and it was decided to start the ‘vane’ series of descriptions. The products of Mather & Platt’s Pump Department became known throughout the world by the names PLUR0VANE, MEDIVANE, L0N0VANE and S0L0VANE. A survey of probable demand was made. Ranges of pumps for all duties were developed in a manner, which allowed for standardisation, with the advantage of interchangeability. Many of the smaller sizes were then and are now produced in quantity and in “batches” carried in stock. The soundness of this policy was soon established; consequently it has been followed and extended to larger sizes and other types of pumps now manufactured by the company. This standardisation meant re-organisation of the production department, the introduction of modem machine tools, and a system of working to jigs and close tolerances; but it did not imply any change in the quality of services offered. As in other departments the firm continued to pride itself on the production of individual designs for individual orders. There has been a considerable technical development in the design of pumps since 1915.(1) The multi-stage pump replaced the reciprocating pump for mine drainage, for engineers were quick to realise its possibilities and to gain confidence in its reliability. It now holds a practically unequalled position in high pressure pumping, and since the introduction of the “Stable Characteristic Boiler Feed Pump” it has been applied to works like power stations, where it previously could not have been used. Only in the case of unusually high boiler pressure does the reciprocating pump become a serious competitor of the centrifugal type. (2) In the oil industry too, where reciprocating pumps would have been used almost automatically forty years ago, the place of the centrifugal pump is assured. In 1925 Mather & Platt Ltd. started negotiations with a leading continental firm, which manufactured a combined single-shaft steam turbo-pump. Steam turbine driven feed pumps had been made as early as 1904, but this was the first time that a range of such unity had been contemplated. Owing to the increase in boiler pressure and capacities, however, the combined arrangement soon became unsuitable and it was decided to produce a range of turbines, which would incorporate, as far as possible, the advantages of the larger turbines used for the main turbo-alternator sets, and to couple these directly to duplicates of pumps installed for electric driving. This policy has been justified and turbines up to 1600 b.h.p. have been supplied for driving boiler feed pumps. Technical progress in pump making since 1915 has been accompanied by commercial expansion. Indeed the increasing demand for pumps to meet changed market requirements has provided a challenge to technical progress. Just as improvements in pumping were necessary before the early eighteenth century coal industry could develop and expand, so in the twentieth century “industrial development”, based on oil and electricity, pumping has played an important part. Oil technology demands high-powered pumping stations along the pipelines, and since 1919 Mather & Platt Ltd. have supplied Plurovane pumps for the main pipelines of the major Oil Companies. The pipe lines which connected strategic points in the United Kingdom during the Second World War and the famous “Pluto” (pipe line under the ocean) project were also installed with Plurovane pumps. (1) R. Pennington, Centrifugal and Other Non-Positive Pumps, a Centenary Lecture of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 7 June 1947. (2) See. W. J. Peirce, The Development of the Centrifugal Pump, a Paper read. to the Paper Makers’ Association, January 1948. These pumps were widely adopted in the chemical industry and for mine drainage. Before the First World War pumps were installed in South Africa, for instance, for the mines and power stations, essential to the economic development of the country. Pumps of the axial flow type were also supplied to Egypt for land drainage. Overseas orders concerned with the economic development of foreign countries were of special importance in the 1930s. Indeed conditions in the market for pumps reflect the inducement to invest not only of businessmen, but also of the managers of public utilities and of projectors of large-scale national enterprises. In the middle ‘twenties the depression in the colliery districts, where the firm normally received a considerable amount of business, was counterbalanced by an expansion of municipal undertakings. (1) In the ‘thirties the demand from abroad rose with the recovery from the Great Depression of 1931. A staff of fully trained engineers, with a detailed knowledge of foreign conditions, enabled the firm to make the best use of its opportunities in the export market. The slogan “satisfaction or your money back” adopted by the Pump department was in 1915 to demonstrate the company’s insistence not only on quality, but also on service. (1) Proceedings at the Twenty Eighth Annual General Meeting.26 February 1926. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 3 - Electrical Machinery In the year 1831 Michael Faraday invented the electric dynamo an invention which proved to be the foundation stone of the electrical industry. It was left to the engineers to produce a practicable as distinct from a laboratory model, but progress was slow. At the Great Exhibition of 1851 the only effective electrical exhibit was a child’s toy, although the Jury of Experts set up by the Royal Commission was “far from despairing” of the successful application of electricity to mechanical motion. It was in the thirty years after 1851 that engineers on the continent and in the U.S.A. succeeded in building a number of crude dynamos and it became apparent that the production of electricity from mechanical power was a workable proposition. There seems no doubt that during this period William Mather, who had visited the Exhibition as a boy, foresaw the possibility that the exploitation of this invention could, with advantage, be undertaken by his firm. At the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881, the first major electrical exhibition, which attracted scientists from all parts of the world, a number of dynamos were exhibited. One in particular, the machine built by Thomas A. Edison, stirred up great interest and was regarded by many as the most advanced development of Faraday’s invention. In the following year William Mather made an arrangement with Edison to manufacture his dynamo in this country. Salford Iron Works was an ideal cradle for this new child because, on account of the wide variety of high grade engineering products that had been developed and perfected there during many years, the mechanical “know how” already existed. Furthermore, steam engines suitable for driving dynamos were already in production, and there was wide scope for the application of electric motors to the many machines, which were regularly being built there for the textile and other industries. John Hopkinson, then thirty three years old, who had interested himself in the technical aspects of dynamos, was engaged to advise on the manufacture of Edison’s machine, and the combination of his ability to design and the ability of Mather & Platt to manufacture a sound machine soon resulted in the production of an improved dynamo, the Edison-Hopkinson machine, so well known and respected in those pioneering days. To support Hopkinson in his work, his brother Edward was engaged to serve Mather & Platt as manager of the new Electrical Department. When the manufacture of electrical machinery began at Park Works it was generally believed that the main use of electricity would be for lighting, and at that time William Siemens in fact, although prophesying the sure victory of electricity, thought of it only as” the light of luxury” and not as a source of power. (1) (1) J.H. Clapham, An Economic History of Modern Britain VoLII (l932),p.108. There seems to be no doubt that Mather & Platt thought otherwise, for although they built many of the early dynamos for electric lighting duty, they were very early makers of electric motors to supply power for the industries for which they were already building machinery and for other purposes where the new electric motor could be applied with advantage. When a factory inspector wrote in 1901 “In the age of steam this country led the way, whereas in the age of electricity we seem to follow America and other countries”, he was under estimating the important pioneer work in the development of electrical machinery that had already been performed by Mather & Platt. Very few dynamos were built by the firm to Edison’s original design, which was not efficient. Hopkinson very early introduced modifications which rendered possible a marked improvement in the efficiency of converting mechanical power to electric power. The outstanding modification was an alteration to the shape and proportions of the magnetic circuit, the change being worked out experimentally by means of laboratory models of different types of magnet systems, and these models are preserved in the Science Museum at South Kensington. The first working machine of the new design gave on test more than double the output of the Edison machine of the same weight (1). Edison’s original design became obsolete and the improved Edison-Hopkinson machine became a standard which was manufactured until the late ‘nineties. A radical departure from Edison's arrangement of the magnet system was introduced in 1884 when the “Manchester” type machine was introduced, and proved most satisfactory for the smaller dynamos and motors. The “Manchester” type of magnet system provided an important stepping stone to the development of the later multi-polar magnet systems which have remained in use up to the present time. The first experimental multi-polar machine was constructed in 1890, and there were great improvements in design in 1896. The first dynamos built by Mather & Platt and other early constructors produced direct current, and all early electric light and power installations made use of this form of electric energy. Alternating current, in which form almost all electric energy is now generated and distributed, was to come later, particularly after power stations had begun to grow in size and engine speeds continued to rise. By stepping into the electrical industry so early, Mather & Platt was able to recruit many large scale customers. The first order recorded for an Edison-Hopkinson machine was in June 1883, (2) and the model was characteristically despatched to an exhibition in November 1884 the first order for a “Manchester type” dynamo came from a sugar works in Moscow. (3) Other interesting orders of the early period came from the “Manchester Guardian" office; the old Theatre Royal in Manchester; the Manchester Corporation Electricity department; the City and South London Railway, the first electrical underground railway to be built; (4) and. the Royal Navy, for two motors for one of the earliest submarines. The Bessbrook and Newry Tramway in 1884 provides an interesting example of work of a pioneer nature. This was the first, albeit small electric traction system in the world to be operated entirely from water power, and it is interesting to know that this tramway remained in use until 1948, the original dynamos and motors remaining in service for the 64 years of this tramway’s life. One of the two original tramcars supplied to this railway is now preserved at Park Works. (5) (1) J. Grieg, John Hopkinson in Engineering, 13 and 20 December 1950. (2) EL. 24/1883 (3) EL. 160/1884: (4) For details, see The Electrical Review, 22 December 1950, and an interesting letter by a correspondent, 12 January 1951. There was a contemporary article in The Railway World., August 1893. (5) See E. Hopkinson, Electric Tramways Bessbrook and Newry in The Bessbrook Electric Tramway in The Railway World. June 1893. Another early example of commercial enterprise, of a more diverting nature, was the sale of dynamos to travelling showman visiting country fairs. It was the practice, when this line of business commenced in the early years of the present century, to arrange for the purchaser to come to the works to see the dynamo running on load and to make payment at the same time. On one of those occasions considerable amusement was caused when the purchaser, who was a buxom woman, hoisted up her skirts when the account was presented to her and produced about £70 in gold sovereigns from a capacious pocket suspended from her waist. Technical development was closely associated with business enterprise. In the year 1886 an experimental single-phase alternator was constructed by Mather & Platt and shortly afterwards single-phase alternators, built to the designs of the Hopkinson brothers, were supplied to provide energy for Lighting systems. In 1891 the Frankfurt Electrical Exhibition demonstrated the use of 3-phase current for transmission and seven years later the first 3-phase alternators were built by the firm together with induction motors for power installations on the alternating current system. An early installation (1904) of this nature supplied by the firm was appropriately enough for a cotton mill in Burnley and the complete success of this early example of all-electric drive in this industry placed Mather & Platt Ltd in the forefront when later electrification schemes were being considered at home and abroad. The application of electric driving to mills was a slow process. The Factory Inspectors reported the Burnley pioneer experiment with interest, (1) and although Mather & Platt were supplying electric driving for mills in Spain, as late as 1918 reporters noted that "electric power is very little used in Lancashire for driving textile machinery”. (2) The addition of alternators and induction motors to the products of the Electrical Department of the Company established a complete range of prototype machines and subsequent developments were confined to steady evolution of existing types. It was between 1906 and 1914 that standard lines were evolved, particularly after the move of the Electrical Department to Park Works in 1909, During the same period there were economic changes in the balance of production. Just as the firm ceased to produce water purification machinery for large-scale municipal contracts, so it also stopped producing on a large scale for municipal electrical plant. The supply of electrical machinery for industrial processes has always been the logical field for the products of this Company’s Electrical Department and, consequently, when other manufacturers in this country entered the field to supply electrical machinery Mather & Platt tended to confine their energies to meeting the ever increasing demand for machinery for factories whilst the new comers catered more for the public supply and the tramway and railway systems. From the 1890’s onwards the firm had specialised in the provision of industrial electrical machinery. Certain types of factories were particularly suited to electrification because of the layout of the plant. For example, in heavy chemical works, where the ground area occupied is large in relation to the power requirements, a demand for driving power occurs at a large number of relatively widely separated points, and a common prime mover with mechanical transmission of power is impracticable. Before the advent of electric power, such factories derived power from a multiplicity of small, inefficient steam engines, but when electric power was available a central generating station producing electricity efficiently and feeding a large number of small motors spread over the factory site simplified production. Textile and similar factories where it was possible to arrange mechanical drives from a single prime mover were originally less responsive to proposals to electrify. The mining industry offered a steady outlet for the firm’s electrical products. An early application of electricity in mines was to the pumping of water for mine drainage by motor driven centrifugal pumps. In addition to supplying these, the firm was a pioneer also in producing machines for electric coal cutting in collieries. (1) At La Auroro Mill in Malaga, power consumption was reduced by 40% and the steadier drive in the spinning mill increased yarn production by 20% owing to the avoidance of yarn breakages. It was pointed out by technical computators that "an increased output, amounting to only 2% is sufficient to wipe out entirely the coal bill of a mill" (2) Two machines described as A.C. motors, were supplied in 1896 (EL.932/96) and in 1897 (EL.160/97), but their make is not clear, and it is probable that they were not built by Mather & Platt. A second field of enterprise in which the firm played an important part was the Electro-chemical industry. William Mather was himself directly interested in the Castner-Kellner Alkali Company, which he helped to found in 1895 and of which he was first chairman. This Company manufactured caustic soda and chlorine electrolytically on the basis of Castner’s inventions in the U.S.A. and Kellner's in Vienna. For a time after 1905 Mather & Platt held manufacturing rights for the Zoelly impulse type steam turbine, but after a year or two the exploitation of turbo-generators was left to other firms. After the introduction of geared turbines in 1910, Mather & Platt supplied many direct current generators and alternators for them, and progress in this department of the firm has been maintained. The manufacture of the largest turbo alternators for direct coupling to steam turbines has not been undertaken. The days before 1914 were the pioneer age of electrical development in this country: after 1918 the “routine” phase of development began, and electrical power was accepted as an essential agent in industrial production. Although in 1918, after the end of the War, there were still many complaints of Britain's late and slow start in the large-scale manufacture of all types of electrical equipment, except cables, (1) the way ahead both technically and economically had been marked out in the decade before 1914. At the Census of Production of 1907, electrical engineering accounted for 14% of the whole national engineering output by value a product already worth one fifth of the whole product of the woollen and worsted mills. In 1913 total exports of electrical machinery and goods, nearly half of them cables, were almost as valuable as those of the whole of the established textile machinery industry. A firm like Mather & Platt was fortunate in being identified with both old and new. During the period after 1918, although the firm was producing standard ranges of products, it did not emulate some of its competitors by concentrating the whole of its effort on the production of standardised machines designed to meet the average needs of users. The mass produced standardised electric motor can be an excellent article, low in cost and suitable for meeting in a usually efficient manner the ordinary requirements of many industries. It cannot, however, be applied satisfactorily to the individual drive of a wide variety of machines employed by heavy industry. It is the practice of Mather & Platt Ltd. to make a detailed study of the requirements of the machinery that; for example, a motor is required to drive, together with an investigation into the environment of a plant as it may affect the operation of the motor. A motor is then designed with electrical and mechanical characteristics judged to be best suited to the particular operating conditions, i.e. it is “tailor made” to suit the job it has to do, Concentration on such jobs has ensured continuity of custom with close ties binding the firm and its client, It has also resulted in the Company catering almost exclusively for the heavier industries where working conditions for machinery are onerous and where reliability and continuity of operation are more important to a customer than initial cost. Examples of the industries regularly served with the products of the Electrical Department are the heavy chemical industry, the iron and steel industry, the mining industry, the paper industry, the textile industry and the oil industry. By largely restricting itself to these fields, the firm has tended, in the development of its products since 1918, to steer an individual course rather than to follow prevailing fashion in the electrical engineering industry. By so doing it has continued to act as a pioneer in many fields. (l) Report .on the Electrical Trades After the War, Cd.9093, 1918, p.9. The cable section of the industry was, of course,. the oldest. For example, for some time the company has concentrated on the production of an induction motor specially designed for direct-on starting. Machines of this character were devised by Mather & Platt Ltd. soon after the first world war for use with high-speed centrifugal pumps and successful operation in this sphere resulted in the extension of the direct-on-starting principle with the consequent elimination of elaborate switchgear to many industrial drives. By virtue of its simplicity and economy the system is becoming exceedingly popular and machines now available are suitable for practically all duties. One of these is closely related to the needs of the Mining and other industries in which explosive atmospheres might be encountered and where the increase in the use of electricity created a demand for large flameproof motors. During recent years considerable attention has been paid to the development of a complete range of flameproof motors to meet the needs of the colliery engineer and industrialists in situations where inflammable gases or explosive mixtures of dust and air are present. New technical improvements in manufacture are introduced to take advantage of the properties of new material placed on the market, an example being the growing use of glass fibre insulation's for motors and generators; and the application of a variable voltage grid controlled mercury-arc rectifier and direct-current motor to secure a wide range of speed on a motor when the supply of electricity is by alternating current. These improvements show the continuing trend of innovation in the electrical engineering industry, and the Electrical Department of Mather & Platt Ltd., continues to keep pace with the growth of the use of electric power itself. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 4 - Fire Engineering The story of the fire engineering department of Mather & Platt Ltd is somewhat different from the record of the other departments, for in taking up this line of production the firm was following a distinctive course of its own. In its early stages the Automatic Sprinkler story recorded in brief as part of our earlier chronological survey reads more like a romance than a chapter in economic of technical history, although there was little romance in the menace of fire which threatened the Lancashire Cotton mills in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The mills had interiors constructed largely of wood; gas lighting was usually employed; large quantities of oil were used for the lubrication of machinery; and cotton fluff itself was highly inflammable. This combination of circumstances made for serious conflagrations, the frequency of which became alarming. Indeed Mather & Platt had its own fire in 1852, the first year of the partnership; a blaze which had to be put out by men using buckets of water, (1) but neither buckets of water nor other hand appliances could cope with the fire situation in the spinning industry and fire losses were of such magnitude that Insurance Companies were reluctant to cover premises in the cotton trade. As far back as 1788 Carey an Englishman had experimented with a heat-operated device for discharging water through a system of pipes to extinguish a fire. In 1809 Congreve invented another perforated pipe system and three years later, a valve sealed by a fusible solder, whilst in 1864 Major Stewart Harrison of the 1st Engineer (London) Volunteers, gave to the world the first Automatic Sprinkler Head, his design being as a matter of fact superior to many that followed it. As so often happens, however, it was not to the country of its birth that this epoch-making invention owed its practical development, but to America, where in 1874 Henry S. Parmelee, a piano manufacturer of New England placed an automatic sprinkler on the market, and finally Frederick Grinnell, another American, the head of the Providence Gas, Steam and Water Pipe Company, patented the first reliable and. commercially successful automatic sprinkler head in 1882. The Automatic Sprinkler and Fire Alarm System the success of which was assured after the invention of the “Grinnell” head is a device for extinguishing a fire in its early stages by the use of water and, simultaneously, sounding an alarm to summon such human aid as may be required to turn off the water after the sprinkler equipment has performed its task of extinguishing the fire. It accomplishes its first purpose the extinction of the fire by discharging water, in proportion to the nature and extent of an outbreak, directly on to the conflagration. This is brought about automatically immediately the fire causes a rise in temperature sufficient to operate the sensitive controls (known as sprinkler heads) and before the conflagration has time to get out of hand. The second function of the system, that of sounding the alarm, is equally positive, as the ringing of the alarm gong is caused by the action of water flowing through the pipes leading to the open sprinklers. (1) The Manchester Courier 26 June 1852. Under normal conditions the discharge of water from the sprinklers is sufficient to effect complete extinction of the fire, but if, by reason of the presence of some obstruction which provides an “umbrella” for the fire and prevents the discharge from falling direct on to the seat of the outbreak, the fire is not completely extinguished, the shower of water from the sprinkler is sufficient to hold the blaze in check. Under these conditions sprinklers prevent the spread of fire pending the arrival of the fire brigade. We have seen earlier how 1883 was the key year in the history of the Fire Engineering Department. Two important events took place. First, as has been mentioned earlier, William Mather visited the United States of America to investigate American methods of technical education and in the course of his travels met Frederick Grinnell, who had just patented his new "Grinnell" automatic sprinkler head. Grinnell was so amazed and delighted that an Englishman should give his time and pay his own expenses to travel in search of knowledge for the benefit of his country, without a hope of personal reward, that he offered William Mather the sole selling rights for the “Grinnell” sprinkler for the whole of the world excepting the territories of the United States of America and Canada. The offer was accepted and Mather & Platt thus had their first ‘baptism’ in the business of fire engineering. Second, two young men, Ralph Dowson and John Taylor, who two years earlier had witnessed a demonstration by George F. Parmelee of the automatic sprinkler head invented by his brother Henry in the market square at Bolton, started their partnership in the fire Engineering business. We have already seen how these young men who had worked together for the Chemical Fire Engineering Company of Bolton, had, in the early days of their partnership, designed and placed on the market the first two-gallon “Simplex” Soda-Acid Fire Extinguisher substantially the same in basic principle as hand appliances in use today. Within twelve months they patented and installed their own “Simplex” automatic sprinkler, which was abandoned when they made an arrangement with William Mather to market the Grinnell system. John Taylor soon realised that the success of the Fire Engineering business did not depend upon the fundamental soundness of the automatic sprinkler idea or the superiority of the Grinnell head. He recognised that while the sprinkler might ultimately become established by reason of its intrinsic value as a fire-fighting device its general adoption would be a slow process unless he could break down the reluctance of mill owners to spend money on protecting their premises. Many owners of Cotton mills, regarded in the early days as most likely customers for automatic sprinklers by reason of colossal fire losses in their industry, were not unduly perturbed by numerous disasters in their midst. Even though outbreaks of fire were assuming alarming proportions were not the owners “covered by insurance”? They paid an annual premium for Insurance against loss by fire, regarding it, though heavy, as a fixed charge against their profits and feeling a measure of financial security because one mill burned down could be replaced by another out of the proceeds of insurance. Fortunately there were some officials in the Insurance world who appreciated the value of sprinklers when viewed from the financial angle. One of the most enthusiastic of this small band was John Wormald who, like John Taylor and Ralph Dowson had witnessed the early Parmelee demonstration at Bolton. He ultimately joined the business of Dowson & Taylor and became one of the world’s greatest Salesmen for Automatic Sprinklers but not before he had played a considerable part in convincing Fire Insurance Companies that the way to increase profits was to encourage the installation of automatic sprinklers by allowing a rebate on insurance premiums in respect of every building protected in accordance with accepted standards. John Wormald had been a surveyor for the Mutual Fire Insurance Corporation of Bolton, the first insurance company officially to acknowledge that the automatic sprinkler was the answer to the fire losses in cotton mills. Acting on behalf of his company John Wormald produced the first set of rules governing the manner in which automatic sprinklers should be installed in order to qualify for the relief on fire insurance premiums which the company was prepared to allow. In his record of this event John Wormald wrote: “On October 22nd, 1885, I copyrighted and published, the first code of Sprinkler Rules that had been given to the world, and these were based on the data and experience provided, by the previous three years of experiment and practice. So saturated was my mind with the subject in all its detail that I well remember composing the whole pamphlet on a Sunday afternoon without having to refer to any notes. I did not expect that these regulations would find general acceptance, but as a matter of fact not only were they adopted by the British Tariff Companies, but in America they paid us the compliment of taking them as the groundwork of their own Rules subsequently published”. The established rules of the British Fire Offices Committee now universally accepted as the standard to which all sprinkler installations must comply stand, in all basic principles, exactly as drafted by John Wormald in collaboration with John Taylor. In his book entitled. “The Story of the Introduction to England of the Automatic Sprinkler”, writing of the days when he was on the staff of the Mutual Fire Insurance Corporation and before he joined the Dowson Taylor organisation, John Wormald makes the following reference to the work of John Taylor:-“As was to be expected, the advent of the Automatic Sprinkler attracted the attention of Fire Engineers who had hitherto been engaged in the manufacture of non-automatic appliances, and in the succeeding years there appeared on the British market numerous types of new sprinklers, each claiming to be an improvement upon Mr. Grinnell’s invention”. Of the many devices submitted for examination three British Sprinklers were deemed, of sufficient merit to justify their endorsement, viz. the “Simplex” (Dowson & Taylor, Bolton), the “Witter” (Witter & Son, Bolton), and the “Titan” (J.H. Lynde and George Mills, Radcliffe). The “Simplex” was a sealed or non-valve device of the Parmelee type, though much more sensitive in its operation, and had the great advantage of being placed on the market in conjunction with the well known Variable Pressure Alarm Valve invented by Mr. John Taylor. This valve is operated by the flow of the water, and is constructed so as to prevent false alarms being given by any variations of pressure in the main supply pipes. When the water pressure has achieved an equilibrium above and below the Valve, the clack, which is of differential area, drops by its own weight upon a seating on which is grooved an annular chamber with an outlet pipe to a small water motor, to the spindle of which are attached revolving hammers that strike a loud-sounding gong. In practice the opening of a Sprinkler Head reduced the pressure above the Valve, which is lifted by the upward flow from the main supplies, and so long as this continues, water passes to the motor and the gong sounds a continuous alarm. In the clack of the valve there is a small compensating valve which takes up any violent fluctuation of pressure without lifting the Valve itself, thus obviating false alarms”. “Next to Mr. Grinnell‘s invention this ingenious Valve of Mr. Taylor’s remains the most important advance in the development and practice of Automatic Fire Extinction. Previously there was nothing better than a rude and clumsy clockwork arrangement consisting of a cord wound round a drum with a weight attached which, when released, caused a hammer to strike a gong just as in an 8-day clock. When the weight reached the ground the alarm ceased. Mr. Taylor’s new Valve was speedily adopted by Mr Grinnell himself and applied all over America. It is still an integral part of every Sprinkler Installation.” The patent rights covering John Taylor’s Alarm Valve were later granted to the ‘Grinnell’ Corporation in America, and his alarm valve continues in use to this day. We thus have early signs of the engineering ability, which John Taylor brought to bear on many problems in the later history of Mather & Platt Ltd. The early sprinkler days were not, however, without their troubles. Ralph Dowson once staged a sprinkler demonstration in Calcutta. He built a wooden house and equipped it with sprinklers. The Mayor, with leading civil servants and businessmen were invited and attended the demonstration. Eventually a fire was lit in the house, which proceeded, to everyone’s alarm, to burn to the ground. The water supply was from a town’s main, which was blocked: it had pressure but no volume. This was an exceptional demonstration: most of the displays staged and they soon became famous, were startling and impressive in their effectiveness. We may be sure that the lessons of the incident in Calcutta were not lost on Dowson-Taylor or their friends in the Insurance world: they provided early proof of the wisdom of having secondary water supplies whenever possible. The sprinkler system is not the sort of apparatus that demands constant technical changes. There have, however, been considerable improvements since 1900. The original “Grinnell” sprinkler head had as its operating element three metal parts soldered together. Excellent as the soldered sprinkler was, atmospheric corrosion could, in certain circumstances, be disastrous, and a search was made to find a sprinkler composed of operating parts which were immune to atmospheric corrosion, In 1902 a patent for glass bulb sprinklers was granted. Early development work was carried out with bulbs obtained from abroad, but from 1907 bulbs for further experimental work were produced in England. Experimental bulb sprinklers were installed in Park Works in 1913, and in 1920 development work was resumed by Mather & Platt technicians in the newly established Research Department. As a result a spherical bulb automatic sprinkler was invented, which was approved by the Insurance companies in 1922. The Quartzoid bulb automatic sprinkler was approved three years later. The full story of the perfection of the quartzoid bulb sprinkler would contain many stories of frustration and countless disappointments as well as a mass of technical information outside the scope of this history but it is of interest to record that one of the band of enthusiastic workers who carried research on this problem to a successful conclusion was the son of one of the first employees of Dowson & Taylor. In an earlier chapter reference has been made to the technical ability of Edward Roberts as a sprinkler engineer, and it is fitting that Arthur Roberts, the son of this pioneer technician should follow in his father’s footsteps and play a noteworthy part in producing a new type of head which, by reason of its strength and resistance to corrosion, is now accepted as the sprinkler for all situations. The order book for automatic sprinklers takes the reader into all parts of the world and into the premises of business firms whose names are household words. It is a far cry to the day when Cotton Mills of Lancashire were regarded as the limit of Sprinkler protection and Grinnell equipment is now to be found in every branch of industry and commerce, even to underground mine workings and to luxury liners like the “Queen Mary” and the “Queen Elizabeth”. But sprinklers are not the only products of the Fire Engineering Department, which has expanded greatly since Dowson, Taylor & Co. Ltd, moved from Blackfriars Bridge to Park Works in 1902. The pioneering spirit continued to be John Taylor and he was ably assisted by Edward Roberts whose energies were concentrated on the technical work of the department. Among the wide range of products of the Department are automatic electrically driven fire pumps, necessary adjuncts to many sprinkler installations. The development of these pumps brought into play three sides of the company's business, the pump department, the electrical department and the fire department. There were obvious advantages in maintaining such complementary lines of activity. As part of the policy of curtailing loss by fire John Taylor and his colleagues in the Fire Engineering division turned their attention to the production of an efficient fire-resisting door. While striving to secure the universal adoption of sprinklers as a logical means of cutting fire loss by extinguishing each outbreak automatically they realised that there were bound to be many buildings in which sprinklers would not be installed. To minimise the fire loss in such buildings the provision of fire resisting doors, to seal off one part of a building in which fire occurred from other rooms to which the conflagration might spread through communicating doors, was a logical step. Up to about 1890 most fire doors were constructed of iron, although every fire expert knew that such doors could not be satisfactory because the heat of the fire was radiated through them or caused them to warp and buckle, leaving gaps through which flames could pass. Further, such doors were liable to tear themselves from their fastenings and so allow the fire to pass; or, alternatively, and equally unfortunately, jammed and did not allow the firemen to gain access to the seat of a fire. In 1890 Dowson & Taylor introduced from America an armoured fire door, constructed of pinewood boards of a given thickness nailed across each other in a special way, and finally sheathed in tinned steel plates, joined together according to a special process which allowed the plates to expand under the influence of heat and yet remain airtight. The idea of using a wooden door to resist the spread of fire met with as much ridicule as had Wilkinson’s idea of an iron boat a hundred years before. Today, however, the Armoured Fire Door stands proved by its performance in saving many buildings from destruction by fire and it is in universal use. Fire fighting experts recommend it, and architects specify it just as confidently as they specify brick for walls and glass for windows. In order to enable the company to meet a growing demand the manufacture of fire resisting doors was transferred in 1906 to a separate works at Preston. The advance in technical knowledge subsequently resulted in the development of a Composite door, manufactured of steel and asbestos. This door is used where it is necessary to have a fire door, which harmonises with its surroundings. Although the composite door has good fire resisting qualities it cannot give the results proved by actual fire experience in the use of the armoured door. A somewhat parallel line of manufacture has been the production, since 1925, of steel rolling shutters, Although the majority of steel rolling shutters supplied by Mather & Platt Ltd., are installed for the normal purpose of providing access to a building for which they have many obvious advantages over wooden doors. They have fire resisting qualities, which bring them within the orbit of the fire engineering department. Furthermore, when Rolling Shutters are required for the definite purpose of providing a fire-resisting curtain they can be made to close automatically in case of fire and to comply with the requirements of the Fire Offices Committee. The Company pioneered the installation of electrically operated shutters and is one of the largest producers of steel rolling shutters in the country. Tens of thousands of shutters have been manufactured and installed in all parts of the world and under all conditions; located from the equator to the Polar regions and varying in application from a loading bay in an engineering works to installation on board ship including the famous aircraft carrier the “Ark Royal’ which was equipped with twenty Mather & Platt shutters at the time of the notorious nightly broadcast “Where is the Ark Royal?" Wags ‘in the know’ at Park Works were saying “They must be deaf, there are enough steel rolling shutters on her to hear her rattling along anywhere between Shanghai and Peru”. Another product of the Department closely identified with the early days in the sprinkler business is the cast iron storage tank, built from standardised cast iron plates. This was designed originally as an adjunct to a sprinkler installation at a time when most sprinkler systems were fed by gravity and the erection of an overhead tank in one piece would have presented considerable difficulty but it is now employed for many other industrial purposes. In 1932 Mather & Platt Ltd. entered the field of Industrial heating when they commenced to manufacture the ‘Thermolier’ Unit Heater which John Taylor had seen used with great advantage in many modern American factories. His early model was based on the successful American design but it was later revised to conform to British Standards. Although British industrial conservatism formed a serious barrier to the initial acceptance of the Unit heater principle “Thermolier” heaters have now become firmly established. The most far reaching twentieth century fire fighting development, however, with the possible exception of the quartzoid bulb Sprinkler, has been the invention of a new system of extinguishing fires involving oil and other inflammable liquids by the use of water. Changes in the nature of materials used in many industries and the increased use of lubricating oil and diesel oil in industry as a whole have brought with them additional fire risks unknown forty or fifty years ago. One means of localising oil fire and yet allowing it to burn without spreading or damaging surrounding plant until the source of ignition had been shut off, was discovered in 1931. The Protector Spray System employed an even distribution of a cooling element with the maximum conservation of water. In the same year an entirely new system of protection for use against fires involving oils and oil products was devised by Mather & Platt Ltd at Park Works. The new system was given the trade name “Mulsifyre”, coined from the words “Emulsion” and “Fire”, the scientific idea behind the system being that water alone is used, applied in such a manner as to convert the surface of the burning liquid into a non-burning, oil-in-water emulsion. Fires are thus put out by fundamental means i.e. the temporary conversion of an inflammable liquid into a substance which cannot burn. For many years the extinction of oil fires was one of the unsolved problems of the fire engineer. The almost universally accepted agent for suppressing fires, water was not only’ regarded, as useless but as positively dangerous when applied to oil fires by the methods known before the development of the ‘Mulsifyre’ system. One positive step towards solving the problem of extinguishing oil fires was taken when foam was invented forty years ago. Foam does not burn and is lighter than oil, so that when flooded over the burning surface to a depth of several inches it brings about the extinction of fire by a smothering action. After the inert gas, carbon dioxide had become commercially available in liquidified form, contained under high pressure in strong steel cylinders; it afforded an additional method of smothering oil fires located in closed situations. The staff of the Research Department of Mather & Platt Ltd, under the leadership of Dr. S.F. Barclay, made an entirely new approach to the subject, arising out of some years of study of emulsions and their formation. It is a fact well known to scientists that an oil-in-water emulsion is non-inflammable, for the reason that the oil is divided into minute globules separated from each other and covered by a film of water. To form such an emulsion, the surface of the oil must be violently agitated in order to bring about its disassociation into tiny globules. Under the Mulsifyre system this is accomplished by bombarding the oil with water discharged under pressure through specially designed nozzles called “Projectors”. Thus it will be seen that the “Mulsifyre” system goes to the root of the problem of oil fire extinction and because it deals with the cause, and not merely with the effect, emulsifying equipment is now accepted as a sure and reliable method of extinguishing all fires which involve inflammable liquids. The process was first applied commercially in 1933 and since ‘that date hundreds of fixed “Mulsifyre” installations have been placed in commission. In application the Mulsifyre projectors are mounted on suitable pipe lines served with water at the necessary pressure; they may be located close to or at a considerable height above the oil surface, as circumstances may require. The equipment is normally brought into operation automatically in the event of an outbreak of fire, but manual control is provided to meet certain special conditions. The system has been patented in the principal countries of the world. The chief applications of the Mulsifyre system have been in electricity power station and sub-stations. Many installations have been supplied to paint and varnish works, oil refineries and dry cleaning and waterproofing factories in many countries, including North and South America. A well-equipped demonstration ground at Park Works, designed to display the capabilities of the Mulsifyre system under realistic conditions, has been visited by many thousands of people from all parts of the world. The dramatic extinction of large and intense oil fires, within two or three seconds of the water being turned on, never fails to make a lasting impression on the mind of the observer. Although the basic principles behind the Automatic Sprinkler and Alarm system - when applied to ordinary commercial fire hazards remain as they were when Dowson & Taylor erected their first installation nearly seventy years ago, there has been a steady advance in the design of the component parts of an installation. In addition, the application of the Sprinkler system has been modified to provide protection against fire in some special risks. For example the Multiple Jet system provides an even distribution of water from several points simultaneously in order to control a fire which may break out in a situation where the presence of obstructions might prevent the discharge from one sprinkler from reaching the seat of a fire. Another variation of the Standard sprinkler system is the provision of external drenchers, designed to provide a curtain of water over the doors and. windows of a protected building so that flames are not able to pass from adjacent premises which may be on fire. One of the most interesting of modern advances in fire fighting is a new technique which has been developed to cope with the danger of fire in modern aircraft hangars. The rapid growth in the use of large passenger and freight carrying aircraft in recent years has meant a corresponding increase in the demand for more and more hangar space. Modern aircraft hangars are of necessity spacious and lofty buildings. Like the aircraft they are intended, to house, they are expensive to build, and their cost and importance demands that every precaution should be taken to guard against destruction by fire. This object is achieved, by the Automatic Duo-Control Deluge system developed by Mather & Platt Ltd. Under this system each large hangar is divided into a number of zones and in the event of fire, water is discharged automatically over the whole of an affected area through a series of open drencher heads. Standard “Grinnell” heads are employed only for the detection of fire and a supplementary detector system known by the trade name of “Fyretron" is also employed; hence the term duo-control. From this it will be seen that the Fire Engineering Department, continuing to put its trust in water as the most effective medium with which to attack a fire, is facing the challenge of the future as confidently as it faced the challenge of seventy years ago. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 5 - Food Machinery In 1930, the world wide trade depression had seriously affected British Industry and M & P had suffered with the rest. The Directors were, therefore, on the lookout for new lines to manufacture, which would help to keep the works, occupied, and bring more business to the Company. At that time the Canning Industry in Great Britain was comparatively small and most of the equipment was being imported, largely from America. The Board of Trade were anxious to find British sources of manufacture for imported machinery, including Canning Machinery, and the few British Canners also wished to become less dependent upon imported Plant. M & P Ltd. were approached by the Board of Trade, with the support of British Canners and, eventually, decided to go into this entirely new line of business, despite the fact that they would have to meet competition from established manufacturers from overseas. It seemed to be a sound long-term policy as the need to produce more food at home was generally recognised, and there appeared to be the beginnings of an agricultural revival. Furthermore, practically no other British firms were, at that time, making Canning Machinery and it was considered that a good start could be made with the Home Market. The Canning Industry itself was not new. The earliest commercial experiments had taken place during the French Revolutionary Wars, about the time that the first Mather of this History settled in Salford. In 1804, Nicholas Appert invented a method of preserving food by sealing it hermetically in containers in a sterile condition and thereby won a prize of 12,000 Francs offered by Napoleon for improved methods of preserving food for the Army and Navy. However, it was an Englishman, Peter Durand, who first used tinplate steel containers for preserving food, obtaining a Patent in 1810 for a process of “preserving animal vegetable and other perishable foods by heat followed by hermetically sealing in vessels made of glass, pottery, tin or any metal or fit materials”. Some of the first metal vessels developed were known as tin cases, or canisters, and from this name the Americans have adopted the word. “Can”, and the British the word “Tin”. Tins of Australian mutton were on show at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and canned meat was used successfully for the first time by British troops in The Crimean War. The expression "Iron Rations” resulted. However, the early development of the Canning Industry met continual checks due to an incomplete understanding of the scientific problems involved, and the lack of hygienic methods and equipment. Canned food was often regarded as being dangerous or unpleasant and the growth of the Industry was largely fostered by the demands made upon it in time of War. Despite its early start in Europe the centre of the Canning Industry quickly moved to America, where the great variety of Fruits and Vegetables which were available, and the varied climate, lent themselves to an all-year round canning cycle. The First World War did much to stimulate the growing Canning Industry and in the inter-war years, the civilian demand increased sharply. The wide variety and improved quality of Canned Food making it an accepted part of everyday diet, on both sides of the Atlantic, so that the worker of the 1920’s was able to have a much greater choice of food than the cotton operative of mid-Victorian Manchester. In 1924, a Special Commissioner who was sent to Canada and the United States, reported that the development of a large British industry was feasible, providing that modern machinery and methods were used. Mather & Platt’s entry into the Food Machinery Industry, in 1930, was followed by a Canners Convention a year later, in Manchester, when the Firm was able to entertain delegates to Park Works to study the latest machines they had to offer. The new Food Machinery Department was started first as a branch of the General Machinery or Textile Department, though it drew its small staff from both it and from the Pump Department. The start was only a small one; the new line of production was difficult to develop, particularly during those depression years, the Americans had had much experience of designing Food Machinery, particularly automatic machinery, and it was felt that if further progress was to be made, that the Company would have to work closely with an American firm of experience. In 1932, an Agreement was made with the Food Machinery Corporation of the United States, for the manufacture of some of their standard Canning Equipment. A general Selling Company was set up outside the United States and Canada, called “Food Machinery (M & P) Ltd”, to sell both American and British made machines, as was convenient. The new Company faced a difficult period. The expansion of the Canning Industry during the First World War had been considerable and Canners’ investments in plant had often outstripped the growth of the markets for their products. Even by 1926, when the General Trade Depression had receded, the new Company did not come up to expectations, although it had served a useful purpose in opening up fresh markets in Britain and also overseas. However, it was mutually decided to close down the sales Company, Food Machinery (M & P) Ltd although the friendly relationship between the Food Machinery Corporation and. Mather & Platt Ltd continued. Visits and ideas were exchanged and certain American Patents were retained. Nevertheless, the business continued, to expand slowly and the Department was able to justify its existence. When the Second World War broke out, the small Food Machinery Department turned to Government Contracts, and while making a certain amount of Dehydration Plant for the Ministry of Agriculture, its productive capacity was largely devoted to War Contracts, which had no relationship to Food Machinery. It was not until the end of the War that the demand for British Made Food Machinery really increased. The great use which was made of Canned Food by all of the conflicting Nations, stimulated the civilian demand and made the general public expect to have Canned Food as part of their daily ration. At the same time, the demand for all other products of the Firm had correspondingly increased and to relieve the congestion at Park Works, a lease was taken of the Royal Ordnance Factory at Radcliffe. The whole of the Food Machinery Department, being the smallest and most compact Department in the Firm, was moved there. This Works was suitable for light engineering, and that part of the Factory which was not required for Food Machinery became an overflow for the other departments at Park Works. The inevitable teething troubles which followed on from a move of this sort were made worse, by the general post war conditions. Irregular, or short, deliveries of raw materials and bought out parts, wide varieties in quality, and unexpected delays or shortages, created many new problems which had to be tackled, by comparatively inexperienced workpeople and staff, many of whom had but recently returned from the War. Nevertheless, the Department set about putting its house in order with enthusiasm and in its new home, expanded rapidly. Meanwhile, by the end of the War, the various patents and manufacturing agreements with the Food Machinery Corporation and its subsidiaries had run out and consideration had to be given to future policy. Before the War, a useful trade had been carried on in Europe. This was done partially by export, and partially by local manufacture. In France, Brittany was the main centre of vegetable and fish canning and in this area S.A. Mather & Platt had made arrangements with a local firm at Quimper, Establissements Jean Louarn, to manufacture any Food Machinery which, for various reasons could not be imported. Similarly, in Belgium, an arrangement was made with the firm of Edouard Lecluyse in Antwerp, and Food Machinery of Mather & Platt design was manufactured in both Factories for sale in Europe. During the War, when all trade with Europe ceased, the French Company had to fall back on its own resources and in order to continue the Food Machinery business, made arrangements to finance Jean Louarn so as to expand his Works and manufacture machines which had previously been imported from England, and others which were developed in France during the course of the War. This initiative on the part of the French Staff not only kept the business alive, but resulted in a healthy expansion after the war was over. In Belgium, during the German Occupation, matters took a different turn. A German Firm of Food Machinery Manufacturers, Karges-Hammer A.G., came to an Agreement with Edouard Lecluyse whereby they took over and expanded his business, building a new Factory which provided machinery to can German Army Rations. They acquired technical information and drawings, which had been the property of Mather & Platt Ltd and were also able to continue certain development work which was being undertaken in the Belgian Factory. At the end of the War, this Factory was sequestrated by the Belgian Custodian of Enemy Property, and offered for sale. A series of negotiations then took place amongst interested parties, principally the Food Machinery Corporation of America, the Sobemi Company (Can Manufacturing Concern) of Belgium, and Mather & Platt Ltd. These negotiations naturally linked up with future manufacturing policy between the Food Machinery Corporation and Mather & Platt Ltd., and the renewal, or otherwise, of their association. Final proposals were that a new International Company should be formed called the “International Machinery Corporation” operating from the Lecluyse/Karges-Hammer Factory at Antwerp, and jointly owned by the interested parties. In addition, it was suggested that Mather & Platt’s Canning Department should be incorporated in the new Company and some form of rationalised production arranged between the new Antwerp Factory and the new Factory at Radcliffe. These proposals were not acceptable to Mather & Platt Ltd, since it was felt that complete control of the Radcliffe Factory should be retained within the general framework of the Company. Accordingly, no new arrangements were made with the Food Machinery Corporation and the I.M.C. was formed, in conjunction with the Sobemi Co., and a number of leading can making companies but without Mather & Platt Ltd. This new Company, and also the Food Machinery Corporation, thus came into direct competition with the British firm. Most of the Food Machinery Department’s early machines were of American design or based upon American designs and during the War, the Americans had done much research and development work which resulted in new and up to date models. In Great Britain, all efforts had had to be concentrated on the War, and development work on Food Machinery had not been permitted. The end of the War, and the non-continuance of the American agreements thus threw a heavy load, on the drawing office and design staff, and much development and experimental work had to be taken on at Radcliffe, and in the expanded and jointly owned French Company at Quimper. During the next five busy years, nearly every machine was re-designed or replaced, and a number of new machines and processes were evolved. One of the most outstanding of these was the patented new Fish Canning Line developed by the French Company which, in addition to providing an improved quality, reduced the time required for extracting the organic moisture from the fish, from some twelve hours to about fifteen minutes. Research and development work was intensified, in close co-operation, as previously, with the University of Bristol Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Station at Campden. One machine evolved as a direct result of this co-operation was the Stero-Washer which, working on the contraflow principle, was able to reduce the bacteriological infection of peas about eightfold. Perhaps the most interesting and. revolutionary machine developed by the Department was the Non-Agitating Automatic Continuous Pressure Cooker. This machine was originally developed and patented in 1933, in conjunction with Campden and was designed to take advantage of the short time, high temperature cooking theory, which the Research Station had advanced. All vegetable packs are sterilised by being held at a high temperature for a given time - the higher the temperature, the shorter the time. It was found that peas which required sterilising in the ordinary retorts for 30 minutes at 2400F in the new Cooker only required 11 minutes at 260 0F. This shorter time not only produced a better looking and more economical pack, but also resulted in a higher nutritive value. Continual advances were made in the design of these Cookers and by 1951 they were capable of running continuously at speeds of 200 cans per minute and more, and even handling aluminium cans. These machines being about the only satisfactory non-agitating automatic Pressure Cookers found a wide market both at home and overseas. The range of Food Machinery manufactured by Mather & Platt Ltd, included not only machines for Canning, but also machines for general food purposes such as Root Vegetable and other Washers, Food Pumps, Grain Dryers and Glass Jar Dryers, Peelers for all types of fruit and vegetables, Graders by size, weight or specific gravity, many forms of Cutters, Choppers, Dicers and Slicers, Filling and Inspection Tables and Conveyers which handle a great variety of items. The M & P designed Pea Viner, embodying several new features, and having a higher throughput than competitive models, found ready markets, several hundreds being sold at home and overseas. A Mather & Platt Canning Line is fully automatic, and processing times and temperatures can be controlled by the operation of instruments alone. A good example is the Pea Line. The Pea Vine is reaped in the field and loaded automatically onto a Trailer. It is then tipped alongside the Viner into which it is fed. with pitch forks. The shelled peas are delivered from one side of the Viner at the rate of about 30 cwts per hour and the waste vine is carried away on a Conveyor to be made into silage. The peas are then elevated into the Winnower, which cleans them, gravitate through a Washer and are pumped to the Grader and again to the next process of Blanching. Here the intercellular gases are driven out, surface infections are removed and the peas are thoroughly cleaned. They are then cooled and washed again, passing over a Picking Table where they are visually inspected for the removal of sub-standard peas. They are then washed again, pass through a machine to remove splits and skins, elevated to a Hopper, from which they gravitate to the Filler and then into the can together with a measured quantity of brine. The filled cans then pass through an Exhauster system which, by heating the can and its contents, drives off the air and ensures a good vacuum in the can after the next process of seaming on the lids. The closed cans then travel through an automatic Pressure Cooker and Cooler from where they roll away to be labelled and cased, or stored. Similar lines are made for handling other Vegetables, Fruits and Fish while specialised machines can be incorporated in the Lines to adapt them for Soup, Milk or Meat. Throughout the whole of this process, no part of the pea or pea vine need be touched by hand, and the peas are usually in labelled cans, graded according to size, and cooked within four hours of the pea vine being reaped. An automatic line of this description can handle two hundred cans a minute with very little labour, and under complete and automatic process control. This chain of processes would amaze a housewife, and surprise an early pioneer like Appert. It is an excellent example of a revolution in the consumer industry, which has revealed yet again the close connection between technical invention and business enterprise. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 6 - Research and Development The direct employment of scientifically trained personnel on technical research is an innovation of no long standing in many branches of industry but it has been established for many years in engineering. In all its branches, modern engineering has stemmed from the scientist and is sustained by the technician. This may not always be apparent. For example, there are no outward signs of the researches of the scientific worker in the small jobbing iron foundry but, nevertheless, he is active behind the scenes in controlling the production of the pig irons, the coke, the grinding abrasives, the oils, the core compounds, and other raw materials. The scientific man is little in evidence in the machine shops: nevertheless, modern production rests largely on the achievements of the metallurgist. The mere mention of one item alone, high-speed steel, brings home to us what we owe to decades of laboratory workers and to the present day technicians: without it, and its associate tungsten carbide, production would fall to a small fraction of its present value. The firm of Mather & Platt Ltd has long been in the forefront in the quality of its various manufactures but, more than this, it has an outstanding pioneering record - the fruits of the efforts of virile business men and capable engineers who have been ever ready to take advantage of what science has had to offer through the years. Some of the scientists who collaborated with the Company, notably Osborne Reynolds in the creation of the turbine pump and John Hopkinson in the evolution of electrical machinery, are world famous: others could be named of little less distinction. The manufactures of the Company cover an extraordinarily wide range. They include some standard lines which lend themselves to repetition production but by far the greater part of the output consists of special machines to serve specific purposes — each machine being designed to meet some precise requirement. It is not always realised that the more industry turns to mass production, the greater is the demand for high-output machines of special - even of unique - design. It is to meet this important and ever growing demand that the Company devotes a big percentage of its total efforts. The furtherance of such a policy demands as a primary essential the employment of scientific personnel in a high degree. Machinery for the bleaching, dyeing and finishing of textile fabrics covers a big field and calls for exact knowledge of the intricate chemical and physical processes involved. In recent years the problems confronting this industry have broadened materially following the invention of new synthetic fibres: each of these has its own characteristics and limitations which have to be closely studied by technicians devising the appropriate equipment for processing it. The anti-crease resin finishes have brought their special requirements, as have also the delicate crepe materials in vogue at the present time. Special machines are at present being made to enable manufacturers to meet the public demand for pre-shrunk fabrics. Dyeing, which a few years ago had settled down to a somewhat standard procedure, is now being revolutionised by methods calling for plant of an entirely new type. The design of appliances for drying cloth is constantly being modified to meet the need for still greater speeds of drying, employing the higher steam pressures now available in modern works. There is similarly constant evolution in the centrifugal pump department, notably in ‘the production of feed pumps for the present-day boilers, with pressures up to 3000 lb. per square inch, and of pumps to deal at high pressures and high temperatures with the corrosive fluids encountered in the modern oil refinery. New materials have been developed by the Company for use in pumps dealing with the corrosive and abrasive liquors and waters of chemical works and mines. The maintenance of the fire engineering department in its leading position in the realms of fire fighting rests on the constant activities of technical men in devising new features and ensuring high quality in established products. Mention could be made specifically of the inventions of the Quartzoid Bulb sprinkler, the Mulsifyre System for extinguishing oil fires and ‘Fyretron equipment employed in the protection of aircraft hangars - all pioneered by members of the research staff at Park Works. It is an inherent feature of inventions of the kind in question that trained technicians play an indispensable part in planning their practical applications. A similar story could be told of the Food Machinery department which has to make a wide variety of machines for the processing of the various foodstuffs handled by the present day Canner. Designers have to be constantly at work on the task of devising new features and in taking advantage of what the advances in metallurgy and physics have to offer. In the production of electrical machinery progress would be impossible without the highly trained designers to lay down the proportions of the magnetic circuit as well as the details and insulation of the complicated windings. The essential materials used for the purpose, the silicon steel for the laminations, the magnet steel, the high-conductivity electrolytic copper, the insulating varnishes etc, are all the outcome of a wealth of scientific labour. Behind all this lies the fundamental discoveries and inventiveness of laboratory geniuses from Michael Faraday downwards - each contributing his quota to the evolution of the present day appliances which the user of today is so apt to take for granted without pausing to reflect how they were derived. Much of the electrical machinery produced by the Company is used for purposes for which conventional machines are not suitable; calling for specific design to meet individual requirements. The Works staff also has to include its quota of the scientific all trained, to deal with the many matters that arise in connection with tool design, heat treatment and so forth. The varied and specialised nature of the work carried out in each of the principal sections of the Company’s business over a period of years resulted in the gradual building up of an effective staff of well trained and experienced technicians to serve design and manufacture and qualified to discuss technical issues with prospective purchasers. The Directors, nevertheless, decided in 1919 to supplement the already extensive scientific resources of the Company by the establishment of a Central research department. This department has well appointed chemical, metallurgical and electrical laboratories and equipment necessary for carrying out hydraulic and other engineering investigations. The scientists in this department are provided with a wide range of machines and instruments for the physical testing of materials — metals and textiles. In addition, the department is particularly well equipped for dealing with fire-protection problems, its special apparatus for ‘this purpose including fire test-sheds, extensive equipment for oil fire tests and facilities for carrying out large scale tests with the other fire-fighting appliances which are included in the Company’s specialities. The policy of the Company is to mobilise all its resources in research and development, working as a team to produce the best results. Some development can be done only in the appropriate design departments, followed by trials in the Works or on the pump or electrical test beds: in other forms, the advances may be of the type test initiated and proved in the research department. In the case of some cloth finishing and canning machinery, developments projected in the design departments can be tried out only under full scale working conditions at the customer’s premises so calling for his collaboration. The same is true of the pumping plant supplied, for work in oil refineries and on the oilfields. The energetic prosecution of this comprehensive research and development policy involves considerable expense but the cost has proved to be well justified through the years in maintaining the varied products of Mather & Platt Ltd. at such a level that they set the standard of excellence in many of the open markets of the world. CHAPTER 5 - Technical Invention and Business Enterprise Part 7 - Invention and Enterprise Surveying the whole story of Mather & Platt Ltd it is possible to draw certain conclusions concerning the economic success of the Company in relation to its technical development. Economic success depended on close knowledge of existing market needs and shrewd awareness of new market opportunities. Technical development, as we have seen, depended on scientific co-operation and internal organisation. As market needs and market opportunities changed, the Company was quick to adapt itself, and. technical development never lagged far behind business necessities. There was obviously scope in the early nineteenth century for a business firm in Manchester which would not only manufacture machines for an expanding industry, but would also install and repair them as occasion might demand. Until 1850 in an industry like calico printing the number of firms was large and their machine capital limited. Maintenance and servicing were as important as the provision of new equipment. In the latter half of the century, however, the number of firms was reduced and capital concentration, rather than an increase in the number of firms, marked the new form of economic expansion. During this second period in the history of the textiles industry Mather & Platt Ltd. began to specialise on the provision of finishing apparatus. The emphasis on machinery for washing, steaming, dyeing and finishing cotton, linen and woollen fabrics can be seen in the patents taken out by Colin and William Mather from 1850 to 1881. Twelve out of sixteen were concerned with washing, bleaching and dyeing, (2) three with printing, (3) and only one with weaving (4). None of the inventions protected by these patents was labour saving in its essentials. All were cost reducing through improved technical performance, or concerned with new processes like the fixing of colours upon the fibres of fabrics. With the exception of improvements in automatic warp—stop motion devices, the firm was not intimately connected with weaving but focussed its attention on the many branches of the finishing industry. (1) See G. Turnbull, A History of the Calico Printing Industry of Great Britain (1951) (2) 2 November 1850, No. 13,31O, William and Colin Mather in conjunction with Ferdinand Kasclowsky; 11 March 1852, No. l4;022, Colin Mather in conjunction withEnnest Rolffs; 29 April 1853, No. 1045, Colin Mather; 30 May 1870, No. 1575, Colin Mather; 9 February 1875, No. 479, William Mather in conjunction with H.F.A. Cordillot; 21 January 1876, No. 250, William Mather; 28 December 1878, No. 5308, William Mather in conjunction with J. J. Sachs; 23 October 1879, No. 4323, William Mather; 10 February 1881, No. 590, William Mather; 26 May 1881, No. 2310, William Mather; 17 September 1881, No. 4015, William Mather. (3) 6 February 1864, No. 319, Colin Mather; 18 March 1876, No. 1174, William Mather; 14 January 1881, No. 193, William Mather (a communication from Shaeffer,Lalance and Co.) (4) 7 April, 1853, No. 838, Colin Mather. Safe within the confines of that specialised territory and producing machinery for finishing cotton “as good as any in the world”; (1) Mather & Platt Ltd. could afford to let other firms tackle different sectors of textile machinery design and production. If the fortunes of’ Mather & Platt Ltd. had been tied to textiles, and increasing specialisation had been the only theme in the Company’s history, the possibilities of business expansion would have depended on finding new markets or acquiring new patents. Both of’ these possibilities were indeed realised and the work of the General Machinery department was extended to include the manufacture of equipment for industries other than textiles but the period of real expansion began when centrifugal pump, electrical machinery and, later, fire-fighting equipment were added to the lines of production. The timing of the development of these other lines of production followed and in some ways anticipated national economic trends, but the continued success of the increasingly diversified enterprise depended upon business sense as much as upon technical superiority. Part of the success lay in the willingness of the Directors of the Company to stop producing certain unprofitable lines of output and to resist developing inventions which, although marketable as well as technically efficient, would have disturbed the balance of the enterprise. Among the casualties have been two complete department's -the Gas Engine Department and the Water Purification Department - as well as certain electrical products like electric traction plant, electric conveyers and turbines. Even before these activities were dropped, the manufacture of steam engines and of the Mather & Platt patented piston had been abandoned. The case of gas engines provides a good example of the factors involved in the deliberate abandonment of a particular line of production. The theoretical advantages of large gas engines as prime movers were widely canvassed from 1881 onwards, when Dowson introduced a self-contained gas engine plant, incorporating first a pressure and later a suction-gas producer. Mather & Platt Ltd. took up the manufacture of large gas engines about 1900, after they had become popular in Germany. The Korting type engine was manufactured as the result of an agreement with German producers, and was capable of developing more than 700 brake horsepower in a single cylinder (2). Later on two cylinder types were developed, which did much to counteract prevailing criticisms of gas engines, particularly as compared with steam turbines; first that they were not fully reliable and second that the cost of installation was far too high. (3) The firm ceased producing gas engines because the department concerned with their manufacture and installation consistently lost money. (1) Report of the Machinery Sub—Committee of the Cotton Working Party, Report,p.80. (2) Mather & Platt Ltd., Single Cylinder Two Cycle Gas Engines (September 1902). (3) A.E.Chorlton, A New Type of Large Gas Engine, a Paper read to the Iron and Steel Institute at Leeds, 2 October 1912. For the wide horizons of Chorlton’s interests see The Application of the Gas Engine to Ship propulsion, a Paper read before the Liverpool Engineering Society, 8 January 1913. In the inter-war years this decision was more than justified by the gradual disappearance of the gas engine from industry largely owing to the increasing popularity of oil engines, using cheap fuel oil and running far more efficiently than their earlier prototypes. The abandonment of gas engines was not the only example of an apparent opportunity being deliberately discarded. Far more important historically was the decision not to produce motor cars. The temptation to pass from large internal combustion gas-engines to engines’ for motor cars must have been a real one in the 1900’s, but John Taylor, who was responsible for the decision to drop gas engines as a whole, firmly resisted the challenge. His reasons, that the demand for motor cars would be dependent on fashion, whereas Mather & Platt Ltd should produce for performance and output rather than for appearance, were justified by the subsequent history both of the firm and of the automobile industry as a whole. To produce motor cars would have upset the whole balance of the enterprise. As it was the British motor car industry developed in a different part of England and was dominated either by new firms, drawing upon older firms for accessories and parts, or by concerns, which found that old lines of production had ceased to pay. By the 1890’s the diversified enterprise of Mather & Platt Ltd. was in a flourishing condition and the Company was contemplating the extension of facilities for producing existing lines on a new site rather than the taking up of new specialities. A full economic study of the inter-relationship of inventions, patent law, profit expectations, industrial fluctuation and the degree of competition would involve a far fuller set of statistics than is available in the case of most firms. Indeed it is easier to proceed in those fascinating fields of enquiry by means of models than by means of real examples. Certain broad conclusions emerge however from the story of Mather & Platt Ltd. Business initiative, whether in an entrepreneurial age like the nineteenth century or a managerial age like the twentieth, depended both upon technical insight and an eye for openings; the development of new lines of output depended not only upon the technical and economic possibilities they seemed to afford, but also on the profitability of existing lines of production; terms of borrowing, the rate of interest, or the state of the capital market had little effect on the emerging strategy of the firm; the acquisition of patents, sometimes from foreign sources, carved out the shape of productive enterprise for years to come; and finally the flexible policy which enabled the directors to drop unprofitable lines was as important as the ingenuity which made them take up new ones. The willingness to discard risks as well as to accept them made for the success of the Company. It resulted in a diversified modern structure, which ran counter to the many tendencies in British engineering, which were making for combination, integration and specialisation. Its success and its transformation from a family business into a large scale modern undertaking was based on its willingness of its directors to allow each department to follow its own course, while securing the benefits of unified control. CHAPTER 6 - Education for Industry "The Late Victorian Age”, G.M.Young has written, “became an age of technical instruction. The men who understood their time best, now put their benevolence less into charity than into education, and especially scientific education, or research,”(1) Sir William Mather was a philanthropist in the widest possible sense of the word, but he gave educational problems priority. He was interested in the theory of education as well as in the practical evolution of educational institutions, and in encouraging technical instruction at the Salford Iron Works; he was expressing a philosophy as well as pursuing a business need. It was not only individual pioneers who saw the need for an educated population on the speedy provision of elementary education”, Forster warned the: House of Commons in 1870, “depends our industrial prosperity, the safe working of our constitutional system. and our national power". (2) From 1870 onwards, a body of enlightened and far-sighted men of different walks of life faced the implications of this challenge, and although religious issues cut across national necessities, the framework of a system was set up as a result of large scale exercises in national legislation, and persistent efforts of individual pioneers. The towns too, bustling centres of industrial populations played their part. Karl Froebel, the educational pioneer, in contra-distinction to many social critics called towns like Manchester and Liverpool “the best and worthiest representatives of modern civilisation and culture in the world.”(3) Certainly Manchester and Salford ware among the first towns to adopt the Elementary Education Act of 1870, which set up Board Schools where other educational facilities were lacking. The first School Board for Manchester was elected on the 24th November, and that for Salford on the 30th November 1870. The policy of the two Boards was framed on similar lines and except for one short period of three years, they shared the same Chairman. They had plenty of work to do, for although Manchester had been traditionally interested in education, and. a great deal of voluntary organisation had bean evolved in 1870, while there was 58,557 children for whom public elementary school accommodation was needed. there was only 45,209 places available.(4) William Mather became one of the first members of the Salford School Board and was a keen worker in the exciting pioneer days of the new educational system. (1) G. M. Young, Potrait of an Age (1936), p.165 (2) Quoted ibid., p. 115. (3) Karl Froebel to William Mather, 10 May 1847. (4) C. H. Wyatt and 0. Duthie, Elementary education in Manchester and. Salford. in Handbook and Guide to Manchester (1907) The first services offered by the new schools were circumscribed by the prevailing concept of elementary education and the over-riding need to fight illiteracy by teaching the three “R’s” as a form of’ educational discipline. Business men like the Mathers were interested from the start in other forms of education, particularly in technical education which seemed as essential to the maintenance of industrial prosperity as did the three “R’s” to the safeguarding of the constitutional system. The production of high-class machinery needed special skill and training, and a literacy test could at best be considered a prelude to the acquisition of specialised knowledge. The first agencies of technical instruction were the mechanics institutes, which grew up in most of’ the new industrial centres between 1823 and 1850. We find that one of the subscribers to the new ‘building of the Salford Mechanics’ Institute in 1852 was the firm of Mather and Platt. William Wilkinson Platt and Colin Mather were both active in the committee of the organisation, and Colin was a Vice-President. (1) Unfortunately the Institutes ceased to satisfy the technical interests of artisans who lacked basic elementary education, and in many towns passed into the hands of’ the middle classes. It was clear that without a national system of education, the acquisition of’ specialised knowledge on the part of the working man demanded. considerable individual effort and a good deal of self-sacrifice. The artisan, who taught himself the rudiments of reading, writing and science, could take legitimate pride in his own individual advancement, in raising himself, if only a little, from the masses of the uneducated and the unskilled. If he could persuade a few others to follow the same course, he could sometimes transform individual self-help into corporate self-help. (1) The Manchester Guardian, 10 July 1852; 21 July 1852; 22 August 1852. In the late 60s there was an interesting local venture of this type inside the Salford Iron Works, when William Mather started a Mutual Improvement Society for the apprentices. The Minute Book of the society is still in existence, and both the rules and. the descriptions of meetings reflect the social values of the times. “The object of this Society”, Rule 1 states “shall be to assist its Members in ‘becoming steady, well— informed and intelligent workmen; which object shall be pursued by means of Lectures, Readings, Classes, and Entertainments also by a free use to its Members of a Library of Books”. Each member had to be between 12 and 21 years of age, and had to promise neither to smoke nor to partake of intoxicating liquors until reaching the age of 21 furthermore “each member on joining the society shall agree to avoid swearing and the use of all bad. language”. There was a committee of 7, an arrangement for weekly meetings, and a weekly subscription of one penny. The first meeting, held in November 1866, discussed the “cultivation of the mind." and the speaker told in much the same style as Samuel Smiles, of George Stephenson, “how he rose from a poor collier boy to the greatest engineer that ever lived.”(1) At the second meeting, there was more stress on self-help. The Minute Book tells us tantalisingly “how the streets of London are paved with gold; the way to get there by attention to business and good workmanship”. (2) Just over 20 apprentices attended the meetings of the Society and although the had a considerable share in formulating their own programme, they obviously felt that it did not satisfy their practical interests sufficiently. Although they scrapped the penny readings in order to concentrate “on the more scientific side of the business”(3), the Society was short-lived and had disappeared by 1870. The Smiles era in the development of education was already drawing to a close and it is interesting to note that there were complaints at the same time that the Mechanics Institutes was becoming too “literary”. While there was a malaise in England about technical institutions, shrewd observers were ‘beginning to look overseas for new ideas concerning technical and indeed general education. The dream of a national technical educational system which some of the Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851 had indulged in, began to captivate a new generation which was less afraid of centralisation than its fathers had been. In place of the patchwork of uncoordinated enterprises, men like Lyon Playfair wanted to see a “good system of industrial education for the masters and managers of factories and workshops” as well as for their employees. When at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 British products frequently seemed to ‘be outclassed by those of other countries - a complete contrast with the Exhibition of 1851 - it was generally believed that the fundamental cause was the disparity between educational systems. (1) The Apprentices Improvement Society, Minute Book, 16 November 1866. For the cult of Stephenson as the prototype of the engineer, the hero of his ago, see Samuel Smiles Lives of the Engineers: The Locomotive George and Robert Stephenson (1862).. Stephenson was “a standing example of manly character”. He was ”diligent and observant while at work, and sober and studious when the day’s work was over”. (p.31) 3150 working men subscribed 2 shillings each to a statue of Stephenson in the Great Hall at Euston Station. C. H. Fay, Huskinson and His Age (1951). p.58. (2) Minute Book, 23 November i866. The meeting went on to learn about ‘Sir Joseph Paxton, the designer of the Crystal Palace, London,’ who rose from a gardner to a national hero.” (3) Minute Book, Report of the Annual Meeting 1868-9. William Mather, as an enthusiastic traveller, had had special opportunities for investigation and comparing different forms of educational institutions. It was German institutions, which stood out among the rest. His early education in Germany left a deep impression on him and he claimed that it was there “where he received the best part of his education.”(1) At the early age of 18, strongly influenced by German models, be wrote that “it is seen plainly that there must be a good and pure system of National Education — every child in existence ought to be able to receive an education which if taken advantage of would be the means of raising him to a higher position both moral and physical”(2). Later on in life he told the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes that he was “almost cradled in Germany; and that it was through his early life in Germany that he derived his devotion for education”. (3) The Education Act of 1870 marked the beginning of a national system of education in England, but Mather went on to supplement the public elementary education it afforded by providing technical education for apprentices in the Salford Iron Works along more formal lines than that attempted earlier ‘by the Mutual Improvement Society. Mr. Thomas Jonas, who entered the service of Mather and Platt in the drawing office in 1872, was asked in 1873 to form evening classes in applied arithmetic at Mather’s Queen Street Institute which was also used for working mens social and religious activities. The educational scheme was so successful that it became known as the Salford Ironworks Evening School of Science and covered, practical geometry and machine drawing, and later on steam and the steam engine, building construction and drawing, and mechanical engineering and tools. As the number of subjects taught and the number of students increased, more teachers were engaged (all of them employees of the firm) and the pupils began to compete for the certificates issued from 1859 onwards by the Science and Art Department at South Kensington and later on, by the City and Guilds of London Institute, founded in 1880, and the Lancashire and Cheshire Union of Institutes. “Salford Iron Works Certificates” were also awarded by the firm and prizes were given as rewards for punctuality, systematic industry, and smartness both in the classes and in the workshops. Those pupils who devised an improvement to any part of a machine made at the Works or to any tool used in the Works were also offered a special prize of £5. (1) The Sprinkler Bulletin, September 1908. Other Northern business men like Sir Swire Smith, who wrote The Real German Rivalry, were equally impressed by the notional system of education in that country. (2) Essay on Education (1856), reprinted in L. E. Nather, op.cit., pp. 296—7. (3) Report of the Annual Meeting of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes, September, 1914. In these ways it was hoped to encourage not only a higher general level of technical education, but also outstanding ability among the gifted few. The early register and. records of the school give some idea of its evolution. It had a committee, which according to the rules of the Science and Art Department of the Committee of the Council of Education, had to include responsible local figures Benjamin Armitage, M.P, and Robert Leake, M.P, were both members. Later on, foremen were included from the various departments - engine-fitting pattern making, turning; millwright; boiler making; brass finishing; and smithy - to make sure those special trades were taught. The bright boys were recruited mainly from the Salford area, and, between 1874 and 1884, no less than 578 certificates were gained by students sitting for externally conducted examinations. In all, about 1,200 boys passed through the School between 1873 and 1903. The prizes they chose to receive were mainly technical books like Horner’s Principles of Fitting or Cracknell’s Practical Mathematics, but at least one boy chose The Midsummer Night’s Dream and The Merry Wives of Windsor. (1) Between 1902 and. 1916, when the firm was pre-occupied with the task of transferring its premises from Salford to Newton Heath, few educational records were kept, and it appears that the major responsibility for educating young apprentices was handed over to outside institutions, at this time being set up by the municipalities. It is at this point that it is necessary to go back in time to trace Sir William Mather's personal interest in technical education as a whole. After the appointment of a Royal Commission on Technical Education in 1881, fourteen years after the Paris Exhibition had shocked enlightened opinion; William Mather accepted an invitation to act as special commissioner to make investigations into educational methods in the United States and Russia. In 1883 he toured the United States and Canada at his own expense, and produced a report on scientific and technical training there, which related the growth of the education system to “the advancement and improvement of the industrial population.” Six years later he played an important part in securing the passage of the Technical Instruction Act of 1889, which allowed local councils to levy a penny rate for work in technical education. He had just been returned to Parliament for the second time and although he “shared in the general disapproval of the Bill” he was” determined to do something for technical education” and thought that with all its weaknesses the government’s measure “might be made into a fairly good start in legislation on the subject, with alterations and amendments of a drastic character”(3). Alterations and amendments were made, and the Bill did go through, not without trouble; Mather hoped that it would fore-shadow “a more rational and natural method of instruction in elementary schools”, a more efficient system of secondary training, and other and more complete measures for extending the scope of technical instruction. (1) Records of the School, 1900—1901 (2) L. E. Mather, op. cit., p. 111. (3) W. Mather, The Bearing of the Technical Instruction Act on Educational and Industrial Progress, An Address to the Manchester Branch of the National Education Association, 18 November, 1889. Manchester was the second city in the kingdom to adopt the Technical Instruction Act and to levy the penny rate allowed and within three years of the passing of the Act, the foundation stone of a Royal Technical Institute in Salford had been laid, with the aim of providing “systematic instruction in those branches of knowledge which have a direct bearing upon the leading industries of the district”. (1) A vital part of the scheme was the provision of thorough secondary education as a necessary first phase. This was the main objective also of the Education Bill of 1902, which Mather supported as a great and comprehensive measure. He was more interested in its long term effects than in the atmosphere of religious rivalry which characterised its passing and (when political feeling was most bitter) he went so far as to propose to the President of the Board of Education, the Duke of Devonshire, that it should be discussed “outside party lines”. (2) His own approach was revealed, in the important amendment to the Bill which he proposed and had carried, making it compulsory, instead of optional on the part of the local education authority, to apply grants to educational services other than elementary. As a result of his initiative the Government accepted after the word “elementary” the phrase “including the training of teachers and the general co-ordination of all forms of education”. In the year of the passing of the new Education Act, a landmark in English Education, the School of Technology was opened in Manchester by Arthur Balfour the Prime Minister. The site was provided by the trustees of Joseph Whitworth, one of the great pioneers of English production engineering, who had left his large fortune to be used for the promotion of industrial and artistic training. Mather was intimately associated both with the use of Whitworth’s benefaction and with the Royal Jubilee Exhibition at Old Trafford in 1879 which set out to secure additional gifts for the same purpose. After 1902 the municipality took over from existing voluntary bodies, and in opening the large new school Balfour said that the building was perhaps "the greatest fruit of this kind of municipal enterprise in this country ... Nobody can go over this building, observe its equipment, study even in the most cursory manner the care which has been devoted to it, without feeling that the Corporation of this great City have set a great example worthy of the place they hold in Lancashire, worthy of the place they hold in Great Britain”.(3) (1) 0. Duthie Technical Education in the Borough of Salford in Handbook to Manchester (1907) (2) The Duke of Devonshire did not find this suggestion practical. He wrote to Mather that “the whole difficulty of the question seems to lie in the party and. religious issues with which it is connected and any advice on council of those who look upon it from the educational side, will not have the smallest effect on those who care more about the other issue than the thing itself”. (30 December 1901). Mather was thinking of a non-party committee on education on the some lines as the War Office Organisation Committee of which he had been a member. (3) J. H. Reynolds, Technical Education and. Art Instruction in the City of Manchester in Handbook to Manchester (1907) Already before 1902 selected apprentices had gone on from the Queen Street Institute to the Manchester Technical School and between 1905 and 1916 all apprentices from the works of Mather & Platt Ltd. went to the new city institutions for their training. The First World War created new problems, particularly in 1916 when there was an urgent necessity for training apprentices quickly and efficiently. As a result day classes for apprentices were started at Park Works, with instructors drawn from the office and works staffs. The results were encouraging. So much so that Loris Emerson Mather, the new Chairman of the Company, drew up a plan for a new Works School thus anticipating the Fisher Education Act of’ 1918. Herbert Fisher the war time President of the Board of Education, in a letter addressed to Sir William Mather acknowledged the lead given, saying “You have been one of the pioneers of true industrial education in this country and if I should be fortunate enough to succeed in doing something effectual to raise the level of education in the country it will be largely due to the load which you and a small handful of intelligent men of business have given to the more thoughtful and energetic part of the business community."(1) In 1918 when the Manchester Education Committee agreed to take over the Park Works School its official title became the Mather &Platt Ltd. Works Day Continuation School. The agreement reached between the Local Education Authority and the Company was a happy example of co-operation between education and industry. It certainly set the pattern for the Butler Act of later years. Roughly, the arrangement was this: the Company undertook to provide and maintain suitable school premises and pay their apprentices whilst in attendance, and the Local Education Authority for its part assumed the responsibility of providing a trained teaching staff, the necessary school furniture and stationery. The arrangement worked admirably. At first, when numbers were small, the post of Headmaster was combined with that of Apprentice Supervisor to the Company, and the first two Head-masters and two large airy classrooms were added at the end of the research building at Park Works while the too-crowded curriculum of early years was steadily whittled down until it conformed to the Pro-Senior and Senior Mechanical Engineering Courses of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes, except that provision was made for additional English studies and for two periods per week in a well equipped gymnasium built in 1921. (1) Herbert Fisher to Sir William Mather, 4 April, 1917. The Chairman of the Company took a keen interest in these developments and he displayed an equal interest in the outdoor activities of the School. He gave the fullest support to the organisation of cricket and football teams, which played on land adjoining the works until the development of a new housing estate and the erection of a new foundry swallowed up the ground on which football was played; but his greatest enthusiasm was reserved for Scouting, and this was understandable. Himself a Gilwell-trained Scouter, and holding the highest Scout award, the Silver Wolf, for exceptional services rendered to the Movement in the early days of its formation (he was for many years District Commissioner of the Manchester Boy Scouts Association), Loris Mather believed in nothing so ardently as in the character-building potentialities of real Scouting. He saw that the Scout Law was equally the Law of Good Workmanship, the paramount need of the age for young people, and he was eager to bring its quickening influence to bear on their industrial lives. As has been well said: “Scouting solves the antinomy of work and play, of labour and leisure, at the stage where such antinomies are apt to be most pernicious - in the life of the young. Playing the man is substituted for playing the fool, and mutual loyalty promoted by common participation in that splendid game. The ideal of services translated- from the moral generality into a skilful occupation, is present throughout, and wisdom is taught by working contact with elemental things. Dark days, wet weather, obstructions, difficulties, and contradictions are freely encountered, the manful confronting of them being an essential part of the game. The sportsmanlike spirit, under a businesslike discipline, has here been brought into the service of a moral ideal, and the spirit of youth rejoices in the combination.” Mr. Mather’s faith in Scouting has been shared by enthusiastic members of the Works School Staff and ever since 1919, when the 2/16th M/C (Park Works) Troop was formed. the link with Scouting has remained unbroken. It is difficult to estimate the effect which Mr. Mather's friendly association with his own apprentices through Scouting has had on human relations generally at Park Works. It must have been considerable. Here was one answer, at least, to those who deplored the rise of Joint Stock companies and the consequent decline of the old paternalism. The charge of soullessness could scarcely apply when, as in this case a leader of industry met his young charges on the equal footing of Scouting, inspecting them, living with them under canvas, and providing ideal campsites in the clearings of a wooded estate in Cheshire. To a few privileged observers it was possible frequently to see the Chairman of a vast industrial enterprise sitting on a log in the open, with a plate on his knees, enduring with a smile and with the brave appearance of relish, the trials of camp cooking watery stew or charred bacon. Inevitably such a scene recalled the words of T. E. Lawrence (“Lawrence of Arabia”) à propos the Arabs: — “They taught me that no man could be their leader except he ate the ranks’ food - wore their clothes - lived level with them - and yet appeared better in himself.” It was not the least of “Squire Mather’s gifts of tact and understanding with boys that he could mix with them on terms of the utmost frankness and freedom, yet never forfeit their proper respect. The appointment of a new Head master in 1936 coincided with a rapid increase in the number of apprentices requiring further education and led to a new outbreak of activity in the Works School. A large new mechanical drawing room was added, shower baths were installed in the existing gymnasium and among other staff changes, a full time college-trained physical training instructor was appointed to the School staff for the first time. This latter innovation was to prove especially valuable during the subsequent war years when the spare time activities of youths, and “Keep Fit” movements generally, became a matter of governmental concern. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 acted as a spur, rather than a brake, to the School. Although the War dislocated many peace-time activities, so that evening classes were cancelled because of the “blitz” and the new drawing classroom was requisitioned for A.R.P. lectures and later on for the manufacture of radar equipment, other class rooms were improvised in underground shelters and considerable progress was made in various directions. Distinguished visitors came to the works. Pep talks were given to apprentices by staff officers and leaders of foreign resistance movements, and education in its wider sense was never neglected. It appears paradoxical at first sight that the mass wars of our twentieth century “age of violence” have seen marked advantages in public health. In 1941, a year of tension, an interesting physical training test was carried out by the firm at the suggestion of the Board of Education and with the assistance of the Manchester Education Committee. A three months’ test was made with two groups of boys of 16 years of age, the one being given physical training for six hours a week whilst boys in the other group remained at work. The firm believed that the experiment, which showed the value of healthy physique, pointed the way “to more co-operation between education and industry after the war for the benefit of the rising generation”. (1) Another feature initiated by the Chairman in association with Colonel H. B. Campbell of Edinburgh University was the development of a series of “Dexterity Exercises” designed to reduce accidents in work caused by the clumsy handling of awkward and bulky objects, and suitable for inclusion in normal physical training programmes. Altogether this was a period of no small creative activity. Nor did this surge of new ideas cease with the end of the war. In 1947, valuable extensions were made to the existing school promises. These included the provision of a large Lecture Hall with cinema equipment. The new facilities thus provided made possible not only the organisation of the girls’ classes, for the education and training of young girls employed at Park Works, but also a series of Adult Training Courses along the recognised lines of Training within Industry. There should be mentioned here another training scheme which falls between the Trade Apprentice Works School and the Adult Training Courses, namely, the training scheme for Special Apprentices. (I) Proceeding at the forty-fourth Annual General Meeting-, 24 February 1942. Early in this century one or two young men were accepted from the public schools and universities for a period of workshop training varying from three to five years according to age. In those early days it was common for the parents of a young man to have to pay a fee before he was accepted into what was known as a “premium apprenticeship”. A small weekly wage was then paid on a similar scale to the Trade Apprentice. Sir William Mather did not approve of the 'premium' system and University students and other young men who were accepted for special apprenticeship received the weekly wage without any financial obligation. This system of a special apprenticeship has since those days increased in importance and. today some fifty young men drawn from grammar schools, public schools, technical colleges and universities - some of them from overseas - are given facilities for a varied and practical training at Park Works. In order to encourage them to continue their theoretical training, some of them spend one day a week - without loss of pay at local technical schools and at the Technical Colleges of Manchester and Salford. If it is conceded that a balanced training should embrace vocational, cultural, and social activities, then the Company of Mather & Platt Ltd. has every reason to be satisfied with the arrangements it has made for the welfare of its young employees since the year 1873 when the aforementioned Salford Ironworks Evening School of Science - the forerunner of the present Works School - was founded. In good times and in bad, the fullest opportunities for self-development have been provided, for in addition to the Company’s own training schemes steady support has been given to such character-forming institutions as the Outward Bound Sea and Mountain Schools and the residential courses at Cheshunt College, Cambridge. This unique eighty years record in Further Education is not solely a family tradition, strong as this is in the Mather family, or of current educational ideals. It must be grounded also on the firm belief shared by all who are affected by it, and in whatsoever capacity, that the possession of a Works School is eminently worth while. As a former Head-master of the school has said:- “From the point of view of the teacher, a post in the Works School has this advantage, that he can measure the effect of his work as reflected in the careers of boys when they leave school. From the employer's point of view, such a school provides an easy means of recognising conspicuous ability early. For the boy, it provides variety during the working week: it keeps him subject to a wholesome influence at an impressionable stage of his working career, and it enables him to measure his powers and progress against those of his fellows. It affords too, an excellent medium whereby experts and specialists in the works can come along and demonstrate to the boys vivid and up to date applications of the general principles learnt in school”. Attendance at the School is made a condition of employment, and pupils come from many surrounding districts, no longer only from the immediate vicinity of the works. The School has been running long enough to establish a sound tradition and to be accepted by all, officials and apprentices alike, as a necessary and valuable part of the works organisation. If the head of a department has any vacancies he is able to turn to the School for possible candidates, and since each boy has a card with his school record on one side and his works record on the other, there is an efficient scheme of registration. The Supervisor of Apprentices arranges future transfers. Perhaps no stronger claim can be made for the Mather & Platt Works School than that it enjoys the confidence and support of the Works superintendents and foremen who, under the sympathetic direction of the Works’ Manager, and other members of the Board give it their constant backing and support. In addition to benefactions and personal service, gifts of tools and appliances have been made to numerous universities and technical colleges in different parts of the world. Apart from gifts of equipment made to Manchester Institutions and some prominent ones in other parts of the United Kingdom, support has been given further afield. One of the most interesting gifts was made in 1902 when Sir William Mather presented to the Gordon College at Khartoum, “a first rate manual-training school, with all appliances for wood and metal working”. In a letter to Lord Cromer, Sir William Mather stated his characteristic philosophy of education and of the place of manual training in it. “In dealing with real things and actual processes, and in using tools, machines and materials responsive to their will and applied to purposes which they can see and appreciate, they unconsciously acquire habits of observation, carefulness, precision, and logical thought, and a sense of reality, proportion, form and strength”. This was "practical education" and this was what Sir William wanted the boys of the Sudan to learn. A century ago it was the Great Exhibition which first focussed attention on the need for technical education on a national scale, and gave rise to the colony of useful institutions in South Kensington, which has survived in increasing glory to this day. The links with 1851 still persist in the educational side of the firm's work. Sir William Mather, who went to the Exhibition as a small boy, went on to become a member of the governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, appointed by the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851 to manage the surplus fund left over from a successful season of festival. A hundred years later, the School provided a large and enthusiastic contingent on the occasion of the firm’s visit to a second great exhibition, the Festival of Britain of 1951. The world has changed much during the century following the first Great Exhibition, and not the least sign of the change is that whereas in 1851 ‘Young’ William went to the Exhibition alone, in 1951 all the employees of the firm had the opportunity of going to London as guests of the Company. Exactly half way between the two dates, Sir William pointed the way to the future when he said, “In education, happily, after all, only the democracy rules. There is no rank; the only question is that the ability all possess shall be used to the uttermost, and all shall work for one common end.” (1) Sir William Mather. Address delivered in the Town Hall, Manchester, 28 September, 1901. NB - In later years the sheer pressure of numbers, coupled with the need to have a trained engineer to control the practical training of the apprentices in the workshops, led to the separation of the two functions, and since 1931, the head-ship of the Works School has been a purely educational appointment.	i don't know
What is a PC's Alt key traditionally called on a MacIntosh computer?	What is the Delete Key in the Macintosh Version. How about the Alt-Key and Ctrl-Key \| Linn Software What is the Delete Key in the Macintosh Version. How about the Alt-Key and Ctrl-Key Can you explain what the wicks or tails of Renko charts represent? What is the Delete Key in the Macintosh Version. How about the Alt-Key and Ctrl-Key Much of the documentation for Investor/RT is written from the perspective of the Windows version of the software. There is frequent mention of the Alt key, the Ctrl Key and the Delete Key. These are keys typically visible on Windows PC keyboards. On Macintosh PC's the keys are labeled differently (Think Different, as the Apple slogan goes). The Alt Key is called the Command key on Macintosh keyboards. The symbol on the key typically resembles a cloverleaf. Long time users of Macintosh PCs will remember the days when this key was called the Apple key. The Ctrl-Key is called the Option Key on Macintosh keyboards. If you see the phrase "Ctrl-click..." this means Option Click for Mac users. The Delete key is more mysterious. Modern Mac keyboards do have a Delete Key but its function on the Mac is the same as the Backspace key on Windows. It is used to backspace when typing. When Investor/RT documentation says to press the Delete Key, you have to hold down the Function key (Fn Key) on the Mac keyboard and press Delete. Fn-Delete is a forward delete (as opposed to a backspace) and Fn-Delete is equivalent to the Delete Key on Windows PC's. On Windows PC the Delete Key is often labelled as the Del key. For example, to delete an indicator in a chart, first click on the indicator to select it, then press the Del Key on Windows or Fn-Delete on a Macintosh).	Option
What profession is shared by Joseph Stiglitz, Milton Friedman, Ken Galbraith, and Janet Yellen?	Alt \| Define Alt at Dictionary.com alt in alt, in the first octave above the treble staff. Origin of alt 1525-35; < Provençal < Latin altum, noun use of neuter of altus high Alt key noun, Computers. 1. either of two keys on a PC keyboard that is held down while pressing another key, as to perform a specific operation or type a special character. Expand variant of alti- before a vowel: altazimuth. Examples from the Web for alt Expand Historical Examples "I wonder what the craven loon will do with her when he gets her," said alt Pikker. Dodo's Daughter E. F. Benson She could reach with ease F in alt, and showed to advantage in such operas as "Zauberflte." The Crime Doctor Ernest William Hornung In time, with great care, the majority of the notes will come back, but probably C in alt. British Dictionary definitions for alt Expand (esp of vocal music) high in pitch 2. of or relating to the octave commencing with the G above the top line of the treble staff noun in alt, in the octave directly above the treble staff Word Origin C16: from Provençal, from Latin altus high, deep Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 ALT (ā'ěl-tē') n. Alanine aminotransferase; an enzyme in serum and body tissues that catalyzes the transfer of amino acid groups from l-alanine to 2-ketoglutarate or the reverse, thus allowing nitrogen to be excreted or incorporated into other compounds. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Expand character /awlt/ 1. The alt modifier key on many keyboards , including the IBM PC . On some keyboards and operating systems , (but not the IBM PC) the alt key sets bit 7 of the character generated. See bucky bits . 2. The " clover " or "Command" key on a Macintosh ; use of this term usually reveals that the speaker hacked PCs before coming to the Mac (see also feature key ). Some Mac hackers, confusingly, reserve "alt" for the Option key (and it is so labelled on some Mac II keyboards). 3. (Obsolete PDP-10 ; often "ALT") An alternate name for the ASCII ESC character (Escape, ASCII 27), after the keycap labelling on some older terminals ; also "altmode" (/awlt'mohd/). This character was almost never pronounced "escape" on an ITS system, in TECO or under TOPS-10 , always alt, as in "Type alt alt to end a TECO command" or "alt-U onto the system" (for "log onto the [ITS] system"). This usage probably arose because alt is easier to say. 4. One of the Usenet newsgroup hierarchies . It was founded by John Gilmore and Brian Reid . The alt hierarchy is special in that anyone can create new groups here without going though the normal voting proceduers, hence the regular appearence of new groups with names such as "alt.swedish.chef.bork.bork.bork".	i don't know
What became known in the 1800s as 'the gay science'?	Friedrich Nietzsche (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Friedrich Nietzsche First published Fri May 30, 1997; substantive revision Tue Jun 7, 2016 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a German philosopher of the late 19th century who challenged the foundations of Christianity and traditional morality. He was interested in the enhancement of individual and cultural health, and believed in life, creativity, power, and down-to-earth realities, rather than those situated in a world beyond. Central to his philosophy is the idea of “life-affirmation,” which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life’s expansive energies, however socially prevalent those views might be. Often referred to as one of the first existentialist philosophers along with Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Nietzsche’s revitalizing philosophy has inspired leading figures in all walks of cultural life, including dancers, poets, novelists, painters, psychologists, philosophers, sociologists and social revolutionaries. Related Entries 1. Life: 1844–1900 In the small German village of Röcken bei Lützen, located in a rural farmland area southwest of Leipzig, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was born at approximately 10:00 a.m. on October 15, 1844. The date coincided with the 49th birthday of the Prussian King, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, after whom Nietzsche was named, and who had been responsible for Nietzsche’s father’s appointment as Röcken’s town minister. Nietzsche’s uncle and grandfathers were also Lutheran ministers, and his paternal grandfather, Friedrich August Ludwig Nietzsche (1756–1826), was further distinguished as a Protestant scholar, one of whose books (1796) affirmed the “everlasting survival of Christianity.” Nietzsche’s grandparents on both sides were from the Province of Saxony, with his paternal grandfather, paternal grandmother (Erdmuthe Dorothea Krause, 1778–1856), maternal grandfather (David Ernst Ohler, 1787–1859) and maternal grandmother (Johanna Elisabeth Wilhelmine Hahn, 1794–1876) having been born respectively in the small towns of Bibra (just south of Jena), Reichenbach (southeast of Jena), Zeitz (between Jena and Leipzig), and Wehlitz (just northwest of Leipzig). When Nietzsche was nearly 5 years old, his father, Karl Ludwig Nietzsche (1813–1849) died from a brain ailment (July 30, 1849) and the death of Nietzsche’s two-year-old brother, Ludwig Joseph, traumatically followed six months later (January 4, 1850). Having been living only yards away from Röcken’s church in the house reserved for the pastor and his family, the Nietzsche family left their home soon after Karl Ludwig’s death. They moved to nearby Naumburg an der Saale, where Nietzsche (called “Fritz” by his family) lived with his mother, Franziska (1826–1897), his grandmother, Erdmuthe, his father’s two sisters, Auguste and Rosalie (d. 1855 and 1867, respectively), and his younger sister, Therese Elisabeth Alexandra (1846–1935). From the ages of 14 to 19 (1858–1864), Nietzsche attended a first-rate boarding school, Schulpforta, located about 4km from his home in Naumburg, where he prepared for university studies. The school’s rigid educational atmosphere was reflected in its long history as a former Cistercian monastery (1137–1540), with buildings that included a 12th century Romanesque chapel and a 13th century Gothic church. At Schulpforta—a school whose alumnae included the German Idealist philosopher, Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) and the philologist, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1848–1931)—Nietzsche met his lifelong friend, Paul Deussen (1845–1919), who was confirmed at Nietzsche’s side in 1861, and who was to become an Orientalist, historian of philosophy, and in 1911, the founder of the Schopenhauer Society. During his summers in Naumburg, Nietzsche led a small music and literature club named “Germania,” and became acquainted with Richard Wagner’s music through the club’s subscription to the Zeitschrift für Musik. The teenage Nietzsche also read the German romantic writings of Friedrich Hölderlin and Jean-Paul Richter, along with David Strauss’s controversial and demythologizing Life of Jesus Critically Examined (Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet, 1848). After graduating from Schulpforta, Nietzsche entered the University of Bonn in 1864 as a theology and philology student, and his interests soon gravitated more exclusively towards philology—a discipline which then centered upon the interpretation of classical and biblical texts. As a student of philology, Nietzsche attended lectures by Otto Jahn (1813–1869) and Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl (1806–1876). Jahn was a biographer of Mozart who had studied at the University of Berlin under Karl Lachmann (1793–1851)—a philologist known both for his studies of the Roman philosopher, Lucretius (ca. 99–55 BCE), and for having developed the genealogical, or stemmatic, method in textual recension; Ritschl was a classics scholar whose work centered on the Roman comic poet, Plautus (254–184 BCE). Inspired by Ritschl, and following him to the University of Leipzig in 1865—an institution located closer to Nietzsche’s hometown of Naumburg—Nietzsche quickly established his own academic reputation through his published essays on two 6th century BCE poets, Theognis and Simonides, as well as on Aristotle. In Leipzig, he developed a close friendship with Erwin Rohde (1845–1898), a fellow philology student and future philologist, with whom he would correspond extensively in later years. Momentous for Nietzsche in 1865 was his accidental discovery of Arthur Schopenhauer’s The World as Will and Representation (1818) in a local bookstore. He was then 21. Schopenhauer’s atheistic and turbulent vision of the world, in conjunction with his high praise of music as an art form, captured Nietzsche’s imagination, and the extent to which the “cadaverous perfume” of Schopenhauer’s world-view continued to permeate Nietzsche’s mature thought remains a matter of scholarly debate. After discovering Schopenhauer, Nietzsche read F.A. Lange’s newly-published History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Significance (1866)—a work that criticizes materialist theories from the standpoint of Kant’s critique of metaphysics, and that attracted Nietzsche’s interest for its view that metaphysical speculation is an expression of poetic illusion. In 1867, as he approached the age of 23, Nietzsche entered his required military service and was assigned to an equestrian field artillery regiment close to Naumburg, during which time he lived at home with his mother. While attempting to leap-mount into the saddle, he suffered a serious chest injury and was put on sick leave after his chest wound refused to heal. He returned shortly thereafter to the University of Leipzig, and in November of 1868, met the composer Richard Wagner (1813–1883) at the home of Hermann Brockhaus (1806–1877), an Orientalist who was married to Wagner’s sister, Ottilie. Brockhaus was himself a specialist in Sanskrit and Persian whose publications included (1850) an edition of the Vendidad Sade—a text of the Zoroastrian religion, whose prophet was Zarathustra (Zoroaster). Wagner and Nietzsche shared an enthusiasm for Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche—who had been composing piano, choral and orchestral music since he was a teenager—admired Wagner for his musical genius, magnetic personality and cultural influence. Wagner was the same age Nietzsche’s father would have been, and he had also attended the University of Leipzig many years before. The Nietzsche-Wagner relationship was quasi-familial and sometimes-stormy, and it affected Nietzsche deeply. Early on, he could write (in 1869) that his friendship with Wagner was the “greatest achievement” [die größte Errungenschaft] of his life, and he was still energetically engaged in appraising and pondering Wagner’s cultural significance twenty years later at the end of his writing life. But Nietzsche broke with Wagner personally and intellectually in the late 1870s, and his assessments became increasingly negative (and more and more explicit) as time went on. Nevertheless, even after their break, Nietzsche was still reminiscing wistfully in 1882 about how his days with Wagner had been the best of his life. During the months surrounding Nietzsche’s initial meeting with Wagner, Ritschl recommended Nietzsche for a position on the classical philology faculty at the University of Basel. The Swiss university offered Nietzsche the professorial position, and he began teaching there in May, 1869, at the age of 24. At Basel, Nietzsche’s satisfaction with his life among his philology colleagues was limited, and he established closer intellectual ties to the historians Franz Overbeck (1837–1905) and Jacob Burkhardt (1818–1897), whose lectures he attended. Overbeck—who roomed for five years in the same house as Nietzsche—became Nietzsche’s close and enduring friend, exchanging many letters with him over the years, and rushing to Nietzsche’s assistance in Turin immediately after his devastating collapse in 1889. Nietzsche also cultivated his friendship with Richard Wagner and visited him often at his Swiss home in Tribschen, a small town near Lucerne. Never in outstanding health, further complications arose from Nietzsche’s August-October 1870 service as a 25-year-old hospital attendant during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), where he participated in the siege of Metz. He witnessed the traumatic effects of battle, took close care of wounded soldiers, and contracted diphtheria and dysentery. Nietzsche’s enthusiasm for Schopenhauer, his studies in classical philology, his inspiration from Wagner, his reading of Lange, his interests in health, his professional need to prove himself as a young academic, and his frustration with the contemporary German culture, all coalesced in his first book—The Birth of Tragedy (1872)—which was published in January 1872 when Nietzsche was 27. Wagner showered the book with praise, but a vitriolic, painfully-memorable and yet authoritative critical reaction by Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff—who later became one of Germany’s leading philologists—immediately dampened the book’s reception, not to mention Nietzsche’s class enrolments in Basel. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff came from an aristocratic family of distant Polish descent and knew Nietzsche as a student at Schulpforta. In his critique, he referred to Nietzsche as a disgrace to Schulpforta, and said that in light of the latter’s prophetic, soothsaying, exaggerated and historically uninformed style of writing, Nietzsche should instead “gather tigers and panthers about his knees, but not the youth of Germany.” It is intriguing that in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, written thirteen years later, Nietzsche invokes the comparable imagery of a lion nuzzling warmly at the knees of Zarathustra in the book’s concluding and inspirational scene, as if to acknowledge that his proper audience is, indeed, not a set of university professors. As Nietzsche continued his residence in Switzerland between 1872 and 1879, he often visited Wagner at his new (1872) home in Bayreuth, Germany. In 1873, he met Paul Rée (1849–1901), who, while living in close company with Nietzsche in Sorrento during the autumn of 1876, would write On the Origin of Moral Feelings (1877). During this time, Nietzsche completed a series of four studies on contemporary German culture—the Unfashionable Observations (1873–76)—which focus respectively upon (1) the historian of religion and culture critic, David Strauss, (2) issues concerning the social value of historiography, (3) Arthur Schopenhauer and (4) Richard Wagner, both as heroic inspirations for new cultural standards. Near the end of his university career, Nietzsche completed Human, All-Too-Human (1878)—a book that marks a turning point in his philosophical style and that, while reinforcing his friendship with Rée, also ends his friendship with the anti-Semitic Wagner, who comes under attack in a thinly-disguised characterization of “the artist.” Despite the damage done by the unflattering review of The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche remained respected in his professorial position in Basel, but his deteriorating health, which led to migraine headaches, eyesight problems and vomiting, necessitated his resignation from the university in June, 1879, at age 34. At this point, he had been a university professor for ten years, and had just less than another ten years of productive intellectual life remaining. From 1880 until his collapse in January 1889, Nietzsche led a wandering, gypsy-like existence as a stateless person (having given up his German citizenship, and not having acquired Swiss citizenship), circling almost annually between his mother’s house in Naumburg and various French, Swiss, German and Italian cities. His travels took him through the Mediterranean seaside city of Nice (during the winters), the Swiss alpine village of Sils-Maria (during the summers, located near the present-day ski resort of St. Moritz), Leipzig (where he had attended university, and had been hoping to resume his teaching career in 1883), Turin, Genoa, Recoaro, Messina, Rapallo, Florence, Venice, and Rome, never residing in any place longer than several months at a time. On a visit to Rome in 1882, Nietzsche, now at age thirty-seven, met Lou von Salomé (1861–1937), a 21 year old Russian woman who was studying philosophy and theology in Zurich. He quickly fell in love with her. Declining to develop her relationship with Nietzsche on a romantic level, Nietzsche’s friendship with her and Paul Rée took a turn for the worse, for Salomé and Rée left Nietzsche and moved to Berlin. In the years to follow, Salomé would become an associate of Sigmund Freud, and would write with psychological insight of her association with Nietzsche. Salomé also shows some real insight into Nietzsche’s works, and was one of the first to propose the division of Nietzsche’s writings into early, middle, and late periods. These nomadic years were the occasion of Nietzsche’s main works, among which are Daybreak (1881), The Gay Science (1882/1887), Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–85), Beyond Good and Evil (1886), and On the Genealogy of Morals (1887). Nietzsche’s final active year, 1888, saw the completion of The Case of Wagner (May-August 1888), Twilight of the Idols (August-September 1888), The Antichrist (September 1888), Ecce Homo (October-November 1888) and Nietzsche Contra Wagner (December 1888). On the morning of January 3, 1889, while in Turin, Nietzsche experienced a mental breakdown which left him an invalid for the rest of his life. Coincidentally, on virtually the same date, viz., January 4, his little brother, Joseph, had died many years before. Nietzsche, upon witnessing a horse being whipped by a coachman at the Piazza Carlo Alberto—although this episode with the horse could be anecdotal—threw his arms around the horse’s neck and collapsed in the plaza, never to return to full sanity. Some argue that Nietzsche was afflicted with a syphilitic infection (this was the original diagnosis of the doctors in Basel and Jena) contracted either while he was a student or while he was serving as a hospital attendant during the Franco-Prussian War; some claim that his use of chloral hydrate, a drug which he had been using as a sedative, undermined his already-weakened nervous system; some speculate that Nietzsche’s collapse was due to a brain disease he inherited from his father; some maintain that a mental illness gradually drove him insane; some maintain that he suffered from a slow-growing, frontal cranial base tumor; some maintain that he suffered from CADASIL syndrome, a heriditary stroke disorder; some maintain that Nietzsche suffered from a tumor on the surface of the brain growing behind his right eye. The exact cause of Nietzsche’s incapacitation remains unclear. That he had an extraordinarily sensitive nervous constitution and took an assortment of medications is well-documented as a more general fact. To complicate matters of interpretation, Nietzsche states in a letter from April 1888 that he never had any symptoms of a mental disorder. During his creative years, Nietzsche struggled to bring his writings into print and never doubted that his books would have a lasting cultural effect. He did not live long enough to experience his world-historical influence, but he had a brief glimpse of his growing intellectual importance in discovering that he was the subject of 1888 lectures given by Georg Brandes (Georg Morris Cohen) at the University of Copenhagen, to whom he directed the above April 1888 correspondence, and from whom he received a recommendation to read Kierkegaard’s works. Nietzsche’s collapse, however, followed soon thereafter. After a brief hospitalization in Basel, he spent 1889 in a sanatorium in Jena at the Binswanger Clinic, and in March 1890 his mother took him back home to Naumburg, where he lived under her care for the next seven years in the house he knew as a youngster. After his mother’s death in 1897, his sister Elisabeth—having returned home from Paraguay in 1893, where she had been working since 1886 with her husband Bernhard Förster to establish an Aryan, anti-Semitic German colony called “New Germany” (“Nueva Germania”)—assumed responsibility for Nietzsche’s welfare. In an effort to promote her brother’s philosophy, she rented the “Villa Silberblick,” a large house in Weimar, and moved both Nietzsche and his collected manuscripts to the residence. This became the new home of the Nietzsche Archives (which had been located at the family home for the three years preceding), where Elisabeth received visitors who wanted to observe the now-incapacitated philosopher. On August 25, 1900, Nietzsche died in the villa as he approached his 56th year, apparently of pneumonia in combination with a stroke. His body was then transported to the family gravesite directly beside the church in Röcken bei Lützen, where his mother and sister now also rest. The Villa Silberblick was eventually turned into a museum, and since 1950, Nietzsche’s manuscripts have been located in Weimar at the Goethe- und Schiller-Archiv 2. Early Writings: 1872–1876 Nietzsche’s first book was published in 1872 and was entitled The Birth of Tragedy, Out of the Spirit of Music (Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik). Overall, it sets forth a more energetic alternative to the late 18th/early 19th century understanding of Greek culture—an understanding largely inspired by Johann Winckelmann’s History of Ancient Art (1764)—which, grounded on the aesthetics of classical sculpture, hailed ancient Greece as the epitome of noble simplicity, calm grandeur, clear blue skies, and rational serenity. In 1886, Nietzsche’s book was reissued with a revised title, The Birth of Tragedy, Or: Hellenism and Pessimism (Die Geburt der Tragödie, Oder: Griechentum und Pessimismus), along with a lucid and revealing prefatory essay—“An Attempt at Self-Criticism”—which expresses Nietzsche’s own critical reflections on the book, looking back fourteen years. Although he remained proud of the work, Nietzsche also describes it as questionable, strange and almost inaccessible, filled with Kantian and Schopenhauerian formulas that were inherently at odds with the new valuations he was trying to express. Having by this time absorbed the Schopenhauerian view that non-rational forces reside at the foundation of all creativity and of reality itself, and that these forces are artistically best conveyed in music, Nietzsche identifies a strongly instinctual, wild, amoral, “Dionysian” energy within pre-Socratic Greek culture as an essentially creative and healthy force, locating its prime expression in the tragic chorus, and constituting the very life of the tragedy. Surveying the history of Western culture since the time of the Greeks, Nietzsche laments over how this Dionysian, creative energy had been submerged and weakened as it became overshadowed by the “Apollonian” forces of logical order and stiff sobriety. He concludes that European culture since the time of Socrates has remained one-sidedly Apollonian, repressed, scientific, and relatively unhealthy. As a means towards a cultural rebirth, Nietzsche advocates in contemporary life, the resurrection and fuller release of Dionysian artistic energies—those which he associates with primordial creativity, joy in existence and ultimate truth. The seeds of this liberating rebirth Nietzsche perceives in the German music of his time (viz., Bach, Beethoven and especially Wagner), and the concluding part of The Birth of Tragedy, in effect, adulates the emerging German artistic, tragic spirit as the potential savior of European culture. As one of his early books, The Birth of Tragedy has a strong Schopenhauerian flavor, and scholars disagree about the extent to which Nietzsche departs from Schopenhauer in this work and in later works. Some regard Nietzsche’s 1873 unpublished essay, “On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense” (“Über Wahrheit und Lüge im außermoralischen Sinn”) as a keystone in his thought; some believe that it is a peripheral, conflicted and non-representative fragment in his writings. In this essay, Nietzsche rejects the idea of universal constants, and claims, presumably as a truth, that what we call “truth” is only “a mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms.” His view at this time is that arbitrariness prevails within human experience: concepts originate via the transformation of nerve stimuli into images, and “truth” is nothing more than the invention of fixed conventions for practical purposes, especially those of repose, security and consistency. Nietzsche regards our “knowledge” as human, all-too-human, mostly a matter of self-deception that issues from a deep-seated exercise of metaphorial thought. Viewing our existence from a vast and sobering distance, Nietzsche further notes that there was an eternity before human beings came into existence, and believes that after humanity dies out, nothing significant will have changed in the great scheme of things. Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche wrote the Unfashionable Observations (Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen, also translated as Untimely Meditations or Thoughts Out of Season). These are four (of a projected, but never completed, thirteen) studies concerned with the quality of European, and especially German, culture during Nietzsche’s time. They are unfashionable and nonconformist (or “untimely,” or “unmodern,” or “out of place”) insofar as Nietzsche regarded his standpoint as culture-critic to be in tension with the self-congratulatory spirit of the times. The four studies were: David Strauss, the Confessor and the Writer (David Strauss, der Bekenner und der Schriftsteller, 1873); On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life (Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie für das Leben, 1874); Schopenhauer as Educator (Schopenhauer als Erzieher, 1874); Richard Wagner in Bayreuth (1876). The first of these attacks David Strauss, whose popular six-edition book, The Old and the New Faith: A Confession (1871) encapsulated for Nietzsche the general cultural atmosphere in Germany. Responding to Strauss’s advocacy of a “new faith” grounded upon a scientifically-determined universal mechanism—one, however, lubricated by the optimistic, “soothing oil” of historical progress—Nietzsche criticizes Strauss’s view as a vulgar and dismal sign of cultural degeneracy. Nietzsche’s friend, Overbeck, in his contemporaneous writings, also adopted a critical attitude towards Strauss. The second “untimely meditation” surveys alternative ways to write history, and discusses how these ways could contribute to a society’s health. Here Nietzsche claims that the principle of “life” is a more pressing and higher concern than that of “knowledge,” and that the quest for knowledge should serve the interests of life. This parallels how, in The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche had looked at art through the perspective of life. The third and fourth studies—on Schopenhauer and Wagner, respectively—address how these two thinkers, as paradigms of philosophic and artistic genius, hold the potential to inspire a stronger, healthier and livelier German culture. Nietzsche states here that we all have a duty to help nature complete its goal of producing the highest examples of the human being—these will be the “new redeemers”—which he recognizes in superb instances of the philosopher, the artist and the saint (“Schopenhauer as Educator,” Section 5). These celebratory studies on Schopenhauer and Wagner reveal how, as a recurring feature of Nietzsche’s thought, he presents us with some higher type of character—he offers different models of heroic characters as the years go by—as an ideal towards which he would have his best readers aspire. 3. Middle-Period Writings: 1878–1882 Nietzsche completed Human, All-Too-Human in 1878, supplementing this with a second part in 1879, Mixed Opinions and Maxims (Vermischte Meinungen und Sprüche), and a third part in 1880, The Wanderer and his Shadow (Der Wanderer und sein Schatten). The three parts were published together in 1886 as Human All-Too-Human, A Book for Free Spirits (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, Ein Buch für freie Geister). Reluctant to construct a philosophical “system,” and sensitive to the importance of style in philosophic writing, Nietzsche composed these works as a series of several hundred short passages and aphorisms—concise condensations of his assorted insights—whose typical length ranges from a line or two to a page or two. Here, he often reflects upon cultural and psychological phenomena by connecting them to individuals’ organic and physiological constitutions. The idea of power (for which he would later become known) sporadically appears as an explanatory principle, but Nietzsche tends at this time to invoke hedonistic considerations of pleasure and pain in his explanations of cultural and psychological phenomena. Given his harsh criticisms of hedonism and utilitarianism in later works (e.g., Thus Spoke Zarathustra, re: “the Last Man”), Human All-Too-Human appears to many readers as an uncharacteristic work, more science- than art-inspired in its approach to health, where Nietzsche was struggling to break free of Wagner’s spell, and which, presupposing a fundamentally hedonistic moral psychology, does not fully embody the pain-and-power-centered approach that he later developed. In Daybreak: Reflections on Moral Prejudices (Morgenröte. Gedanken über die moralischen Vorurteile, 1881), Nietzsche continues writing in his aphoristic style, but he marks a new beginning by accentuating as opposed to pleasure, the importance of the “feeling of power” in his understanding of human, and especially of so-called “moral” behavior. Always having been interested in the nature of health, his emerging references to power stem from his earlier efforts to discover the secret of the ancient Greeks’ outstanding health, which he had regarded as the effects of how “agon” (i.e., competition, one-upmanship, or contest, as conceived in his 1872 essay, “Homer’s Contest”) permeated their cultural attitudes. In this respect, Daybreak contains the seeds of Nietzsche’s doctrine of the “will to power”—a doctrine that appears explicitly for the first time two years later in Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–85). Daybreak is also one of Nietzsche’s clearest, intellectually calmest, and most intimate, volumes, providing many social-psychological insights in conjunction with some of his first sustained critical reflections on the cultural relativity at the basis of Christian moral evaluations. In this book—as he remarks retrospectively in Ecce Homo (1888)—Nietzsche begins his “crusade [Feldzug] against morality.” In a more well-known aphoristic work, The Gay Science (Die fröhliche Wissenschaft, 1882)—whose title was inspired by the troubadour songs of southern-French Provence (1100–1300)—Nietzsche sets forth some of the existential ideas for which he became famous, namely, the proclamation that “God is dead” and the doctrine of eternal recurrence—a doctrine that attends to how people of different levels of health are likely to react to the prospect of being reborn, over and over again, to replay life’s experience exactly as before in every pleasurable and painful sequence of detail. Nietzsche’s atheism—his account of “God’s murder” (section 125)—expresses in a literary manner, his philosophical condemnation of all absolute perspectives and values. His atheism also aims to redirect people’s attention to their inherent freedom, the presently-existing world, and away from escapist, pain-relieving, heavenly otherworlds. To a similar end, Nietzsche’s doctrine of eternal recurrence (sections 285 and 341) serves to draw attention away from all worlds other than the one in which we presently live, since eternal recurrence precludes the possibility of any final escape from the present world. The doctrine also functions as a measure for judging someone’s overall psychological strength and mental health, since Nietzsche believed that the doctrine of eternal recurrence was the hardest world-view to affirm. There are some differences of scholarly opinion concerning whether Nietzsche primarily intends this doctrine to describe a serious metaphysical theory, or whether he is offering merely one way to interpret the world among many others, which if adopted therapeutically as a psychologically healthy myth, can help us become stronger. In 1887, The Gay Science was reissued with an important preface, an additional fifth Book, and an appendix of songs, reminiscent of the troubadours. 4. Later-Period Writings: 1883–1887 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, A Book for All and None (Also Sprach Zarathustra, Ein Buch für Alle und Keinen, 1883–85), is one of Nietzsche’s most famous works, and Nietzsche regarded it as among his most significant. It is a manifesto of personal self-overcoming, and a guidebook for others towards the same revitalizing end. Thirty years after its initial publication, 150,000 copies of the work were printed by the German government and issued as inspirational reading, along with the Bible, to the young soldiers during WWI. Though Thus Spoke Zarathustra is antagonistic to the Judeo-Christian world-view, its poetic and prophetic style relies upon many, often inverted, Old and New Testament allusions. Nietzsche also filled the work with nature metaphors, almost in the spirit of pre-Socratic naturalist philosophy, which invoke animals, earth, air, fire, water, celestial bodies, plants, all in the service of describing the spiritual development of Zarathustra, a solitary, reflective, exceedingly strong-willed, sage-like, laughing and dancing voice of heroic self-mastery who, accompanied by a proud, sharp-eyed eagle and a wise snake, envisions a mode of psychologically healthier being beyond the common human condition. Nietzsche refers to this higher mode of being as “superhuman” (übermenschlich), and associates the doctrine of eternal recurrence—a doctrine for only the healthiest who can love life in its entirety—with this spiritual standpoint, in relation to which all-too-often downhearted, all-too-commonly-human attitudes stand as a mere bridge to be crossed and overcome. Within Nietzsche’s corpus, Thus Spoke Zarathustra has a controversial place, owing mainly to its peculiar literary style. Nietzsche speaks in parables and short narratives populated by fictional characters—“the hunchback,” “the ugliest man,” “the soothsayer,” “the saint,” “the tightrope walker,” “the jester,” and “the Last Man,” to name a few—leaving their philosophical import open to a variety of interpretations. One of Nietzsche’s most well-known and morally troubling figures—the superhuman—also appears substantially only in this work, rendering it questionable to some interpreters whether this ideal of supreme human health is indeed central to Nietzsche’s thought as a whole. There is also some interpretive uncertainty about whether the work, which was written across the span of three years, properly ends triumphantly at the conclusion of the Third Part, thus situating the psychologically complex Fourth Part as a question-raising supplement, or whether the book’s narrative moves smoothly and progressively across the entire four parts. Beyond Good and Evil, Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future (Jenseits von Gut und Böse. Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft, 1886) is arguably a rethinking of Human, All-too-Human, since their respective tables of contents and sequence of themes loosely correspond to one another. In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche identifies imagination, self-assertion, danger, originality and the “creation of values” as qualities of genuine philosophers, as opposed to mere scholars engaged in positive research in the sciences and humanities, or the dusty classification of philosophical outlooks. Nietzsche takes aim at some of the world’s great philosophers, who ground their outlooks wholeheartedly upon concepts such as “self-consciousness,” “free will,” and “either/or” bipolar thinking. Nietzsche alternatively philosophizes from the perspective of life located beyond good and evil, and challenges the entrenched moral idea that exploitation, domination, injury to the weak, destruction and appropriation are universally objectionable behaviors. Above all, he believes that living things aim to discharge their strength and express their “will to power”—a pouring-out of expansive energy as if one were like a perpetually-shining sun that, quite naturally, can entail danger, pain, lies, deception and masks. Here, “will” is not an inner emptiness, lack, feeling of deficiency, or constant drive for satisfaction, but is a fountain of constantly-swelling energy, or power. As he views things from the perspective of life, Nietzsche further denies that there is a universal morality applicable indiscriminately to all human beings, and instead designates a series of moralities in an order of rank that ascends from the plebeian to the noble: some moralities are more suitable for subordinate roles; some are more appropriate for dominating and leading social roles. What counts as a preferable and legitimate action depends upon the kind of person one is. The deciding factor is whether one is weaker, sicker and on the decline, or whether one is healthier, more powerful and overflowing with life. On the Genealogy of Morals, A Polemic (Zur Genealogie der Moral, Eine Streitschrift, 1887) is composed of three sustained essays that advance the critique of Christianity expressed in Beyond Good and Evil. The first essay continues the discussion of master morality versus servant morality, and maintains that the traditional ideals set forth as holy and morally good within Christian morality are products of self-deception, since they were forged in the bad air of revenge, resentment, hatred, impotence, and cowardice. In this essay, as well as the next, Nietzsche’s controversial references to the “blond beast” in connection with master morality also appear. In the second essay, Nietzsche continues with an account of how feelings of guilt, or the “bad conscience,” arise merely as a consequence of an unhealthy Christian morality that turns an evil eye towards our natural inclinations. He also discusses how punishment, conceived as the infliction of pain upon someone in proportion to their offense, is likely to have been grounded in the contractual economic relationship between creditor and debtor, i.e., in business relationships. In the third essay, Nietzsche focusses upon the truth-oriented ascetic ideals that underlie and inform prevailing styles of art, religion and philosophy, and he offers a particularly scathing critique of the priesthood: the priests are allegedly a group of weak people who shepherd even weaker people as a way to experience power for themselves. The third essay also contains one of Nietzsche’s clearest expressions of “perspectivism” (section 12)—the idea that there is no absolute, “God’s eye” standpoint from which one can survey everything that is. On the Genealogy of Morals is Nietzsche’s “polemic,” i.e., attack, against the assumptions and methods (which, incidentally, are still popular) characteristic of works such as Paul Rée’s The Origin of the Moral Sensations (1877). Inspired by utilitarianism and Darwinism, Rée offers a naturalistic account of our moral values, especially altruism, but by Nietzsche’s lights, does not question the value of the moral values themselves. In the Genealogy, Nietzsche offers a competing account of the origin of moral values, aiming to reveal their life-negating foundations and functions. Nietzsche ultimately advocates valuations that issue from a self-confident, self-reinforcing, self-governing, creative and commanding attitude, as opposed to those that issue from reactive attitudes that determine values more mechanically and subordinatingly to those who are inherently more powerful. For Nietzsche, those who prefer to think in terms of “good vs. bad” exemplify the former, leading and superior mentality, and those who think in terms of “good vs. evil,” exemplify the latter, inferior and subservient mentality. From the standpoint of a leader, in the appropriate circumstances it is good to be able to inflict pain and instil fear among those who are led, and bad not to be able to do so. From the standpoint of those who are led, the infliction of pain and instillation of fear upon subordinates does not appear typically to be good at all, but rather evil. 5. Final Writings of 1888 The Case of Wagner, A Musician’s Problem (Der Fall Wagner, Ein Musikanten-Problem, May-August 1888), contrasts sharply with Nietzsche’s laudatory portrayal of Wagner in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), and compares well with his 1873 meditation on David Strauss in its unbridled attack on a popular cultural figure. In The Case of Wagner, Nietzsche “declares war” upon Richard Wagner, whose music is characterized as the epitome of modern cultural achievement, but also crucially as sick and decadent. The work is a brilliant display of Nietzsche’s talents as a music critic, and includes memorable ridicule of Wagner’s theatrical style, reflections on redemption via art, a “physiology of art,” and discussion of the virtues associated, respectively, with ascending and descending life energies. As the therapeutic inversion and antithesis of Wagner’s debilitatingly serious music, Nietzsche refers us to Georges Bizet (1838–1875) whose music he finds cheerful, revitalizing, redeeming and light-hearted. Wagner himself had some years earlier (1850) condemned Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847) for having confounded the public’s taste in music. Nietzsche, writing almost thirty years later, here accuses Wagner of having done the same. The title, Twilight of the Idols, or How One Philosophizes with a Hammer (Götzen-Dämmerung, oder Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophiert, August-September 1888), word-plays upon Wagner’s opera, The Twilight of the Gods (Die Götterdämmerung). Nietzsche reiterates and elaborates some of the criticisms of Socrates, Plato, Kant and Christianity found in earlier works, criticizes the then-contemporary German culture as being unsophisticated and too-full of beer, and shoots some disapproving arrows at key French, British, and Italian cultural figures such as Rousseau, Hugo, Sand, Michelet, Zola, Renan, Carlyle, Mill, Eliot, Darwin, and Dante. In contrast to these alleged representatives of cultural decadence, Nietzsche applauds Caesar, Napoleon, Goethe, Dostoevski, Thucydides and the Sophists as healthier and stronger types. The phrase “to philosophize with a hammer” primarily signifies a way to test idols by tapping on them lightly; one “sounds them out” to determine whether they are hollow, or intact, etc., as physician would use a percussion hammer upon the abdomen as a diagnostic instrument. In The Antichrist, Curse on Christianity (Der Antichrist. Fluch auf das Christentum, September 1888 [published 1895]), Nietzsche expresses his disgust over the way noble values in Roman Society were corrupted by the rise of Christianity, and he discusses specific aspects and personages in Christian culture—the Gospels, Paul, the martyrs, priests, the crusades—with a view towards showing that Christianity is a religion for weak and unhealthy people, whose general historical effect has been to undermine the healthy qualities of the more noble cultures. The Antichrist was initially conceived of as the first part of a projected four-part work for which Nietzsche had in mind the title, Revaluation of All Values (the second part was to be entitled, “The Free Spirit”). As in most of his 1888 works, Nietzsche criticizes, either implicitly or explicitly, the anti-Semitic writers of his day. In this particular study, one of his main targets is the French, anti-Semitic, Christian historian, Ernest Renan (1823–1892), who was known for works such as The Life of Jesus (1863) and History of the Origins of Christianity (1866–1881), the fourth book of which was entitled The Antichrist (1873). Some interpret Nietzsche’s title for his book as meaning, “the Antichristian.” It should be noted that in an 1883 letter to his friend, Peter Gast [Johann Heinrich Köselitz], Nietzsche does describe himself self-entertainingly as “the Antichrist,” and also more seriously as “the most terrible opponent of Christianity.” Nietzsche describes himself as “a follower of the philosopher Dionysus” in Ecce Homo, How One Becomes What One Is (Ecce Homo, Wie man wird, was man ist, October-November 1888)—a book in which he examines retrospectively his entire corpus, work by work, offering critical remarks, details of how the works were inspired, and explanatory observations regarding their philosophical contents. He begins this fateful intellectual autobiography—he was to lose his mind little more than a month later—with three eyebrow-raising sections entitled, “Why I Am So Wise,” “Why I Am So Clever,” and “Why I Write Such Good Books.” Nietzsche claims to be wise as a consequence of his acute aesthetic sensitivity to nuances of health and sickness in people’s attitudes and characters; he claims to be clever because he knows how to choose the right nutrition, climate, residence and recreation for himself; he claims to write such good books because they allegedly adventurously open up, at least for a very select group of readers, a new series of noble and delicate experiences. After examining each of his published works, Nietzsche concludes Ecce Homo with the section, “Why I Am a Destiny.” He claims that he is a destiny because he regards his anti-moral truths as having the annihilating power of intellectual dynamite; he expects them to topple the morality born of sickness which he perceives to have been reigning within Western culture for the last two thousand years. In this way, he expresses his hope that Dionysus, the god of life’s exuberance, would replace Jesus, the god of the heavenly otherworld, as the premier cultural standard for future millennia. Although Ecce Homo stands historically as Nietzsche’s final autobiographical statement, if we consider that—although the plans were in flux—Nietzsche was embarking on a new work, at one point to be entitled, Revaluation of All Values, his 1888 autobiographical excursion can be appreciated as a kind of house-cleaning and summing-up of where he had intellectually arrived at that point. Rather than being a final self-definition, it can be seen as yet another among Nietzsche’s several efforts over the years to clear the way for a freer intellectual development or metamorphosis. In this respect, it compares to Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Book IV, which appears to be Nietzsche’s squarely facing, almost as a kind of exorcism, the variety of inner characters that constituted his personality. Along the same lines, Ecce Homo recalls the interval between Human-All-too-Human and Daybreak, when Nietzsche plunged to a very low point in his health, coming close to death, and then dramatically recuperated. Nietzsche Contra Wagner, Out of the Files of a Psychologist (Nietzsche contra Wagner, Aktenstücke eines Psychologen, December 1888) is a short, but classic, selection of passages Nietzsche extracted from his 1878–1887 published works. Many concern Wagner, but the excerpts serve mostly as a foil for Nietzsche to express his own views against Wagner’s. In this self-portrait, completed only a month before his collapse, Nietzsche characterizes his own anti-Christian sentiments, and contemplates how even the greatest people usually undergo significant corruption. In Wagner’s case, Nietzsche claims that the corrupting force was Christianity. One cannot help remembering here how, using the same kind of rationale, Wagner claimed that Felix Mendelssohn’s corrupting force was Judaism. At the same time, Nietzsche describes how he truly admired some of Wagner’s music for its profound expressions of loneliness and suffering—expressions which Nietzsche admitted were psychologically impossible for he himself to articulate. The writings of Nietzsche’s final active year are peppered with some wild phrasings, but they remain lucid and philosophically penetrating on the whole. Given the utter loss of Nietzsche’s intellectual capacities upon his collapse, this prior lucidity is puzzling. The abruptness of his breakdown in combination with the lucidity of his final writings has fed speculation that rather than suffering from a slowly progressive mental disease, Nietzsche had a physical condition (e.g., a brain tumor) whose silent growth eventually reached a critical mass that caused his mental composure to snap. 6. Nietzsche’s Unpublished Notebooks Nietzsche’s unpublished writings often reveal his more tentative and speculative ideas. This material is surrounded by controversy, since some of it conflicts with views he expresses in his published works. Disagreement regarding Nietzsche’s notebooks, also known as his Nachlass, centers around the degree of interpretive priority which ought to be given to the unpublished versus the published writings. One popular approach in the tradition of classical scholarly interpretation is to maintain that Nietzsche’s published works express his more considered and polished views, and that these should take precedence over the unpublished manuscripts when conflicts arise; a second attitude, given voice by Martin Heidegger (who lectured on Nietzsche in Nazi Germany, 1936–1940), and broadly consistent with a psychoanalytic approach as well, is to regard what Nietzsche published as representative of what he decided was publicly presentable, and what he kept privately to himself in unpublished form as containing his more authentic views; a third, more comprehensive, interpretive style tries to grasp all of Nietzsche’s texts together in an effort to form the most coherent interpretation of Nietzsche’s thought, judging the priority of published versus unpublished works on a thematic, or case-by-case basis; a fourth position influenced by the French deconstructionist perspective maintains that any rigid prioritizing between published and private works is impossible, since all of the texts embody a comparable multidimensionality of meaning. In his unpublished manuscripts, Nietzsche sometimes elaborates the topics found in the published works, such as his early 1870s notebooks, where there is important material concerning his theory of knowledge. In the 1880s notebooks—those from which his sister collected together a large selection after his death under the title, The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of all Values—Nietzsche sometimes adopts a more metaphysical orientation towards the doctrines of Eternal Recurrence and the Will to Power, speculating upon their structure, implications, and intellectual strength as interpretations of reality itself. Side-by-side with these speculations, and complicating efforts towards developing an interpretation which is both comprehensive and coherent, Nietzsche’s 1880s notebooks also repeatedly state that “there are no facts, only interpretations.” 7. Nietzsche’s Influence Upon 20th Century Thought Nietzsche’s thought extended a deep influence during the 20th century, especially in Continental Europe. In English-speaking countries, his positive reception has been less resonant. During the last decade of Nietzsche’s life and the first decade of the 20th century, his thought was particularly attractive to avant-garde artists who saw themselves on the periphery of established social fashion and practice. Here, Nietzsche’s advocacy of new, healthy beginnings, and of creative artistry in general stood forth. His tendency to seek explanations for commonly-accepted values and outlooks in the less-elevated realms of sheer animal instinct was also crucial to Sigmund Freud’s development of psychoanalysis. Later, during the 1930s, aspects of Nietzsche’s thought were espoused by the Nazis and Italian Fascists, partly due to the encouragement of Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche through her associations with Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. It was possible for the Nazi interpreters to assemble, quite selectively, various passages from Nietzsche’s writings whose juxtaposition appeared to justify war, aggression and domination for the sake of nationalistic and racial self-glorification. Until the 1960s in France, Nietzsche appealed mainly to writers and artists, since the academic philosophical climate was dominated by G.W.F. Hegel’s, Edmund Husserl’s and Martin Heidegger’s thought, along with the structuralist movement of the 1950s. Nietzsche became especially influential in French philosophical circles during the 1960s–1980s, when his “God is dead” declaration, his perspectivism, and his emphasis upon power as the real motivator and explanation for people’s actions revealed new ways to challenge established authority and launch effective social critique. In the English-speaking world, Nietzsche’s unfortunate association with the Nazis kept him from serious philosophical consideration until the 1950s and 60s, when landmark works such as Walter Kaufmann’s, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (1950) and Arthur C. Danto’s, Nietzsche as Philosopher (1965), paved the way for a more open-minded discussion. Specific 20th century figures who were influenced, either quite substantially, or in a significant part, by Nietzsche include painters, dancers, musicians, playwrights, poets, novelists, psychologists, sociologists, literary theorists, historians, and philosophers: Alfred Adler, Georges Bataille, Martin Buber, Albert Camus, E.M. Cioran, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, Isadora Duncan, Michel Foucault, Sigmund Freud, Stefan George, André Gide, Hermann Hesse, Carl Jung, Martin Heidegger, Gustav Mahler, André Malraux, Thomas Mann, H.L. 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Oliver, Kelly, 1995, Womanizing Nietzsche: Philosophy’s Relation to the “Feminine.” New York and London: Routledge. Parkes, Graham, 1994, Composing the Soul: Reaches of Nietzsche’s Psychology. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Pippin, Robert B., 2011, Nietzsche, Psychology and First Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pletsch, Carl, 1991, Young Nietzsche: Becoming a Genius. New York: Free Press. Poellner, Peter, 2000, Nietzsche and Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Prange, Martine, 2013, Nietzsche, Wagner, Europe. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Rampley, Matthew, 2007, Nietzsche, Aesthetics and Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ratner-Rosenhagen, 2011, American Nietzsche: A History of and Icon and His Ideas,. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Reginster, Bernard, 2006, The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Richardson, John, 1996, Nietzsche’s System. Oxford: Oxford University Press. –––, 2004, Nietzsche’s New Darwinism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ridley, Aaron, 1998, Nietzsche’s Conscience: Six Character Studies from the “Genealogy”. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. –––, 2007, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Nietzsche on Art. New York and London: Routledge. Rosen, Stanley, 1995, The Mask of Enlightenment: Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Safranski, Ruediger, 2002, Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography, translated by Shelley Frisch. New York: W.W. Norton. Salomé, Lou, 1894, Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Siegfried Mandel. Redding Ridge, Connecticut: Black Swan Books, Ltd., 1988. Schaberg, William H., 1996, The Nietzsche Canon: A Publication History and Bibliography. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Schacht, Richard, 1983, Nietzsche. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. –––, 1995, Making Sense of Nietzsche: Reflections Timely and Untimely. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Schrift, Alan D, 1990, Nietzsche and the Question of Interpretation: Between Hermeneutics and Deconstruction. New York: Routledge. Schain, Richard, 2001, The Legend of Nietzsche’s Syphilis. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Shapiro, Gary, 1989, Nietzschean Narratives. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Shaw, Tamsin, 2007, Nietzsche’s Political Skepticism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Simmel, Georg, 1907, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, trans. Helmut Loiskandle, Deena Weinstein, and Michael Weinstein. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991. Small, Robin, 2001, Nietzsche in Context. London: Ashgate Publishing. –––, 2005, Nietzsche and Rée: A Star Friendship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. –––, 2010, Time and Becoming in Nietzsche’s Thought. London: Continuum. Solomon, Robert C., 2003, Living With Nietzsche: What the Great “Immoralist” Has to Teach Us. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stambaugh, Joan, 1987, The Problem of Time in Nietzsche. trans. John F. Humphrey. Philadelphia: Bucknell University Press. Steinbuch, Thomas, 1994, A Commentary on Nietzsche’s Ecce Homo. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Welshon, Rex, 2004, The Philosophy of Nietzsche. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press. White, Alan, 1990, Within Nietzsche’s Labyrinth. New York and London: Routledge. Wilcox, John T., 1974, Truth and Value in Nietzsche. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Young, Julian, 2010, Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. –––, 1992, Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Art, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. –––, 2006, Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. C. Collected Essays on Nietzsche Acampora, Christa Davis (ed.), 2006, Nietzsche’s “On the Genealogy of Morals”: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Allison, David B. (ed.), 1985, The New Nietzsche: Contemporary Styles of Interpretation. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Bishop, Paul (ed.), 2004, Nietzsche and Antiquity: His Reaction and Response to the Classical Tradition. Rochester, New York: Camden House. –––, 2012, A Companion to Friedrich Nietzsche: Life and Works. Rochester, New York: Camden House. Bloom, Harold (ed.), 1987, Modern Critical Views: Friedrich Nietzsche. New York, New Haven, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. Boublil, Élodie, and Christine Daigle, 2013, Nietzsche and Phenomenology: Power, Life, Subjectivity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Burgard, Peter J. (ed.), 1994, Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. Came, Daniel (ed.), 2014, Nietzsche on Art and Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Constancio, Joäo and Maria Joäo Mayer Branco (eds.), 2011, Nietzsche on Instinct and Language. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Gemes, Ken, and Simon May (eds.), 2009, Nietzsche on Freedom and Autonomy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gemes, Ken, and John Richardson (eds.), 2013, The Oxford Handbook of Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Golomb, Jacob (ed.), 1997, Nietzsche and Jewish Culture. London: Routledge. Golomb, Jacob and Robert S. Wistrich (eds.), 2002, Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On the Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Hemming, Laurence Paul, Bogdan Costea, and Kostas Amiridis (eds.), 2011, The Movement of Nihilism: Heidegger’s Thinking after Nietzsche. London: Continuum. Janaway, Christopher (ed.), 1998, Willing and Nothingness: Schopenhauer as Nietzsche’s Educator. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Janaway, Christopher and Simon Robertson (eds.), 2012, Nietzsche, Naturalism, and Normativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kemal, Salim, Ivan Gaskell and Daniel W. Conway (eds.), 1998, Nietzsche, Philosophy and the Arts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Koelb, Clayton (ed.), 1990, Nietzsche as Postmodernist: Essays Pro and Contra. Albany: State University of New York Press. Leiter, Brian, and Neil Sinhababu (eds.), 2009, Nietzsche and Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Magnus, Bernd, and Kathleen M. Higgins (eds.), 1996, The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Metzger, Jeffrey (ed.), 2009, Nietzsche, Nihilism and the Philosophy of the Future. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Oliver, Kelly, and Marilyn Pearsall (eds.), 1998, Feminist Interpretations of Friedrich Nietzsche (Re-reading the Canon). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Parkes, Graham (ed.), 1991, Nietzsche and Asian Thought. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Pearson, Keith Ansell (ed.), 2006, A Companion to Nietzsche. Malden, USA/Oxford, UK/Carlton, Australia: Blackwell. Richardson, John, and Brian Leiter (eds.), 2001, Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rosenthal, Bernice Glatzer (ed.), 1994, Nietzsche and Soviet Culture: Ally and Adversary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schacht, Richard (ed.), 1994, Nietzsche, Genealogy, Morality: Essays on Nietzsche’s On the Genealogy of Morals. Berkeley: University of California Press. Scott, Jacqueline, and A. Todd Franklin (eds.), 2007, Critical Affinities: Nietzsche and African American Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press. Sedgwick, Peter R. (ed.), 1995, Nietzsche: A Critical Reader. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Solomon, Robert C, and Kathleen M. Higgins (eds.), 1988, Reading Nietzsche. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Solomon, Robert (ed.), 1973, Nietzsche: A Collection of Critical Essays. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books. Stauffer, Jill, and Bettina Bergo (eds.), 2008, Nietzsche and Levinas: After the Death of a Certain God. New York: Columbia University Press. Young, Julian (ed.), 2014, Individual and Community in Nietzsche’s Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yovel, Yirmiyahu (ed.), 1986, Nietzsche as Affirmative Thinker. Dordrecht: Martinus Nihoff Publishers. D. Nietzsche’s Music Piano Music of Friedrich Nietzsche. Newport Classics, CD #85513 (1992), John Bell Young (piano) The Music of Friedrich Nietzsche. Newport Classics, CD #85535 (1993), John Bell Young (piano), Thomas Coote (piano), John Aler (voice), Nicholas Eanet (violin) Friedrich Nietzsche, Volume I: Compositions of his Youth (1857–63). Albany Music, CD #178 (1996), Lauretta Altman, Wolfgang Bottenberg, Valerie Kinslow, Eric Oland, The Orpheus Singers Friedrich Nietzsche, Volume II: Compositions of his Mature Years (1864–82). Albany Music, CD #181 (1997), Lauretta Altman, Wolfgang Bottenberg, Sven Meier, Valerie Kinslow, Eric Oland, The Orpheus Singers Friedrich Nietzsche: Piano Works and Fantasy for Violin and Piano. Talent, CD #291031 (1996), Elena Letnanova (piano), Kuniko Nagata (violin) The Music of Friedrich Nietzsche. The Nietzsche Music Project and Media Arts International (2003), Manolis Papasifakis (piano), Thomas Coote (piano), Christian Hebet (violin), David Blackburn (tenor) Academic Tools	Poetry
The popular UK 2010s acronymic 'Towie' fashion/lifestyle derives from what?	Why Is Economics Called the "Dismal Science?" By Jodi Beggs Updated December 31, 2015. If you've ever studied economics, you've probably heard at some point that economics is referred to as the "dismal science." Granted, economists aren't always the most upbeat bunch of people, but is that really why the phrase came about? As it turns out, the phrase has been around since the mid-19th century, and it was coined by historian Thomas Carlyle. At the time, the skills required for writing poetry were referred to as the "gay science," so Carlyle decided to call economics the "dismal science" as a clever turn of phrase. The popular belief is that Carlyle started using the phrase in response to the "dismal" prediction of 19th-century reverend and scholar Thomas Malthus , who forecasted that the rate of growth in the food supply as compared to the rate of the growth in population would result in mass starvation. (Luckily for us, Malthus' assumptions regarding technological progress were overly, well, dismal, and such mass starvation never transpired.) continue reading below our video What are the Seven Wonders of the World While Carlyle did use the word dismal in reference to Malthus' findings, he didn't use the phrase "dismal science" until his 1849 work Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question. In this piece, Carlyle argued that reintroducing (or continuing) slavery would be morally superior to relying on the market forces of supply and demand, and he labeled the profession of economists who disagreed with him, most notably John Stuart Mill , as the "dismal science," since Carlyle believed that the emancipation of slaves would leave them worse off. (This prediction has also turned out to be incorrect, of course.)	i don't know
What is the correct representation of the burger chain brand?	Which Fast Food Chain Has The Best Burger And Fries? [Infographic] Which Fast Food Chain Has The Best Burger And Fries? [Infographic] {{article.article.images.featured.caption}} Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own. Full Bio The author is a Forbes contributor. The opinions expressed are those of the writer. Loading ... Loading ... This story appears in the {{article.article.magazine.pretty_date}} issue of {{article.article.magazine.pubName}}. Subscribe It's been the source of endless debate: which fast food chain has the best burger and fries? According to a YouGov poll, over a third of Americans say has the best fries. The same can't be said for the Big Mac though, which is trailing in the popularity stakes. The battle for the best burger is split between Burger King and Five Guys, garnering 15 percent of the vote. McDonald's beef burgers trail some way behind with just 7 percent but the superiority of their fries (34 percent) is something nobody else comes close to matching. Burger King fries were voted the best by just 10 percent while 9 percent favored Five Guys.	McDonald's
Monandry refers to having at any one time only one?	Marketing Strategies of McDonalds Marketing Strategies of McDonalds This is a report about the various Marketing Strategies of McDonald's along with various related examples. Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC) McDonald’s : Behind The Golden Arches Customer Acquisition and Retention Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning ............................................................. 4 Customer Perception and Customer Expectation ................................................ 6 References ........................................................................................................... 23 The McDonald’s Story - Genesis The story of McDonald’s started in 1954, when its founder Raymond Kroc saw a hamburger stand in San Bernardino, California and envisioned a nationwide fast food chain. Kroc provedhimself as a pioneer who revolutionized the American restaurant industry. Today McDonald’sis the world’s largest fast food chain serving 47 million customers daily. McDonald’s is nowone of the most valuable brands globally, worth more than $25 billion. The Golden Archesand its mascot Ronald McDonald have gained universal recognition. Though the companyhas roots in the US, McDonald’s today has become an accepted citizen of the world .	i don't know
Which country is officially named Bharat (and many similar cultural variations), eponymously based its ancient legendary emperor?	India - INDIA TOUR India 重点在印度 INDIA India, officially the Republic of India (Bharat Ganrajya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[d] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[12] Four world religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi. The Indian economy is the world's tenth-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[13] Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing major economies; it is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, inadequate public healthcare, and terrorism. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest standing army in the world and ranks seventh in military expenditure among nations. India is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of 28 states and 7 union territories. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, and multi-ethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hinduš. The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River.[14] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), which translates as "the people of the Indus".[15] The geographical term Bharat (pronounced [ˈbʱaːrət̪] ( listen)), which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations.[16] The eponym of Bharat is Bharata, a theological figure that Hindu scriptures describe as a legendary emperor of ancient India. Hindustan ([ɦɪnd̪ʊˈst̪aːn] ( listen)) was originally a Persian word that meant "Land of the Hindus"; prior to 1947, it referred to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan. It is occasionally used to solely denote India in its entirety. The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia date from approximately 30,000 years ago.[19] Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[20] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.[21] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[22] the first urban culture in South Asia;[23] it flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.[24] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilization engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[23] During the period 2000–500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[25] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,[26] were composed during this period,[27] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[25] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[28][26][29] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.[30] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[25] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[31] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[31] Damaged brown painting of a reclining man and woman. Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century In the late Vedic period, around the 5th century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[32][33] The emerging urbanisation and the orthodoxies of this age also created the religious reform movements of Buddhism and Jainism,[34] both of which became independent religions.[35] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[34][36][37] Jainism came into prominence around the same time during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[38] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[39] and both established long-lasting monasteries.[32] Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[32] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[40][41] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[42][43] The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia.[44][45] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[46][32] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[47][48] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[49] The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[48] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[48] Medieval India The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I. The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[50] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[51] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[51] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[51] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region.[50] During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[52] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[52] In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[53] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[53] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[54] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[54] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Java.[55] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[55] After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[56] The sultanate was to control much of North India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[57][58] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[59][60] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[61] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[62] and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[61] Early modern India Scribes and artists in the Mughal court, 1590–1595 In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,[63] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[64] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[65][66] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[67] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[68] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[67] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[69] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[70] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[68] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[68] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[71] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[72] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[72] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[73] By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[74][75] The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[76][74][77][78] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[79] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British empire with raw materials, and many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[74] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[80] Modern India The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow. Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.[81][82][83][84] However, disaffection with the Company also grew during this time, and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[85][86] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[87][88] In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[89][90][91][92] Two smiling men in robes sitting on the ground with bodies facing the viewer and with heads turned toward each other. The younger wears a white Nehru cap; the elder is bald and wears glasses. A half-dozen other people are in the background. Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became India's first prime minister in 1947. Mahatma Gandhi (right) led the independence movement. The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks—many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[93] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[94] and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[95] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[96] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[97] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[97] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[96] After World War I, in which some one million Indians served,[98] a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a non-violent movement of non-cooperation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.[99] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[100] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-cooperation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[101] Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.[102] In the 60 years since, India has had a mixed record of successes and failures.[103] It has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an activist Supreme Court, and a largely independent press.[103] Economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,[104] and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.[103] Yet, India has also been weighed down by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;[103] by religious and caste-related violence;[105] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[106] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[107] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which escalated into the Sino-Indian War of 1962;[108] and with Pakistan, which flared into wars fought in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.[108] The India–Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[109] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's new nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[110] Geography Main article: Geography of India See also: Geology of India Map of India. Most of India is yellow (elevation 100–1000 m). Some areas in the south and mid-east are brown (above 1000 m). Major river valleys are green (below 100 m). A topographic map of India India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent and lies atop the minor Indian tectonic plate, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Australian Plate.[111] India's defining geological processes commenced 75 million years ago when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift across the then-unformed Indian Ocean that lasted fifty million years.[111] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with, and subduction under, the Eurasian Plate bore aloft the planet's highest mountains, the Himalayas. They abut India in the north and the north-east.[111] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that has gradually filled with river-borne sediment;[112] it now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[113] To the west lies the Thar Desert, which is cut off by the Aravalli Range.[114] The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, which is the oldest and geologically most stable part of India; it extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[115] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[116] the plateau contains the nation's oldest rock formations, some of them over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44' and 35° 30' north latitude[e] and 68° 7' and 97° 25' east longitude.[117] A shining white snow-clad range, framed against a turquoise sky. In the middle ground, a ridge descends from the right to form a saddle in the centre of the photograph, partly in shadow. In the near foreground, a loop of a road is seen. The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple, which is one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines. India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[118] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.[118] Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[119] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes.[120] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[121] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[122] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[123] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[124] The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[125] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[126][127] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[125] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[128] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of India The brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) is identified with Garuda, the mythical mount of Vishnu. It hunts for fish and other prey near the coasts and around inland wetlands. India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots.[129] One of 17 megadiverse countries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% of all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian, 12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[130][131] Endemism is high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the shola forests.[132] Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[133] Under 12% of India's landmass bears thick jungle.[134] The medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. Shola highlands are found in Kudremukh National Park, Chikmagalur which is part of the Western Ghats. Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present.[135] Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction.[136] Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya.[133] Thus, while 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are.[131] Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.[137] These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly went extinct. The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[138] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[139] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves,[140] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[141] Politics Main article: Politics of India A parliamentary joint session being held in the Sansad Bhavan. India is the world's most populous democracy.[142] A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[143] it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.[144] The Congress is considered centre-left or "liberal" in Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or "conservative". For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[145] as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre.[146] In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over three years. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived: it lasted just under two years.[147] Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. But the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[148] A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.[149] In the 2004 Indian general elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.[150] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.[151] Government Main article: Government of India See also: Elections in India The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the official residence of the president of India. India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law". Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states. The government abides by constitutional checks and balances. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,[152] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[153] India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[154] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.[155][156] National symbols[1] Land animal Royal Bengal Tiger Aquatic animal River Dolphin River Ganga (Ganges) The federal government comprises three branches: Executive: The President of India is the head of state[158] and is elected indirectly by a national electoral college[159] for a five-year term.[160] The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[161] Appointed by the president,[162] the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[161] The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Council of Ministers—the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[158] In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[163] Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. It operates under a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States") and the lower called the Lok Sabha ("House of the People").[164] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six-year terms.[165] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.[162] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote; they represent individual constituencies via five-year terms.[166] The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented.[167] Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary[168] that comprises the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[168] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[169] It has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution.[170] The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of the constitution.[171] Subdivisions A clickable map of the 28 states and 7 union territories of India Main article: Administrative divisions of India See also: Political integration of India India is a federation composed of 28 states and 7 union territories.[172] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[173] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages. States A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands B. Chandigarh C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli D. Daman and Diu F. National Capital Territory of Delhi G. Puducherry Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces Two seated men converse. The first is dressed in Indian clothing and turban and sits before an Indian flag; the second is in a Western business suit and sits before a Russian flag. Manmohan Singh meets Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 summit. India and Russia share extensive economic, defence, and technological ties. Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[174] In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a coup d'état attempt in Maldives. India has tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.[175] After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.[176] Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organisation. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[177] India has close economic ties with South America, Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.[178][179] The HAL Tejas is a light supersonic fighter developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency and manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics in Bangalore.[180] China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[181] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[182] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[183][184] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, a fifth-generation fighter jet.[185] Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines.[185] Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.[186] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[187] India subsequently signed cooperation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[188] France,[189] the United Kingdom,[190] and Canada.[191] The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.6 million active troops, they compose the world's third-largest military.[192] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force; auxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary groups: the Assam Rifles, the Special Frontier Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.[193] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[194] For the fiscal year spanning 2012–2013, US$40.44 billion was budgeted.[195] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,[196] In 2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,[197] although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government.[198] As of 2012, India is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.[199] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[197] Economy Main article: Economy of India See also: Economic history of India, Economic development in India, and Transport in India A farmer in Rajasthan milks his cow. Milk is India's largest crop by economic value. Worldwide, as of 2011, India had the largest herds of buffalo and cattle, and was the largest producer of milk. According to the World Bank, as of 2011, the Indian economy is nominally worth US$1.848 trillion;[13] it is the tenth-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is, at US$4.457 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity, or PPP.[200] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–12,[201] India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[202] However, the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP.[200] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[203] since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system[204][205] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[206] India's recent economic model is largely capitalist.[205] India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995.[207] The 487.6-million worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as of 2011.[193] The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[172] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.[172] In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[204] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;[208] In 2011, India was the world's tenth-largest importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter.[209] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.[172] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[172] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.[210] Street-level view looking up at a modern 30-story building. The Bombay Stock Exchange is Asia's oldest, India's largest and world's tenth largest bourse by market capitalisation. Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,[204] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[211] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[212] Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies, as of 2010.[213] With 7 of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States, as of 2009.[214] India's consumer market, currently the world's eleventh-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.[212] India's telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010–11,[215] and after the first quarter of 2013, India surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the world after China and the U.S.[216] Its automotive industry, the world's second fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–10,[217] and exports by 36% during 2008–09.[218] Power capacity is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable. The Pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry. The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $48.5 billion by 2020. India's R & D spending constitutes 60% of Biopharmaceutical industry.[219][220] India is among the top 12 Biotech destinations of the world.[221] [222] At the end of 2011, Indian IT Industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equaling 7.5% of Indian GDP and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[223] An irrigation canal near Channagiri, Davanagere, Karnataka. Agriculture in India is demographically the broadest sector and employs over 50% of the Indian workforce. Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day,[224] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[225] Half of the children in India are underweight,[226] and 46% of children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.[224] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[227] Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[228] Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly,[229] with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion.[230] Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is estimated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it has always remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.[231] According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[232] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.[232] The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class.[232] The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[233] Citing persistent inflation pressures, weak public finances, limited progress on fiscal consolidation and ineffectiveness of the government, rating agency Fitch revised India's Outlook to Negative from Stable on 18 June 2012.[234] Another credit rating agency S&P had warned previously that a slowing GDP growth and political roadblocks to economic policy-making could put India at the risk of losing its investment grade rating.[235] However, Moody did not revise its outlook on India keeping it stable,[236] but termed the national government as the "single biggest drag" on the business activity.[237] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of India and List of most populous cities in India Map of India. High population density areas (above 1000 persons per square kilometre) centre on Kolkata along with other parts of the Ganges River Basin, Mumbai, Bangalore, the south-west coast, and the Lakshadweep Islands. Low density areas (below 100) include the western desert, eastern Kashmir, and the eastern frontier. A population density and Indian Railways connectivity map. The already densely settled Indo-Gangetic Plain is the main driver of Indian population growth. With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census,[6] India is the world's second-most populous country. Its population grew at 1.76% per annum during 2001–2011,[6] down from 2.13% per annum in the previous decade (1991–2001).[238] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[6] The median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.[193] The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.[239] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[240] India continues to face several public health-related challenges.[241][242] According to the World Health Organisation, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air.[243] There are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.[244] The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[245] Yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[246][247] According to the 2001 census, there are 27 million-plus cities in India;[245] among them Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad are the most populous metropolitan areas. The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[6] Kerala is the most literate state;[248] Bihar the least.[249] India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. India has no national language.[250] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.[251][252] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[253] it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages". The Constitution of India recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.[254] The 2001 census reported that Hinduism, with over 800 million adherents (80.5% of the population), was the largest religion in India; it is followed by Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%), Jainism (0.4%), Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bahá'í Faith.[255] India has the world's largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í populations, and has the third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country.[256][257] Culture Main article: Culture of India A Warli tribal painting by Jivya Soma Mashe from Thane, Maharashtra Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[258] During the Vedic period (c. 1700–500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were established.[15] India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[259] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[260] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[259] and by Buddhist philosophy.[261] Art and architecture Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.[262] Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,[263] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;[264] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.[265] As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".[266] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."[267] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[268] Literature The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1400 BCE and 1200 CE, were in the Sanskrit language. Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana, the dramas of Kālidāsa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.Kamasutra, the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in India. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South India, the Sangam literature, consisting of 2,381 poems, is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions. In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore. Performing arts Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools.[280] Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal and Jharkhand,Garba and Dandiya of Gujarat, sambalpuri of Odisha, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of Assam.[281] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue. Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. Motion pictures The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.[284] Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu languages.[285] South Indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue.Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in 1990s and, since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society. Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite and/or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million). Society Tourists from North-East India, wrapped in sarongs and shawls, visit the Taj Mahal. Traditional Indian society is defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or "castes".[290] India declared untouchability illegal in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives, albeit numerous reports suggest that many Dalits ("ex–Untouchables") and other low castes in rural areas continue to live in segregation and face persecution and discrimination.[291][292][293] At the workplace in urban India and in international or leading Indian companies, the caste system has pretty much lost its importance.[294][295] Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[296] An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family members.[297] Marriage is thought to be for life,[297] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[298] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women in India wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[299] Many Indian festivals are religious in origin; among them are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Navratri, Makar Sankranti or Uttarayan, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories: Republic Day, Independence Day, and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Clothing Main article: Clothing in India Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 B.C.E. Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta–pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.[300] Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[301] Cuisine Main article: Indian cuisine Chicken tikka, served in Mumbai. A popular dish in India and around the world. Indian cuisine features an unsurpassed reliance on herbs and spices, with dishes often calling for the nuanced usage of a dozen or more condiments;[302] it is also known for its tandoori preparations. The tandoor, a clay oven used in India for almost 5,000 years, grills meats to an "uncommon succulence" and produces the puffy flatbread known as naan.[303] The staple foods are wheat (predominantly in the north),[304] rice (especially in the south and the east), and lentils.[305] Many spices that have worldwide appeal are native to the Indian subcontinent,[306] while chili pepper, native to the Americas and introduced by the Portuguese, is widely used by Indians.[307] Āyurveda, a system of traditional medicine, used six rasas and three guṇas to help describe comestibles.[308] Over time, as Vedic animal sacrifices were supplanted by the notion of sacred-cow inviolability, vegetarianism became associated with high religious status and grew increasingly popular,[309] a trend aided by the rise of Buddhist, Jain, and bhakti Hindu norms.[310] India has the world's highest concentration of vegetarians: a 2006 survey found that 31% of Indians were lacto vegetarian, and another 9% were ovo-lacto vegetarian.[310] Common traditional eating customs include meals taken on or near the floor, caste and gender-segregated dining,[311][312] and a lack of cutlery in favour of the right hand or a piece of roti. Science and technology Main article: Science and technology in India India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States.[313] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003.[314] The ancient institutions of Taxila and Nalanda are sometimes considered the world's first universities.[315][316] In mathematics, the positional Hindu–Arabic numeral system was developed and the use of zero as a number was introduced. Brahmagupta discovered the rules of arithmetic governing negative numbers and zero.[317] In physics, theories about atoms date as early as the 5th century B.C.E.[318] Satyendra Nath Bose, after whom the class of particles Bosons are named after, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the Bose–Einstein condensate. Jagadish Chandra Bose worked on wireless communication and was named one of the fathers of radio science by the IEEE.[319] In biological sciences, variolation, a form of inoculation to produce immunity to disease, probably originated in India and reached Europe by the 18th century.[320] Vaccination, a safer form of inoculation, was used in crude form in India before the more advanced vaccination of Edward Jenner.[321] A team led by Yellapragada Subbarao synthesised methotrexate,[322] one of the earliest and most commonly used chemotherapy drug. Dilip Mahalanabis's Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) methods to treat diarrhea, the leading cause of infant mortality in developing countries before ORT, have been called, "the most important medical advance [of the 20th] century" by the Lancet. Sport Main article: Sport in India A Test cricket match between India and Pakistan at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore in 2007. The stadium, built in 1969, is one of the premier cricket grounds in the country. In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, among them kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters.[324][325] Pachisi, from which parcheesi derives, was played on a giant marble court by Akbar.[326] The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.[327] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.[328][329] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton,[330] boxing,[331] and wrestling.[332] Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.[333] Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India. The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have, as of 2012, taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful team. India has also played a major role in popularizing Cricket. Thus, cricket is, by far, the most popular sport of India. The Indian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup events, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and won 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India, or BCCI; the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions. The BCCI conducts a Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Premier League. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011.[334] India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games. An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date. India Office:- Unit-20 Rectangle-1 Mall D-4 District Center Saket New Delhi -110017 INDIA.	India
Which country borders Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile?	India – the free life web IAST : Bhārat Gaṇarājya), [23] [24] [d] is a country in South Asia . It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country (with over 1.2 billion people ), and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; [e] China , Nepal , and Bhutan to the north-east; and Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives ; in addition, India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia . Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. [25] Four religions— Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Sikhism —originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Christianity , and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also shaped the region’s diverse culture . Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi . Currently, the Indian economy is the world’s seventh-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP). [20] Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing major economies ; it is considered a newly industrialised country . However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty , corruption , malnutrition and inadequate public healthcare . A nuclear weapons state and a regional power , it has the third-largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7 union territories . India is a pluralistic , multilingual , and a multi-ethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats . Contents listen ) ), which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, [29] is used by many Indian languages in its variations. It is a modernisation of the historical name Bharatavarsha, which gained increasing currency from the mid-19th century onwards as a native name of India. [23] Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E. [30] It is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata . [31] Gaṇarājya (literally, people’s State) is the Sanskrit / Hindi term for “republic” dating back to the ancient times. [32] [33] [34] listen ) ) is an ancient Persian name for India dating to 3 century B.C.E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then, often being thought of as the “Land of the Hindus.” Its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety. [23] [35] [36] History Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India Ancient India The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. [37] Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh . [38] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan. [39] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation , [40] the first urban culture in South Asia; [41] it flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India. [42] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro , Harappa , Dholavira , and Kalibangan , and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade. [41] Map of the Indian subcontinent during the Vedic period During the period 2000–500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age . [43] The Vedas , the oldest scriptures of Hinduism , [44] were composed during this period, [45] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . [43] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent. [46] [44] The caste system arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests, warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state-level polities. [47] [48] On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation. [43] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, [49] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions. [49] Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra , 6th century In the late Vedic period , around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas . [50] [51] The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira . [52] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India. [53] [54] [55] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal, [56] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire . [57] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas. [58] [59] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka ‘s renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma . [60] [61] The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras , the Cholas , and the Pandyas , dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia . [62] [63] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women. [64] [57] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms. [65] [66] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself. [67] The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture , which found patrons among an urban elite. [66] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science , astronomy , medicine , and mathematics made significant advances. [66] Medieval India The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I . The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. [68] When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. [69] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . [69] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south. [69] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region. [68] During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. [70] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences. [70] In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language. [71] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent . [71] Indian royalty, big and small , and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well. [72] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. [72] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , and Java . [73] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages. [73] After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia’s north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. [74] The sultanate was to control much of North India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs. [75] [76] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north. [77] [78] The sultanate’s raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire . [79] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India, [80] and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards. [79] Early modern India Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595 In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers, [81] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors. [82] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices [83] [84] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, [85] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. [86] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar , the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status. [85] The Mughal state’s economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture [87] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, [88] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. [86] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India’s economic expansion, [86] resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms, textiles, and architecture . [89] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas , the Rajputs , and the Sikhs , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. [90] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India. [90] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs. [91] By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company , had established coastal outposts. [92] [93] The East India Company’s control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies. [94] [92] [95] [96] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. [97] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials, and many historians consider this to be the onset of India’s colonial period. [92] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture. [98] Modern India The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India . Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow. Historians consider India’s modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens ( English Education Act 1835 ). Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe. [99] [100] [101] [102] However, disaffection with the Company also grew during this time, and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule. [103] [104] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest. [105] [106] In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. [107] [108] [109] [110] Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became India’s first prime minister in 1947. Mahatma Gandhi (right) led the independence movement. The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks—many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets. [111] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines , [112] and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians. [113] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption. [114] The railway network provided critical famine relief, [115] notably reduced the cost of moving goods, [115] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry. [114] After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served , [116] a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislations , by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol. [117] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections. [118] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II , the Congress’s final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan. [119] Vital to India’s self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic. [120] In the 60 years since, India has had a mixed record of successes and failures. [121] It has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an active Supreme Court, and a largely independent press. [121] Economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world’s fastest-growing economies , [122] and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture. [121] Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban; [121] by religious and caste-related violence ; [123] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies ; [124] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India . [125] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China [126] and with Pakistan . [126] The India–Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998. [127] India’s sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world’s newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved. [128] Geography Main article: Geography of India A topographic map of India India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate , and part of the Indo-Australian Plate . [129] India’s defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east. [129] Simultaneously, the vast Tethyn oceanic crust , to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian plate . [129] These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth’s mantle , both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas . [129] Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment [130] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain . [131] Cut off from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar Desert . [132] The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India , the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. [133] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau , is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats ; [134] the plateau contains the country’s oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude [f] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude. [135] The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple (Indian state of Uttarakhand ), which is one of the twelve jyotirlingashrines . India’s coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains. [136] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores. [136] Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra , both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal . [137] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi ; the latter’s extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes. [138] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari , the Mahanadi , the Kaveri , and the Krishna , which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; [139] and the Narmada and the Tapti , which drain into the Arabian Sea . [140] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh. [141] India has two archipelagos : the Lakshadweep , coral atolls off India’s south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea . [142] The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons . [143] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. [144] [145] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India’s rainfall. [143] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet , tropical dry , subtropical humid , and montane . [146] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of India The brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) is identified with Garuda , the mythical mount of Vishnu . It hunts for fish and other prey near the coasts and around inland wetlands. India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots . [147] One of 17 megadiverse countries , it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% of all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian, 12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species. [148] [149] About 21.2% of the country’s landmass is covered by forests (tree canopy density >10%), of which 12.2% comprises moderately or very dense forests (tree canopy density >40%). [150] Endemism is high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the shola forests . [151] Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands , Western Ghats , and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India; and the babul -dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. [152] The medicinal neem , widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro , shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present . [153] Peninsular India ‘s subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction. [154] Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya. [152] Thus, while 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are. [149] Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome’s toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 IUCN -designated threatened animal species , or 2.9% of endangered forms. [155] These include the Asiatic lion , the Bengal tiger , the snow leopard and the Indian white-rumped vulture , which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac -laced cattle, nearly became extinct. The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response the system of national parks and protected areas , first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act [156] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988. [157] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves , [158] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves ; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention . [159] Politics Main article: Politics of India A parliamentary joint session being held in the Sansad Bhavan . India is the world’s most populous democracy. [160] A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system , [161] it has six recognised national parties , including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties . [162] The Congress is considered centre-left in Indian political culture , [163] and the BJP right-wing . [164] [165] [166] For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP, [167] as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre. [168] In the Republic of India’s first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru -led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru’s death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi , who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party , which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over three years. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi , who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front , won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years. [169] Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. But the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao . [170] The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the official residence of the president of India. A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term. [171] In the 2004 Indian general elections , again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India’s communist parties . [172] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term. [173] In the 2014 general election , the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties. [174] The Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi , who was formerly Chief Minister of Gujarat . Government Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of India India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India , which serves as the country’s supreme legal document. It is a republic and representative democracy , in which “ majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law “. Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states . The government abides by constitutional checks and balances . The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, [175] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign , socialist , secular , democratic republic . [176] India’s form of government, traditionally described as “quasi-federal” with a strong centre and weak states, [177] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes. [178] [179] Not declared [180] The federal government comprises three branches: Executive : The President of India is the head of state [181] and is elected indirectly by a national electoral college [182] for a five-year term. [183] The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power . [184] Appointed by the president, [185] the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament. [184] The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Council of Ministers —the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. [181] In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and his council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. [186] Legislative : The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament . It operates under a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (“Council of States”) and the lower called the Lok Sabha (“House of the People”). [187] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six-year terms. [188] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state’s share of the national population. [185] All but two of the Lok Sabha’s 545 members are directly elected by popular vote; they represent individual constituencies via five-year terms. [189] The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented. [190] Judicial : India has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary [191] that comprises the Supreme Court , headed by the Chief Justice of India , 24 High Courts , and a large number of trial courts. [191] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts. [192] It has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution, [193] as well as to invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional. [194] Subdivisions G. Puducherry India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union territories . [195] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi , have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act , states were reorganised on a linguistic basis. [196] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts . The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages. Foreign relations and military Narendra Modi meets Vladimir Putin at the 6th BRICS summit . India and Russia share extensive economic, defence, and technological ties . Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement . [197] In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d’état attempt in Maldives. India has tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times : in 1947 , 1965 , 1971 , and 1999 . Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir , while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India’s support for the independence of Bangladesh . [198] After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union ; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier. [199] Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia , India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France . In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organisation . The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the East Asia Summit , the G8+5 , and other multilateral forums. [200] India has close economic ties with South America , [201] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a “Look East” policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan , and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security. [202] [203] INS Vikramaditya , the Indian Navy’s biggest warship. China’s nuclear test of 1964 , as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons. [204] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty , considering both to be flawed and discriminatory. [205] India maintains a “ no first use ” nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its “ minimum credible deterrence ” doctrine. [206] [207] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, a fifth-generation fighter jet . [208] Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines . [208] Since the end of the Cold War , India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the United States and the European Union . [209] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group , ending earlier restrictions on India’s nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state. [210] India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia, [211] France, [212] the United Kingdom , [213] and Canada . [214] The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation’s armed forces; with 1.325 million active troops, they compose the world’s third-largest military . [215] It comprises the Indian Army , the Indian Navy , and the Indian Air Force ; auxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary groups : the Assam Rifles , the Special Frontier Force , and the Indian Coast Guard . [216] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP. [217] For the fiscal year spanning 2012–2013, US$40.44 billion was budgeted. [218] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India’s annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion. [219] In 2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%, [220] although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government. [221] As of 2012, India is the world’s largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases. [222] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean . [220] Economy See also: Economic History of India and Economic development in India India’s GDP has increased more than ten-fold after the economic reforms in 1991. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2015 was nominally worth US$2.183 trillion; it is the 7th-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is, at US$8.027 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity , or PPP. [20] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–12, [223] India is one of the world’s fastest-growing economies . [224] However, the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP . [225] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy ; [226] since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system [227] [228] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows. [229] India’s recent economic model is largely capitalist. [228] India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995. [230] The 486.6-million worker Indian labour force is the world’s second-largest , as of 2011. [216] The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India’s foreign exchange remittances were US$70 billion in year 2014, the largest in the world, contributed to its economy by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries. [231] Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. [195] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software. [195] In 2006, the share of external trade in India’s GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985. [227] In 2008, India’s share of world trade was 1.68%; [232] In 2011, India was the world’s tenth-largest importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter . [233] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures. [195] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals. [195] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%. [234] India was the second largest textile exporter after China in the world in calendar year 2013. [235] Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007, [227] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century. [236] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India’s middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030. [237] Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness , India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies, as of 2010. [238] With 7 of the world’s top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States, as of 2009. [239] India’s consumer market, the world’s eleventh-largest , is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030. [237] Driven by growth, India’s nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is estimated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future. However, it is higher than Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. [240] According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, India’s GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045. [241] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world’s fastest-growing major economy until 2050. [241] The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class. [241] The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure , agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education , energy security , and public health and nutrition. [242] In 2016, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) released Top 10 cheapest cities in the world which 4 of it were from India: Bangalore (2nd), Mumbai (3rd), Chennai (6th) and New Delhi (8th) based on the cost of 160 products and services. [243] Sectors India’s telecommunication industry , the world’s fastest-growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010–11, [244] and after the first quarter of 2013, India surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the world after China and the US [245] Tidel Park , the then largest IT park in Asia when it was opened in 2000. Its automotive industry , the world’s second fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–10, [246] and exports by 36% during 2008–09. [247] India’s capacity to generate electrical power is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable . At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP and contributed 26% of India’s merchandise exports. [248] The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry. The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $48.5 billion by 2020. India’s R & D spending constitutes 60% of the biopharmaceutical industry. [249] [250] India is among the top 12 biotech destinations of the world. [251] [252] The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–13, increasing its revenues from 204.4 Billion INR (Indian Rupees) to 235.24 Billion INR (3.94 B US$ – exchange rate June 2013: 1 US$ approx. 60 INR). [253] Although hardly 2% of Indians pay income taxes . [254] Poverty Main article: Poverty in India Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank’s international poverty line of US$1.25 per day, [255] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005, and 25% in 2011. [256] 30.7% of India’s children under the age of five are underweight. [257] According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of Indian population is undernourished. [258] [259] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates. [260] Since 1991, economic inequality between India’s states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest. [261] Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly, [262] with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion. [263] India has the highest number of people living in conditions of slavery , 18 million, most of whom are in bonded labour . [264] India has the largest number of child labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an estimated 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations. [265] [266] [267] Demographics A population density and Indian Railways connectivity map. The already densely settled Indo-Gangetic Plain is the main driver of Indian population growth. Villager in Kullu, Himachal Pradesh With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report, [268] India is the world’s second-most populous country. Its population grew by 17.64% during 2001–2011, [269] compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001). [269] The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males. [268] The median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census. [216] The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people. [270] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the “ Green Revolution ” have caused India’s population to grow rapidly. [271] India continues to face several public health-related challenges. [272] [273] Life expectancy in India is at 68 years with life expectancy for women being 69.6 years and for men being 67.3. [274] There are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians. [275] The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001. [276] Yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas. [277] [278] The level of urbanisation increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census. The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991. [279] According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus cities in India ; among them Mumbai , Delhi , Bangalore , Hyderabad , Chennai , Ahmedabad , and Kolkata , in decreasing order by population. [280] The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males. [281] The rural urban literacy gap which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas. [279] Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%. [281] India is home to two major language families : Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language families. India has no national language. [282] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government. [283] [284] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a “subsidiary official language”; [6] it is important in education , especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 “scheduled languages”. The Constitution of India recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country’s population. [285] The 2011 census reported [286] that Hinduism (79.8% of the population) is the largest religion in India , followed by Islam (14.23%). Other religions or none (5.97% of the population) include Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism , Judaism , Zoroastrianism , and the Bahá’í Faith . [287] India has the world’s largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bahá’í populations, and has the third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country. [288] [289] Culture A Toda tribal hut exemplifies Indian vernacular architecture . Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years. [290] During the Vedic period (c. 1700 – 500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy , mythology , theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma , kárma , yóga , and mokṣa , were established. [28] India is notable for its religious diversity , with Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism , Islam , Christianity , and Jainism among the nation’s major religions. [291] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads , [292] the Yoga Sutras , the Bhakti movement , [291] and by Buddhist philosophy . [293] Art and architecture Main article: Architecture of India Much of Indian architecture , including the Taj Mahal , other works of Mughal architecture , and South Indian architecture , blends ancient local traditions with imported styles. [294] Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours. Vastu shastra , literally “science of construction” or “architecture” and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan , [295] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings; [296] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs. [297] As applied in Hindu temple architecture , it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras , a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the “ absolute “. [298] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as “the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world’s heritage”. [299] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture , developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture . [300] Literature Main article: Indian literature The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1700 BCE and 1200 CE, were in the Sanskrit language. [301] [302] Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana , the dramas of Kālidāsa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam ( The Recognition of Śakuntalā ), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya . [303] [304] [305] Kamasutra , the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in India. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South India, the Sangam literature , consisting of 2,381 poems, is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature . [306] [307] [308] [309] From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India’s literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr , Tulsīdās , and Guru Nānak . This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions. [310] In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore . [311] Performing arts Main articles: Music of India and Dance in India Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools. [312] Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music ; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, garba and dandiya of Gujarat, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India’s National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama . These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of Assam. [313] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue. [314] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. [315] Motion pictures, television The Indian film industry produces the world’s most-watched cinema. [316] Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese , Bengali , Bhojpuri , Hindi , Kannada , Malayalam , Punjabi , Gujarati , Marathi , Odia , Tamil , and Telugu languages. [317] South Indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue. [318] Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades. [319] [320] The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and, since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society. [321] Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite and/or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million). [322] Society Main article: Indian society A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir Sahib , or Golden Temple, in Amritsar , Punjab Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis , or “castes”. [323] India declared untouchability to be illegal [324] in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives. At the workplace in urban India and in international or leading Indian companies, the caste related identification has pretty much lost its importance. [325] [326] Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas. [327] An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family members. [328] Marriage is thought to be for life, [328] and the divorce rate is extremely low. [329] As of 2001, just 1.6 percent of Indian women were divorced but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence. [329] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age. [330] Female infanticide and female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio, as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50 million more males than females in the nation. [331] [332] However the recent report from 2011 shown improvement among the gender ratio. [333] The payment of dowry , although illegal , remains widespread across class lines. [334] Deaths resulting from dowry , mostly from bride burning , are on the rise. [335] Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali , Ganesh Chaturthi , Thai Pongal , Holi , Durga Puja , Eid ul-Fitr , Bakr-Id , Christmas , and Vaisakhi . [336] [337] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories – Republic Day , Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti . Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Clothing Main article: Clothing in India Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE. Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta – pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. [338] Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans. [339] Sports Main article: Sport in India Boys play football in Manipur. In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, such as kabaddi , kho kho , pehlwani and gilli-danda . Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts , such as kalarippayattu , musti yuddha , silambam , and marma adi , originated in India. Chess , commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga , is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters . [340] [341] Pachisi , from which parcheesi derives, was played on a giant marble court by Akbar . [342] The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country. [343] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics , the World Shooting Championships , and the Commonwealth Games. [344] [345] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton [346] ( Saina Nehwal is the top ranked female badminton player in the world), boxing, [347] and wrestling. [348] Football is popular in West Bengal , Goa , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , and the north-eastern states . [349] India is scheduled to host the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup . [350] Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India . The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have, as of 2012, taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport’s most successful team in the Olympics. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games ; the 1987 , 1996 , and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games ; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy ; the 2010 Hockey World Cup ; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games . Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open , the Mumbai Marathon , the Delhi Half Marathon , and the Indian Masters . The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014. [351] India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games . An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date. [352] The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. Share this:	i don't know
The Pascal (Pa) is a unit of measurement of what?	Pascal \| Units of Measurement Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia = 14.696 psi . This definition is used for pneumatic fluid power (ISO R554), and in the aerospace (ISO 2533) and petroleum (ISO 5024) industries. In 1985 the IUPAC recommended that the standard for atmospheric pressure should be harmonized to 100,000 Pa = 1 bar = 750 Torr . The same definition is used in the compressor and the pneumatic tool industries (ISO 2787). The Unicode computer character set has dedicated symbols ㎩ ( Template:U+ ) for Pa and ㎪ ( Template:U+ ) for kPa, but these exist merely for backward-compatibility with some older ideographic character-sets and are therefore deprecated . Uses The pascal (Pa) or kilopascal (kPa) as a unit of pressure measurement is widely used throughout the world and has largely replaced the pounds per square inch (psi) unit, except in some countries that still use the Imperial measurement system . Tectonophysicists use the gigapascal (GPa) in measuring or calculating tectonic forces within the earth. In materials science , megapascals (MPa = N /mm2) or gigapascals (GPa = kN/mm2) are commonly used to measure stiffness or tensile strength of materials. Examples of (approximate) tensile modulus for several common substances include nylon at 2-4; hemp (fibre) at 58, aluminium at 69; tooth enamel at 83, copper at 117, steel at approximately 200 GPa, silkworm silk at 500, and diamond at 1220. The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density , J/m3. This applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurized gasses, but also to the energy density of electric , magnetic , and gravitational fields. Other, older units of measure occasionally used for pressure are millimeters of mercury ( Torr ) and millimeters of water (1.0 mmH2O = 9.80665 Pa). In the cgs system , the unit of pressure is the barye (symbol ba), which is equal to one decipascal . The older kilogram-force per square centimeter corresponds to 98.0665 kPa, [5] but is it often rounded off to 100 kPa in practice. In the former mts system , the unit of pressure is the pièze (symbol pz), which is equal to one kilopascal. Airtightness testing of buildings is measured at 50 Pa or 0.2 inches of water. [6] Hectopascal and millibar units Main article: Bar Meteorologists worldwide have for a long time measured atmospheric pressure in bars , which was originally equivalent to the average air pressure on Earth; the bar was divided into a thousand millibars to provide the precision meteorologists require. After the introduction of SI units , many preferred to preserve the customary pressure figures. Consequently, the bar was redefined as 100,000 pascals, which is only slightly lower than standard air pressure on Earth. Today many meteorologists prefer hectopascals (hPa) for air pressure, which are equivalent to millibars, while similar pressures are given in kilopascals in practically all other fields, since the hecto prefix is rarely used. Since official metrication , meteorologists in Canada use kilopascals (kPa), [7] [8] although in some other countries hectopascals are still in use. [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] As of 17 November 2011 the hectopascal is used in aviation as the altimeter setting. 1 hectopascal (hPa) ≡ 100 Pa ≡ 1 mbar. 1 kilopascal (kPa) ≡ 1000 Pa ≡ 10 hPa ≡ 10 mbar.	Pressure
What does the 'Waffen' mean in the World War II German 'Waffen SS'?	Pascal (unit) Pascal (unit) A pressure gauge reading in psi (red scale) and kPa (black scale) Unit information The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure , stress , Young's modulus and ultimate tensile strength . It is defined as one newton per square meter . [1] It is named after the French polymath Blaise Pascal . Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal (1 hPa = 100 Pa) which is equal to one millibar , the kilopascal (1 kPa = 1000 Pa), the megapascal (1 MPa = 1,000,000 Pa), and the gigapascal (1 GPa = 1,000,000,000 Pa). The unit of measurement called standard atmosphere (atm) is defined as 101.325 kPa and approximates to the average pressure at sea-level at the latitude 45° N. [2] Meteorological reports typically state atmospheric pressure in hectopascals. [3] Contents Etymology[ edit ] The unit is named after Blaise Pascal , noted for his contributions to hydrodynamics and hydrostatics, and experiments with a barometer . The name pascal was adopted for the SI unit newton per square metre (N/m2) by the 14th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971. [4] The pascal can be expressed using SI derived units , or alternatively solely SI base units , as: 1 s 2 {\displaystyle {\rm {1~Pa=1~{\frac {N}{m^{2}}}=1~{\frac {kg}{m\cdot s^{2}}}}}} where N is the newton , m is the metre , kg is the kilogram , and s is the second . [5] One pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of magnitude one newton perpendicularly upon an area of one square metre. Miscellaneous[ edit ] The unit of measurement called atmosphere or standard atmosphere (atm) is 101325 Pa (101.325 kPa). [6] This value is often used as a reference pressure and specified as such in some national and international standards, such as ISO 2787 (pneumatic tools and compressors), ISO 2533 (aerospace) and ISO 5024 (petroleum). In contrast, IUPAC recommends the use of 100 kPa as a standard pressure when reporting the properties of substances. [7] The Unicode computer character set has dedicated symbols U+33A9 ㎩ SQUARE PA and U+33AA ㎪ SQUARE KPA in the CJK Compatibility block, but these exist for backward-compatibility with some older ideographic character-sets and are therefore deprecated . [8] [9] ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The pascal (Pa) or kilopascal (kPa) as a unit of pressure measurement is widely used throughout the world and has largely replaced the pounds per square inch (psi) unit, except in some countries that still use the Imperial measurement system , including the United States. Geophysicists use the gigapascal (GPa) in measuring or calculating tectonic stresses and pressures within the Earth . Medical elastography measures tissue stiffness non-invasively with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging , and often displays the Young's modulus or shear modulus of tissue in kilopascals. In materials science and engineering , the pascal measures the stiffness , tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. In engineering use, because the pascal represents a very small quantity, the megapascal (MPa) is the preferred unit for these uses. Approximate Young's modulus for common substances [10] Material diamond 1220 GPa The pascal is also equivalent to the SI unit of energy density , J/m3. This applies not only to the thermodynamics of pressurised gases, but also to the energy density of electric , magnetic , and gravitational fields. In measurements of sound pressure , or loudness of sound, one pascal is equal to 94 decibels SPL . The quietest sound a human can hear, known as the threshold of hearing , is 0 dB SPL , or 20 µPa. The airtightness of buildings is measured at 50 Pa. [11] Hectopascal and millibar units[ edit ] Main article: Bar (unit) The units of atmospheric pressure commonly used in meteorology were formerly the bar , which was close to the average air pressure on Earth, and the millibar . Since the introduction of SI units , meteorologists generally measure pressures in hectopascals (hPa) unit, equal to 100 pascals or 1 millibar. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Exceptions include Canada and Portugal, which use kilopascals (kPa). In many other fields of science, the SI is preferred, which means Pa with a prefix (in multiples of 1000) is preferred. [19] [20] Many countries also use the millibar or hectopascal to give aviation altimeter settings . In practically all other fields, the kilopascal (1000 pascals) is used instead.[ citation needed ]	i don't know
Stereo (as in stereophonic, stereogram, etc) originally meant in Greek?	stereo: meaning and definitions 4. a system or the equipment for reproducing stereophonic sound. 5. Print.stereotype (defs. 1, 2). —adj. pertaining to stereophonic sound, stereoscopic photography, etc. —v.t. Print.stereotype (def. 5). stereo- a combining form borrowed from Greek, where it meant “solid”, used with reference to hardness, solidity, three-dimensionality in the formation of compound words: stereochemistry; stereogram; stereoscope. Also, esp. before a vowel,stere-.	Solid
The word Tsar derives for which earlier famous leadership name and title?	"What is Stereo Vision? Stereopsis? Stereoscopic Vision? Depth Perception? Lazy Eye? Strabismus? Seeing 3D Movies" Two Seeing Eyes = Two Views! Two Views Used and Fused in the Brain = Stereovision! What does it take to see life in 3D...not to mention 3D TV or movies, virtual reality, 3-D stereograms, stereoscopic photographs? Here, you can learn about an exciting part of normal human vision - stereovision (a.k.a., stereoscopic vision or stereopsis). For now, let's just keep things simple and call it stereovision. Human Beings with Two Eyes that Work Together Have Stereovision Human beings generally come equipped with two eyes and one head. If you have any doubts about your equipment or your ability to see 3D, check out Why Some People Have Trouble Seeing 3D before continuing. Unlike horses, humans have two eyes located side-by-side in the front of their heads. Thanks to the close side-by-side positioning, each eye takes a view of the same area from a slightly different angle. The two eye views have plenty in common, but each eye picks up visual information the other doesn't. Have you ever compared the different views of your right and left eye? The Eye Hop Game lets you do just that. Two Eyes = Three Dimensions (3D)! Each eye captures its own view and the two separate images are sent on to the brain for processing. When the two images arrive simultaneously in the back of the brain, they are united into one picture. The mind combines the two images by matching up the similarities and adding in the small differences. The small differences between the two images add up to a big difference in the final picture! The combined image is more than the sum of its parts. It is a three-dimensional stereo picture. The word "stereo" comes from the Greek word "stereos" which means firm or solid. With stereo vision you see an object as solid in three spatial dimensions--width, height and depth--or x, y and z. It is the added perception of the depth dimension that makes stereo vision so rich and special. Stereo Vision Has Many Advantages Stereo vision--or stereoscopic vision --probably evolved as a means of survival. With stereo vision, we can see WHERE objects are in relation to our own bodies with much greater precision--especially when those objects are moving toward or away from us in the depth dimension. We can see a little bit around solid objects without moving our heads and we can even perceive and measure "empty" space with our eyes and brains. If You've Got Stereo Vision, Count Your Blessings! Here are a few examples of occupations that depend heavily on stereo vision: Baseball player	i don't know
What two-word term refers to a coastal tide of little movement, especially when turning from low to high?	NOAA Tides & Currents The time elapsed since the preceding new Moon age of parallax inequality The time interval between perigee of the Moon and the maximum effect of parallax upon range of tide or speed of the tidal current. This age may be computed from the harmonic constants by the formula: age of parallax inequality = 1.837(M2° - N2°) hours. age of phase inequality The time interval between new or full Moon and the maximum effect of these phases upon range of tide or speed of the tidal current. This age may be computed from the harmonic constants by the formula: age of phase inequality = 0.984(S2° - M2°) hours. age of tide An Indian Ocean current setting southwestward along the southeast coast of Africa. air acoustic ranging sensor A pulsed, acoustic ranging device using the air column in a tube as the acoustic sound path. The fundamental measurement is the time it takes for the acoustic signal to travel from a transmitter to the water surface and then back to the receiver. The distance from a reference point to the water surface is derived from the travel time. A calibration point is set at a fixed distance from the acoustic transducer and is used to correct the measured distance using the calibrated sound velocity in the tube. Air temperature sensors are located in the protective well for the purpose of verifying uniformity of temperature for measurements taken by the air acoustic ranging sensor. Alaska Current A North Pacific Ocean current setting counterclockwise along the coasts of Canada and Alaska in the Gulf of Alaska. Alaskan Stream A North Pacific Ocean current setting westward along the south side of the Aleutian Islands. It is an extension of the Alaska Current. amphidromic point A point of zero amplitude of the observed or a constituent tide. amphidromic region An area surrounding an am- phidromic point from which the radiating cotidal lines progress through all hours of the tidal cycle. amplitude (H) One-half the range of a constituent tide. By analogy, it may be applied also to the maximum speed of a constituent current. analog A continuous measurement or a continuous graphic display of data. See ADR gauge and marigram. analysis, harmonic See harmonic analyzer . angular velocity of the Earth's rotation (Ω) Time rate of change of angular displacement relative to the fixed stars. It is equal to 0.729,211 x 10-4 radian/second. annual inequality Seasonal variation inwater level or current, more or less periodic, due chiefly to meteorological causes. anomalistic Pertaining to the periodic return of the Moon to its perigee or the Earth to its perihelion. The anomalistic month is the average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to lunar perigee, and is approximately 27.554,550 days in length. The anomalistic year is the average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to perihelion, and is approximately 365.259,6 days in length. anomaly As applied to astronomy, the anomaly is the angle made at any time by the radius vector of a planet or moon with its line of apsides, the angle being reckoned from perihelion or perigee in the direction of the body's motion. It is called the true anomaly when referred to the actual position of the body, and mean anomaly when referred to a fictitious body moving with a uniform angular velocity equal to the average velocity of the real body and passing perihelion or perigee at the same time. Antarctic Circumpolar Current The largest permanent current in the world, setting eastward around the Antarctic Continent south of Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Through Drake Passage, it transports approximately 200 x 106 m3/s. Same as West Wind Drift . anticyclonic ring A meander breaking off from the main oceanic current and spinning in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere (counter-clockwise in southern). Antilles Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northwestward along the northeast coasts of the Bahama Islands. aphelion The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) farthest from the Sun. apogean tides or tidal currents Tides of decreased range or currents of decreased speed occurring monthly as the result of the Moon being in apogee. The apogean range (An) of the tide is the average range occurring at the time of apogean tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is smaller than the mean range, where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. apogee The point in the orbit of the Moon or a man-made satellite farthest from the Earth. The point in the orbit of a satellite farthest from its companion body. apparent secular trend The nonperiodic tendency of sea level to rise, fall, or remain stationary with time. Technically, it is frequently defined as the slope of a least-squares line of regression through a relatively long series of yearly mean sea-level values. The word "apparent" is used since it is often not possible to know whether a trend is truly nonperiodic or merely a segment of a very long oscillation (relative to the length of the series). apparent time Time based upon the true position of the Sun as distinguished from mean time, which is measured by a fictitious Sun moving at a uniform rate. Apparent time is that shown by the sundial, and its noon is the time when the Sun crosses the meridian. The difference between apparent time and mean time is known as the equation of time. Although quite common many years ago, apparent time is seldom used now. apsides The points in the orbit of a planet or moon which are the nearest and farthest from the center of attraction. In the Earth's orbit these are called perihelion and aphelion, and in the Moon's orbit, perigee and apogee. The line passing through the apsides of an orbit is called the line of apsides. argument See equilibrium argument . astres fictifs Fictitious celestial bodies which are assumed to move in the celestial equator at uniform rates corresponding to the speeds of the several harmonic constituents of the tide producing force. Each astre fictif crosses the meridian at a time corresponding to the maximum of the constituent that it represents. astronomical day Same as Galofaro . chlorinity (Cl) The total amount in grams of chlorine, bromine, and iodine containedinone kilogram of seawater, assuming the bromine and iodine to be replaced by chlorine. The number giving the chlorinity in grams per kilogram of a seawater sample is identical with the number giving the mass in grams of atomic weight silver just necessary to precipitate the halogens in 0.328,523,3 kilogram of the seawater sample.S(‰) = 1.806,55 x Cl(‰)where S(‰) is the salinity in parts per thousand. See salinity . civil day A mean solar day commencing at midnight. civil time Time in which the day begins at midnight as distinguished from the former astronomical time in which the day began at noon. classification See type of tide . Coast and Geodetic Survey A former name of the National Ocean Service. The organization was known as: Survey of the Coast from its founding in 1807 to 1836, Coast Survey from 1836 to 1878, Coast and Geodetic Survey from 1878 to 1970, and National Ocean Survey from 1970 to 1982. In 1982 it was named National Ocean Service. From 1965 to 1970, the Coast and Geodetic Survey was a component of the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA). The National Ocean Survey was a component of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA became the successor to ESSA in 1970. The National Ocean Service is a component of NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. coast line The low water datum line for purposes of the Submerged Lands Act (Public Law 31). See shoreline . coastal boundary The mean high water line (MHWL) or mean higher high water line (MHHWL) when tidal lines are used as the coastal boundary. Also, lines used as boundaries inland of and measure from (or points thereon) the MHWL or MHHWL. See marine boundary . coastal zone (legal definition for coastal zone management) The term coastal zone means the coastal waters (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each and in proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, to the international boundary between the United States and Canada and in other areas seaward to the outer limit of the United States territorial sea. The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the extent necessary to control shorelands, the uses of which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. Excluded from the coastal zone are lands the use of which is by law subject solely to the discretion of or which is held in trust by the Federal Government, its officers, or agents. coastline Same as shoreline . See coast line . cocurrent line A line on a map or chart passing through places having the same current hour. comparison of simultaneous observations A reduction process in which a short series of tide or tidal current observations at any place is compared with simultaneous observations at a control station where tidal or tidal current constants have previously been determined from a long series of observations. The observations are typically high and low tides and monthly means. For tides, it is usually used to adjust constants from a subordinate station to the equivalent value that would be obtained from a l9-year series. See first reduction , standard method , modified-range ratio method , and direct method . compass direction Direction as indicated by compass without any correction for compass error. The direction indicated by a compass may differ by a considerable amount from true or magnetic direction. compass error The angular difference between a compass direction and the corresponding true direction. The compass error combines the effects of deviation and variation. component (1) Same as constituent .(2) That part of a tidal current velocity which, by resolution into orthogonal vectors, is found to flow in a specified direction. compound tide A harmonic tidal (or tidal current) constituent with a speed equal to the sum or difference of the speeds of two or more elementary constituents. The presence of compound tides is usually attributed to shallow water conditions. constants, current See tidal constants . constituent One of the harmonic elements in a mathematical expression for the tide-producing force and in corresponding formulas for the tide or tidal current. Each constituent represents a periodic change or variation in the relative positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. A single constituent is usually written in the form y = A cos (at + α), in which y is a function of time as expressed by the symbol t and is reckoned from a specific origin. The coefficient A is called the amplitude of the constituent and is a measure of its relative importance. The angle (at + α) changes uniformly and its value at any time is called the phase of the constituent. The speed of the constituent is the rate of change in its phase and is represented by the symbol a in the formula. The quantity α is the phase of the constituent at the initial instant from which the time is reckoned. The period of the constituent is the time required for the phase to change through 360° and is the cycle of the astronomical condition represented by the constituent. constituent day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to a fictitious celestial body representing one of the periodic elements in the tidal forces. It approximates in length the lunar or solar day and corresponds to the period of a diurnal constituent or twice the period of a semidiurnal constituent. The term is not applicable to the long-period constituents. constituent hour One twenty-fourth part of a constituent day. control current station A current station at which continuous velocity observations have been made over a minimum period of 29 days. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values of the harmonic and nonharmonic constants essential to tidal current predictions and circulatory studies. The data series from this station serves as the control for the reduction of relatively short series from subordinate current stations through the method of comparison of simultaneous observations. See current station and subordinate current station (1) . control station A line passing through places of equal tidal range. Coriolis force A fictional force in the hydrodynamic equations of motion that takes into account the effect of the Earth's rotation on moving objects (including air and water) when viewed with reference to a coordinate system attached to the rotating Earth. The horizontal component is directed 90° to the right (when looking in the direction of motion) in the Northern Hemisphere and 90° to the left in the Southern. The horizontal component is zero at the Equator; also, when the object is at rest relative to the Earth. The Coriolis acceleration = 2vΩ sin θ: where v is the speed of the object, Ω is the angular velocity of the Earth, and θ is the latitude. Named for Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis who published his formulation in 1835. corrected current A relatively short series of current observations from a subordinate station to which a factor is applied to adjust the current to a more representative value based on a relatively long series from a nearby control station. See current and total current . cotidal hour The average interval between the Moon's transit over the meridian of Greenwich and the time of the following high water at any place. This interval may be expressed either in solar or lunar time. When expressed in solar time, it is the same as the Greenwich high water interval. When expressed in lunar time, it is equal to the Greenwich high water interval multiplied by the factor 0.966. cotidal line A line on a chart or map passing through places having the same tidal hour. countercurrent A current usually setting in a direction opposite to that of a main current. See Equatorial Countercurrent . crest The highest point in a propagating wave. See high water and tidal wave . current Generally, a horizontal movement of water. Currents may be classified as tidal and nontidal. Tidal currents are caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth and are part of the same general movement of the sea that is manifested in the vertical rise and fall, called tide. Tidal currents are periodic with a net velocity of zero over the particular tidal cycle. See tidal wave . Nontidal currents include the permanent currents in the general circulatory systems of the sea as well as temporary currents arising from more pronounced meteorological variability. Current, however, is also the British equivalent of our nontidal current. See total current . current constants Tidal current relations that remain practically constant for any particular locality. Current constants are classified as harmonic and non- harmonic. The harmonic constants consist of the amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents, and the nonharmonic constants include the velocities and intervals derived directly from the current observations. current curve A graphic representation of the flow of the current. In the reversing type of tidal current, the curve is referred to rectangular coordinates with time represented by the abscissa and the speed of the current by the ordinate, the floodspeeds being considered as positive and the ebb speeds as negative. In general, the current curve for a reversing tidal current approximates a cosine curve. current diagram A graphic table published in the Tidal Current Tables showing the speeds of the flood and ebb currents and the times of slacks and strengths over a considerable stretchof the channel of a tidal waterway, the times being referred to tide or tidal current phases at some reference station. current difference Difference between the time of slack water (or minimum current) or strength of current in any locality and the time of the corresponding phase of the tidal current at a reference station for which predictions are given in the Tidal Current Tables. current direction Same as diurnal inequality . declinational reduction A processing of observed high and low waters or flood and ebb tidal currents to obtain quantities depending upon changes in the declination of the Moon; such as tropic ranges or speeds, height or speed inequalities, and tropic intervals. density, in situ (ρ s,t,p) Mass per unit volume. The reciprocal of specific volume. In oceanography, the density of sea water, when expressed in gm/cm3, is numerically equivalent to specific gravity and is a function of salinity, temperature, and pressure. See specific volume anomaly , thermosteric anomaly , sigma-t , and sigma-zero . deviation (of compass) The deflection of the needle of a magnetic compass due to masses of magnetic metal within a ship on which the compass is located. This deflection varies with different headings of the ship. The deviation is called easterly and marked plus if the deflection is to the right of magnetic north, and is called westerly and marked minus if it is to the left of magnetic north. A deviation table is a tabular arrangement showing the amount of deviation for different headings of the ship. Each compass requires a separate deviation table. digital tide (water level) gauge See automatic tide (water level) gauge . direct method A tidal datum computation method. Datums are determined directly by comparison with an appropriate control, for the available part of the tidal cycle. It is usually used only when a full range of tidal values are not available. For example: Direct Mean High Water, when low waters are not recorded. direction of current Direction from which the wind is blowing. diurnal Having a period or cycle of approximately one tidal day. Thus, the tide is said to be diurnal when only one high water and one low water occur during a tidal day, and the tidal current is said to be diurnal when there is a single flood and a single ebb period of a reversing current in the tidal day. A rotary current is diurnal if it changes its direction through all points of the compass once each tidal day. A diurnal constituent is one which has a single period in the constituent day. The symbol for such a constituent is the subscript 1. See stationary wave theory and type of tide . diurnal inequality The difference in height of the two high waters or of the two lowwaters of each tidal day; also, the difference in speed between the two flood tidal currents or the two ebb currents of each tidal day. The difference changes with the declination of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, with the declination of the Sun. In general, the inequality tends to increase with increasing declination, either north or south, and to diminish as the Moon approaches the Equator. Mean diurnal high water inequality (DHQ) is one-half the average difference between the two high waters of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is obtained by subtracting the mean of all the high waters from the mean of the higher high waters. Mean diurnal low water inequality (DLQ) is one-half the average difference between the two low waters of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is obtained by subtracting the mean of the lower low waters from the mean of all the low waters. Tropic high water inequality (HWQ) is the average difference between the two high waters of each tidal day at the times of tropic tides. Tropic low water inequality (LWQ) is the average difference between the two low waters of each tidal day at the times of tropic tides. Mean and tropic inequalities, as defined above, are applicable only when the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Diurnal inequality is sometimes called declinational inequality. diurnal range A tidal datum midway between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. double ebb An ebb tidal current having two maxima of speed separated by a smaller ebb speed. double flood A flood tidal current having two maxima of speed separated by a smaller flood speed. double tide A double-headed tide, that is, a high water consisting of two maxima of nearly the same height separated by a relatively small depression, or a low water consisting of two minima separated by a relatively small elevation. Sometimes called an agger . See gulder . drift (of current The speed of the current. drift current Same as wind drift . duration of flood and duration of ebb Duration of flood is the interval of time in which a tidal current is flooding, and duration of ebb is the interval in which it is ebbing, these intervals being reckoned from the middle of the intervening slack waters or minimum currents. Together they cover, on an average, a period of 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal tidal current or a period of 24.84 hours for a diurnal current. In a normal semidiurnal tidal current, the duration of flood and duration of ebb each will be approximately equal to 6.21 hours, but the times maybe modified greatly by the presence of nontidal flow. In a river the duration of ebb is usually longer than the duration of flood because of fresh water discharge, especially during spring months when snow and ice melt are predominant influences. duration of rise and duration of fall Duration of rise is the interval from low water to high water, and duration of fall is the interval from high water to low water. Together they cover, on an average, a period of 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal tide or a period of 24.84 hours for a diurnal tide. In a normal semidiurnal tide,duration of rise and duration of fall each will be approximately equal to 6.21 hours, but in shallow waters and in rivers there is a tendency for a decrease in duration of rise and a corresponding increase in duration of fall. dynamic decimeter See geopotential as preferred term. dynamic depth (height) See geopotential difference as preferred term. dynamic depth(height) anomaly See geopotential anomaly as preferred term. dynamic meter (D) The former practical unit for geopotential difference (dynamic depth), equal to 10 geopotentials (dynamic decimeters). See geopotential (dynamic depth) anomaly . dynamic topography A South Pacific Ocean current setting southward along the east coast of Australia. East Greenland Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting southward and then southwestward along the east coast of Greenland. ebb axis Average set of the current at ebb strength. ebb current (ebb) The movement of a tidal current away from shore or down a tidal river or estuary. In the mixed type of reversing tidal current,the terms greater ebb and lesser ebb are applied respectively to ebb tidal currents of greater and lesser speed each day. The terms maximum ebb and minimum ebb are applied to the maximum and minimum speeds of a current running continuously ebb, the speed alternately increasing and decreasing without coming to a slack or reversing. The expression maximum ebb is also applicable to any ebb current at the time of greatest speed. See ebb strength . ebb interval The interval between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of a place and the time of the following ebb strength. ebb strength (strength of ebb) Phase of the ebb tidal current at the time of maximum speed. Also, the speed at this time. See strength of current . eccentricity of orbit Ratio of the distance fromthe center to the focus of an elliptical orbit to the lengthof the semimajor axis. The eccentricity of orbit = √1 - (B / A)2: where A and B are respectively the semimajor and semiminor axes of the orbit. ecliptic The intersection of the plane of the Earth's orbit with the celestial sphere. eddy A quasi-circular movement of water whose area is relatively small in comparison to the current with which it is associated. edge waves Waves moving between zones of high and low breakers along the shoreline. Edge waves contribute to changes in water level along the shoreface which helps to control the spacing of rip currents. See longshore current and rip current . Ekman spiral A logarithmic spiral (when projected on a horizontal plane) formed by the heads of current velocity vectors at increasing depths. The current vectors become progressively smaller with depth. They spiral to the right (looking in the direction of flow) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern with increasing depth. Theoretically, in deep water, the surface current vector sets 45° and the total mass transport sets 90° from the direction toward which the wind is blowing. Flow opposite to the surface current occurs at the so-called "depth of frictional resistance". The phenomenon occurs in winddrift currents in which only the Coriolis and frictional forces are significant. Named for Vagn Walfrid Ekman who, assuming a constant eddy viscosity, steady wind stress, and unlimited water depth and extent, derived the effect in 1905. electric tape gauge A gauge consisting of a graduated Monel metal tape on a metal reel (with supporting frame), voltmeter, and battery. Heights can be measured directly by unreeling the tape into its stilling well. When contact is made with the water's surface, the circuit is completed and the voltmeter needle moves. At that moment the length of tape is read against an index mark, the mark having a known elevation relative to the bench marks. elimination One of the final processes in the harmonic analysis of tides in which preliminary values for the harmonic constants of a number of constituents are cleared of the residual effects of each other. epoch (1) Also known as phase lag. Angular retardation of the maximum of a constituent of the observed tide (or tidal current) behind the corresponding maximum of the same constituent of the theoretical equilibrium tide. It may also be defined as the phase difference between a tidal constituent and its equilibrium argument. As referred to the local equilibrium argument, its symbol is κ. When referred to the corresponding Greenwich equilibrium argument, it is called the Greenwich epoch and is represented by G. A Greenwich epoch that has been modified to adjust to a particular time meridian for convenience in the prediction of tides is represented by g or by κ′. The relations between these epochs may be expressed by the following formula: G = κ + pL g = κ′ = G - aS / 15 in which L is the longitude of the place and S is the longitude of the time meridian, these being taken as positive for west longitude and negative for east longitude; p is the number of constituent periods in the constituent day and is equal to 0 for all long-period constituents, 1 for diurnal constituents, 2 for semidiurnal constituents,andso forth; and a is the hourly speed of the constituent, all angular measurements being expressed in degrees. (2) As used in tidal datum determination, it is a 19-year cycle over which tidal height observations are meaned in order to establish the various datums. As there are periodic and apparent secular trends in sea level, a specific 19-year cycle (the National Tidal Datum Epoch) is selected so that all tidal datum determinations throughout the United States, its territories, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, will have a common reference. See National Tidal Datum Epoch . equation of time Difference between mean and apparent time. From the beginning of the year until near the middle of April, mean time is ahead of apparent time, the difference reaching a maximum of about 15 minutes near the middle of February. From the middle of April to the middle of June, mean time is behind apparent time but the difference is less than 5 minutes. From the middle of June to the first part of September, mean time is again ahead of apparent time with maximum difference less than 7 minutes. From the first of September until the later part of December, mean time is again behind apparent time, the difference reaching a maximum of nearly 17 minutes in the early part of November. The equation of time for each day in the year is given in the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. Equatorial Countercurrent A current setting eastward between the Northand South Equatorial Currents of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian (in northern winter) Oceans. In the Atlantic and Pacific, its axis lies about latitude 7° north and in the Indian, about 7° south. equatorial tidal currents Tidal currents occurring semimonthly as a result of the Moon being over the Equator. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the tidal current is at a minimum. equatorial tides Tides occurring semimonthly as a result of the Moon being over the Equator. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the tide is at a minimum. Equatorial Undercurrent A subsurface current setting eastward along the Equator in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, its core of maximum velocity lies at a depth of about 100 meters within the South Equatorial Current. equilibrium argument The theoretical phase of a constituent of the equilibrium tide. It is usually represented by the expression (V+ u), in which V is a uniformly changing angular quantity involving multiples of the hour angle of the mean Sun, the mean longitudes of the Moon and Sun, and the mean longitude of lunar or solar perigee; and u is a slowly changing angle depending upon the longitude of the Moon's node. When pertaining to an initial instant of time, such as the beginning of a series of observations, it is expressed by (Vo+ u). equilibrium theory A model under which it is assumed that the waters covering the face of the Earth instantly respond to the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun to form a surface of equilibrium under the action of these forces.The model disregards friction, inertia, and the irregular distribution of the land masses of the Earth. The theoretical tide formed under these conditions is known as the equilibrium tide. equilibrium tide Hypothetical tide due to the tide producing forces under the equilibrium theory. Also known as gravitational tide. equinoctial Tides occurring near the times of the equinoxes. equinoxes The two points in the celestial sphere where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic; also, the times when the Sun crosses the equator at these points. The vernal equinox is the point where the Sun crosses the Equator from south to north and it occurs about March 21. Celestial longitude is reckoned eastward from the vernal equinox. The autumnal equinox is the point where the Sun crosses the Equator from north to south and it occurs about September 23. equipotential surface Same as geopotential surface . establishment of the port Also known as high water, full and change (HWF&C). Average high water interval on days of the new and full Moon. This interval is also sometimes called the common or vulgar establishment to distinguish it from the corrected establishment, the latter being the mean of all the high water intervals. The latter is usually 10 to 15 minutes less than the common establishment. estuary An embayment of the coast in which fresh river water entering at its head mixes with the relatively saline ocean water. When tidal action is the dominant mixing agent it is usually termed a tidal estuary. Also, the lower reaches and mouth of a river emptying directly into the sea where tidal mixing takes place. The latter is sometimes called a river estuary. Eulerian measurement A South Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward along the east coast of Argentina. first reduction A method of determining high and low water heights, time intervals, and ranges from an arithmetic mean without adjustment to a long-term series through comparison of simultaneous observations. flood axis The average set of the tidal current at strength of flood. flood current (flood) The movement of a tidal current toward the shore or up a tidal river or estuary. In the mixed type of reversing current, the terms greater flood and lesser flood are applied respectively to the two flood currents of greater and lesser speed of each day. The expression maximum flood is applicable to any flood current at the time of greatest speed. See flood strength . flood interval The interval between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of a place and the time of the following flood strength. flood strength (strength of flood) Phase of the flood tidal current at the time of maximum speed. Also, the speed at this time. See strength of current . Florida Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northward along the south-east coast of the United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the Florida Current extends from the Straits of Florida to the region off Cape Hatteras. flow The British equivalent of the United States total current. Flow is the combination of tidal stream and current. flushing time The time required to remove or reduce (to a permissible concentration) any dissolved or suspended contaminant in an estuary or harbor. forced wave A whirlpool in the Strait of Messina; at one time called Charybdis. gas purged pressure gauge A type of water level gauge in which gas, usually nitrogen, is emitted from a submerged orifice at a constant rate. Fluctuations in hydrostatic pressure due to changes in water level modify the recorded emission rate. Same as bubbler tide (water level) gauge . gauge See tide (water level) gauge . geodetic datum See National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 1929) and North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 1988) . geopotential The unit of geopotential difference, equal to the gravity potential of 1 meter squared per second squared, m2 / s2, or 1 joule per kilogram, J / kg. geopotential anomaly (ΔD) The excess in geopotential difference over the standard geopotential difference [at a standard specific volume at 35 parts per thousand (‰) and 0 degrees C] between isobaric surfaces. See geopotential and geopotential topography . ΔD = ∫ δdp P1 where p is the pressure and δ, the specific volume anomaly. P1 and P2 are the pressures at the two surfaces. geopotential difference The work per unit mass gained or required in moving a unit mass vertically from one geopotential surface to another. See geopotential , geopotential anomaly , and geopotential topography . geopotential (equipotential) surface A surface that is everywhere normal to the acceleration of gravity. geopotential topography The topography of an equiscalar (usually isobaric) surface in terms of geopotential difference. As depicted on maps, isopleths are formed by the intersection of the isobaric surface with a series of geopotential surfaces. Thus, the field of isopleths represents variations in the geopotential anomaly of the isobaric surface above a chosen reference isobaric surface (such as a level of no motion). geostrophic flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which it is assumed that the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is balanced by the horizontal component of the pressure gradient force. gradient flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which only the horizontal Coriolis, pressure gradient, and centrifugal forces are considered. gravitational tide A wave for which the restoring force is gravity. great diurnal range (Gt) The difference in height between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. The expression may also be used in its contracted form, diurnal range. great tropic range (Gc) The difference in height between tropic higher high water and tropic lower low water. The expression may also be used in its contracted form, tropic range. Greenwich argument Equilibrium argument computed for the meridian of Greenwich. Greenwich epoch See epoch (1) . Greenwich interval An interval referred to the transit of the Moon over the meridian of Greenwich, as distinguished from the local interval which is referred to the Moon's transit over the local meridian. The relation in hours between Greenwich and local intervals may be expressed by the formula: Greenwich interval = local interval + 0.069L where L is the west longitude of the local meridian in degrees. For east longitude, L is to be considered negative. Gregorian calendar The modern calendar in which every year divisible by 4 (excepting century years) and every century year divisible by 400 are bissextile (or leap) years with 366 days. All other years are common years with 365 days. The average length of this year is, therefore, 365.242,5 days which agrees very closely with the length of the tropical year (the period of changes in seasons). The Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory in 1582, and immediately adopted by the Catholic countries in place of the Julian calendar previously in use. In making the change it was ordered that the day following October 4, 1582, of the Julian calendar be designated October 15, 1582, of the Gregorian calendar; the 10 days being dropped in order that the vernal equinox would fall on March 21. The Gregorian calendar was not adopted by England until 1752, but is now in general use throughout the world. Guiana Current An Atlantic Ocean current setting northwestward along the north-east coast of South America. Guinea Current An Atlantic Ocean current setting eastward along the west central coast of Africa. A continuation of the Equatorial Counter Current of the Atlantic Ocean. gulder Local name given to the double low water occurring on the south coast of England. See double tide . Gulf Coast Low Water Datum (GCLWD) A tidal datum. Used as chart datum from November 14, 1977, to November 27, 1980, for the coastal waters of the Gulf coast of the United States. GCLWD is defined as mean lower low water when the type of tide is mixed and mean low water (now mean lower low water) when the type of tide is diurnal. See National Tidal Datum Convention of 1980 . Gulf Coast Low Water Datum line The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of Gulf Coast Low Water Datum. Gulf Stream A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward off the east coast of the United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the Gulf Stream extends from the region off Cape Hatteras to an area southeast of the Grand Banks at about latitude 40° north, longitude 50° west. It continues the flow of the Florida Current to the North Atlantic Current. Gulf Stream System Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of the Sun. h = 0.041,068,64° per solar hour. half-tide level halocline A layer in which the salinity changes significantly (relative to the layers above and below) with depth. harmonic analysis The mathematical process by which the observed tide or tidal current at any place is separated into basic harmonic constituents. harmonic analyzer A machine designed for the resolution of a periodic curve into its harmonic constituents. Now performed by electronic digital computer. harmonic constants The amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents of the tide or tidal current at any place. harmonic constituent See constituent . harmonic function In its simplest form, a quantity that varies as the cosine of an angle that increases uniformly with time. It may be expressed by the formula: y = A cos at TODO: investigate mathjax. in which y is a function if time (t), A is a constant coefficient, and a is the rate of change in the angle at. harmonic prediction Method of predicting tides and tidal currents by combining the harmonic constituents into a single tide curve. The work is usually performed by electronic digital computer. harmonic reduction The difference in water level at either end of a strait, channel, inlet, etc. head of tide The inland or upstream limit of water affected by the tide. For practical application in the tabulation for computation of tidal datums, head of tide is the inland or upstream point where the mean range becomes less than 0.2 foot. Tidal datums (except for mean water level) are not computed beyond head of tide. high tide Same as high water . high water (HW) The maximum height reached by a rising tide. The high water is due to the periodic tidal forces and the effects of meteorological, hydrologic, and/or oceanographic conditions. For tidal datum computational purposes, the maximum height is not considered a high water unless it contains a tidal high water. high water, full and change (HWF&C) The intersection of the land with the water surface at an elevation of high water. high water mark A line or mark left upon tide flats, beach, or along shore objects indicating the elevation of the intrusion of high water. The mark may be a line of oil or scum on along shore objects, or a more or less continuous deposit of fine shell or debris on the foreshore or berm. This mark is physical evidence of the general height reached by wave run up at recent high waters. It should not be confused with the mean high water line or mean higher high water line. higher high water (HHW) The highest of the high waters (or single high water) of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. higher low water (HLW) The highest of the low waters of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. Humboldt Current Same as Indian spring low water . inequality A systematic departure from the mean value of a tidal quantity. See diurnal inequality , parallax inequality , and phase inequality . inertial flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which only the horizontal component of the Coriolis and centrifugal forces are balanced. This anticyclonic flow results from a sudden application and release of a driving force which then allows the system to continue on under its own momentum without further interference. The period of rotation is 2π /2Ω sin θ, where Ω = 0.729,211 x 10-4 radians s-1 and θ = latitude. internal tide A tidal wave propagating along a sharp density discontinuity, such as a thermocline, or in an area of gradually changing (vertically) density. International Great Lakes Datum [IGLD] The International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD) is the vertical height reference datum used in the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence River System for engineering, charting, channel dredging, navigation safety, power generation, and water resource management. It is a coordinated datum between the United States and Canada that ensures both countries are using the same reference for projects in the Great Lakes basin. The datum origin, or zero, is defined as Mean Sea Level at Pointe-au-Pere /Rimouski, Quebec, Canada at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. IGLD requires updating approximately every 25-30 years to account for varying changes in the land surface elevations following the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age, referred to as Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA). The current IGLD 1985 was implemented in 1992. IGLD 1985 uses dynamic heights as the vertical reference standard and lakes station water level elevations are adjusted to provide a level geopotential plane for lake level reference. International Hydrographic Organization (formerly Bureau) An institution consisting of representatives of a number of nations organized for the purpose of coordinating the hydrographic work of the participating governments. It had its origin in the International Hydrographic Conference in London in 1919. It has permanent headquarters in the Principality of Monaco and is supported by funds provided by the member nations. Its principal publications include the Hydrographic Review and special publications on technical subjects. intertidal zone (technical definition) The zone between the mean higher high water and mean lower low water lines. interval See lunitidal interval and lunicurrent interval . inverse barometer effect The inverse response of sea level to changes in atmospheric pressure. A static reduction of 1.005 mb in atmospheric pressure will cause a stationary rise of 1 cm in sea level. Irminger Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting westward off the south-west coast of Iceland. isanostere An isopleth of either specific volume anomaly or thermosteric anomaly. isobar Observation of a current with a device moving with the current. lambda (λ2) Smaller lunar evectional constituent. This constituent, with ν2, μ2, and (S2), modulates the amplitude and frequency of M2 for the effects of variation in solar attraction of the Moon. This attraction results in a slight pear-shaped lunar ellipse and a difference in lunar orbital speed between motion toward and away from the Sun. Although (S2) has the same speed as S2, its amplitude is extremely small. Speed = 2T - s + p = 29.455,625,3° per solar hour. latitude The angular distance between a terrestrial position and the equator measured northward or southward from the equator along a meridian of longitude. leap year A calendar year containing 366 days. According to the present Gregorian calendar, all years with the date-number divisible by 4 are leap years, except century years. The latter are leap years when the date-number is divisible by 400. level of no motion A level (or layer) at which it is assumed that an isobaric surface coincides with a geopotential surface. A level (or layer) at which there is no horizontal pressure gradient force. level surface See geopotential surface as preferred term. littoral current A current in the littoral zone such as a long shore or rip current. littoral zone In coastal engineering, the area from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone. In biological oceanography, it is that part of the benthic division extending from the high water line out to a depth of about 200 meters. The littoral system is divided into a eulittoral and sublittoral zone, separated at a depth of about 50 meters. Also, frequently used interchangeably with intertidal zone. local epoch See kappa (κ) and epoch (1) . local time Time in which noon is defined by the transit of the Sun over the local meridian as distinguished from standard time which is based upon the transit of the Sun over a standard meridian. Local time may be either mean or apparent, according to whether reference is to the mean or actual Sun. Local time was in general use in the United States until 1883, when standard time was adopted. The use of local time in other parts of the world has also been practically abandoned in favor of the more convenient standard time. log line A graduated line usedto measure the speed of a vessel through the water or to measure the velocity of the current from a vessel at anchor. See current line . long period constituent A tidal or tidal current constituent with a period that is independent of the rotation of the Earth but which depends upon the orbital movement of the Moon or the Earth. The principal lunar long period constituents have periods approximating a month and half a month, and the principal solar long period constituents have periods approximating a year and half a year. long period waves (long waves) Forced or free waves whose lengths are much longer than the water depth. See tidal wave and tsunami . longitude Angular distance along a great circle of reference reckoned from an accepted origin to the projection of any point on that circle. Longitude on the Earth's surface is measured on the Equator east and west of the meridian of Greenwich and may be expressed either in degrees or in hours, the hour being taken as the equivalent of 15° of longitude. Celestial longitude is measured in the ecliptic eastward from the vernal equinox. The mean longitude of a celestial body moving in an orbit is the longitude that would be attained by a point moving uniformly in the circle of reference at the same average angular velocity as that of the body, with the initial position of the point so taken that its longitude would be the same as that of the body at a certain specified position in its orbit. With a common initial point, the mean longitude of a body will be the same in whatever circle it may be reckoned. longshore current A current paralleling the shore largely within the surf zone. It is caused by the excess water brought to the zone by the small net mass transport of wind waves. Long shore currents feed into rip currents. See progressive wave . loop of stationary wave That portion of the oscillating area where the vertical movement is greatest. Loop Current A current setting clockwise in the Gulf of Mexico. It enters through the Yucatan Channel from the Caribbean Sea and leaves through the Straits of Florida. low tide Same as low water . low water (LW) The minimum height reached by a falling tide. The low water is due to the periodic tidal forces and the effects of meteorological, hydrologic, and/or oceanographic conditions. For tidal datum com- putational purposes,the minimum height is not considered a low water unless it contains a tidal low water. low water datum (LWD) (1) The geopotential elevation (geopotential difference) for each of the Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair and the corresponding sloping surfaces of the St. Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers to which are referred the depths shown on the navigational charts and the authorized depths for navigation improvement projects. Elevations of these planes are referred to IGLD 1985 and are Lake Superior-183.2 meters, Lakes Michigan and Huron-176.0 meters,Lake St.Clair-174.4 meters, Lake Erie-173.5 meters, and Lake Ontario-74.2 meters. (2) An approximation of mean low water that has been adopted as a standard reference for a limited area and is retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact that it may differ slightly from a better determination of mean low water from a subsequent series of observations. Used primarily for river and harbor engineering purposes. Boston low water datum is an example. low water equinoctial springs Low water springs near the times of the equinoxes. Expressed in terms of the harmonic constants, it is an elevation depressed below mean sea level by an amount equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the constituents M2, S2, and K2. low water inequality The intersection of the land with the water surface at an elevation of low water. lower high water (LHW) The lowest of the high waters of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. lower low water (LLW) The lowest of the low waters (or single low water) of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. lower low water datum (LLWD) An approximation of mean lower low water that has been adopted as a standard reference for a limited area and is retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact that it may differ slightly from a better determination of mean lower lowwater from a subsequent series of observations. Used primarily for river and harbor engineering purposes. Columbia River lower low water datum is an example. lowest astronomical tide As defined by the International Hydrographic Organization, the lowest tide level that can be predicted to occur under average meteorological conditions and under any combination of astronomical conditions. lunar cycle An ambiguous expression which has been applied to various cycles associated with the Moon's motion. See Callippic cycle , Metonic cycle , node cycle , and synodical month . lunar day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Moon, or the interval between two successive upper transits of the Moon over the meridian of a place. The mean lunar day is approximately 24.84 solar hours in length, or 1.035 times as great as the mean solar day. lunar interval The difference in time between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of Greenwich and a local meridian. The average value of this interval, expressed in hours, is 0.069 L, where L is the local longitude in degrees, positive for west longitude and negative for east. The lunar interval equals the difference between the local and Greenwich interval of a tide or current phase. lunar month Same as synodical month . lunar nodes The points where the plane of the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic. The point where the Moon crosses in going from south to north is called the ascending node and the point where the crossing is from north to south is called the descending node. References are usually made to the ascending node which, for brevity, may be called the node. lunar tide That part of the tide on the Earth due solely to the Moon as distinguished from that part due to the Sun. lunar time Time based upon the rotation of the Earth relative to the Moon. See lunar day . lunation Lunar terdiurnal constituent. A shallow water compound constituent. See shallow water constituent . Speed = 3T - 3s + 3h = 43.476,156,3° per solar hour. M4, M6, M8 Shallow water overtides of the principal lunar constituent. See shallow water constituent . Speed of M4 = 2M2 = 4T - 4s + 4h = 57.968,208,4° per solar hour. Speed of M6 = 3M2 = 6T - 6s + 6h = 86.952,312,7° per solar hour. Speed of M8 = 4M2 = 8T - 8s + 8h = 115.936,416,9° per solar hour. Maelstrom Famous whirlpool off the coast of Norway in the Lofoten Islands between Moskenesoy and Mosken. magnetic azimuth Azimuth reckoned from the magnetic north or magnetic south. See magnetic direction . magnetic declination Same as variation . magnetic direction Direction as indicated by a magnetic compass after correction for deviation but without correction for variation. marigram A graphic record of the rise and fall of water level. The record is in the form of a curve in which time is generally represented on the abscissa and the height of the water level on the ordinate. See tide curve . marine boundary The mean lower low water line (MLLWL) when used as a boundary. Also, lines used as boundaries seaward of and measured from (or points thereon) the MLLWL. See coastal boundary . mascaret Same as current hour . mean diurnal tide level (MDTL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of mean higher high water and mean lower low water. mean high water (MHW) A tidal datum. The average of all the high water heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean high water line (MHWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean high water. See shoreline . mean higher high water (MHHW) A tidal datum. The average of the higher high water height of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean higher high water line (MHHWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean higher high water. mean low water (MLW) A tidal datum. The average of all the low water heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean low water line (MLWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean low water. mean low water springs (MLWS) A tidal datum. Frequently abbreviated spring low water. The arithmetic mean of the low water heights occurring at the time of spring tides observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is usually derviced by taking an elevation depressed below the half-tide level by an amount equal to one-half the spring range of tide, necessary corrections being applied to reduce the result to a mean value. This datum is used, to a considerable extent, for hydrographic work outside of the United States and is the level of reference for the Pacific approaches to the Panama Canal. mean lower low water (MLLW) A tidal datum. The average of the lower low water height of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean lower low water line (MLLWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean lower low water. mean range of tide (Mn) The difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. mean rise The height of mean high water above the elevation of chart datum. mean rise interval (MRI) The average interval between the transit of the Moon and the middle of the period of the rise of the tide. It may be computed by adding half the duration of rise to the mean low water interval, subtracting the semidiurnal tidal period of 12.42 hours when greater than this amount. The mean rise interval may be either local or Greenwich according to whether it is referred to the local or Greenwich transit. mean river level A tidal datum. The average height of the surface of a tidal river at any point for all stages of the tide observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is usually determined from hourly height readings. In rivers subject to occasional freshets, the river level may undergo wide variations and, for practical purposes, certain months of the year may be excluded in the determination of the tidal datum. For charting purposes, tidal datums for rivers are usually based on observations during selected periods when the river is at or near a low water stage. mean sealevel (MSL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of hourly heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. Shorter series are specified in the name; e.g., monthly mean sea level and yearly mean sea level. mean sun A fictitious sun which is assumed to move in the celestial equator at a uniform speed corresponding to the average angular speed of the real Sun in the ecliptic, the mean sun being alternately in advance and behind the real Sun. It is used as a reference for reckoning mean time, noon of mean local time corresponding to the time of the transit of the mean sun over the local meridian. See equation of time and mean time . mean tide level (MTL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of mean high water and mean low water. Same as half-tide level . mean time Time based upon the hour angle of the mean sun as distinguished from apparent time which is based upon the position of the real Sun. The difference between apparent and mean time is known as the equation of time. mean water level (MWL) A datum. The mean surface elevation as determined by averaging the heights of the water at equal intervals of time, usually hourly. Mean water level is used in areas of little or no range in tide. mean water level line (MWLL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean water level. meteorological tides Tidal constituents having their origin in the daily or seasonal variations in weather conditions which may occur with some degree of periodicity. The principal meteorological constituents recognized in the tides are Sa, Ssa, and Sl. See storm surge . Metonic cycle A period of almost 19 years or 235 lunations. Devised by Meton, an Athenian astronomer who lived in the fifth century B.C., for the purpose of obtaining a period in which new and full Moon would recur on the same day of the year. Taking the Julian year of 365.25 days and the synodical month as 29.530,588 days, we have the l9-year period of 6,939.75 days as compared with the 235 lunations of 6,939.69 days, a difference of only 0.06 day. Mf Lunar fortnightly constituent. This constituent expresses the effect of departure from a sinusoidal declinational motion. Speed = 2s = 1.098,033,1° per solar hour. midextreme tide An elevation midway between extreme high water and extreme low water occurring in any locality. mixed (current) Type of tidal current characterized by a conspicuous diurnal inequality in the greater and lesser flood strengths and/or greater and lesser ebb strengths. See flood current and ebb current . mixed (tide) Type of tide characterized by a conspicuous diurnal inequality in the higher high and lower high waters and/or higher low and lower low waters. See type of tide . Mm Lunar monthly constituent. This constituent expresses the effect of irregularities in the Moon's rate of change of distance and speed in orbit. Speed = s - p = 0.544,374,7° per solar hour. modified epoch See kappa prime(κ′) and epoch (1) . modified-range ratio method A tidal datum computation method. Generally used for the East Coast, Gulf Coast, and Caribbean Island stations. Values needed are mean tide level (MTL), mean diurnal tide level (DTL), mean range of tide (MN), and great diurnal range (GT) as determined by comparison with an appropriate control. From those, the following are computed: MLW = MTL - (0.5MN) MHHW = MLLW + GT Monsoon Current (Southwest Monsoon Current) An Indian Ocean current setting in a generally eastward to southeastward direction off India and Ceylon. It replaces the North Equatorial Current, reversed by wind stress of the monsoons, in August and September. month The period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth. The month is designated as siderial, tropical, anomalistic, nodical, or synodical according to whether the revolution is relative to a fixed star, vernal equinox, perigee, ascending node, or Sun. The calendar month is a rough approximation to the synodical month. MSf Speed = 2s - 2h = 1.015,895,8° per solar hour. mu (μ2) Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of the Moon's node. N = - 0.002,206,41° per solar hour. N2 Larger lunar elliptic semi diurnal constituent. See L2 Speed = 2T- 3s + 2h + p = 28.439,729,5° per solar hour. National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 [NGVD 1929] A fixed reference adopted as a standard geodetic datum for elevations determined by leveling. The datum was derived for surveys from a general adjustment of the first-order leveling nets of both the United States and Canada. In the adjustment, mean sea level was held fixed as observed at 21 tide stations in the United States and 5 in Canada. The year indicates the time of the general adjustment. A synonym for Sea-level Datum of 1929. The geodetic datum is fixed and does not take into account the changing stands of sea level. Because there are many variables affecting sea level, and because the geodetic datum represents a best fit over a broad area, the relationship between the geodetic datum and local mean sea level is not consistent from one location to another in either time or space. For this reason, the National Geodetic Vertical Datum should not be confused with mean sea level. See North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 1988) . National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) A consistent national coordinate system that defines latitude, longitude, height, scale, gravity, and orientation throughout the nation, and how these values change with time. The NSRS is developed and maintained by the National Geodetic Survey using advanced geodetic, photogrammetric, and remote sensing techniques. National Tidal Datum Convention of 1980 Effective November 28, 1980, the Convention: (1) establishes one uniform, continuous tidal datum system for all marine waters of the United States, its territories, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, for the first time in history; (2) provides a tidal datum system independent of computations based on type of tide; (3) lowers chart datum from mean low water to mean lower low water along the Atlantic coast of the United States; (4) updates the National Tidal Datum Epoch from 1941 through 1959, to 1960 through 1978; (5) changes the name Gulf Coast Low Water Datum to mean lower low water; (6) introduces the tidal datum of mean higher high water in areas of predominantly diurnal tides; and (7) lowers mean high water in areas of predominantly diurnal tides. See chart datum . National Tidal Datum Epoch The specific 19-year period adopted by the National Ocean Service as the official time segment over which tide observations are taken and reduced to obtain mean values (e.g., mean lower low water, etc.) for tidal datums. It is necessary for standardization because of periodic and apparent secular trends in sea level. The present National Tidal Datum Epoch is 1983 through 2001. It is reviewed annually for possible revision and must be actively considered for revision every 25 years. National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON) The network of tide and water level stations operated by the National Ocean Service along the marine and Great Lakes coasts and islands of the United States. The NWLON is composed of the primary and secondary control tide stations of the National Ocean Service. This Network provides the basic tidal datums for coastal and marine boundaries and for chart datum of the United States. Tide observations at a secondary control tide station or tertiary tide station are reduced to equivalent l9-year tidal datums through comparison of simultaneous observations with a primary control tide station. In addition to hydrography, nautical charting, and delineation of coastal and marine boundaries, the Network is used for coastal processes and tectonic studies, tsunami and storm surge warnings, and climate monitoring.The National Water Level Observation Network also includes stations operated throughout the Great Lakes Basin. The network supports regulation, navigation and charting, river and harbor improvement, power generation, various scientific activities, and the adjustment for vertical movement of the Earth's crust in the Great Lakes Basin. neap range See neap tides . neap tides or tidal currents Tides of decreased range or tidal currents of decreased speed occurring semimonthly as the result of the Moon being in quadrature. The neap range (Np) of the tide is the average range occurring at the time of neap tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is smaller than the mean range where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. The average height of the high waters of the neap tide is called neap high water or high water neaps (MHWN) and the average height of the corresponding low waters is called neap low water or low water neaps (MLWN). Next Generation Water Level Measurement System (NGWLMS) A fully integrated system encompassing new technology sensors and recording equipment, multiple data transmission options, and an integrated data processing, analysis, and dissemination subsystem. nodal line A line in an oscillating body of water along which there is a minimum or zero rise and fall of the tide. nodal point The zero tide point in an amphidromic region. node See lunar nodes . node cycle Period of approximately 18.61 Julian years required for the regression of the Moon's nodes to complete a circuit of 360° of longitude. It is accompanied by a corresponding cycle of changing inclination of the Moon's orbit relative to the plane of the Earth's Equator, with resulting inequalities in the rise and fall of the tide and speed of the tidal current. node factor (f) A factor depending upon the longitude of the Moon's node which, when applied to the mean coefficient of a tidal constituent, will adapt the same to a particular year for which predictions are to be made. nodical month Average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to the Moon's ascending node. It is approximately 27.212,220 days in length. nonharmonic constants Tidal constants such as lunitidal intervals, ranges, and inequalities which may be derived directly from high and low water observations without regard to the harmonic constituents of the tide. Also applicable to tidal currents. nontidal current See current . normal tide A nontechnical term synonymous with tide; i.e., the rise and fall of the ocean due to the gravitational interactions of the Sun, Moon, and Earth alone. Use of this term is discouraged. North American Vertical Datum of 1988 [NAVD 1988] A fixed reference for elevations determined by geodetic leveling. The datum was derived from a general adjustment of the terrestrial leveling nets of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In the adjustment, only the height of the primary tidal bench mark, referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 (IGLD 1985) local mean sea level height value, at Father Point, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada was held fixed, thus providing minimum constraint. NAVD 1988 and IGLD 1985 are identical. However, NAVD 1988 bench mark values are given in Helmert orthometric height units while IGLD 1985 values are in dynamic heights. See International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 , National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 , and geopotential difference . North Atlantic Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward from southeast of the Grand Banks at about latitude 40° north, longitude 50° west, to the British Isles. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the North Atlantic Current continues the flow of the Gulf Stream to the Norwegian and Canary Currents. North Cape Current An Arctic Ocean current setting eastward off the north coast of Scandinavia in the Barrents Sea. North Equatorial Current A current setting westward in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and in the Indian Ocean from about October to July. It occurs immediately north of the Equatorial Counter Current. North Pacific Current A North Pacific Ocean current setting eastward from about 160° east to somewhat beyond about 150° west. It continues the flow of the Kuroshio Extension, sending branches to the south. Norwegian Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward off the coast of Norway. nu (ν2) Lunar diurnal constituent. See K1 . Speed = T - 2s + h = 13.943,035,6° per solar hour. obliquity factor A factor in an expression for a constituent tide (or tidal current) involving the angle of the inclination of the Moon's orbit to the plane of the Earth's Equator. obliquity of the ecliptic The angle which the ecliptic makes with the plane of the Earth's Equator. Its value is approximately 23.45°. obliquity of the Moon's orbit The angle which the Moon's orbit makes with the plane of the Earth's Equator. Its value varies from 18.3° to 28.6°, depending upon the longitude of the Moon's ascending node; the smaller value corresponding to a longitude of 180° and the larger one,to a longitude of 0°. oceanography Oceanography is the science of all aspects of the oceans, in spite of its etymology. The term, oceanography, implies the interrelationships of the various marine sciences of which it is composed. This connotation has arisen through the historical development of marine research in which it has been found that a true understanding of the oceans is best achieved through investigations based on the realization that water, its organic and inorganic contents, motions, and boundaries are mutually related and interdependent. OO1 Speed = T + 2s + h = 16.139,101,7° per solar hour. ordinary With respect to tides, the use of this nontechnical word has, for the most part, been determined to be synonymous with mean. Thus, ordinary high (low) water is the equivalent of mean high (low) water. The use of ordinary in tidal terms is discouraged. orifice Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of lunar perigee. p = 0.004,641,83° per solar hour. p1 Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of solar perigee. p1 = 0.000,001,96° per solar hour. Solar diurnal constituent. See K1 . Speed = T - h = 14.958,931,4° per solar hour. parallax In tidal work, the term refers to horizontal parallax, which is the angle formed at the center of a celestial body between a line to the center of the Earth and a line tangent to the Earth's surface. Since the sine of a small angle is approximately equal to the angle itself in radians, it is usually taken in tidal work simply as the ratio of the mean radius of the Earth to the distance of the tide-producing body. Since the parallax is a function of the distance of a celestial body, the term is applied to tidal inequalities arising from the changing distance of the tide-producing body. parallax inequality The variation in the range of tide or in the speed of a tidal current due to changes in the distance of the Moon from the Earth. The range of tide and speed of the current tend alternately to increase and decrease as the Moon approaches its perigee and apogee, respectively, the complete cycle being the anomalistic month. There is a similar but relatively unimportant inequality due to the Sun, the cycle being the anomalistic year. The parallax has little direct effect upon the lunitidal intervals but tends to modify the phase effect. When the Moon is in perigee, the priming and lagging of the tide due to the phase is diminished and when in apogee the priming and lagging is increased. parallax reduction A processing of observed high and low waters to obtain quantities depending upon changes in the distance of the Moon, such as perigean and apogean ranges. parallel plate intake Intake of a stilling or protective well with two parallel plates attached below. The plates are typically three times the diameter of the well and are spaced three inches apart. The plates are used to minimize current-induced draw-down (Bernoulli effect) error in water level measurements. pelorus An instrument formerly used on a vessel in connection with a current line and current pole to obtain the set of the current. In its simplest form, it was a disk about 8 inches in diameter and graduated clockwise for every 5° or 10° . It was mounted rigidly on the vessel, usually with the 0° mark forward and the diameter through this mark parallel with the keel. Bearings were then related to the vessel's compass and converted to true. perigean tides or tidal currents Tides of increased range or tidal currents of increased speed occurring monthly as the result of the Moon being in perigee. The perigean range (Pn) of tide is the average range occurring at the time of perigean tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is larger than the mean range where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. perigee The point in the orbit of the Moon or a man-made satellite nearest to the Earth. The point in the orbit of a satellite nearest to its companion body. perihelion The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) nearest to the Sun. period Interval required for the completion of a recurring event, such as the revolution of a celestial body or the time between two consecutive like phases of the tide or tidal current. A period may be expressed in angular measure as 360°. The word also is used to express any specified duration of time. permanent current A current that runs continuously and is independent of tides and other temporary causes. Permanent currents include the general surface circulation of the oceans. Peru Current A South Pacific Ocean current setting northward along the west coast of South America. It has sometimes been called the Humboldt Current because an early record of its temperature was taken by the German scientist Alexander vonHumboldt in 1802. It has also been called the Peruvian or Chilean Current. The name Corriente de Peru was adopted by a resolution of the Ibero-American Oceanographic Conference at its Madrid-Malaga meeting in April 1935. phase (1) Any recurring aspect of a periodic phenomenon, such as new Moon, high water, flood strength, etc. (2) A particular instant of a periodic function expressed in angular measure and reckoned from the time of its maximum value, the entire period of the function being 360°. The maximum and minimum of a harmonic constituent have phase values of 0° and180°, respectively. phase inequality Variations in the tides or tidal currents due to changes in the phase of the Moon. At the times of new and full Moon the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun act in conjunction, causing the range of tide and speed of the tidal current to be greater than the average, the tides at these times being known as spring tides. At the times of the quadratures of the Moon these forces are opposed to each other, causing neap tides with diminished range and current speed. phase lag Same as epoch (1) . phase reduction A processing of observed high and low waters to obtain quantities depending upon the phase of the Moon, such as the spring and neap ranges of tide. At a former time this process was known as second reduction. Also applicable to tidal currents. pororoca PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real Time System. A national system of current, water level, and other oceanographical and meteorological sensors telemetering data in real-time to central locations for storage, processing, and dissemination. Available to pilots, mariners, the U.S. Coast Guard, and other marine interests in voice or digital form. First introduced in Tampa Bay. potential, tide-producing Tendency for particles on the Earth to change their positions as a result of the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Although gravitational attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance of the tide producing body, the resulting potential varies inversely as the cube of the distance. predicting machine See tide predicting machine . pressure gauge A water level gauge that is operated by the change in pressure at the bottom of a body of water due to the rise and fall of the water level. See gas purged pressure gauge . pressure gradient force, horizontal The horizontal component of the product of the specific volume and the rate of decrease in pressure with distance. pressure sensor A pressure transducer sensing device for water level measurement. A relative transducer is vented to the atmosphere and pressure readings are made relative to atmospheric pressure. An absolute transducer measures the pressure at its location. The readings are then corrected for barometric pressure taken at the surface. primary control tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum of 19 years. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values of the harmonic and nonharmonic constants essential to tide predictions and to the determination of tidal datums for charting and for coastal and marine boundaries. The data series from this station serves as a primary control for the reduction of relatively short series from subordinate tide stations through the method of comparison of simultaneous observations and for monitoring long-period sea level trends and variations. See tide station , secondary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . primary tidal bench mark A very rapid current through a comparatively narrow channel. radiational tide Periodic variations in sea level primarily related to meteorological changes such as the semidaily (solar) cycle in barometric pressure, daily (solar) land and sea breezes, and seasonal (annual) changes in temperature. Other changes in sea level due to meteorological changes that are random in phase are not considered radiational tides. range of tide The difference in height between consecutive high and low waters. The mean range is the difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. The great diurnal range or diurnal range is the difference in height between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. For other ranges see spring , neap , perigean , apogean , and tropic tides ; and tropic ranges . real-time Pertains to a data collecting system that monitors an on-going process and disseminates measured values before they are expected to have changed significantly. rectilinear current Same as reversing current . red tide (water) The term applied to toxic algal blooms caused by several genera of dinoflagellates (Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax) which turn the sea red and are frequently associated with a deterioration in water quality. The color occurs as a result of the reaction of a red pigment, peridinin, to light during photosynthesis. These toxic algal blooms pose a serious threat to marine life and are potentially harmful to humans. The term has no connection with astronomic tides. However, its association with the word "tide" is from popular observations of its movements with tidal currents in estuarine waters. reduction factor (F) Reciprocal of node factor (f). reduction of tides or tidal currents A processing of observed tide or tidal current data to obtain mean values for tidal or tidal current constants. reference station A tide or current station for which independent daily predictions are given in the "Tide Tables" and "Tidal Current Tables," and from which corresponding predictions are obtained for subordinate stations by means of differences and ratios. See subordinate tide station (2) and subordinate current station (2) . relative mean sea level change A local change in mean sea level relative to a network of bench marks established in the most stable and permanent material available (bedrock, if possible) on the land adjacent to the tide station location. A change in relative mean sea level may be composed of both an absolute mean sea level change component and a vertical land movement change component. residual current The observed current minus the astronomical tidal current. response analysis For any linear system, an input function Xi(t) and an output function XO(t) can be related according to the formula: X0(t) = 0 is the system's admittance (coherent output/input) at frequency f. In practice, the integrals are replaced by summations; Xi, W, and Z are generally complex. The discrete set of W values are termed response weights; XO(t) is ordinarily an observed tidal time series and Xi(t) the tide potential or the tide at some nearby place. A future prediction can be prepared by applying the weights to an appropriate Xi(t) series. In general: \| Z \| = R(f) and Tan(Z) = Φ(f) measure the relative magnification and phase lead of the station at frequency f. reversing current A tidal current which flows alternately in approximately opposite directions with a slack water at each reversal of direction. Currents of this type usually occur in rivers and straits where the direction of flow is more or less restricted to certain channels. When the movement is towards the shore or up a stream, the current is said to be flooding, and when in the opposite direction, it is said to be ebbing. The combined flood and ebb movement (including the slack water) covers, on an average, 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal current. If unaffected by a nontidal flow, the flood and ebb movements will each last about 6 hours, but when combined with such a flow, the durations of flood and ebb may be quite different. During the flow in each direction the speed of the current will vary from zero at the time of slack water to a maximum about midway between the slacks. reversing falls A name applied to falls which flow alternately in opposite directions in a narrow channel in the St. John River above the city of St. John, New Brunswick, Canada, the phenomenon being due to the large range of tide and a constriction in the river. The direction of flow is upstream or downstream according to whether it is high or low water on the outside, the falls disappearing at the half-tide level. rho (ρ1) Larger lunar evectional diurnal constituent. Speed = T - 3s + 3h - p = 12.471,514,5° per solar hour. rip Agitation of water caused by the meeting of currents or by a rapid current setting over an irregular bottom. Termed tide rip when a tidal current is involved. See overfalls . rip current A narrow intense current setting seaward through the surf zone. It removes the excess water brought to the zone by the small net mass transport of waves. It is fed by longshore currents. Rip currents usually occur at points, groins, jetties, etc., of irregular beaches, and at regular intervals along straight, uninterrupted beaches. river current The gravity-induced seaward flow of fresh water originating from the drainage basin of a river. In the fresh water portion of the river below head of tide, the river current is alternately increased and decreased by the effect of the tidal current. After entering a tidal estuary, river current is the depth-averaged mean flow through any cross-section. See head of tide and estuary . river estuary Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of Moon. s = 0.549,016,53° per solar hour. S1-Solar diurnal constituent. S1 Speed = T = 15.000,000,0° per solar hour. S2 Principal solar semidiurnal constituent. This constituent represents the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. Speed = 2T = 30.000,000,0° per solar hour. S4, S6 Shallowwater overtides of the principal solar constituent. Speed of S4 = 2S2 = 4T = 60.000,000,0° per solar hour. Speed of S6 = 3S2 = 6T = 90.000,000,0° per solar hour. Sa Solar annual constituent. This constituent, with Ssa, accounts for the nonuniform changes in the Sun's declination and distance. In actuality, they mostly reflect yearly meteorological variations influencing sea level. Speed = h = 0.041,068,64° per solar hour. Ssa Solar semiannual constituent. See Sa . Speed = 2h = 0.082,137,3° per solar hour. salinity (S) The total amount of solid material in grams contained in 1 kilogram of sea water when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine, and all organic matter completely oxidized. The following is approximate. S(‰) = 1.806,55 x Cl (‰) Where Cl(‰) is chlorinity in parts per thousand. See chlorinity . Sargasso Sea The west central region of the sub-tropical gyre of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is bounded by the North Atlantic, Canary, North Equatorial, and Antilles Currents, and the Gulf Stream. It is characterized by the absence of any well-marked currents and by large quantities of drifting Sargassum, or gulfweed. Saros A period of 223 synodic months corresponding approximately to 19 eclipse years or 18.03 Julian years, and is a cycle in which solar and lunar eclipses repeat themselves under approximately the same conditions. sea level datum (SLD) An obsolete term. See National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 and mean sealevel . secondary control tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum period of 1 year but less than 19 years. The series is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a primary control tide station. This station provides for a 365-day harmonic analysis including the seasonal fluctuation of sea level. See tide station , primary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . secular trend See apparent secular trend as preferred term. seiche A stationary wave usually caused by strong winds and/or changes in barometric pressure. It is found in lakes, semi-enclosed bodies of water, and in areas of the open ocean. The period of a seiche in an enclosed rectangular body of water is usually represented by the formula: Period (T) = 2L / √gd in which L is the length, d the average depth of the body of water, and g the acceleration of gravity. See standing wave . seismic sea wave Same as tsunami . semidiurnal Having a period or cycle of approximately one-half of a tidal day. The predominant type of tide throughout the world is semidiurnal, with two high waters and two low waters each tidal day. The tidal current is said to be semidiurnal when there are two flood and two ebb periods each day. A semidiurnal constituent has two maxima and two minima each constituent day, and its symbol is the subscript 2. See type of tide . sequence of current The order of occurrence of the four tidal current strengths of a day, with special reference as to whether the greater flood immediately precedes or follows the greater ebb. sequence of tide The order in which the four tides of a day occur, with special reference as to whether the higher high water immediately precedes or follows the lower low water. set (of current) The direction towards which the current flows. shallow water constituent A short-period harmonic term introduced into the formula of tidal (or tidal current) constituents to account for the change in the form of a tide wave resulting from shallow water conditions. Shallow water constituents include the overtides and compound tides. shallow water wave A wave is classified as a shallow water wave whenever the ratio of the depth (the vertical distance of the still water level from the bottom) to the wave length (the horizontal distance between crests) is less than 0.04. Such waves propagate according to the formula: C = √gd where C is the wave speed, g the acceleration of gravity, and d the depth. Tidal waves are shallow water waves. shear A quasi-horizontal layer moving at a different velocity relative to the layer directly below and/or above. shoreline (coastline) The intersection of the land with the water surface. The shoreline shown on charts represents the line of contact between the land and a selected water elevation. In areas affected by tidal fluctuations, this line of contact is the mean high water line. In confined coastal waters of diminished tidal influence,the mean water level line may be used. See coastline . sidereal day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the vernal equinox. It equals approximately 0.997,27 of a mean solar day. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, the sidereal day thus defined is slightly less than the period of rotation with respect to the fixed stars, but the difference is less than a hundredth part of a second. sidereal month Average period of the revolutionof the Moon around the Earth with respect to a fixed star, equal to 27.321,661 mean solar days. sidereal time This is usually defined by astronomers as the hour angle of the vernal equinox. The sidereal day is the interval between two successive upper transits of the vernal equinox. It is to be noted that when applied to the month and year the word sidereal has reference to motion with respect to the fixed stars, while the word tropical is used for motion with respect to the vernal equinox. Because of the precession of the equinox there is a slight difference. sidereal year Average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to a fixed star. Its length is approximately 365.256,4 mean solar days. sigma-t (σt) An expression of density as a function of temperature and salinity (at atmospheric pressure) in a convenient numerical form. See density. σt = (ρs,t,p - 1)1,000 sigma-zero (σ0) An expression of density as a function of salinity (at atmospheric pressure and 0°C) in a convenient numerical form. See density. σ0 = (ρs,t,o - 1)1,000 slack; ebb begins (slack before ebb) The slack water immediately preceding the ebb current. slack; flood begins (slack before flood) The slack water immediately preceding the flood current. slack water (slack) The state of a tidal current when its speed is near zero, especially the moment when a reversing current changes direction and its speed is zero. The term also is applied to the entire period of low speed near the time of turning of the current when it is too weak to be of any practical importance in navigation. The relation of the time of slack water to the tidal phases varies in different localities. For a perfect standing tidal wave, slack water occurs at the time of high and of low water, while for a perfect progressive tidal wave, slack water occurs midway between high and low water. See slack; ebb begins and slack; flood begins . S1 Different in height between mean lower high water and mean higher low water. Sc Different in height between tropic lower high water and tropic higher low water. solar day The period of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. The mean solar day is the time of the rotation with respect to the mean Sun. The solar day commencing at midnight is called a civil or calendar day, but if the day is reckoned from noon it is known as an astronomical day because of its former use in astronomical calculation. solar tide (1) The part of the tide that is due to the tide-producing force of the Sun. (2) The observed tide in areas where the solar tide is dominant. This condition provides for phase repetition at about the same time each solar day. solar time Time measured by the hour angle of the Sun. It is called apparent time when referred to the actual Sun and mean time when referred to the mean Sun. It is also classified as local, standard, or Greenwich according to whether it is reckoned from the local, standard, or Greenwich meridian. solitary wave A wave of translation consisting of a single crest rising above the undisturbed water level without any accompanying trough. The rate of advance of a solitary wave depends upon the depth of the water and is usually expressed by the formula: C = √g(d + h) in which C = rate of advance, g = acceleration of gravity, d = depth of water, and h = height of wave, the depth and height being measured from the undisturbed water level. solstices The two points in the ecliptic where the Sun reaches its maximum and minimum declinations; also the times when the Sun reaches these points. The maximum north declination occurs on or near June 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern. The maximum south declination occurs on or near December 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern. solstitial tides Tides occurring near the times of the solstices. The tropic range may be expected to be especially large at these times. Somali (East Africa Coast) Current An Indian Ocean current setting southwestward along the coast of Somalia. The current reverses and sets to the northeast during the Southwest Monsoon. South Equatorial Current A current setting westward along and south of the Equator in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean. It occurs immediately south of the Equatorial Counter Current. Southwest Monsoon Current Same as Monsoon Current . species of constituent A classification depending upon the period of a constituent. The principal species are semidiurnal, diurnal, and long-period. specific volume anomaly, or steric anomaly (α) The excess in specific volume over the standard specific volume at 35 ‰, 0°C, and the given pressure. See thermosteric anomaly and specific volume . δ=αs,t,p - α35,o,p specific volume, in situ (αs,t,p) Volume per unit mass. The reciprocal of density (specific gravity). The specific volume of sea water as a function of salinity, temperature, and pressure. See specific volume anomaly and thermosteric anomaly . speed (of constituent) The rate of change in the phase of a constituent, usually expressed in degrees per hour. The speed is equal to 360° divided by the constituent period expressed in hours. speed (of current) The magnitude of velocity. Rate at which the current flows. Usually expressed in knots or centimeters per second. Spitsbergen Atlantic Current A current setting northwestward off the southwest coast of Spitsbergen in the Greenland Sea. spring highwater Same as mean high water springs (MHWS). See spring tides . spring low water See spring tides . spring tides or tidal currents Tides of increased range or tidal currents of increased speed occurring semimonthly as the result of the Moon being new or full. The spring range (Sg) of tide is the average range occurring at the time of spring tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is larger than the mean range where the type of tide is either semi diurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. The average height of the high waters of the spring tides is called spring high water or mean high water springs (MHWS) and the average height of the corresponding low waters is called spring low water or mean low water springs (MLWS). stand of tide Sometimes called a platform tide. An interval at high or low water when there is no sensible change in the height of the tide. The water level is stationary at high and low water for only an instant, but the change in level near these times is so slow that it is not usually perceptible. In general,the duration of the apparent stand will depend upon the range of tide, being longer for a small range than for a large range, but where there is a tendency for a double tide the stand may last for several hours even with a large range of tide. standard method A tidal datum computation method. Generally used for the West Coast and Pacific Island stations. Values needed are mean tide level (MTL), mean range of tide (MN), great diurnal range (GT), and mean diurnal high and low water inequalities (DHQ and DLQ) as determined by comparison with an appropriate control. From those, the following are computed: MLW = MTL - (0.5MN) MHHW = MHW + DHQ standardtime A kind of time based upon the transit of the Sun over a certain specified meridian, called the time meridian, and adopted for use over a considerable area. With a few exceptions, standard time is based upon some meridian which differs by a multiple of 15° from the meridian of Greenwich. The United States first adopted standard time in 1883 on the initiative of the American Railway Association, and at noon on November 18 of that year the telegraphic time signals from the Naval Observatory at Washington were changed to this system. standing (stationary) wave A wave that oscillates without progressing. One-half of such a wave may be illustrated by the oscillation of the water in a pan that has been tilted. Near the axis, which is called the node or nodal line, there is no vertical rise and fall of the water. The ends of the wave are called loops and at these places the vertical rise and fall is at a maximum. The current is maximum near the node and minimum at the loops. The period of a stationary wave depends upon the length and depth of the body of water and, for a simple rectangular basin, may be expressed by the formula: T = 2L / √gd in which T is the period of wave, L the length of the basin, d the depth of water, and g the acceleration of gravity. A stationary wave may be resolve d into two progressive waves of equal amplitude and equal speeds moving in opposite directions. stationary wave theory An assumption that the basic tidal movement in the open ocean consists of a system of stationary wave oscillations, any progressive wave movement being of secondary importance except as the tide advances into tributary waters. The continental masses divide the sea into irregular basins, which, although not completely enclosed, are capable of sustaining oscillations which are more or less independent. The tide-producing force consists principally of two parts, a semidiurnal force with a period of approximately half a day and a diurnal force with a period of approximately a whole day. Insofar as the free period of oscillation of any part of the ocean, as determined by its dimensions and depth, is in accord with the semidiurnal or diurnal tide-producing forces, there will be built up corresponding oscillations of considerable amplitude which will be manifested in the rise and fall of the tide. The diurnal oscillations, superimposed upon the semidiurnal oscillations, cause the inequalities in the heights of the two high and the two low waters of each day. Although the tidal movement as a whole is somewhat complicated by the overlapping of oscillating areas, the theory is consistent with observational data. stencils Perforated sheets formerly used with the tabulated hourly heights of the tide or speeds of the tidal current for the purpose of distributing and grouping them into constituent hours preliminary to summing for harmonic analysis. See Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98, Manual of Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides. This analysis is now performed on electronic digital computers. steric anomaly Same as specific volume anomaly . stilling well A vertical pipe with a relatively small opening (intake) in the bottom. It is used in a gauge installation to dampen short period surface waves while freely admitting the tide, other long period waves, and sea level variations; which can then be measured by a water level gauge sensor inside. See float well and protective well . storm surge The local change in the elevation of the ocean along a shore due to a storm. The storm surge is measured by subtracting the astronomic tidal elevation from the total elevation. It typically has a duration of a few hours. Since wind generated waves ride on top of the storm surge (and are not included in the definition), the total instantaneous elevation may greatly exceed the predicted storm surge plus astronomic tide. It is potentially catastrophic, especially on low lying coasts with gently sloping offshore topography. See storm tide . storm tide As used by the National Weather Service, NOAA, the sum of the storm surge and astronomic tide. See storm surge . stray line Ungraduated portion of line connected with the current pole formerly used in taking current observations. The stray line was usually about 100 feet long and permitted the pole to acquire the velocity of the current at some distance from the disturbed waters in the immediate vicinity of the observing vessel, before the current velocity was read from the graduated portion of the current line. strength of current Phase of tidal current in which the speed is a maximum; also the speed at this time. Beginning with slack before flood in the period of a reversing tidal current (or minimum before flood in a rotary current), the speed gradually increases to flood strength and then diminishes to slack before ebb (or minimum before ebb in a rotary current), after which the current turns in direction, the speed increases to ebb strength and then diminishes to slack before flood, completing the cycle. If it is assumed that the speed throughout the cycle varies as the ordinates of a cosine curve, it can be shown that the average speed for an entire flood or ebb period is equal to 2/π or 0.636,6 of the speed of the corresponding strength of current. strength of ebb Lands covered by water at any stage of the tide. See tidelands . subordinate current station (1) A current station from which a relatively short series of observations is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a control current station. See current station , control current station , and reference station . (2) A station listed in the Tidal Current Tables for which predictions are to be obtained by means of differences and ratios applied to the full predictions at a reference station. See reference station . subordinate tide station (1) A tide station from which a relatively short series of observations is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a tide station with a relatively long series of observations. See tide station , primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , and tertiary tide station . (2) A station listed in the Tide Tables from which predictions are to be obtained by means of differences and ratios applied to the full predictions at a reference station. See reference station . summer time Rate of change of hour angle of mean Sun at place of observation. T = 15° per mean solar hour. T2 Larger solar elliptic constituent. See R2 . Speed = 2T - h + p1 = 29.958,933,3° per solar hour. tape gauge See electric tape gauge telemetry The capability of transmitting or retrieving data over long distance communication links, such as satellite, VHF radio, or telephone. terdiurnal Having three periods in a constituent day. The symbol of a terdiurnal constituent is the subscript 3. tertiary tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum period of 30 days but less than 1 year. The series is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a secondary control tide station. This station provides for a 29-day harmonic analysis. See tide station , primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . thermocline A layer in which the temperature decreases significantly (relative to the layers above and below) with depth. The principal ones are designated diurnal, seasonal, and main thermocline. thermosteric anomaly (δT, Δ′, or Δs,t) The specific volume anomaly (steric anomaly) that would be attained if the water were changed isothermally to a standard pressure of one atmosphere. The specific volume anomaly with pressure terms omitted. See isanostere . tidal bench mark See bench mark . tidal benchmark description A published, concise description of the location, stamped number or designation, date established, and elevation (referred to a tidal datum) of a specific bench mark. tidal bench mark state index map A state map which indicates the locations for which tidal datums and tidal bench mark descriptions are available. tidal bore A tidal wave that propagates up a relatively shallow and sloping estuary or river with a steep wave front. The leading edge presents an abrupt rise in level, frequently with continuous breaking and often immediately followed by several large undulations. An uncommon phenomenon, the tidal bore is usually associated with very large ranges in tide as well as wedge shaped and rapidly shoaling entrances. Also called eagre, eager (for Tsientan, China bore), mascaret (French), pororoca (Brazilian), and bore. tidal characteristics Principally, those features relating to the time, range, and type of tide. tidal constants Tidal relations that remain practically constant for any particular locality. Tidal constants are classified as harmonic and nonharmonic. The harmonic constants consist of the amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents, and the nonharmonic constants include the ranges and intervals derived directly from the high and low water observations. tidal constituent See constituent . tidal current A horizontal movement of the water caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. The horizontal component of the particulate motion of a tidal wave. Part of the same general movement of the sea that is manifested in the vertical rise and fall called tide. The United States equivalent of the British tidal stream. See tidal wave , tide , and current . Tidal Current Chart Diagrams A series of monthly diagrams to be used with the Tidal Current Charts. Each diagram contains lines that indicate the specific tidal current chart to use for a given date and time, and the speed factor to apply to that chart. Tidal Current Charts Charts on which tidal current data are depicted. Tidal Current Charts for a number of important waterways are published by the National Ocean Service. Each consists of a set of charts giving the speed and direction of the current for each hour or equal interval of the tidal cycle, thus presenting a comprehensive view of the tidal current movement. tidal current constants British equivalent of United States tidal current. tidal wave A shallow water wave caused by the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Essentially, high water is the crest of a tidal wave and low water, the trough. Tidal current is the horizontal component of the particulate motion, while tide is manifested by the vertical component. The observed tide and tidal current can be considered the result of the combination of several tidal waves, each of which may vary from nearly pure progressive to nearly pure standing and with differing periods, heights, phase relationships, and direction. tidal zoning The practice of dividing a hydrographic survey area into discrete zones or sections, each one possessing similar tidal characteristics. One set of tide reducers is assigned to each zone. Tide reducers are used to adjust the soundings in that zone to chart datum (MLLW). Tidal zoning is necessary in order to correct for differing water level heights occurring throughout the survey area at any given time. Each zone of the survey area is geographically delineated such that the differences in time and range do not exceed certain limits, generally 0.2 hours and 0.2 feet respectively; however, these limits are subject to change depending upon type of survey, location, and tidal characteristics. The tide reducers are derived from the water levels recorded at an appropriate tide station, usually nearby. Tide reducers are used to correct the soundings throughout the hydrographic survey area to a common, uniform, uninterrupted chart datum. See tide reducers . tide The periodic rise and fall of a body of water resulting from gravitational interactions between Sun, Moon, and Earth. The vertical component of the particulate motion of a tidal wave. Although the accompanying horizontal movement of the water is part of the same phenomenon, it is preferable to designate this motion as tidal current. See tidal wave . tide curve A graphic representation of the rise and fall of the tide in which time is usually represented by the abscissa and height by the ordinate. For a semidiurnal tide with little diurnal inequality, the graphic representation approximates a cosine curve. See marigram . tide datum See datum . tide (water level) gauge An instrument for measuring the rise and fall of the tide (water level). See ADR gauge , automatic tide gauge, Next Generation Water Level Measurement System, gas purged pressure gauge, electric tape gauge, pressure gauge, and tide staff. tide predicting machine A mechanical analog machine especially designed to handle the great quantity of constituent summations required in the harmonic method. William Ferrel's Maxima and Minima Tide Predictor (described in Manual of Tides, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Appendix 10, Report for 1883) was the first such machine used in the United States. Summing only 19 constituents, but giving direct readings of the predicted times and heights of the high and low waters, the Ferrel machine was used for the predictions of 1885 through 1914. A second machine, developed by Rollin A. Harris and E. G. Fischer and summing 37 constituents, was used for the predictions of 1912 through 1965 (described in Manual of Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides by Paul Schureman, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98, 1958). Predictions are now prepared using an electronic digital computer. tide-producing force That part of the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun which is effective in producing the tides on the Earth. The force varies approximately as the mass of the attracting body and inversely as the cube of its distance. The tide-producing force exerted by the Sun is a little less than one-half as great as that of the Moon. A mathematical development of the vertical and horizontal components of the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun will be found in Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98. tide reducers Height corrections for reducing soundings to chart datum (MLLW). A tide reducer represents the height of the water level at a given place and time relative to chart datum. Tide reducers are obtained from one or more tide stations within or nearby the survey area. Often, due to differing tidal characteristics over the survey area, the tide reducers obtained directly from a tide station must be corrected to adjust for time and range of tide differences in the various zones of the hydrographic survey area. See tidal zoning . tide rip See rip . tide staff A water level gauge consisting of a vertical graduated staff from which the height of the water level can be read directly. It is called a fixed staff when secured in place so that it cannot be easily removed. A portable staff is one that is designed for removal from the water when not in use. For such a staff a fixed support is provided. The support has a metal stop secured to it so that the staff will always have the same elevation when installed for use. See electric tape gauge . tide (water level) station The geographic location at which tidal observations are conducted. Also, the facilities used to make tidal observations. These may include a tide house, tide (water level) gauge, tide staff, and tidal bench marks. See primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . Tide Tables Tables which give daily predictions of the times and heights of high and low waters. These predictions are usually supplemented by tidal differences and constants through which predictions can be obtained for numerous other locations. tide wave See tidal wave . tidelands The zone betweenthe mean highwater and mean low water lines. It is identical with intertidal zone (technical definition) when the type of tide is semidiurnal or diurnal. tidewater Water activated by the tide generating forces and/or water affected by the resulting tide, especially in coastal and estuarine areas. Also, a general term often applied to the land and water of estuarine areas formed by postglacial drowning of coastal plain rivers. tideway A channel through which a tidal current flows. time Time is measured by the rotation of the Earth with respect to some point in the celestial sphere and may be designated as sidereal, solar, or lunar, according to whether the measurement is taken in reference to the vernal equinox, the Sun, or the Moon. Solar time may be apparent or mean, according to whether the reference is to the actual Sun or the mean Sun. Mean solar time may be local or standard, according to whether it is based upon the transit of the Sun over the local meridian or a selected meridian adopted as a standard over a considerable area. Greenwich time is standard time based upon the meridian of Greenwich. In civil time the day commences at midnight, while in astronomical time, as used prior to 1925, the beginning of the day was reckoned from noon of the civil day of the same date. The name universal time is now applied to Greenwich mean civil time. time meridian A meridian used as a reference for time. total current The combinationof the tidal and nontidal current. The United States equivalent of the British flow. See current . tractive force The horizontal component of a tide-producing force vector (directed parallel with level surfaces at that geographic location). transit The passage of a celestial body over a specified meridian. The passage is designated as upper transit or lower transit according to whether it is over that part of the meridian lying above or below the polar axis. tropic currents Tidal currents occurring semimonthly when the effect of the Moon's maximum declination is greatest. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the current is at a maximum. tropic inequalities Tropic high water inequality (HWQ) is the average difference between the two high waters of the day at the times of tropic tides. Tropic low water inequality (LWQ) is the average difference between the two low waters of the day at the times of tropic tides. These terms are applicable only when the type of tide is semidiurnal or mixed. See tropic tides . tropic intervals Tropic higher high water interval (TcHHWI) is the lunitidal interval pertaining to the higher high waters at the time of the tropic tides. Tropic lower low water interval (TcLLWI) is the lunitidal interval pertaining to the lower low waters at the time of the tropic tides. Tropic intervals are marked a when reference is made to the upper transit of the Moon at its north declination or to the lower transit at the time of south declination, and are marked b when the reference is to the lower transit at the north declination or to the upper transit at the south declination. See tropic tides . tropic ranges The great tropic range (Gc),or tropic range, is the difference in height between tropic higher high water and tropic lower low water. The small tropic range (Sc) is the difference inheight between tropic lower high water and tropic higher low water. The mean tropic range (Mc) is the mean between the great tropic and the small tropic range. Tropic ranges are most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. See tropic tides . tropic speed The greater floodor greater ebb speed at the time of tropic currents. tropictides Tides occurring semimonthly when the effect of the Moon's maximum declination is greatest. At these times there is a tendency for an increase in the diurnal range. The tidal datums pertaining to the tropic tides are designated as tropic higher high water (TcHHW), tropic lower high water (TcLHW), tropic higher lowwater (TcHLW), and tropic lower low water (TcLLW). tropical month The average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to the vernal equinox. Its length is approximately 27.321,582 days. tropical year The average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to the vernal equinox. Its length is approximately 365.242,2 days. The tropical year determines the cycle of changes in the seasons, and is the unit to which the calendar year is adjusted through the occasional introduction of the extra day on leap years. trough The lowest point in a propagating wave. See low water and tidal wave . true direction Direction relative to true north (0°) which is the direction of the north geographic pole. See compass direction and magnetic direction . tsunami See equilibrium argument . vanishing tide In a predominantly mixed tide with a very large diurnal inequality, the lower high water and higher low water become indistinct (or vanish) at times of extreme declinations. variation (of compass) Difference between true north as determined by the Earth's axis of rotation and magnetic north as determined by the Earth's magnetism. Variation is designated as east or positive when the magnetic needle is deflected to the east of true north and as west or negative when the deflection is to the west of true north. The variation changes with time. Also called magnetic declination. variational inequality An inequality in the Moon's motion due mainly to the tangential component of the Sun's attraction. velocity (of current) Speed and set of the current. vernal equinox	Slack water
What must an earthly spacecraft exit for its travel to be interstellar?	NOAA Tides & Currents The time elapsed since the preceding new Moon age of parallax inequality The time interval between perigee of the Moon and the maximum effect of parallax upon range of tide or speed of the tidal current. This age may be computed from the harmonic constants by the formula: age of parallax inequality = 1.837(M2° - N2°) hours. age of phase inequality The time interval between new or full Moon and the maximum effect of these phases upon range of tide or speed of the tidal current. This age may be computed from the harmonic constants by the formula: age of phase inequality = 0.984(S2° - M2°) hours. age of tide An Indian Ocean current setting southwestward along the southeast coast of Africa. air acoustic ranging sensor A pulsed, acoustic ranging device using the air column in a tube as the acoustic sound path. The fundamental measurement is the time it takes for the acoustic signal to travel from a transmitter to the water surface and then back to the receiver. The distance from a reference point to the water surface is derived from the travel time. A calibration point is set at a fixed distance from the acoustic transducer and is used to correct the measured distance using the calibrated sound velocity in the tube. Air temperature sensors are located in the protective well for the purpose of verifying uniformity of temperature for measurements taken by the air acoustic ranging sensor. Alaska Current A North Pacific Ocean current setting counterclockwise along the coasts of Canada and Alaska in the Gulf of Alaska. Alaskan Stream A North Pacific Ocean current setting westward along the south side of the Aleutian Islands. It is an extension of the Alaska Current. amphidromic point A point of zero amplitude of the observed or a constituent tide. amphidromic region An area surrounding an am- phidromic point from which the radiating cotidal lines progress through all hours of the tidal cycle. amplitude (H) One-half the range of a constituent tide. By analogy, it may be applied also to the maximum speed of a constituent current. analog A continuous measurement or a continuous graphic display of data. See ADR gauge and marigram. analysis, harmonic See harmonic analyzer . angular velocity of the Earth's rotation (Ω) Time rate of change of angular displacement relative to the fixed stars. It is equal to 0.729,211 x 10-4 radian/second. annual inequality Seasonal variation inwater level or current, more or less periodic, due chiefly to meteorological causes. anomalistic Pertaining to the periodic return of the Moon to its perigee or the Earth to its perihelion. The anomalistic month is the average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to lunar perigee, and is approximately 27.554,550 days in length. The anomalistic year is the average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to perihelion, and is approximately 365.259,6 days in length. anomaly As applied to astronomy, the anomaly is the angle made at any time by the radius vector of a planet or moon with its line of apsides, the angle being reckoned from perihelion or perigee in the direction of the body's motion. It is called the true anomaly when referred to the actual position of the body, and mean anomaly when referred to a fictitious body moving with a uniform angular velocity equal to the average velocity of the real body and passing perihelion or perigee at the same time. Antarctic Circumpolar Current The largest permanent current in the world, setting eastward around the Antarctic Continent south of Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Through Drake Passage, it transports approximately 200 x 106 m3/s. Same as West Wind Drift . anticyclonic ring A meander breaking off from the main oceanic current and spinning in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere (counter-clockwise in southern). Antilles Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northwestward along the northeast coasts of the Bahama Islands. aphelion The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) farthest from the Sun. apogean tides or tidal currents Tides of decreased range or currents of decreased speed occurring monthly as the result of the Moon being in apogee. The apogean range (An) of the tide is the average range occurring at the time of apogean tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is smaller than the mean range, where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. apogee The point in the orbit of the Moon or a man-made satellite farthest from the Earth. The point in the orbit of a satellite farthest from its companion body. apparent secular trend The nonperiodic tendency of sea level to rise, fall, or remain stationary with time. Technically, it is frequently defined as the slope of a least-squares line of regression through a relatively long series of yearly mean sea-level values. The word "apparent" is used since it is often not possible to know whether a trend is truly nonperiodic or merely a segment of a very long oscillation (relative to the length of the series). apparent time Time based upon the true position of the Sun as distinguished from mean time, which is measured by a fictitious Sun moving at a uniform rate. Apparent time is that shown by the sundial, and its noon is the time when the Sun crosses the meridian. The difference between apparent time and mean time is known as the equation of time. Although quite common many years ago, apparent time is seldom used now. apsides The points in the orbit of a planet or moon which are the nearest and farthest from the center of attraction. In the Earth's orbit these are called perihelion and aphelion, and in the Moon's orbit, perigee and apogee. The line passing through the apsides of an orbit is called the line of apsides. argument See equilibrium argument . astres fictifs Fictitious celestial bodies which are assumed to move in the celestial equator at uniform rates corresponding to the speeds of the several harmonic constituents of the tide producing force. Each astre fictif crosses the meridian at a time corresponding to the maximum of the constituent that it represents. astronomical day Same as Galofaro . chlorinity (Cl) The total amount in grams of chlorine, bromine, and iodine containedinone kilogram of seawater, assuming the bromine and iodine to be replaced by chlorine. The number giving the chlorinity in grams per kilogram of a seawater sample is identical with the number giving the mass in grams of atomic weight silver just necessary to precipitate the halogens in 0.328,523,3 kilogram of the seawater sample.S(‰) = 1.806,55 x Cl(‰)where S(‰) is the salinity in parts per thousand. See salinity . civil day A mean solar day commencing at midnight. civil time Time in which the day begins at midnight as distinguished from the former astronomical time in which the day began at noon. classification See type of tide . Coast and Geodetic Survey A former name of the National Ocean Service. The organization was known as: Survey of the Coast from its founding in 1807 to 1836, Coast Survey from 1836 to 1878, Coast and Geodetic Survey from 1878 to 1970, and National Ocean Survey from 1970 to 1982. In 1982 it was named National Ocean Service. From 1965 to 1970, the Coast and Geodetic Survey was a component of the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA). The National Ocean Survey was a component of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA became the successor to ESSA in 1970. The National Ocean Service is a component of NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. coast line The low water datum line for purposes of the Submerged Lands Act (Public Law 31). See shoreline . coastal boundary The mean high water line (MHWL) or mean higher high water line (MHHWL) when tidal lines are used as the coastal boundary. Also, lines used as boundaries inland of and measure from (or points thereon) the MHWL or MHHWL. See marine boundary . coastal zone (legal definition for coastal zone management) The term coastal zone means the coastal waters (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each and in proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, to the international boundary between the United States and Canada and in other areas seaward to the outer limit of the United States territorial sea. The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the extent necessary to control shorelands, the uses of which have a direct and significant impact on the coastal waters. Excluded from the coastal zone are lands the use of which is by law subject solely to the discretion of or which is held in trust by the Federal Government, its officers, or agents. coastline Same as shoreline . See coast line . cocurrent line A line on a map or chart passing through places having the same current hour. comparison of simultaneous observations A reduction process in which a short series of tide or tidal current observations at any place is compared with simultaneous observations at a control station where tidal or tidal current constants have previously been determined from a long series of observations. The observations are typically high and low tides and monthly means. For tides, it is usually used to adjust constants from a subordinate station to the equivalent value that would be obtained from a l9-year series. See first reduction , standard method , modified-range ratio method , and direct method . compass direction Direction as indicated by compass without any correction for compass error. The direction indicated by a compass may differ by a considerable amount from true or magnetic direction. compass error The angular difference between a compass direction and the corresponding true direction. The compass error combines the effects of deviation and variation. component (1) Same as constituent .(2) That part of a tidal current velocity which, by resolution into orthogonal vectors, is found to flow in a specified direction. compound tide A harmonic tidal (or tidal current) constituent with a speed equal to the sum or difference of the speeds of two or more elementary constituents. The presence of compound tides is usually attributed to shallow water conditions. constants, current See tidal constants . constituent One of the harmonic elements in a mathematical expression for the tide-producing force and in corresponding formulas for the tide or tidal current. Each constituent represents a periodic change or variation in the relative positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. A single constituent is usually written in the form y = A cos (at + α), in which y is a function of time as expressed by the symbol t and is reckoned from a specific origin. The coefficient A is called the amplitude of the constituent and is a measure of its relative importance. The angle (at + α) changes uniformly and its value at any time is called the phase of the constituent. The speed of the constituent is the rate of change in its phase and is represented by the symbol a in the formula. The quantity α is the phase of the constituent at the initial instant from which the time is reckoned. The period of the constituent is the time required for the phase to change through 360° and is the cycle of the astronomical condition represented by the constituent. constituent day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to a fictitious celestial body representing one of the periodic elements in the tidal forces. It approximates in length the lunar or solar day and corresponds to the period of a diurnal constituent or twice the period of a semidiurnal constituent. The term is not applicable to the long-period constituents. constituent hour One twenty-fourth part of a constituent day. control current station A current station at which continuous velocity observations have been made over a minimum period of 29 days. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values of the harmonic and nonharmonic constants essential to tidal current predictions and circulatory studies. The data series from this station serves as the control for the reduction of relatively short series from subordinate current stations through the method of comparison of simultaneous observations. See current station and subordinate current station (1) . control station A line passing through places of equal tidal range. Coriolis force A fictional force in the hydrodynamic equations of motion that takes into account the effect of the Earth's rotation on moving objects (including air and water) when viewed with reference to a coordinate system attached to the rotating Earth. The horizontal component is directed 90° to the right (when looking in the direction of motion) in the Northern Hemisphere and 90° to the left in the Southern. The horizontal component is zero at the Equator; also, when the object is at rest relative to the Earth. The Coriolis acceleration = 2vΩ sin θ: where v is the speed of the object, Ω is the angular velocity of the Earth, and θ is the latitude. Named for Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis who published his formulation in 1835. corrected current A relatively short series of current observations from a subordinate station to which a factor is applied to adjust the current to a more representative value based on a relatively long series from a nearby control station. See current and total current . cotidal hour The average interval between the Moon's transit over the meridian of Greenwich and the time of the following high water at any place. This interval may be expressed either in solar or lunar time. When expressed in solar time, it is the same as the Greenwich high water interval. When expressed in lunar time, it is equal to the Greenwich high water interval multiplied by the factor 0.966. cotidal line A line on a chart or map passing through places having the same tidal hour. countercurrent A current usually setting in a direction opposite to that of a main current. See Equatorial Countercurrent . crest The highest point in a propagating wave. See high water and tidal wave . current Generally, a horizontal movement of water. Currents may be classified as tidal and nontidal. Tidal currents are caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth and are part of the same general movement of the sea that is manifested in the vertical rise and fall, called tide. Tidal currents are periodic with a net velocity of zero over the particular tidal cycle. See tidal wave . Nontidal currents include the permanent currents in the general circulatory systems of the sea as well as temporary currents arising from more pronounced meteorological variability. Current, however, is also the British equivalent of our nontidal current. See total current . current constants Tidal current relations that remain practically constant for any particular locality. Current constants are classified as harmonic and non- harmonic. The harmonic constants consist of the amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents, and the nonharmonic constants include the velocities and intervals derived directly from the current observations. current curve A graphic representation of the flow of the current. In the reversing type of tidal current, the curve is referred to rectangular coordinates with time represented by the abscissa and the speed of the current by the ordinate, the floodspeeds being considered as positive and the ebb speeds as negative. In general, the current curve for a reversing tidal current approximates a cosine curve. current diagram A graphic table published in the Tidal Current Tables showing the speeds of the flood and ebb currents and the times of slacks and strengths over a considerable stretchof the channel of a tidal waterway, the times being referred to tide or tidal current phases at some reference station. current difference Difference between the time of slack water (or minimum current) or strength of current in any locality and the time of the corresponding phase of the tidal current at a reference station for which predictions are given in the Tidal Current Tables. current direction Same as diurnal inequality . declinational reduction A processing of observed high and low waters or flood and ebb tidal currents to obtain quantities depending upon changes in the declination of the Moon; such as tropic ranges or speeds, height or speed inequalities, and tropic intervals. density, in situ (ρ s,t,p) Mass per unit volume. The reciprocal of specific volume. In oceanography, the density of sea water, when expressed in gm/cm3, is numerically equivalent to specific gravity and is a function of salinity, temperature, and pressure. See specific volume anomaly , thermosteric anomaly , sigma-t , and sigma-zero . deviation (of compass) The deflection of the needle of a magnetic compass due to masses of magnetic metal within a ship on which the compass is located. This deflection varies with different headings of the ship. The deviation is called easterly and marked plus if the deflection is to the right of magnetic north, and is called westerly and marked minus if it is to the left of magnetic north. A deviation table is a tabular arrangement showing the amount of deviation for different headings of the ship. Each compass requires a separate deviation table. digital tide (water level) gauge See automatic tide (water level) gauge . direct method A tidal datum computation method. Datums are determined directly by comparison with an appropriate control, for the available part of the tidal cycle. It is usually used only when a full range of tidal values are not available. For example: Direct Mean High Water, when low waters are not recorded. direction of current Direction from which the wind is blowing. diurnal Having a period or cycle of approximately one tidal day. Thus, the tide is said to be diurnal when only one high water and one low water occur during a tidal day, and the tidal current is said to be diurnal when there is a single flood and a single ebb period of a reversing current in the tidal day. A rotary current is diurnal if it changes its direction through all points of the compass once each tidal day. A diurnal constituent is one which has a single period in the constituent day. The symbol for such a constituent is the subscript 1. See stationary wave theory and type of tide . diurnal inequality The difference in height of the two high waters or of the two lowwaters of each tidal day; also, the difference in speed between the two flood tidal currents or the two ebb currents of each tidal day. The difference changes with the declination of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, with the declination of the Sun. In general, the inequality tends to increase with increasing declination, either north or south, and to diminish as the Moon approaches the Equator. Mean diurnal high water inequality (DHQ) is one-half the average difference between the two high waters of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is obtained by subtracting the mean of all the high waters from the mean of the higher high waters. Mean diurnal low water inequality (DLQ) is one-half the average difference between the two low waters of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is obtained by subtracting the mean of the lower low waters from the mean of all the low waters. Tropic high water inequality (HWQ) is the average difference between the two high waters of each tidal day at the times of tropic tides. Tropic low water inequality (LWQ) is the average difference between the two low waters of each tidal day at the times of tropic tides. Mean and tropic inequalities, as defined above, are applicable only when the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed. Diurnal inequality is sometimes called declinational inequality. diurnal range A tidal datum midway between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. double ebb An ebb tidal current having two maxima of speed separated by a smaller ebb speed. double flood A flood tidal current having two maxima of speed separated by a smaller flood speed. double tide A double-headed tide, that is, a high water consisting of two maxima of nearly the same height separated by a relatively small depression, or a low water consisting of two minima separated by a relatively small elevation. Sometimes called an agger . See gulder . drift (of current The speed of the current. drift current Same as wind drift . duration of flood and duration of ebb Duration of flood is the interval of time in which a tidal current is flooding, and duration of ebb is the interval in which it is ebbing, these intervals being reckoned from the middle of the intervening slack waters or minimum currents. Together they cover, on an average, a period of 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal tidal current or a period of 24.84 hours for a diurnal current. In a normal semidiurnal tidal current, the duration of flood and duration of ebb each will be approximately equal to 6.21 hours, but the times maybe modified greatly by the presence of nontidal flow. In a river the duration of ebb is usually longer than the duration of flood because of fresh water discharge, especially during spring months when snow and ice melt are predominant influences. duration of rise and duration of fall Duration of rise is the interval from low water to high water, and duration of fall is the interval from high water to low water. Together they cover, on an average, a period of 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal tide or a period of 24.84 hours for a diurnal tide. In a normal semidiurnal tide,duration of rise and duration of fall each will be approximately equal to 6.21 hours, but in shallow waters and in rivers there is a tendency for a decrease in duration of rise and a corresponding increase in duration of fall. dynamic decimeter See geopotential as preferred term. dynamic depth (height) See geopotential difference as preferred term. dynamic depth(height) anomaly See geopotential anomaly as preferred term. dynamic meter (D) The former practical unit for geopotential difference (dynamic depth), equal to 10 geopotentials (dynamic decimeters). See geopotential (dynamic depth) anomaly . dynamic topography A South Pacific Ocean current setting southward along the east coast of Australia. East Greenland Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting southward and then southwestward along the east coast of Greenland. ebb axis Average set of the current at ebb strength. ebb current (ebb) The movement of a tidal current away from shore or down a tidal river or estuary. In the mixed type of reversing tidal current,the terms greater ebb and lesser ebb are applied respectively to ebb tidal currents of greater and lesser speed each day. The terms maximum ebb and minimum ebb are applied to the maximum and minimum speeds of a current running continuously ebb, the speed alternately increasing and decreasing without coming to a slack or reversing. The expression maximum ebb is also applicable to any ebb current at the time of greatest speed. See ebb strength . ebb interval The interval between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of a place and the time of the following ebb strength. ebb strength (strength of ebb) Phase of the ebb tidal current at the time of maximum speed. Also, the speed at this time. See strength of current . eccentricity of orbit Ratio of the distance fromthe center to the focus of an elliptical orbit to the lengthof the semimajor axis. The eccentricity of orbit = √1 - (B / A)2: where A and B are respectively the semimajor and semiminor axes of the orbit. ecliptic The intersection of the plane of the Earth's orbit with the celestial sphere. eddy A quasi-circular movement of water whose area is relatively small in comparison to the current with which it is associated. edge waves Waves moving between zones of high and low breakers along the shoreline. Edge waves contribute to changes in water level along the shoreface which helps to control the spacing of rip currents. See longshore current and rip current . Ekman spiral A logarithmic spiral (when projected on a horizontal plane) formed by the heads of current velocity vectors at increasing depths. The current vectors become progressively smaller with depth. They spiral to the right (looking in the direction of flow) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern with increasing depth. Theoretically, in deep water, the surface current vector sets 45° and the total mass transport sets 90° from the direction toward which the wind is blowing. Flow opposite to the surface current occurs at the so-called "depth of frictional resistance". The phenomenon occurs in winddrift currents in which only the Coriolis and frictional forces are significant. Named for Vagn Walfrid Ekman who, assuming a constant eddy viscosity, steady wind stress, and unlimited water depth and extent, derived the effect in 1905. electric tape gauge A gauge consisting of a graduated Monel metal tape on a metal reel (with supporting frame), voltmeter, and battery. Heights can be measured directly by unreeling the tape into its stilling well. When contact is made with the water's surface, the circuit is completed and the voltmeter needle moves. At that moment the length of tape is read against an index mark, the mark having a known elevation relative to the bench marks. elimination One of the final processes in the harmonic analysis of tides in which preliminary values for the harmonic constants of a number of constituents are cleared of the residual effects of each other. epoch (1) Also known as phase lag. Angular retardation of the maximum of a constituent of the observed tide (or tidal current) behind the corresponding maximum of the same constituent of the theoretical equilibrium tide. It may also be defined as the phase difference between a tidal constituent and its equilibrium argument. As referred to the local equilibrium argument, its symbol is κ. When referred to the corresponding Greenwich equilibrium argument, it is called the Greenwich epoch and is represented by G. A Greenwich epoch that has been modified to adjust to a particular time meridian for convenience in the prediction of tides is represented by g or by κ′. The relations between these epochs may be expressed by the following formula: G = κ + pL g = κ′ = G - aS / 15 in which L is the longitude of the place and S is the longitude of the time meridian, these being taken as positive for west longitude and negative for east longitude; p is the number of constituent periods in the constituent day and is equal to 0 for all long-period constituents, 1 for diurnal constituents, 2 for semidiurnal constituents,andso forth; and a is the hourly speed of the constituent, all angular measurements being expressed in degrees. (2) As used in tidal datum determination, it is a 19-year cycle over which tidal height observations are meaned in order to establish the various datums. As there are periodic and apparent secular trends in sea level, a specific 19-year cycle (the National Tidal Datum Epoch) is selected so that all tidal datum determinations throughout the United States, its territories, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, will have a common reference. See National Tidal Datum Epoch . equation of time Difference between mean and apparent time. From the beginning of the year until near the middle of April, mean time is ahead of apparent time, the difference reaching a maximum of about 15 minutes near the middle of February. From the middle of April to the middle of June, mean time is behind apparent time but the difference is less than 5 minutes. From the middle of June to the first part of September, mean time is again ahead of apparent time with maximum difference less than 7 minutes. From the first of September until the later part of December, mean time is again behind apparent time, the difference reaching a maximum of nearly 17 minutes in the early part of November. The equation of time for each day in the year is given in the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. Equatorial Countercurrent A current setting eastward between the Northand South Equatorial Currents of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian (in northern winter) Oceans. In the Atlantic and Pacific, its axis lies about latitude 7° north and in the Indian, about 7° south. equatorial tidal currents Tidal currents occurring semimonthly as a result of the Moon being over the Equator. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the tidal current is at a minimum. equatorial tides Tides occurring semimonthly as a result of the Moon being over the Equator. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the tide is at a minimum. Equatorial Undercurrent A subsurface current setting eastward along the Equator in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, its core of maximum velocity lies at a depth of about 100 meters within the South Equatorial Current. equilibrium argument The theoretical phase of a constituent of the equilibrium tide. It is usually represented by the expression (V+ u), in which V is a uniformly changing angular quantity involving multiples of the hour angle of the mean Sun, the mean longitudes of the Moon and Sun, and the mean longitude of lunar or solar perigee; and u is a slowly changing angle depending upon the longitude of the Moon's node. When pertaining to an initial instant of time, such as the beginning of a series of observations, it is expressed by (Vo+ u). equilibrium theory A model under which it is assumed that the waters covering the face of the Earth instantly respond to the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun to form a surface of equilibrium under the action of these forces.The model disregards friction, inertia, and the irregular distribution of the land masses of the Earth. The theoretical tide formed under these conditions is known as the equilibrium tide. equilibrium tide Hypothetical tide due to the tide producing forces under the equilibrium theory. Also known as gravitational tide. equinoctial Tides occurring near the times of the equinoxes. equinoxes The two points in the celestial sphere where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic; also, the times when the Sun crosses the equator at these points. The vernal equinox is the point where the Sun crosses the Equator from south to north and it occurs about March 21. Celestial longitude is reckoned eastward from the vernal equinox. The autumnal equinox is the point where the Sun crosses the Equator from north to south and it occurs about September 23. equipotential surface Same as geopotential surface . establishment of the port Also known as high water, full and change (HWF&C). Average high water interval on days of the new and full Moon. This interval is also sometimes called the common or vulgar establishment to distinguish it from the corrected establishment, the latter being the mean of all the high water intervals. The latter is usually 10 to 15 minutes less than the common establishment. estuary An embayment of the coast in which fresh river water entering at its head mixes with the relatively saline ocean water. When tidal action is the dominant mixing agent it is usually termed a tidal estuary. Also, the lower reaches and mouth of a river emptying directly into the sea where tidal mixing takes place. The latter is sometimes called a river estuary. Eulerian measurement A South Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward along the east coast of Argentina. first reduction A method of determining high and low water heights, time intervals, and ranges from an arithmetic mean without adjustment to a long-term series through comparison of simultaneous observations. flood axis The average set of the tidal current at strength of flood. flood current (flood) The movement of a tidal current toward the shore or up a tidal river or estuary. In the mixed type of reversing current, the terms greater flood and lesser flood are applied respectively to the two flood currents of greater and lesser speed of each day. The expression maximum flood is applicable to any flood current at the time of greatest speed. See flood strength . flood interval The interval between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of a place and the time of the following flood strength. flood strength (strength of flood) Phase of the flood tidal current at the time of maximum speed. Also, the speed at this time. See strength of current . Florida Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northward along the south-east coast of the United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the Florida Current extends from the Straits of Florida to the region off Cape Hatteras. flow The British equivalent of the United States total current. Flow is the combination of tidal stream and current. flushing time The time required to remove or reduce (to a permissible concentration) any dissolved or suspended contaminant in an estuary or harbor. forced wave A whirlpool in the Strait of Messina; at one time called Charybdis. gas purged pressure gauge A type of water level gauge in which gas, usually nitrogen, is emitted from a submerged orifice at a constant rate. Fluctuations in hydrostatic pressure due to changes in water level modify the recorded emission rate. Same as bubbler tide (water level) gauge . gauge See tide (water level) gauge . geodetic datum See National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 1929) and North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 1988) . geopotential The unit of geopotential difference, equal to the gravity potential of 1 meter squared per second squared, m2 / s2, or 1 joule per kilogram, J / kg. geopotential anomaly (ΔD) The excess in geopotential difference over the standard geopotential difference [at a standard specific volume at 35 parts per thousand (‰) and 0 degrees C] between isobaric surfaces. See geopotential and geopotential topography . ΔD = ∫ δdp P1 where p is the pressure and δ, the specific volume anomaly. P1 and P2 are the pressures at the two surfaces. geopotential difference The work per unit mass gained or required in moving a unit mass vertically from one geopotential surface to another. See geopotential , geopotential anomaly , and geopotential topography . geopotential (equipotential) surface A surface that is everywhere normal to the acceleration of gravity. geopotential topography The topography of an equiscalar (usually isobaric) surface in terms of geopotential difference. As depicted on maps, isopleths are formed by the intersection of the isobaric surface with a series of geopotential surfaces. Thus, the field of isopleths represents variations in the geopotential anomaly of the isobaric surface above a chosen reference isobaric surface (such as a level of no motion). geostrophic flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which it is assumed that the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is balanced by the horizontal component of the pressure gradient force. gradient flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which only the horizontal Coriolis, pressure gradient, and centrifugal forces are considered. gravitational tide A wave for which the restoring force is gravity. great diurnal range (Gt) The difference in height between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. The expression may also be used in its contracted form, diurnal range. great tropic range (Gc) The difference in height between tropic higher high water and tropic lower low water. The expression may also be used in its contracted form, tropic range. Greenwich argument Equilibrium argument computed for the meridian of Greenwich. Greenwich epoch See epoch (1) . Greenwich interval An interval referred to the transit of the Moon over the meridian of Greenwich, as distinguished from the local interval which is referred to the Moon's transit over the local meridian. The relation in hours between Greenwich and local intervals may be expressed by the formula: Greenwich interval = local interval + 0.069L where L is the west longitude of the local meridian in degrees. For east longitude, L is to be considered negative. Gregorian calendar The modern calendar in which every year divisible by 4 (excepting century years) and every century year divisible by 400 are bissextile (or leap) years with 366 days. All other years are common years with 365 days. The average length of this year is, therefore, 365.242,5 days which agrees very closely with the length of the tropical year (the period of changes in seasons). The Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory in 1582, and immediately adopted by the Catholic countries in place of the Julian calendar previously in use. In making the change it was ordered that the day following October 4, 1582, of the Julian calendar be designated October 15, 1582, of the Gregorian calendar; the 10 days being dropped in order that the vernal equinox would fall on March 21. The Gregorian calendar was not adopted by England until 1752, but is now in general use throughout the world. Guiana Current An Atlantic Ocean current setting northwestward along the north-east coast of South America. Guinea Current An Atlantic Ocean current setting eastward along the west central coast of Africa. A continuation of the Equatorial Counter Current of the Atlantic Ocean. gulder Local name given to the double low water occurring on the south coast of England. See double tide . Gulf Coast Low Water Datum (GCLWD) A tidal datum. Used as chart datum from November 14, 1977, to November 27, 1980, for the coastal waters of the Gulf coast of the United States. GCLWD is defined as mean lower low water when the type of tide is mixed and mean low water (now mean lower low water) when the type of tide is diurnal. See National Tidal Datum Convention of 1980 . Gulf Coast Low Water Datum line The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of Gulf Coast Low Water Datum. Gulf Stream A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward off the east coast of the United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the Gulf Stream extends from the region off Cape Hatteras to an area southeast of the Grand Banks at about latitude 40° north, longitude 50° west. It continues the flow of the Florida Current to the North Atlantic Current. Gulf Stream System Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of the Sun. h = 0.041,068,64° per solar hour. half-tide level halocline A layer in which the salinity changes significantly (relative to the layers above and below) with depth. harmonic analysis The mathematical process by which the observed tide or tidal current at any place is separated into basic harmonic constituents. harmonic analyzer A machine designed for the resolution of a periodic curve into its harmonic constituents. Now performed by electronic digital computer. harmonic constants The amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents of the tide or tidal current at any place. harmonic constituent See constituent . harmonic function In its simplest form, a quantity that varies as the cosine of an angle that increases uniformly with time. It may be expressed by the formula: y = A cos at TODO: investigate mathjax. in which y is a function if time (t), A is a constant coefficient, and a is the rate of change in the angle at. harmonic prediction Method of predicting tides and tidal currents by combining the harmonic constituents into a single tide curve. The work is usually performed by electronic digital computer. harmonic reduction The difference in water level at either end of a strait, channel, inlet, etc. head of tide The inland or upstream limit of water affected by the tide. For practical application in the tabulation for computation of tidal datums, head of tide is the inland or upstream point where the mean range becomes less than 0.2 foot. Tidal datums (except for mean water level) are not computed beyond head of tide. high tide Same as high water . high water (HW) The maximum height reached by a rising tide. The high water is due to the periodic tidal forces and the effects of meteorological, hydrologic, and/or oceanographic conditions. For tidal datum computational purposes, the maximum height is not considered a high water unless it contains a tidal high water. high water, full and change (HWF&C) The intersection of the land with the water surface at an elevation of high water. high water mark A line or mark left upon tide flats, beach, or along shore objects indicating the elevation of the intrusion of high water. The mark may be a line of oil or scum on along shore objects, or a more or less continuous deposit of fine shell or debris on the foreshore or berm. This mark is physical evidence of the general height reached by wave run up at recent high waters. It should not be confused with the mean high water line or mean higher high water line. higher high water (HHW) The highest of the high waters (or single high water) of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. higher low water (HLW) The highest of the low waters of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. Humboldt Current Same as Indian spring low water . inequality A systematic departure from the mean value of a tidal quantity. See diurnal inequality , parallax inequality , and phase inequality . inertial flow A solution of the relative hydrodynamic equations of motion in which only the horizontal component of the Coriolis and centrifugal forces are balanced. This anticyclonic flow results from a sudden application and release of a driving force which then allows the system to continue on under its own momentum without further interference. The period of rotation is 2π /2Ω sin θ, where Ω = 0.729,211 x 10-4 radians s-1 and θ = latitude. internal tide A tidal wave propagating along a sharp density discontinuity, such as a thermocline, or in an area of gradually changing (vertically) density. International Great Lakes Datum [IGLD] The International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD) is the vertical height reference datum used in the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence River System for engineering, charting, channel dredging, navigation safety, power generation, and water resource management. It is a coordinated datum between the United States and Canada that ensures both countries are using the same reference for projects in the Great Lakes basin. The datum origin, or zero, is defined as Mean Sea Level at Pointe-au-Pere /Rimouski, Quebec, Canada at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. IGLD requires updating approximately every 25-30 years to account for varying changes in the land surface elevations following the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age, referred to as Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA). The current IGLD 1985 was implemented in 1992. IGLD 1985 uses dynamic heights as the vertical reference standard and lakes station water level elevations are adjusted to provide a level geopotential plane for lake level reference. International Hydrographic Organization (formerly Bureau) An institution consisting of representatives of a number of nations organized for the purpose of coordinating the hydrographic work of the participating governments. It had its origin in the International Hydrographic Conference in London in 1919. It has permanent headquarters in the Principality of Monaco and is supported by funds provided by the member nations. Its principal publications include the Hydrographic Review and special publications on technical subjects. intertidal zone (technical definition) The zone between the mean higher high water and mean lower low water lines. interval See lunitidal interval and lunicurrent interval . inverse barometer effect The inverse response of sea level to changes in atmospheric pressure. A static reduction of 1.005 mb in atmospheric pressure will cause a stationary rise of 1 cm in sea level. Irminger Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting westward off the south-west coast of Iceland. isanostere An isopleth of either specific volume anomaly or thermosteric anomaly. isobar Observation of a current with a device moving with the current. lambda (λ2) Smaller lunar evectional constituent. This constituent, with ν2, μ2, and (S2), modulates the amplitude and frequency of M2 for the effects of variation in solar attraction of the Moon. This attraction results in a slight pear-shaped lunar ellipse and a difference in lunar orbital speed between motion toward and away from the Sun. Although (S2) has the same speed as S2, its amplitude is extremely small. Speed = 2T - s + p = 29.455,625,3° per solar hour. latitude The angular distance between a terrestrial position and the equator measured northward or southward from the equator along a meridian of longitude. leap year A calendar year containing 366 days. According to the present Gregorian calendar, all years with the date-number divisible by 4 are leap years, except century years. The latter are leap years when the date-number is divisible by 400. level of no motion A level (or layer) at which it is assumed that an isobaric surface coincides with a geopotential surface. A level (or layer) at which there is no horizontal pressure gradient force. level surface See geopotential surface as preferred term. littoral current A current in the littoral zone such as a long shore or rip current. littoral zone In coastal engineering, the area from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone. In biological oceanography, it is that part of the benthic division extending from the high water line out to a depth of about 200 meters. The littoral system is divided into a eulittoral and sublittoral zone, separated at a depth of about 50 meters. Also, frequently used interchangeably with intertidal zone. local epoch See kappa (κ) and epoch (1) . local time Time in which noon is defined by the transit of the Sun over the local meridian as distinguished from standard time which is based upon the transit of the Sun over a standard meridian. Local time may be either mean or apparent, according to whether reference is to the mean or actual Sun. Local time was in general use in the United States until 1883, when standard time was adopted. The use of local time in other parts of the world has also been practically abandoned in favor of the more convenient standard time. log line A graduated line usedto measure the speed of a vessel through the water or to measure the velocity of the current from a vessel at anchor. See current line . long period constituent A tidal or tidal current constituent with a period that is independent of the rotation of the Earth but which depends upon the orbital movement of the Moon or the Earth. The principal lunar long period constituents have periods approximating a month and half a month, and the principal solar long period constituents have periods approximating a year and half a year. long period waves (long waves) Forced or free waves whose lengths are much longer than the water depth. See tidal wave and tsunami . longitude Angular distance along a great circle of reference reckoned from an accepted origin to the projection of any point on that circle. Longitude on the Earth's surface is measured on the Equator east and west of the meridian of Greenwich and may be expressed either in degrees or in hours, the hour being taken as the equivalent of 15° of longitude. Celestial longitude is measured in the ecliptic eastward from the vernal equinox. The mean longitude of a celestial body moving in an orbit is the longitude that would be attained by a point moving uniformly in the circle of reference at the same average angular velocity as that of the body, with the initial position of the point so taken that its longitude would be the same as that of the body at a certain specified position in its orbit. With a common initial point, the mean longitude of a body will be the same in whatever circle it may be reckoned. longshore current A current paralleling the shore largely within the surf zone. It is caused by the excess water brought to the zone by the small net mass transport of wind waves. Long shore currents feed into rip currents. See progressive wave . loop of stationary wave That portion of the oscillating area where the vertical movement is greatest. Loop Current A current setting clockwise in the Gulf of Mexico. It enters through the Yucatan Channel from the Caribbean Sea and leaves through the Straits of Florida. low tide Same as low water . low water (LW) The minimum height reached by a falling tide. The low water is due to the periodic tidal forces and the effects of meteorological, hydrologic, and/or oceanographic conditions. For tidal datum com- putational purposes,the minimum height is not considered a low water unless it contains a tidal low water. low water datum (LWD) (1) The geopotential elevation (geopotential difference) for each of the Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair and the corresponding sloping surfaces of the St. Marys, St. Clair, Detroit, Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers to which are referred the depths shown on the navigational charts and the authorized depths for navigation improvement projects. Elevations of these planes are referred to IGLD 1985 and are Lake Superior-183.2 meters, Lakes Michigan and Huron-176.0 meters,Lake St.Clair-174.4 meters, Lake Erie-173.5 meters, and Lake Ontario-74.2 meters. (2) An approximation of mean low water that has been adopted as a standard reference for a limited area and is retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact that it may differ slightly from a better determination of mean low water from a subsequent series of observations. Used primarily for river and harbor engineering purposes. Boston low water datum is an example. low water equinoctial springs Low water springs near the times of the equinoxes. Expressed in terms of the harmonic constants, it is an elevation depressed below mean sea level by an amount equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the constituents M2, S2, and K2. low water inequality The intersection of the land with the water surface at an elevation of low water. lower high water (LHW) The lowest of the high waters of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. lower low water (LLW) The lowest of the low waters (or single low water) of any specified tidal day due to the declinational effects of the Moon and Sun. lower low water datum (LLWD) An approximation of mean lower low water that has been adopted as a standard reference for a limited area and is retained for an indefinite period regardless of the fact that it may differ slightly from a better determination of mean lower lowwater from a subsequent series of observations. Used primarily for river and harbor engineering purposes. Columbia River lower low water datum is an example. lowest astronomical tide As defined by the International Hydrographic Organization, the lowest tide level that can be predicted to occur under average meteorological conditions and under any combination of astronomical conditions. lunar cycle An ambiguous expression which has been applied to various cycles associated with the Moon's motion. See Callippic cycle , Metonic cycle , node cycle , and synodical month . lunar day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Moon, or the interval between two successive upper transits of the Moon over the meridian of a place. The mean lunar day is approximately 24.84 solar hours in length, or 1.035 times as great as the mean solar day. lunar interval The difference in time between the transit of the Moon over the meridian of Greenwich and a local meridian. The average value of this interval, expressed in hours, is 0.069 L, where L is the local longitude in degrees, positive for west longitude and negative for east. The lunar interval equals the difference between the local and Greenwich interval of a tide or current phase. lunar month Same as synodical month . lunar nodes The points where the plane of the Moon's orbit intersects the ecliptic. The point where the Moon crosses in going from south to north is called the ascending node and the point where the crossing is from north to south is called the descending node. References are usually made to the ascending node which, for brevity, may be called the node. lunar tide That part of the tide on the Earth due solely to the Moon as distinguished from that part due to the Sun. lunar time Time based upon the rotation of the Earth relative to the Moon. See lunar day . lunation Lunar terdiurnal constituent. A shallow water compound constituent. See shallow water constituent . Speed = 3T - 3s + 3h = 43.476,156,3° per solar hour. M4, M6, M8 Shallow water overtides of the principal lunar constituent. See shallow water constituent . Speed of M4 = 2M2 = 4T - 4s + 4h = 57.968,208,4° per solar hour. Speed of M6 = 3M2 = 6T - 6s + 6h = 86.952,312,7° per solar hour. Speed of M8 = 4M2 = 8T - 8s + 8h = 115.936,416,9° per solar hour. Maelstrom Famous whirlpool off the coast of Norway in the Lofoten Islands between Moskenesoy and Mosken. magnetic azimuth Azimuth reckoned from the magnetic north or magnetic south. See magnetic direction . magnetic declination Same as variation . magnetic direction Direction as indicated by a magnetic compass after correction for deviation but without correction for variation. marigram A graphic record of the rise and fall of water level. The record is in the form of a curve in which time is generally represented on the abscissa and the height of the water level on the ordinate. See tide curve . marine boundary The mean lower low water line (MLLWL) when used as a boundary. Also, lines used as boundaries seaward of and measured from (or points thereon) the MLLWL. See coastal boundary . mascaret Same as current hour . mean diurnal tide level (MDTL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of mean higher high water and mean lower low water. mean high water (MHW) A tidal datum. The average of all the high water heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean high water line (MHWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean high water. See shoreline . mean higher high water (MHHW) A tidal datum. The average of the higher high water height of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean higher high water line (MHHWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean higher high water. mean low water (MLW) A tidal datum. The average of all the low water heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean low water line (MLWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean low water. mean low water springs (MLWS) A tidal datum. Frequently abbreviated spring low water. The arithmetic mean of the low water heights occurring at the time of spring tides observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is usually derviced by taking an elevation depressed below the half-tide level by an amount equal to one-half the spring range of tide, necessary corrections being applied to reduce the result to a mean value. This datum is used, to a considerable extent, for hydrographic work outside of the United States and is the level of reference for the Pacific approaches to the Panama Canal. mean lower low water (MLLW) A tidal datum. The average of the lower low water height of each tidal day observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. For stations with shorter series, comparison of simultaneous observations with a control tide station is made in order to derive the equivalent datum of the National Tidal Datum Epoch. mean lower low water line (MLLWL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean lower low water. mean range of tide (Mn) The difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. mean rise The height of mean high water above the elevation of chart datum. mean rise interval (MRI) The average interval between the transit of the Moon and the middle of the period of the rise of the tide. It may be computed by adding half the duration of rise to the mean low water interval, subtracting the semidiurnal tidal period of 12.42 hours when greater than this amount. The mean rise interval may be either local or Greenwich according to whether it is referred to the local or Greenwich transit. mean river level A tidal datum. The average height of the surface of a tidal river at any point for all stages of the tide observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. It is usually determined from hourly height readings. In rivers subject to occasional freshets, the river level may undergo wide variations and, for practical purposes, certain months of the year may be excluded in the determination of the tidal datum. For charting purposes, tidal datums for rivers are usually based on observations during selected periods when the river is at or near a low water stage. mean sealevel (MSL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of hourly heights observed over the National Tidal Datum Epoch. Shorter series are specified in the name; e.g., monthly mean sea level and yearly mean sea level. mean sun A fictitious sun which is assumed to move in the celestial equator at a uniform speed corresponding to the average angular speed of the real Sun in the ecliptic, the mean sun being alternately in advance and behind the real Sun. It is used as a reference for reckoning mean time, noon of mean local time corresponding to the time of the transit of the mean sun over the local meridian. See equation of time and mean time . mean tide level (MTL) A tidal datum. The arithmetic mean of mean high water and mean low water. Same as half-tide level . mean time Time based upon the hour angle of the mean sun as distinguished from apparent time which is based upon the position of the real Sun. The difference between apparent and mean time is known as the equation of time. mean water level (MWL) A datum. The mean surface elevation as determined by averaging the heights of the water at equal intervals of time, usually hourly. Mean water level is used in areas of little or no range in tide. mean water level line (MWLL) The line on a chart or map which represents the intersection of the land with the water surface at the elevation of mean water level. meteorological tides Tidal constituents having their origin in the daily or seasonal variations in weather conditions which may occur with some degree of periodicity. The principal meteorological constituents recognized in the tides are Sa, Ssa, and Sl. See storm surge . Metonic cycle A period of almost 19 years or 235 lunations. Devised by Meton, an Athenian astronomer who lived in the fifth century B.C., for the purpose of obtaining a period in which new and full Moon would recur on the same day of the year. Taking the Julian year of 365.25 days and the synodical month as 29.530,588 days, we have the l9-year period of 6,939.75 days as compared with the 235 lunations of 6,939.69 days, a difference of only 0.06 day. Mf Lunar fortnightly constituent. This constituent expresses the effect of departure from a sinusoidal declinational motion. Speed = 2s = 1.098,033,1° per solar hour. midextreme tide An elevation midway between extreme high water and extreme low water occurring in any locality. mixed (current) Type of tidal current characterized by a conspicuous diurnal inequality in the greater and lesser flood strengths and/or greater and lesser ebb strengths. See flood current and ebb current . mixed (tide) Type of tide characterized by a conspicuous diurnal inequality in the higher high and lower high waters and/or higher low and lower low waters. See type of tide . Mm Lunar monthly constituent. This constituent expresses the effect of irregularities in the Moon's rate of change of distance and speed in orbit. Speed = s - p = 0.544,374,7° per solar hour. modified epoch See kappa prime(κ′) and epoch (1) . modified-range ratio method A tidal datum computation method. Generally used for the East Coast, Gulf Coast, and Caribbean Island stations. Values needed are mean tide level (MTL), mean diurnal tide level (DTL), mean range of tide (MN), and great diurnal range (GT) as determined by comparison with an appropriate control. From those, the following are computed: MLW = MTL - (0.5MN) MHHW = MLLW + GT Monsoon Current (Southwest Monsoon Current) An Indian Ocean current setting in a generally eastward to southeastward direction off India and Ceylon. It replaces the North Equatorial Current, reversed by wind stress of the monsoons, in August and September. month The period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth. The month is designated as siderial, tropical, anomalistic, nodical, or synodical according to whether the revolution is relative to a fixed star, vernal equinox, perigee, ascending node, or Sun. The calendar month is a rough approximation to the synodical month. MSf Speed = 2s - 2h = 1.015,895,8° per solar hour. mu (μ2) Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of the Moon's node. N = - 0.002,206,41° per solar hour. N2 Larger lunar elliptic semi diurnal constituent. See L2 Speed = 2T- 3s + 2h + p = 28.439,729,5° per solar hour. National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 [NGVD 1929] A fixed reference adopted as a standard geodetic datum for elevations determined by leveling. The datum was derived for surveys from a general adjustment of the first-order leveling nets of both the United States and Canada. In the adjustment, mean sea level was held fixed as observed at 21 tide stations in the United States and 5 in Canada. The year indicates the time of the general adjustment. A synonym for Sea-level Datum of 1929. The geodetic datum is fixed and does not take into account the changing stands of sea level. Because there are many variables affecting sea level, and because the geodetic datum represents a best fit over a broad area, the relationship between the geodetic datum and local mean sea level is not consistent from one location to another in either time or space. For this reason, the National Geodetic Vertical Datum should not be confused with mean sea level. See North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 1988) . National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) A consistent national coordinate system that defines latitude, longitude, height, scale, gravity, and orientation throughout the nation, and how these values change with time. The NSRS is developed and maintained by the National Geodetic Survey using advanced geodetic, photogrammetric, and remote sensing techniques. National Tidal Datum Convention of 1980 Effective November 28, 1980, the Convention: (1) establishes one uniform, continuous tidal datum system for all marine waters of the United States, its territories, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, for the first time in history; (2) provides a tidal datum system independent of computations based on type of tide; (3) lowers chart datum from mean low water to mean lower low water along the Atlantic coast of the United States; (4) updates the National Tidal Datum Epoch from 1941 through 1959, to 1960 through 1978; (5) changes the name Gulf Coast Low Water Datum to mean lower low water; (6) introduces the tidal datum of mean higher high water in areas of predominantly diurnal tides; and (7) lowers mean high water in areas of predominantly diurnal tides. See chart datum . National Tidal Datum Epoch The specific 19-year period adopted by the National Ocean Service as the official time segment over which tide observations are taken and reduced to obtain mean values (e.g., mean lower low water, etc.) for tidal datums. It is necessary for standardization because of periodic and apparent secular trends in sea level. The present National Tidal Datum Epoch is 1983 through 2001. It is reviewed annually for possible revision and must be actively considered for revision every 25 years. National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON) The network of tide and water level stations operated by the National Ocean Service along the marine and Great Lakes coasts and islands of the United States. The NWLON is composed of the primary and secondary control tide stations of the National Ocean Service. This Network provides the basic tidal datums for coastal and marine boundaries and for chart datum of the United States. Tide observations at a secondary control tide station or tertiary tide station are reduced to equivalent l9-year tidal datums through comparison of simultaneous observations with a primary control tide station. In addition to hydrography, nautical charting, and delineation of coastal and marine boundaries, the Network is used for coastal processes and tectonic studies, tsunami and storm surge warnings, and climate monitoring.The National Water Level Observation Network also includes stations operated throughout the Great Lakes Basin. The network supports regulation, navigation and charting, river and harbor improvement, power generation, various scientific activities, and the adjustment for vertical movement of the Earth's crust in the Great Lakes Basin. neap range See neap tides . neap tides or tidal currents Tides of decreased range or tidal currents of decreased speed occurring semimonthly as the result of the Moon being in quadrature. The neap range (Np) of the tide is the average range occurring at the time of neap tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is smaller than the mean range where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. The average height of the high waters of the neap tide is called neap high water or high water neaps (MHWN) and the average height of the corresponding low waters is called neap low water or low water neaps (MLWN). Next Generation Water Level Measurement System (NGWLMS) A fully integrated system encompassing new technology sensors and recording equipment, multiple data transmission options, and an integrated data processing, analysis, and dissemination subsystem. nodal line A line in an oscillating body of water along which there is a minimum or zero rise and fall of the tide. nodal point The zero tide point in an amphidromic region. node See lunar nodes . node cycle Period of approximately 18.61 Julian years required for the regression of the Moon's nodes to complete a circuit of 360° of longitude. It is accompanied by a corresponding cycle of changing inclination of the Moon's orbit relative to the plane of the Earth's Equator, with resulting inequalities in the rise and fall of the tide and speed of the tidal current. node factor (f) A factor depending upon the longitude of the Moon's node which, when applied to the mean coefficient of a tidal constituent, will adapt the same to a particular year for which predictions are to be made. nodical month Average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to the Moon's ascending node. It is approximately 27.212,220 days in length. nonharmonic constants Tidal constants such as lunitidal intervals, ranges, and inequalities which may be derived directly from high and low water observations without regard to the harmonic constituents of the tide. Also applicable to tidal currents. nontidal current See current . normal tide A nontechnical term synonymous with tide; i.e., the rise and fall of the ocean due to the gravitational interactions of the Sun, Moon, and Earth alone. Use of this term is discouraged. North American Vertical Datum of 1988 [NAVD 1988] A fixed reference for elevations determined by geodetic leveling. The datum was derived from a general adjustment of the terrestrial leveling nets of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In the adjustment, only the height of the primary tidal bench mark, referenced to the International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 (IGLD 1985) local mean sea level height value, at Father Point, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada was held fixed, thus providing minimum constraint. NAVD 1988 and IGLD 1985 are identical. However, NAVD 1988 bench mark values are given in Helmert orthometric height units while IGLD 1985 values are in dynamic heights. See International Great Lakes Datum of 1985 , National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 , and geopotential difference . North Atlantic Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward from southeast of the Grand Banks at about latitude 40° north, longitude 50° west, to the British Isles. A segment of the Gulf Stream System, the North Atlantic Current continues the flow of the Gulf Stream to the Norwegian and Canary Currents. North Cape Current An Arctic Ocean current setting eastward off the north coast of Scandinavia in the Barrents Sea. North Equatorial Current A current setting westward in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and in the Indian Ocean from about October to July. It occurs immediately north of the Equatorial Counter Current. North Pacific Current A North Pacific Ocean current setting eastward from about 160° east to somewhat beyond about 150° west. It continues the flow of the Kuroshio Extension, sending branches to the south. Norwegian Current A North Atlantic Ocean current setting northeastward off the coast of Norway. nu (ν2) Lunar diurnal constituent. See K1 . Speed = T - 2s + h = 13.943,035,6° per solar hour. obliquity factor A factor in an expression for a constituent tide (or tidal current) involving the angle of the inclination of the Moon's orbit to the plane of the Earth's Equator. obliquity of the ecliptic The angle which the ecliptic makes with the plane of the Earth's Equator. Its value is approximately 23.45°. obliquity of the Moon's orbit The angle which the Moon's orbit makes with the plane of the Earth's Equator. Its value varies from 18.3° to 28.6°, depending upon the longitude of the Moon's ascending node; the smaller value corresponding to a longitude of 180° and the larger one,to a longitude of 0°. oceanography Oceanography is the science of all aspects of the oceans, in spite of its etymology. The term, oceanography, implies the interrelationships of the various marine sciences of which it is composed. This connotation has arisen through the historical development of marine research in which it has been found that a true understanding of the oceans is best achieved through investigations based on the realization that water, its organic and inorganic contents, motions, and boundaries are mutually related and interdependent. OO1 Speed = T + 2s + h = 16.139,101,7° per solar hour. ordinary With respect to tides, the use of this nontechnical word has, for the most part, been determined to be synonymous with mean. Thus, ordinary high (low) water is the equivalent of mean high (low) water. The use of ordinary in tidal terms is discouraged. orifice Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of lunar perigee. p = 0.004,641,83° per solar hour. p1 Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of solar perigee. p1 = 0.000,001,96° per solar hour. Solar diurnal constituent. See K1 . Speed = T - h = 14.958,931,4° per solar hour. parallax In tidal work, the term refers to horizontal parallax, which is the angle formed at the center of a celestial body between a line to the center of the Earth and a line tangent to the Earth's surface. Since the sine of a small angle is approximately equal to the angle itself in radians, it is usually taken in tidal work simply as the ratio of the mean radius of the Earth to the distance of the tide-producing body. Since the parallax is a function of the distance of a celestial body, the term is applied to tidal inequalities arising from the changing distance of the tide-producing body. parallax inequality The variation in the range of tide or in the speed of a tidal current due to changes in the distance of the Moon from the Earth. The range of tide and speed of the current tend alternately to increase and decrease as the Moon approaches its perigee and apogee, respectively, the complete cycle being the anomalistic month. There is a similar but relatively unimportant inequality due to the Sun, the cycle being the anomalistic year. The parallax has little direct effect upon the lunitidal intervals but tends to modify the phase effect. When the Moon is in perigee, the priming and lagging of the tide due to the phase is diminished and when in apogee the priming and lagging is increased. parallax reduction A processing of observed high and low waters to obtain quantities depending upon changes in the distance of the Moon, such as perigean and apogean ranges. parallel plate intake Intake of a stilling or protective well with two parallel plates attached below. The plates are typically three times the diameter of the well and are spaced three inches apart. The plates are used to minimize current-induced draw-down (Bernoulli effect) error in water level measurements. pelorus An instrument formerly used on a vessel in connection with a current line and current pole to obtain the set of the current. In its simplest form, it was a disk about 8 inches in diameter and graduated clockwise for every 5° or 10° . It was mounted rigidly on the vessel, usually with the 0° mark forward and the diameter through this mark parallel with the keel. Bearings were then related to the vessel's compass and converted to true. perigean tides or tidal currents Tides of increased range or tidal currents of increased speed occurring monthly as the result of the Moon being in perigee. The perigean range (Pn) of tide is the average range occurring at the time of perigean tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is larger than the mean range where the type of tide is either semidiurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. perigee The point in the orbit of the Moon or a man-made satellite nearest to the Earth. The point in the orbit of a satellite nearest to its companion body. perihelion The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) nearest to the Sun. period Interval required for the completion of a recurring event, such as the revolution of a celestial body or the time between two consecutive like phases of the tide or tidal current. A period may be expressed in angular measure as 360°. The word also is used to express any specified duration of time. permanent current A current that runs continuously and is independent of tides and other temporary causes. Permanent currents include the general surface circulation of the oceans. Peru Current A South Pacific Ocean current setting northward along the west coast of South America. It has sometimes been called the Humboldt Current because an early record of its temperature was taken by the German scientist Alexander vonHumboldt in 1802. It has also been called the Peruvian or Chilean Current. The name Corriente de Peru was adopted by a resolution of the Ibero-American Oceanographic Conference at its Madrid-Malaga meeting in April 1935. phase (1) Any recurring aspect of a periodic phenomenon, such as new Moon, high water, flood strength, etc. (2) A particular instant of a periodic function expressed in angular measure and reckoned from the time of its maximum value, the entire period of the function being 360°. The maximum and minimum of a harmonic constituent have phase values of 0° and180°, respectively. phase inequality Variations in the tides or tidal currents due to changes in the phase of the Moon. At the times of new and full Moon the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun act in conjunction, causing the range of tide and speed of the tidal current to be greater than the average, the tides at these times being known as spring tides. At the times of the quadratures of the Moon these forces are opposed to each other, causing neap tides with diminished range and current speed. phase lag Same as epoch (1) . phase reduction A processing of observed high and low waters to obtain quantities depending upon the phase of the Moon, such as the spring and neap ranges of tide. At a former time this process was known as second reduction. Also applicable to tidal currents. pororoca PORTS Physical Oceanographic Real Time System. A national system of current, water level, and other oceanographical and meteorological sensors telemetering data in real-time to central locations for storage, processing, and dissemination. Available to pilots, mariners, the U.S. Coast Guard, and other marine interests in voice or digital form. First introduced in Tampa Bay. potential, tide-producing Tendency for particles on the Earth to change their positions as a result of the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Although gravitational attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance of the tide producing body, the resulting potential varies inversely as the cube of the distance. predicting machine See tide predicting machine . pressure gauge A water level gauge that is operated by the change in pressure at the bottom of a body of water due to the rise and fall of the water level. See gas purged pressure gauge . pressure gradient force, horizontal The horizontal component of the product of the specific volume and the rate of decrease in pressure with distance. pressure sensor A pressure transducer sensing device for water level measurement. A relative transducer is vented to the atmosphere and pressure readings are made relative to atmospheric pressure. An absolute transducer measures the pressure at its location. The readings are then corrected for barometric pressure taken at the surface. primary control tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum of 19 years. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values of the harmonic and nonharmonic constants essential to tide predictions and to the determination of tidal datums for charting and for coastal and marine boundaries. The data series from this station serves as a primary control for the reduction of relatively short series from subordinate tide stations through the method of comparison of simultaneous observations and for monitoring long-period sea level trends and variations. See tide station , secondary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . primary tidal bench mark A very rapid current through a comparatively narrow channel. radiational tide Periodic variations in sea level primarily related to meteorological changes such as the semidaily (solar) cycle in barometric pressure, daily (solar) land and sea breezes, and seasonal (annual) changes in temperature. Other changes in sea level due to meteorological changes that are random in phase are not considered radiational tides. range of tide The difference in height between consecutive high and low waters. The mean range is the difference in height between mean high water and mean low water. The great diurnal range or diurnal range is the difference in height between mean higher high water and mean lower low water. For other ranges see spring , neap , perigean , apogean , and tropic tides ; and tropic ranges . real-time Pertains to a data collecting system that monitors an on-going process and disseminates measured values before they are expected to have changed significantly. rectilinear current Same as reversing current . red tide (water) The term applied to toxic algal blooms caused by several genera of dinoflagellates (Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax) which turn the sea red and are frequently associated with a deterioration in water quality. The color occurs as a result of the reaction of a red pigment, peridinin, to light during photosynthesis. These toxic algal blooms pose a serious threat to marine life and are potentially harmful to humans. The term has no connection with astronomic tides. However, its association with the word "tide" is from popular observations of its movements with tidal currents in estuarine waters. reduction factor (F) Reciprocal of node factor (f). reduction of tides or tidal currents A processing of observed tide or tidal current data to obtain mean values for tidal or tidal current constants. reference station A tide or current station for which independent daily predictions are given in the "Tide Tables" and "Tidal Current Tables," and from which corresponding predictions are obtained for subordinate stations by means of differences and ratios. See subordinate tide station (2) and subordinate current station (2) . relative mean sea level change A local change in mean sea level relative to a network of bench marks established in the most stable and permanent material available (bedrock, if possible) on the land adjacent to the tide station location. A change in relative mean sea level may be composed of both an absolute mean sea level change component and a vertical land movement change component. residual current The observed current minus the astronomical tidal current. response analysis For any linear system, an input function Xi(t) and an output function XO(t) can be related according to the formula: X0(t) = 0 is the system's admittance (coherent output/input) at frequency f. In practice, the integrals are replaced by summations; Xi, W, and Z are generally complex. The discrete set of W values are termed response weights; XO(t) is ordinarily an observed tidal time series and Xi(t) the tide potential or the tide at some nearby place. A future prediction can be prepared by applying the weights to an appropriate Xi(t) series. In general: \| Z \| = R(f) and Tan(Z) = Φ(f) measure the relative magnification and phase lead of the station at frequency f. reversing current A tidal current which flows alternately in approximately opposite directions with a slack water at each reversal of direction. Currents of this type usually occur in rivers and straits where the direction of flow is more or less restricted to certain channels. When the movement is towards the shore or up a stream, the current is said to be flooding, and when in the opposite direction, it is said to be ebbing. The combined flood and ebb movement (including the slack water) covers, on an average, 12.42 hours for a semidiurnal current. If unaffected by a nontidal flow, the flood and ebb movements will each last about 6 hours, but when combined with such a flow, the durations of flood and ebb may be quite different. During the flow in each direction the speed of the current will vary from zero at the time of slack water to a maximum about midway between the slacks. reversing falls A name applied to falls which flow alternately in opposite directions in a narrow channel in the St. John River above the city of St. John, New Brunswick, Canada, the phenomenon being due to the large range of tide and a constriction in the river. The direction of flow is upstream or downstream according to whether it is high or low water on the outside, the falls disappearing at the half-tide level. rho (ρ1) Larger lunar evectional diurnal constituent. Speed = T - 3s + 3h - p = 12.471,514,5° per solar hour. rip Agitation of water caused by the meeting of currents or by a rapid current setting over an irregular bottom. Termed tide rip when a tidal current is involved. See overfalls . rip current A narrow intense current setting seaward through the surf zone. It removes the excess water brought to the zone by the small net mass transport of waves. It is fed by longshore currents. Rip currents usually occur at points, groins, jetties, etc., of irregular beaches, and at regular intervals along straight, uninterrupted beaches. river current The gravity-induced seaward flow of fresh water originating from the drainage basin of a river. In the fresh water portion of the river below head of tide, the river current is alternately increased and decreased by the effect of the tidal current. After entering a tidal estuary, river current is the depth-averaged mean flow through any cross-section. See head of tide and estuary . river estuary Rate of change (as of January 1, 1900) in mean longitude of Moon. s = 0.549,016,53° per solar hour. S1-Solar diurnal constituent. S1 Speed = T = 15.000,000,0° per solar hour. S2 Principal solar semidiurnal constituent. This constituent represents the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. Speed = 2T = 30.000,000,0° per solar hour. S4, S6 Shallowwater overtides of the principal solar constituent. Speed of S4 = 2S2 = 4T = 60.000,000,0° per solar hour. Speed of S6 = 3S2 = 6T = 90.000,000,0° per solar hour. Sa Solar annual constituent. This constituent, with Ssa, accounts for the nonuniform changes in the Sun's declination and distance. In actuality, they mostly reflect yearly meteorological variations influencing sea level. Speed = h = 0.041,068,64° per solar hour. Ssa Solar semiannual constituent. See Sa . Speed = 2h = 0.082,137,3° per solar hour. salinity (S) The total amount of solid material in grams contained in 1 kilogram of sea water when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine, and all organic matter completely oxidized. The following is approximate. S(‰) = 1.806,55 x Cl (‰) Where Cl(‰) is chlorinity in parts per thousand. See chlorinity . Sargasso Sea The west central region of the sub-tropical gyre of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is bounded by the North Atlantic, Canary, North Equatorial, and Antilles Currents, and the Gulf Stream. It is characterized by the absence of any well-marked currents and by large quantities of drifting Sargassum, or gulfweed. Saros A period of 223 synodic months corresponding approximately to 19 eclipse years or 18.03 Julian years, and is a cycle in which solar and lunar eclipses repeat themselves under approximately the same conditions. sea level datum (SLD) An obsolete term. See National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 and mean sealevel . secondary control tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum period of 1 year but less than 19 years. The series is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a primary control tide station. This station provides for a 365-day harmonic analysis including the seasonal fluctuation of sea level. See tide station , primary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . secular trend See apparent secular trend as preferred term. seiche A stationary wave usually caused by strong winds and/or changes in barometric pressure. It is found in lakes, semi-enclosed bodies of water, and in areas of the open ocean. The period of a seiche in an enclosed rectangular body of water is usually represented by the formula: Period (T) = 2L / √gd in which L is the length, d the average depth of the body of water, and g the acceleration of gravity. See standing wave . seismic sea wave Same as tsunami . semidiurnal Having a period or cycle of approximately one-half of a tidal day. The predominant type of tide throughout the world is semidiurnal, with two high waters and two low waters each tidal day. The tidal current is said to be semidiurnal when there are two flood and two ebb periods each day. A semidiurnal constituent has two maxima and two minima each constituent day, and its symbol is the subscript 2. See type of tide . sequence of current The order of occurrence of the four tidal current strengths of a day, with special reference as to whether the greater flood immediately precedes or follows the greater ebb. sequence of tide The order in which the four tides of a day occur, with special reference as to whether the higher high water immediately precedes or follows the lower low water. set (of current) The direction towards which the current flows. shallow water constituent A short-period harmonic term introduced into the formula of tidal (or tidal current) constituents to account for the change in the form of a tide wave resulting from shallow water conditions. Shallow water constituents include the overtides and compound tides. shallow water wave A wave is classified as a shallow water wave whenever the ratio of the depth (the vertical distance of the still water level from the bottom) to the wave length (the horizontal distance between crests) is less than 0.04. Such waves propagate according to the formula: C = √gd where C is the wave speed, g the acceleration of gravity, and d the depth. Tidal waves are shallow water waves. shear A quasi-horizontal layer moving at a different velocity relative to the layer directly below and/or above. shoreline (coastline) The intersection of the land with the water surface. The shoreline shown on charts represents the line of contact between the land and a selected water elevation. In areas affected by tidal fluctuations, this line of contact is the mean high water line. In confined coastal waters of diminished tidal influence,the mean water level line may be used. See coastline . sidereal day The time of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the vernal equinox. It equals approximately 0.997,27 of a mean solar day. Because of the precession of the equinoxes, the sidereal day thus defined is slightly less than the period of rotation with respect to the fixed stars, but the difference is less than a hundredth part of a second. sidereal month Average period of the revolutionof the Moon around the Earth with respect to a fixed star, equal to 27.321,661 mean solar days. sidereal time This is usually defined by astronomers as the hour angle of the vernal equinox. The sidereal day is the interval between two successive upper transits of the vernal equinox. It is to be noted that when applied to the month and year the word sidereal has reference to motion with respect to the fixed stars, while the word tropical is used for motion with respect to the vernal equinox. Because of the precession of the equinox there is a slight difference. sidereal year Average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to a fixed star. Its length is approximately 365.256,4 mean solar days. sigma-t (σt) An expression of density as a function of temperature and salinity (at atmospheric pressure) in a convenient numerical form. See density. σt = (ρs,t,p - 1)1,000 sigma-zero (σ0) An expression of density as a function of salinity (at atmospheric pressure and 0°C) in a convenient numerical form. See density. σ0 = (ρs,t,o - 1)1,000 slack; ebb begins (slack before ebb) The slack water immediately preceding the ebb current. slack; flood begins (slack before flood) The slack water immediately preceding the flood current. slack water (slack) The state of a tidal current when its speed is near zero, especially the moment when a reversing current changes direction and its speed is zero. The term also is applied to the entire period of low speed near the time of turning of the current when it is too weak to be of any practical importance in navigation. The relation of the time of slack water to the tidal phases varies in different localities. For a perfect standing tidal wave, slack water occurs at the time of high and of low water, while for a perfect progressive tidal wave, slack water occurs midway between high and low water. See slack; ebb begins and slack; flood begins . S1 Different in height between mean lower high water and mean higher low water. Sc Different in height between tropic lower high water and tropic higher low water. solar day The period of the rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun. The mean solar day is the time of the rotation with respect to the mean Sun. The solar day commencing at midnight is called a civil or calendar day, but if the day is reckoned from noon it is known as an astronomical day because of its former use in astronomical calculation. solar tide (1) The part of the tide that is due to the tide-producing force of the Sun. (2) The observed tide in areas where the solar tide is dominant. This condition provides for phase repetition at about the same time each solar day. solar time Time measured by the hour angle of the Sun. It is called apparent time when referred to the actual Sun and mean time when referred to the mean Sun. It is also classified as local, standard, or Greenwich according to whether it is reckoned from the local, standard, or Greenwich meridian. solitary wave A wave of translation consisting of a single crest rising above the undisturbed water level without any accompanying trough. The rate of advance of a solitary wave depends upon the depth of the water and is usually expressed by the formula: C = √g(d + h) in which C = rate of advance, g = acceleration of gravity, d = depth of water, and h = height of wave, the depth and height being measured from the undisturbed water level. solstices The two points in the ecliptic where the Sun reaches its maximum and minimum declinations; also the times when the Sun reaches these points. The maximum north declination occurs on or near June 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern. The maximum south declination occurs on or near December 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern. solstitial tides Tides occurring near the times of the solstices. The tropic range may be expected to be especially large at these times. Somali (East Africa Coast) Current An Indian Ocean current setting southwestward along the coast of Somalia. The current reverses and sets to the northeast during the Southwest Monsoon. South Equatorial Current A current setting westward along and south of the Equator in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean. It occurs immediately south of the Equatorial Counter Current. Southwest Monsoon Current Same as Monsoon Current . species of constituent A classification depending upon the period of a constituent. The principal species are semidiurnal, diurnal, and long-period. specific volume anomaly, or steric anomaly (α) The excess in specific volume over the standard specific volume at 35 ‰, 0°C, and the given pressure. See thermosteric anomaly and specific volume . δ=αs,t,p - α35,o,p specific volume, in situ (αs,t,p) Volume per unit mass. The reciprocal of density (specific gravity). The specific volume of sea water as a function of salinity, temperature, and pressure. See specific volume anomaly and thermosteric anomaly . speed (of constituent) The rate of change in the phase of a constituent, usually expressed in degrees per hour. The speed is equal to 360° divided by the constituent period expressed in hours. speed (of current) The magnitude of velocity. Rate at which the current flows. Usually expressed in knots or centimeters per second. Spitsbergen Atlantic Current A current setting northwestward off the southwest coast of Spitsbergen in the Greenland Sea. spring highwater Same as mean high water springs (MHWS). See spring tides . spring low water See spring tides . spring tides or tidal currents Tides of increased range or tidal currents of increased speed occurring semimonthly as the result of the Moon being new or full. The spring range (Sg) of tide is the average range occurring at the time of spring tides and is most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. It is larger than the mean range where the type of tide is either semi diurnal or mixed, and is of no practical significance where the type of tide is predominantly diurnal. The average height of the high waters of the spring tides is called spring high water or mean high water springs (MHWS) and the average height of the corresponding low waters is called spring low water or mean low water springs (MLWS). stand of tide Sometimes called a platform tide. An interval at high or low water when there is no sensible change in the height of the tide. The water level is stationary at high and low water for only an instant, but the change in level near these times is so slow that it is not usually perceptible. In general,the duration of the apparent stand will depend upon the range of tide, being longer for a small range than for a large range, but where there is a tendency for a double tide the stand may last for several hours even with a large range of tide. standard method A tidal datum computation method. Generally used for the West Coast and Pacific Island stations. Values needed are mean tide level (MTL), mean range of tide (MN), great diurnal range (GT), and mean diurnal high and low water inequalities (DHQ and DLQ) as determined by comparison with an appropriate control. From those, the following are computed: MLW = MTL - (0.5MN) MHHW = MHW + DHQ standardtime A kind of time based upon the transit of the Sun over a certain specified meridian, called the time meridian, and adopted for use over a considerable area. With a few exceptions, standard time is based upon some meridian which differs by a multiple of 15° from the meridian of Greenwich. The United States first adopted standard time in 1883 on the initiative of the American Railway Association, and at noon on November 18 of that year the telegraphic time signals from the Naval Observatory at Washington were changed to this system. standing (stationary) wave A wave that oscillates without progressing. One-half of such a wave may be illustrated by the oscillation of the water in a pan that has been tilted. Near the axis, which is called the node or nodal line, there is no vertical rise and fall of the water. The ends of the wave are called loops and at these places the vertical rise and fall is at a maximum. The current is maximum near the node and minimum at the loops. The period of a stationary wave depends upon the length and depth of the body of water and, for a simple rectangular basin, may be expressed by the formula: T = 2L / √gd in which T is the period of wave, L the length of the basin, d the depth of water, and g the acceleration of gravity. A stationary wave may be resolve d into two progressive waves of equal amplitude and equal speeds moving in opposite directions. stationary wave theory An assumption that the basic tidal movement in the open ocean consists of a system of stationary wave oscillations, any progressive wave movement being of secondary importance except as the tide advances into tributary waters. The continental masses divide the sea into irregular basins, which, although not completely enclosed, are capable of sustaining oscillations which are more or less independent. The tide-producing force consists principally of two parts, a semidiurnal force with a period of approximately half a day and a diurnal force with a period of approximately a whole day. Insofar as the free period of oscillation of any part of the ocean, as determined by its dimensions and depth, is in accord with the semidiurnal or diurnal tide-producing forces, there will be built up corresponding oscillations of considerable amplitude which will be manifested in the rise and fall of the tide. The diurnal oscillations, superimposed upon the semidiurnal oscillations, cause the inequalities in the heights of the two high and the two low waters of each day. Although the tidal movement as a whole is somewhat complicated by the overlapping of oscillating areas, the theory is consistent with observational data. stencils Perforated sheets formerly used with the tabulated hourly heights of the tide or speeds of the tidal current for the purpose of distributing and grouping them into constituent hours preliminary to summing for harmonic analysis. See Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98, Manual of Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides. This analysis is now performed on electronic digital computers. steric anomaly Same as specific volume anomaly . stilling well A vertical pipe with a relatively small opening (intake) in the bottom. It is used in a gauge installation to dampen short period surface waves while freely admitting the tide, other long period waves, and sea level variations; which can then be measured by a water level gauge sensor inside. See float well and protective well . storm surge The local change in the elevation of the ocean along a shore due to a storm. The storm surge is measured by subtracting the astronomic tidal elevation from the total elevation. It typically has a duration of a few hours. Since wind generated waves ride on top of the storm surge (and are not included in the definition), the total instantaneous elevation may greatly exceed the predicted storm surge plus astronomic tide. It is potentially catastrophic, especially on low lying coasts with gently sloping offshore topography. See storm tide . storm tide As used by the National Weather Service, NOAA, the sum of the storm surge and astronomic tide. See storm surge . stray line Ungraduated portion of line connected with the current pole formerly used in taking current observations. The stray line was usually about 100 feet long and permitted the pole to acquire the velocity of the current at some distance from the disturbed waters in the immediate vicinity of the observing vessel, before the current velocity was read from the graduated portion of the current line. strength of current Phase of tidal current in which the speed is a maximum; also the speed at this time. Beginning with slack before flood in the period of a reversing tidal current (or minimum before flood in a rotary current), the speed gradually increases to flood strength and then diminishes to slack before ebb (or minimum before ebb in a rotary current), after which the current turns in direction, the speed increases to ebb strength and then diminishes to slack before flood, completing the cycle. If it is assumed that the speed throughout the cycle varies as the ordinates of a cosine curve, it can be shown that the average speed for an entire flood or ebb period is equal to 2/π or 0.636,6 of the speed of the corresponding strength of current. strength of ebb Lands covered by water at any stage of the tide. See tidelands . subordinate current station (1) A current station from which a relatively short series of observations is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a control current station. See current station , control current station , and reference station . (2) A station listed in the Tidal Current Tables for which predictions are to be obtained by means of differences and ratios applied to the full predictions at a reference station. See reference station . subordinate tide station (1) A tide station from which a relatively short series of observations is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a tide station with a relatively long series of observations. See tide station , primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , and tertiary tide station . (2) A station listed in the Tide Tables from which predictions are to be obtained by means of differences and ratios applied to the full predictions at a reference station. See reference station . summer time Rate of change of hour angle of mean Sun at place of observation. T = 15° per mean solar hour. T2 Larger solar elliptic constituent. See R2 . Speed = 2T - h + p1 = 29.958,933,3° per solar hour. tape gauge See electric tape gauge telemetry The capability of transmitting or retrieving data over long distance communication links, such as satellite, VHF radio, or telephone. terdiurnal Having three periods in a constituent day. The symbol of a terdiurnal constituent is the subscript 3. tertiary tide station A tide station at which continuous observations have been made over a minimum period of 30 days but less than 1 year. The series is reduced by comparison with simultaneous observations from a secondary control tide station. This station provides for a 29-day harmonic analysis. See tide station , primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . thermocline A layer in which the temperature decreases significantly (relative to the layers above and below) with depth. The principal ones are designated diurnal, seasonal, and main thermocline. thermosteric anomaly (δT, Δ′, or Δs,t) The specific volume anomaly (steric anomaly) that would be attained if the water were changed isothermally to a standard pressure of one atmosphere. The specific volume anomaly with pressure terms omitted. See isanostere . tidal bench mark See bench mark . tidal benchmark description A published, concise description of the location, stamped number or designation, date established, and elevation (referred to a tidal datum) of a specific bench mark. tidal bench mark state index map A state map which indicates the locations for which tidal datums and tidal bench mark descriptions are available. tidal bore A tidal wave that propagates up a relatively shallow and sloping estuary or river with a steep wave front. The leading edge presents an abrupt rise in level, frequently with continuous breaking and often immediately followed by several large undulations. An uncommon phenomenon, the tidal bore is usually associated with very large ranges in tide as well as wedge shaped and rapidly shoaling entrances. Also called eagre, eager (for Tsientan, China bore), mascaret (French), pororoca (Brazilian), and bore. tidal characteristics Principally, those features relating to the time, range, and type of tide. tidal constants Tidal relations that remain practically constant for any particular locality. Tidal constants are classified as harmonic and nonharmonic. The harmonic constants consist of the amplitudes and epochs of the harmonic constituents, and the nonharmonic constants include the ranges and intervals derived directly from the high and low water observations. tidal constituent See constituent . tidal current A horizontal movement of the water caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. The horizontal component of the particulate motion of a tidal wave. Part of the same general movement of the sea that is manifested in the vertical rise and fall called tide. The United States equivalent of the British tidal stream. See tidal wave , tide , and current . Tidal Current Chart Diagrams A series of monthly diagrams to be used with the Tidal Current Charts. Each diagram contains lines that indicate the specific tidal current chart to use for a given date and time, and the speed factor to apply to that chart. Tidal Current Charts Charts on which tidal current data are depicted. Tidal Current Charts for a number of important waterways are published by the National Ocean Service. Each consists of a set of charts giving the speed and direction of the current for each hour or equal interval of the tidal cycle, thus presenting a comprehensive view of the tidal current movement. tidal current constants British equivalent of United States tidal current. tidal wave A shallow water wave caused by the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. Essentially, high water is the crest of a tidal wave and low water, the trough. Tidal current is the horizontal component of the particulate motion, while tide is manifested by the vertical component. The observed tide and tidal current can be considered the result of the combination of several tidal waves, each of which may vary from nearly pure progressive to nearly pure standing and with differing periods, heights, phase relationships, and direction. tidal zoning The practice of dividing a hydrographic survey area into discrete zones or sections, each one possessing similar tidal characteristics. One set of tide reducers is assigned to each zone. Tide reducers are used to adjust the soundings in that zone to chart datum (MLLW). Tidal zoning is necessary in order to correct for differing water level heights occurring throughout the survey area at any given time. Each zone of the survey area is geographically delineated such that the differences in time and range do not exceed certain limits, generally 0.2 hours and 0.2 feet respectively; however, these limits are subject to change depending upon type of survey, location, and tidal characteristics. The tide reducers are derived from the water levels recorded at an appropriate tide station, usually nearby. Tide reducers are used to correct the soundings throughout the hydrographic survey area to a common, uniform, uninterrupted chart datum. See tide reducers . tide The periodic rise and fall of a body of water resulting from gravitational interactions between Sun, Moon, and Earth. The vertical component of the particulate motion of a tidal wave. Although the accompanying horizontal movement of the water is part of the same phenomenon, it is preferable to designate this motion as tidal current. See tidal wave . tide curve A graphic representation of the rise and fall of the tide in which time is usually represented by the abscissa and height by the ordinate. For a semidiurnal tide with little diurnal inequality, the graphic representation approximates a cosine curve. See marigram . tide datum See datum . tide (water level) gauge An instrument for measuring the rise and fall of the tide (water level). See ADR gauge , automatic tide gauge, Next Generation Water Level Measurement System, gas purged pressure gauge, electric tape gauge, pressure gauge, and tide staff. tide predicting machine A mechanical analog machine especially designed to handle the great quantity of constituent summations required in the harmonic method. William Ferrel's Maxima and Minima Tide Predictor (described in Manual of Tides, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Appendix 10, Report for 1883) was the first such machine used in the United States. Summing only 19 constituents, but giving direct readings of the predicted times and heights of the high and low waters, the Ferrel machine was used for the predictions of 1885 through 1914. A second machine, developed by Rollin A. Harris and E. G. Fischer and summing 37 constituents, was used for the predictions of 1912 through 1965 (described in Manual of Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides by Paul Schureman, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98, 1958). Predictions are now prepared using an electronic digital computer. tide-producing force That part of the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun which is effective in producing the tides on the Earth. The force varies approximately as the mass of the attracting body and inversely as the cube of its distance. The tide-producing force exerted by the Sun is a little less than one-half as great as that of the Moon. A mathematical development of the vertical and horizontal components of the tide-producing forces of the Moon and Sun will be found in Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 98. tide reducers Height corrections for reducing soundings to chart datum (MLLW). A tide reducer represents the height of the water level at a given place and time relative to chart datum. Tide reducers are obtained from one or more tide stations within or nearby the survey area. Often, due to differing tidal characteristics over the survey area, the tide reducers obtained directly from a tide station must be corrected to adjust for time and range of tide differences in the various zones of the hydrographic survey area. See tidal zoning . tide rip See rip . tide staff A water level gauge consisting of a vertical graduated staff from which the height of the water level can be read directly. It is called a fixed staff when secured in place so that it cannot be easily removed. A portable staff is one that is designed for removal from the water when not in use. For such a staff a fixed support is provided. The support has a metal stop secured to it so that the staff will always have the same elevation when installed for use. See electric tape gauge . tide (water level) station The geographic location at which tidal observations are conducted. Also, the facilities used to make tidal observations. These may include a tide house, tide (water level) gauge, tide staff, and tidal bench marks. See primary control tide station , secondary control tide station , tertiary tide station , and subordinate tide station (1) . Tide Tables Tables which give daily predictions of the times and heights of high and low waters. These predictions are usually supplemented by tidal differences and constants through which predictions can be obtained for numerous other locations. tide wave See tidal wave . tidelands The zone betweenthe mean highwater and mean low water lines. It is identical with intertidal zone (technical definition) when the type of tide is semidiurnal or diurnal. tidewater Water activated by the tide generating forces and/or water affected by the resulting tide, especially in coastal and estuarine areas. Also, a general term often applied to the land and water of estuarine areas formed by postglacial drowning of coastal plain rivers. tideway A channel through which a tidal current flows. time Time is measured by the rotation of the Earth with respect to some point in the celestial sphere and may be designated as sidereal, solar, or lunar, according to whether the measurement is taken in reference to the vernal equinox, the Sun, or the Moon. Solar time may be apparent or mean, according to whether the reference is to the actual Sun or the mean Sun. Mean solar time may be local or standard, according to whether it is based upon the transit of the Sun over the local meridian or a selected meridian adopted as a standard over a considerable area. Greenwich time is standard time based upon the meridian of Greenwich. In civil time the day commences at midnight, while in astronomical time, as used prior to 1925, the beginning of the day was reckoned from noon of the civil day of the same date. The name universal time is now applied to Greenwich mean civil time. time meridian A meridian used as a reference for time. total current The combinationof the tidal and nontidal current. The United States equivalent of the British flow. See current . tractive force The horizontal component of a tide-producing force vector (directed parallel with level surfaces at that geographic location). transit The passage of a celestial body over a specified meridian. The passage is designated as upper transit or lower transit according to whether it is over that part of the meridian lying above or below the polar axis. tropic currents Tidal currents occurring semimonthly when the effect of the Moon's maximum declination is greatest. At these times the tendency of the Moon to produce a diurnal inequality in the current is at a maximum. tropic inequalities Tropic high water inequality (HWQ) is the average difference between the two high waters of the day at the times of tropic tides. Tropic low water inequality (LWQ) is the average difference between the two low waters of the day at the times of tropic tides. These terms are applicable only when the type of tide is semidiurnal or mixed. See tropic tides . tropic intervals Tropic higher high water interval (TcHHWI) is the lunitidal interval pertaining to the higher high waters at the time of the tropic tides. Tropic lower low water interval (TcLLWI) is the lunitidal interval pertaining to the lower low waters at the time of the tropic tides. Tropic intervals are marked a when reference is made to the upper transit of the Moon at its north declination or to the lower transit at the time of south declination, and are marked b when the reference is to the lower transit at the north declination or to the upper transit at the south declination. See tropic tides . tropic ranges The great tropic range (Gc),or tropic range, is the difference in height between tropic higher high water and tropic lower low water. The small tropic range (Sc) is the difference inheight between tropic lower high water and tropic higher low water. The mean tropic range (Mc) is the mean between the great tropic and the small tropic range. Tropic ranges are most conveniently computed from the harmonic constants. See tropic tides . tropic speed The greater floodor greater ebb speed at the time of tropic currents. tropictides Tides occurring semimonthly when the effect of the Moon's maximum declination is greatest. At these times there is a tendency for an increase in the diurnal range. The tidal datums pertaining to the tropic tides are designated as tropic higher high water (TcHHW), tropic lower high water (TcLHW), tropic higher lowwater (TcHLW), and tropic lower low water (TcLLW). tropical month The average period of the revolution of the Moon around the Earth with respect to the vernal equinox. Its length is approximately 27.321,582 days. tropical year The average period of the revolution of the Earth around the Sun with respect to the vernal equinox. Its length is approximately 365.242,2 days. The tropical year determines the cycle of changes in the seasons, and is the unit to which the calendar year is adjusted through the occasional introduction of the extra day on leap years. trough The lowest point in a propagating wave. See low water and tidal wave . true direction Direction relative to true north (0°) which is the direction of the north geographic pole. See compass direction and magnetic direction . tsunami See equilibrium argument . vanishing tide In a predominantly mixed tide with a very large diurnal inequality, the lower high water and higher low water become indistinct (or vanish) at times of extreme declinations. variation (of compass) Difference between true north as determined by the Earth's axis of rotation and magnetic north as determined by the Earth's magnetism. Variation is designated as east or positive when the magnetic needle is deflected to the east of true north and as west or negative when the deflection is to the west of true north. The variation changes with time. Also called magnetic declination. variational inequality An inequality in the Moon's motion due mainly to the tangential component of the Sun's attraction. velocity (of current) Speed and set of the current. vernal equinox	i don't know
"According to the popular metaphorical expression, ""Revenge is a dish best served (what?)""?"	Learn and talk about Revenge, Revenge "Retaliation" and "Retaliate" redirect here. For other uses, see Retaliation (disambiguation) and Revenge (disambiguation) . Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing Crime by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon , c. 1805–8 Revenge is a form of primitive justice usually assumed to be enacted in the absence of the norms of formal law and jurisprudence . Often, revenge is defined as being a harmful action against a person or group in response to a grievance, be it real or perceived. It is used to right a wrong by going outside of the law. This is because the individual taking revenge feels as though the law will not do justice. Revenge is also known as payback , retribution , retaliation, or vengeance; it may be characterized as a form of justice (not to be confused with retributive justice ), an altruistic action which enforces societal or moral justice aside from the legal system. Francis Bacon described it as a kind of "wild justice" that "does... offend the law [and] putteth the law out of office". [1] Primitive justice or retributive justice is often differentiated from more formal and refined forms of justice such as distributive justice and divine judgment . Contents Engraving by Gustave Doré illustrating the Erinyes , chthonic deities of vengeance and death Shakespeare 's Hamlet tells a history in which a man avenged the murder of his father by killing his uncle [2] (Artist: Gustave Moreau ) Detractors argue that revenge is simply wrong, of the same design as " two wrongs make a right ". Social psychologist Ian Mckee states that the desire for the sustenance of power motivates vengeful behavior as a means of impression management: "People who are more vengeful tend to be those who are motivated by power, by authority and by the desire for status. They don't want to lose face ." [3] [4] Revenge dynamics[ edit ] Some societies encourage vengeful behavior, which is called feud . These societies usually regard the honor of individuals and groups as of central importance. Thus, while protecting of his reputation an avenger feels as if he restores the previous state of dignity and justice . According to Michael Ignatieff , "revenge is a profound moral desire to keep faith with the dead, to honor their memory by taking up their cause where they left off". [5] Thus, honor may become a heritage that passes from generation to generation. Whenever it is compromised, the affected family or community members might feel compelled to retaliate against an offender to restore the initial "balance of honor" that preceded the perceived injury. This cycle of honor might expand by bringing the family members and then the entire community of the new victim into the brand-new cycle of revenge that may pervade generations. [6] History[ edit ] German announcement of killing 2300 civilians in Kragujevac massacre as retaliation for 10 killed German soldiers. Nazi-occupied Serbia , 1941 Feuds are cycles of provocation and retaliation, fueled by a burning desire for revenge and carried out over long periods of time by familial or tribal groups; they were an important part of many pre-industrial societies , especially in the Mediterranean region. They still persist in some areas, notably in Albania with its tradition of gjakmarrja or "blood feuds". [7] During the Middle Ages , most would not regard an insult or injury as settled until it was avenged, or, at the least, paid for — hence, the extensive Anglo-Saxon system of weregild (literally, "man-price") payments, which placed a certain monetary value upon certain acts of violence in an attempt to limit the spiral of revenge by codifying the responsibility of a malefactor. Blood feuds are still practiced in many parts of the world, including Kurdish regions of Turkey and in Papua New Guinea . [8] [9] Honoring ones family, clan, or lord through the practice of revenge killings (敵討ち katakiuchi). These killings could also involve the relatives of an offender. Today, katakiuchi is most often pursued by peaceful means, but revenge remains an important part of Japanese culture. The motto of Scotland is Nemo me impune lacessit , Latin for "Nobody shall provoke/injure me with impunity". The origin of the motto reflects the feudal clan system of ancient Scotland, particularly the Highlands . The goal of some legal systems is limited to "just" revenge — in the fashion of the contrapasso punishments awaiting those consigned to Dante's Inferno , some have attempted to turn the crime against the criminal, in clever and often gruesome ways. Modern Western legal systems usually state as their goal the reform or reeducation of a convicted criminal. Even in these systems, however, society is considered the victim of a criminal's actions, and the notion of vengeance for such acts is an important part of the concept of justice — a criminal "pays his debt to society". Sudan has suffered cycles of revenge for many years, for example tribal conflicts in Darfur . South Sudan is torn by tribal conflicts with ethnic cleansing between the Nuer and Dinka peoples , fueled by appetite for revenge. Proverbs[ edit ] The popular expression "revenge is a dish best served cold" suggests that revenge is more satisfying if enacted when unexpected or long feared, inverting traditional civilized revulsion toward "cold-blooded" violence. [10] The idea's origin is obscure. The French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (1754–1838) has been credited with the saying, "La vengeance est un met que l'on doit manger froid" ["Revenge is a dish that must be eaten cold"], albeit without supporting detail. [11] It has been in the English language at least since the 1846 translation of the 1845 French novel Mathilde by Joseph Marie Eugène Sue : "la vengeance se mange très bien froide", [12] there italicized as if quoting a proverbial saying, and translated "revenge is very good eaten cold". [13] It has been wrongly credited [14] to the novel Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782). Its path to modern popularity may begin with the 1949 film Kind Hearts and Coronets which had revenge is a dish which people of taste prefer to eat cold. The familiar wording appears in the film Death Rides a Horse (1967), in the novel The Godfather by Mario Puzo (1969), as if from an "old Klingon Proverb" in the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982) and again in the title sequence of the Quentin Tarantino film Kill Bill: Volume 1 (2003) where it was jokingly cited as a Klingon proverb. The phrase has also been credited to the Pashtuns of Afghanistan. [15] Another proverb states, "Before you embark on a journey of revenge, dig two graves." Another version ( Chinese : 子不复仇非子也) proposes that a son who does not take revenge for his parents is not a son. In art[ edit ] Igagoe buyuden. This is an episode from a popular story of revenge--how the son of a murdered samurai tracked the killer over all Japan. Revenge is a popular subject across many forms of art. Some examples include the painting Herodias' Revenge by Juan de Flandes and the opera Don Giovanni by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart . In Japanese art, revenge is a theme in various woodblock prints depicting the forty-seven Ronin by many well-known and influential artists, including Utagawa Kuniyoshi . The Chinese playwright Ji Junxiang used revenge as the central theme in his theatrical work The Orphan of Zhao ; [16] it depicts more specifically familial revenge, which is placed in the context of Confucian morality and social hierarchical structure. [17] In literature[ edit ] Revenge has been a popular literary theme historically and continues to play a role in modern and contemporary works today. Notable examples of literature that feature revenge as a theme include the plays Hamlet and Othello by William Shakespeare , the novel The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas , and the short story " The Cask of Amontillado " by Edgar Allan Poe . More modern examples include the novels Carrie by Stephen King and Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn . Other examples are the Greek myths of Medea , and the novel The Princess Bride by William Goldman . Although revenge is a theme in itself, it is also considered to be a genre. [18] Revenge as a genre has been consistent with a variety of themes that have frequently appeared in different texts over the last few centuries. Such themes at hand include but are not limited to: disguise , masking , sex, cannibalism , the grotesque , bodily fluids, power, violent murders, and secrecy. [19] Each theme, along with the concept of dramatic irony , play a large role in the success of revenge in literature. Dramatic irony is a literary device in which the audience possesses knowledge unavailable to characters in a novel, play, or film. [20] Its purpose is to intensify the tragic events that are going to unfold by creating tension between the audience and the actions of the characters. [20] It is essential to narratives of revenge. The most common theme within the genre of revenge is the recurring violent murders that take place throughout the text, more so, however, in the final act or scene. The root of the violence is usually derived from the characters' childhood development. [21] Violent murders are seen in many texts ranging from dramas to novels. Carrie , a 20th century novel written by Steven King , has prime examples of this theme that do, indeed, occur during the final scenes. Another interesting text that incorporates this theme is the sixteenth-century drama Titus Andronicus by William Shakespeare . Continuing on, the themes of masking and disguise have the ability to go hand in hand with one another. A character may employ disguise literally or metaphorically . A mask, per se, is the literal example of this theme; while pretending to be something one is not is considered to be the metaphoric example. Additional themes that may cause the protagonist and antagonist to develop a masked or disguised identity include sex, power, and even cannibalism . Examples of sex and power being used as themes can be seen in the novel Gone Girl , by Gillian Flynn , as well as the already mentioned drama, Titus Andronicus . Overall, although revenge is considered a theme in itself, its constant development over the last few centuries can allow it to be considered a genre as well. Key components, expressed as themes, that make up this genre are prevalent in copious literary works.	Cold
What is the square root of 529?	The Married Couple Behind “Tender Is the Night” - The New Yorker Living Well Is the Best Revenge By Calvin Tomkins Gerald and Sara Murphy with friends at a beach in the French Riviera, late 1920s.CreditPhotograph from Granger A writer like F. Scott Fitzgerald, whose life can almost be said to have attracted more attention than his work, may have to wait a long time before his literary reputation finds its true level. Although “Tender Is the Night,” the novel Fitzgerald liked best of the four he published during his lifetime, was generally considered a failure when it first appeared (even by Fitzgerald, who tried to improve its standing by writing a revised version that nearly everybody agreed was much worse), it has been quietly assuming, over the years, something like the status of an American classic. Sales in the past twelve months exceeded five hundred and fifty thousand copies, or about forty-five times the sale of the original edition. The book, which was out of print when Fitzgerald died, in 1940, is now available in four editions, and is required reading in a large number of college courses in American literature. If many critics still regard it as a failure, they now tend to see it as a noble failure, a flawed masterpiece, and if they still complain that the disintegration of Dick Diver, its psychiatrist hero, is never satisfactorily resolved, most of them concede that Diver is one of those rare heroes in American fiction about whom the reader really cares, and that the account of his disintegration, ambiguous though it may be, is so harrowing that it makes the glittering perfection of plot in a novel like “The Great Gatsby” seem almost too neat. The real trouble with the book, as every college English major knows, is that Fitzgerald started out by using a friend of his named Gerald Murphy as the model for Dick Diver, and then allowed Diver to change, midway through the narrative, into F. Scott Fitzgerald. To a lesser degree, he did the same thing with his heroine, Nicole Diver, who has some of the physical characteristics and mannerisms of Sara Murphy, Gerald’s wife, but is in all other respects Zelda Fitzgerald. The double metamorphosis was readily apparent at the time to friends of the Fitzgeralds and the Murphys. Ernest Hemingway wrote Fitzgerald a cutting letter about the book, accusing him of cheating with his material; by starting with the Murphys and then changing them into different people, Hemingway contended, Fitzgerald had produced not people at all but beautifully faked case histories. Gerald Murphy raised the same point when he read the novel, which was dedicated “To Gerald and Sara—Many Fêtes,” and Fitzgerald’s reply, Murphy recalled the other day, almost floored him. “The book,” Fitzgerald said, “was inspired by Sara and you, and the way I feel about you both and the way you live, and the last part of it is Zelda and me because you and Sara are the same people as Zelda and me.” This astonishing statement served to confirm a long-held conviction of Sara Murphy’s that Fitzgerald knew very little about people, and nothing at all about the Murphy’s. Now in their seventies, the Murphys today are not inclined to think very much about the past. The book was published in 1934, and Gerald spent the next twenty-two years in his father’s old position as president of Mark Cross, the New York leather-goods store—a position he took out of necessity and from which he retired, with great relief, in 1956. Last summer, he and Sara both reread “Tender Is the Night” for the first time since it was published, and with varying reactions. “I didn’t like the book when I read it, and I liked it even less on rereading,” Sara said. “I reject categorically any resemblance to us or to anyone we knew at any time.” Gerald, on the other hand, was fascinated to discover (he had not noticed it the first time) how Fitzgerald had used “everything he noted or was told about by me” during the years that the two couples spent together in Paris and on the Riviera—the years from 1924 to 1929. Almost every incident, he became aware, almost every conversation in the opening section of the book had some basis in an actual event or conversation involving the Murphys, although it was often altered or distorted in detail. “When I like men,” Fitzgerald once wrote, “I want to be like them—I want to lose the outer qualities that give me my individuality and be like them.” Fitzgerald wanted to be like Gerald Murphy because he admired Murphy as much as any man he had ever met, and because he was thoroughly fascinated, and sometimes thoroughly baffled, by the life the Murphys had created for themselves and their friends. It was a life of great originality, and considerable beauty, and some of its special quality comes through in the first hundred pages of “Tender Is the Night.” In the eyes of the young actress, Rosemary Hoyt, the Divers represented “the exact furthermost evolution of a class, so that most people seemed awkward beside them.” Dick Diver’s “extraordinary virtuosity with people,” his “exquisite consideration,” his “politeness that moved so fast and intuitively, that it could be examined only in its effect” all were, and still are, qualities of Gerald Murphy’s, and the Divers’ effect on their friends has many echoes in the Murphys’ effect on theirs. “People were always their best selves with the Murphys,” John Dos Passos, who has known them for forty years, has said, and Archibald MacLeish, who has known them even longer, once remarked that from the beginning of the Murphys’ life in Europe, “person after person—English, French, American, everybody—met them and came away saying that these people really are masters in the art of living.” “At certain moments,” Fitzgerald wrote in his notes for “The Last Tycoon,” “one man appropriates to himself the total significance of a time and place.” For Fitzgerald, Gerald and Sara Murphy embodied the significance of that remarkable decade in France, during which, as he once wrote, “whatever happened seemed to have something to do with art.” Even though Fitzgerald himself showed very little interest in the art of his time, and ignored it completely in “Tender Is the Night,” he did respond to the atmosphere of freshness and discovery that characterized the period. When the Fitzgeralds arrived in France, in the spring of 1924, the Murphys had been there for nearly three years, and had become, according to MacLeish, a “sort of nexus with everything that was going on.” In various apartments and houses they rented in or near Paris, and at a villa they were renovating at Cap d’Antibes, on the Riviera, one met not only American writers like Hemingway and MacLeish and Dos Passos but a good many of the Frenchmen and other Europeans who were forging the art of the twentieth century—Picasso, who had a studio near them in Paris, and who came down to visit them in Antibes; Léger, who liked to take them on nocturnal tours of Paris’s earthy little cafés, bars, dance halls, and sideshows; Stravinsky, who came to dinner and unfailingly commented on the flavor of the bread, which Sara sprinkled with water and put into the oven before serving. “The Murphys were among the first Americans I ever met,” Stravinsky said recently, “and they gave me the most agreeable impression of the United States.” The couple had come to know most of their European friends through the Ballets Russes of Serge Diaghilev, for whom they had both volunteered to work as unpaid apprentices soon after their arrival in Paris in 1921, when they learned that a fire had destroyed most of the company’s scenery. The Murphys, who had been studying painting with one of Diaghilev’s designers, Natalia Goncharova, went to the company’s atelier in the Belleville quarter to help repaint the décors for “Scheherazade,” “Pulcinella,” and other ballets, and Picasso, Braque, Derain, Bakst, and other Diaghilev artists came by frequently to supervise the work and comment on it. “Anybody who was interested in the Diaghilev ballet company became a member automatically,” Murphy says. “You knew everybody, you knew all the dancers, and everybody asked your opinion on things. The ballet was the focal center of the whole modern movement in the arts.” Certainly no two Americans could have been more ideally conditioned by background and temperament to recognize and respond to everything that was going on, or to feel so thoroughly at home in the excitement of the modern movement. Sara Murphy, the eldest of three daughters of a Cincinnati ink manufacturer named Frank B. Wiborg, had spent a large part of her childhood in Europe with her mother and sisters. The three girls were strikingly beautiful, in entirely different ways: Olga, the youngest, had a serene, classic beauty; Mary Hoyt (“Hoytie”) was dramatic, dark, and intense; and Sara’s piquant looks and golden hair reflected the family’s Scandinavian heritage. Their paternal grandfather was Norwegian. Through family connections—Mrs. Wiborg was General William Tecumseh Sherman’s favorite niece, and a great friend of Mrs. Patrick Campbell—the girls were exposed to London society, where their “American” directness and their unself-conscious talent for singing a wide repertoire of operatic arias and American folk songs in three-part harmony delighted the English. The three sisters were presented at the Court of St. James’s in 1914. (“That year,” wrote Lady Diana Cooper in her autobiography, “the Wiborg girls were the rage of London.”) Sara spoke fluent French, German, and Italian, said just what she thought to everyone, and was not in the slightest degree impressed by fashionable society. “I love Sara,” Lady Diana once said to Mrs. Wiborg. “She’s a cat who goes her own way.” Gerald Murphy, who had known Sara for eleven years before they were married, in 1916 (they met at her family’s summer place in East Hampton), says now that while he would be unable to relate a single incident in his life in which she did not play a part, she has remained so essentially and naïvely original that “to this day I have no idea what she will do, say, or propose.” Until 1921, Gerald Murphy’s contact with Europe had been largely vicarious. His father, Patrick Francis Murphy, for twenty-five years spent five months a year in the capitals of Europe studying the details of the Europeans’ way of life and the implements contrived for it, which he screened and, in many cases, improved upon before putting them on sale in the Mark Cross store, then at Fifth Avenue and Twenty-fifth Street. The elder Murphy introduced, among other items, Minton china, English cut crystal, Scottish golf clubs, and Sheffield cutlery, as well as the first thermos bottle ever seen in the United States. Moreover, he designed and made up the first wristwatch, at the suggestion of a British infantry officer who complained that a pocket watch was too cumbersome for trench warfare. Patrick Murphy had taken over Mark W. Cross’s modest Boston saddlery shop in the eighteen-eighties and built it into an elegant New York store, but he was far from being a typical successful merchant of the era. He spent most of the day reading the English classics in his office (he had a special passion for Macaulay), he was known as the wittiest after-dinner speaker of his time, and he had not the slightest desire to become a wealthy man. Fred Murphy, Gerald’s older brother, chafed under their father’s refusal to see the store expand. (“How many times must I tell you I don’t want to make more money?” Gerald remembers his father saying.) Their arguments led to an estrangement that was not made up until Fred lay dying of wounds suffered as a tank officer in the First World War; along with one other officer in his regiment, Major George S. Patton (who carried a pearl-handled revolver even then), Fred had volunteered for the first French tank corps, in the days when tank officers ran alongside the tanks to direct their operations. Fred and Gerald were never particularly close. According to Monty Woolley, the actor, who was a class ahead of Gerald at Yale, “The relation between the brothers was something that always seemed comical to me. Their politeness to one another was formidable. They never relaxed in each other’s presence.” Gerald’s sister, Esther, is ten years younger; she has lived for many years in Paris. Along with his father’s extraordinary taste, Gerald inherited an aversion to the crasser forms of competition, which made him regret his decision to go to Yale. “I was very unhappy there,” he says. “You always felt that you were expected to make good in some form of extracurricular activity, and there was such constant pressure on you that you couldn’t make a stand against it—I couldn’t, anyway.” By not making a stand, he was elected to the top fraternity (DKE), was tapped for Skull and Bones, was made manager of the glee club and chairman of the dance committee, and was voted the best-dressed man in the class of 1911. “This was the blue-sweater era at Yale,” MacLeish, who was in Bones three years behind Murphy, points out, “and it was most unusual to be tapped for Bones if you weren’t on the football team. Gerald was unimpressed by the honor. When my wife and I went over to Paris in the twenties, everybody wanted us to meet the Murphys—I had not known him at college—but they avoided us for six weeks, and I had the impression it was because Gerald knew I was a Bones man.” Among Murphy’s close friends today are only two men he knew at Yale—Monty Woolley and Cole Porter, who was two classes behind him. After his graduation, Murphy spent six years working for his father in the Mark Cross company. In 1916, he married Sara Wiborg, and the next year enlisted in the aircraft arm of the Signal Corps. He was on the verge of being transferred to the Handley-Page unit in England when the armistice was signed. (“I got to the gangplank at Hoboken,” he says.) By that time, he knew that he did not want to continue at Mark Cross. What, his father inquired, did he want to do? Gerald, who had had no idea until that moment, announced that he wanted to study landscape architecture. “I had to say something,” he recalls, “and that’s what came out.” The Murphys spent the next two years in Cambridge, where Gerald studied at the Harvard School of Landscape Architecture, and then, like a good many of their fellow-countrymen, they decided to live in Europe, even though by this time there were three young Murphys—Honoria, Baoth, and Patrick. “You had the feeling,” Murphy says, “that the bluenoses were in the saddle over here, and that a government that could pass the Eighteenth Amendment could, and probably would, do a lot of other things to make life in the States as stuffy and bigoted as possible.” Perhaps more important, according to Sara, was the desire to escape from the pressure of “two very powerful families—mine especially.” In any case, they had enough money to live comfortably in Europe, where the rate of exchange was highly favorable to Americans; Sara’s father had recently divided his fortune into equal shares, and the income from Sara’s portion came to seven thousand dollars a year. In 1921, with their three children and with “foreign resident” stamped on their passports, they sailed for Europe and, after a summer in England, settled for the winter in Paris in the Hôtel Beau-Site, near the Etoile. Walking down the Rue de la Boëtie one day, Murphy stopped to look in the window of the Rosenberg Gallery, went inside, and saw, for the first time in his life, paintings by Braque and Picasso and Juan Gris. “I was astounded,” he says. “My reaction to the color and form was immediate; to me there was something in these paintings that was instantly sympathetic and comprehensible and fresh and new. I said to Sara, ‘If that’s painting, it’s what I want to do.’ “ This was the beginning of his career as a painter—a career that lasted for seven years, produced, in all, eight remarkable canvases, and ended as abruptly as it began. His only formal training was with Natalia Goncharova, and at first Sara studied along with him. “We went to Goncharova’s studio on the Rue Jacob every morning, and she explained to us the elements of modern painting,’’ he says. “She started us out with absolutely abstract painting—wouldn’t let us put on canvas anything that resembled anything we had ever seen. Larionov, her husband, used to come in at night and criticize our work.” In a short time, Murphy began to evolve a style of his own, which lay midway between realism and abstraction. His pictures, which were often very large, were characterized by hard, flat color and by a meticulous rendering of objects in the finest detail—a safety razor, the inside of a watch, a wasp devouring a pear. He worked slowly, taking months to complete a picture. In 1923, he was exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants, and his work caused a stir among the Paris artists, some of whom saw it as an original contribution; Léger, in fact, announced that Murphy was the only American painter in Paris, meaning the only one who had shown a really American response to the new postwar French painting. Not everyone agreed. Segonzac, one of the judges for the 1924 Indépendants, argued strongly against hanging Murphy’s “Boatdeck: Cunarder,” a twelve-by-eighteen-foot canvas showing the stacks and ventilators of an ocean liner; he dismissed it as “peinture de bâtiment.” He was overruled, and Murphy was photographed for the newspapers standing in front of his gigantic picture, wearing a bowler and a cryptic expression. As hundreds of accounts of the era have by now attested, American expatriate life in Paris in the twenties was in general one of rather self-conscious intellectual ferment. For the Murphys, however, it was something different. Older by a decade than most of their fellow-expatriates, and leading a relatively stable existence that centered largely on their children, they had little in common with the determined bohemianism of many of the Americans in Montparnasse. Most of their American friends were married couples with children, who, like them, had come to live in Paris primarily because, as Gertrude Stein put it, “Paris was where the twentieth century was.” “Of all of us over there in the twenties, Gerald and Sara sometimes seemed to be the only real expatriates,” MacLeish said recently. “They couldn’t stand the people in their social sphere at home, whom they considered stuffy and dull. They had enormous contempt for American schools and colleges, and used to say that their daughter Honoria must never, never marry a boy who had gone to Yale. [Actually, Honoria married a Georgetown University man, and now lives in McLean, Virginia, with her husband and three children.] And yet, at the same time, they both seemed to treasure a sort of Whitmanesque belief in the pure native spirit of America, in the possibility of an American art and music and literature.” The Murphys’ household, in fact, was a place where their fellow-countrymen could keep up with much that was going on at home. Gerald had an arrangement with the drummer in Jimmy Durante’s band to send them, in monthly shipments, the latest jazz records. He imported the new gadgets being produced in America (an electric waffle iron, for one), knew the latest American dances, and read the new American books. The French, who were fascinated by anything American, used to love to hear the Murphys sing Negro folk songs and spirituals, which Gerald had been collecting for years; long before, he had discovered in an old magazine in the Boston Public Library the texts of many songs sung by Southern Negroes during the Civil War, and he and Sara had compiled a large repertoire of these, which they sang in two-part harmony, Gerald singing tenor and Sara alto. They sang them once for Erik Satie, who was delighted with them. The dean of Les Six had a lively interest in Americans (he once wrote that he owed much to Columbus, “because the American spirit has occasionally tapped me on the shoulder, and I have been delighted to feel its ironically glacial bite”), and on that occasion he had come to the Paris house of Mrs. Winthrop Chanler expressly to hear the Murphys’ Negro music. As they sang, Murphy played a simple piano accompaniment he had worked out. “After we’d finished,” he recalls, “Mrs. Chanler asked Satie how he liked them, and he said, ‘Wonderful, but there should be no piano. Have them turn their backs and do it again.’ So we did the whole thing over without accompaniment, and Satie said ‘Never sing them any other way’ and left.” For the Murphys and their friends, though, America had not yet caught up with the new century; the center of the world just then was Paris. “Every day was different,” Murphy says. “There was a tension and an excitement in the air that was almost physical. Always a new exhibition, or a recital of the new music, or a Dadaist manifestation, or a costume ball in Montparnasse, or a première of a new play or ballet, or one of Etienne de Beaumont’s fantastic ‘Soirées de Paris’ in Montmartre—and you’d go to each one and find everybody else there, too.” One of the major events of the spring of 1923, during the Murphys’ second year in Paris, was the première of Stravinsky’s ballet “Les Noces” by the Diaghilev company. Of all Stravinsky’s scores, the one for this powerful work, based on the simple, somewhat savage ritual of a Russian peasant wedding, was Diaghilev’s favorite. The impresario was so enthusiastic about it that he had persuaded three well-known composers—Francis Poulenc, Georges Auric, and Vittorio Rieti—to perform three of the four piano parts (Stravinsky had used pianos almost as percussion instruments); the fourth part was played by Marcelle Meyer, the leading interpreter of the new music and a friend of Sara’s and Gerald’s. The Murphys attended all rehearsals, and brought some of their friends, including Dos Passos; he, in turn, brought E. E. Cummings, who sat in the back row and resisted meeting the Murphys. (“I can understand that,” Dos Passos explained. “I’ve spent most of my life keeping my friends apart.”) “The excitement over ‘Les Noces’ was rising to such a pitch that we felt moved to do something to celebrate the première,” Murphy says. “We decided to have a party for everyone directly related to the ballet, as well as for those friends of ours who were following its genesis. Our idea was to find a place worthy of the event. We first approached the manager of the Cirque Médrano, but he felt that our party would not be fitting for such an ancient institution. I remember him saying haughtily, ‘Le Cirque Médrano n’est pas encore une colonie américaine.’ Our next thought was the restaurant on a large, transformed péniche, or barge, that was tied up in the Seine in front of the Chambre des Députés and was used exclusively by the deputies themselves every day except Sunday. The management there was delighted with our idea, and couldn’t have been more coöperative.” The party was held on June 17th, the Sunday following the première. It began at 7 P.M. , and the first person to arrive was Stravinsky, who dashed into the salle à manger to inspect, and even rearrange, the distribution of place cards. He was apparently satisfied with his own seating—on the right hand of the Princesse de Polignac, who had commissioned “Les Noces.” Like the famous “Banquet Rousseau,” in 1908, at which Picasso and his friends paid homage to Le Douanier Rousseau, the Murphys’ péniche party has assumed over the years a sort of legendary aura, so that people who may or may not have been there give vivid and conflicting descriptions of the event. The forty-odd people who were there constituted a kind of summit meeting of the modern movement in Paris: Picasso, Darius Milhaud, Jean Cocteau, Ernest Ansermet (who conducted “Les Noces”), Germaine Tailleferre, Marcelle Meyer, Diaghilev, Natalia Goncharova and Larionov, Tristan Tzara, Blaise Cendrars, and Scofield Thayer, the editor of the Dial. There were four or five premières danseuses from the company, and two of the male principals, but the Murphys had been advised not to invite the whole corps de ballet; Diaghilev, a stickler for rank, would not have approved. After cocktails on the canopied upper deck of the péniche, the guests drifted downstairs to the salle à manger—all except Cocteau, whose horror of seasickness was so excruciating that he refused to come on board until the last Seine excursion boat, with its rolling wake, had gone by. The champagne dinner that followed was memorable, and so was the décor. Having discovered at the last moment that it was impossible to buy fresh flowers on a Sunday, the Murphys had gone to a bazaar in Montparnasse and bought up bags and bags of toys—fire engines, cars, animals, dolls, clowns—and they had arranged these in little pyramids at intervals down the long banquet table. Picasso was entranced. He immediately collected a quantity of toys and worked them into a fantastic “accident,” topped off by a cow perched on a fireman’s ladder. Dinner went on for hours, interspersed with music (Ansermet and Marcelle Meyer played a piano at one end of the room) and dancing by the ballerinas. Cocteau finally came aboard. He found his way into the barge captain’s cabin and put on the captain’s dress uniform, and he now went about carrying a lantern and putting his head in at portholes to announce gravely, “On coule” (“We’re sinking”). At one point, Murphy noted with astonishment that Ansermet and Boris Kochno, Diaghilev’s secretary, had managed to take down an enormous laurel wreath, bearing the inscription “Les Noces—Hommages,” that had been hung from the ceiling, and were holding it for Stravinsky, who ran the length of the room and leaped nimbly through the center. No one really got drunk, no one went home much before dawn, and no one, in all probability, has ever forgotten the party. As Cocteau put it, “Depuis le jour de ma première communion, c’est le plus beau soir de ma vie.” The Murphys left Paris soon afterward to spend the summer in Antibes. They had discovered the Riviera the preceding summer, when Cole Porter had invited them down to his rented chateau at Cap d’Antibes for two weeks. “Cole has always had great originality about finding new places,” Murphy says, “and at that time no one ever went near the Riviera in summer. The English and Germans—there were no longer any Russians—who came down for the short spring season closed their villas as soon as it began to get warm. None of them ever went in the water, you see. When we went to visit Cole, it was hot, hot summer, but the air was dry, and it was cool in the evening, and the water was that wonderful jade-and-amethyst color. Right out on the end of the Cap there was a tiny beach—the Garoupe—only about forty yards long and covered with a bed of seaweed that must have been four feet thick. We dug out a corner of the beach and bathed there and sat in the sun, and we decided that this was where we wanted to be. Oddly, Cole never came back, but from the beginning we knew we were going to.” There was a small hotel on the Cap that had been operated for thirty-five years by Antoine Sella and his family; ordinarily, it closed down on May 1st, when the Sellas went off to manage a hotel in the Italian Alps. That summer, though, the Murphys persuaded Sella to keep the Hôtel du Cap open on a minimum basis, with a cook, a waiter, and a chambermaid as the entire staff, and they moved in with their children, sharing the place with a Chinese family who had been staying there and had decided to remain when they learned that the hotel would stay open. The Murphys’ regular companions that summer were Picasso and his wife, Olga; his young son, Paolo; and his elderly mother, Señora Maria Ruiz. They had come down to visit the Murphys at the Hotel du Cap and had liked the region so much that they took a villa in nearby Antibes. Picasso was working at that time in two radically different styles—the late-Cubist phase that produced such milestones as his 1921 “Three Musicians,” and the monumental, figurative style of his classical period, influenced by his work with the Diaghilev ballet. He was struck by the way Sara slung her pearls down her back when she wore them to the beach (it was “good for them to get the sun,” she explained), and some of the women in his classical paintings and drawings of this period are shown with pearl necklaces thrown over their shoulders in Sara’s manner. It was a touch that Scott Fitzgerald later made use of when he described Nicole Diver sitting on the beach with “her brown back hanging from her pearls.” Gerald and Sara saw the Picassos nearly every day, and were unfailingly diverted by the painter’s grotesque observations. “He blagued all the time, about everything,” Gerald says, “and he rarely expressed an idea that was in any way abstract. In fact, the only time I ever remember him saying anything of an abstract sort was one day when we all happened to see an old black farm dog hold up a chauffeur-driven cabriolet by lying stubbornly in the road, in the shade of a fig tree. The chauffeur finally had to get out and shoo him away with a lap robe. Picasso watched the whole pantomime without a shade of expression, and when the car had driven on and the dog had come back to lie down in the road again, he said ‘Moi, je voudrais être un chien.’” Picasso seemed to be fascinated with Americans at that time. Once, in Paris, he invited the Murphys to his apartment, on the Rue de la Boëtie, for an aperitif, and, after showing them through the place, in every room of which were pictures in various stages of completion, he led Gerald rather ceremoniously to an alcove that contained a tall cardboard box. “It was full of illustrations, photographs, engravings, and reproductions clipped from newspapers,” Murphy recalls. “All of them dealt with a single person—Abraham Lincoln. ‘I’ve been collecting them since I was a child,’ Picasso said. ‘I have thousands, thousands!’ He held up one of Brady’s photographs of Lincoln, and said with great feeling, ‘Voilà la vraie élégance américane!’ “ Before the summer was out, the Murphys decided to buy a villa of their own. What they wanted above all was a garden, and they found one on a hill just below the Antibes lighthouse, attached to the home of a French Army officer who had spent most of his professional life as a military attaché in the Near East. The villa itself was a sort of chalet, small and unpretentious, but the garden was extraordinary. Each year, returning on home leave, the owner had brought back exotic trees and plants—date palms, Arabian maples with pure-white leaves, pepper trees, olives, ever-bearing lemon trees, black and white figs—all of which had prospered and proliferated. Heliotrope and mimosa ran wild through the garden, which flowed down from the house in a series of levels, intersected by gravel paths. There was hardly a flower that would not grow there, for it was on a side of the hill that was protected from the mistral. At night, the whole place throbbed with nightingales. In “Tender Is the Night,” the Divers’ villa is actually a cross between the Murphys’ and a villa, high up above the Corniche near Eze, owned by Samuel Barlow, the American composer. Barlow had razed several ancient peasant cottages to make his garden, and had incorporated several others into his house. The Murphys went to no such lengths with their property, but they did undertake a fairly extensive remodelling of the villa, which required nearly two years to complete. They had the peaked chalet roof replaced with a flat sun roof—one of the first sun roofs ever seen on the Riviera—providing a second story and two bedrooms for the children. They put down an outdoor terrace of gray and white marble tiles, taking great care to preserve a huge silver linden tree, under which they later served almost all their meals. With his unerring eye for good design in everyday objects, Murphy sought out the dealers who serviced the local restaurants and cafés and bought a supply of traditional rattan café chairs and plain deal tables, the legs of which he painted black. Inside, the decor was a trifle severe (black satin furniture and white walls), but the house was always full of Sara’s flowers from the garden, freshly picked and arranged every day—oleanders, tulips, roses, mimosa, heliotrope, jasmine, camellias. While the Villa America, as they had decided to call it, was being renovated, the Murphys returned to Paris for a winter of great activity. Through Léger, who was then executing the sets for the Milhaud ballet “La Création du Monde,” Murphy had received a commission to create an “American” ballet that would serve as a curtain-raiser for the main event. Both were to be put on by the Swedish ballet company then resident in Paris, the Ballets Suédois. Rolf de Maré, the company’s director, asked Murphy whether he knew of any young American composers in Paris who might do a score in the American idiom, and Murphy, without a moment’s hesitation, suggested the little known Cole Porter. The result of their collaboration was “Within the Quota,” a lively thirty-minute work satirizing the impressions of a young Swedish immigrant to the United States. Gerald worked out the story line and painted a stunning curtain, which was a parody of the Hearst newspapers of the day, with an ocean liner standing on end beside the Woolworth Building; across the top ran a gigantic headline reading, “ UNKNOWN BANKER BUYS ATLANTIC .” Cole Porter’s score was a witty parody of the piano music played in silent-movie theatres. Just before the premiere, Léger had de Mare switch the order of performance; he appeared to feel that the spirited curtain-raiser might attract attention away from the main work. Both ballets, in any case, were warmly received. That spring, the Murphys rented a house that had belonged to Gounod, and still remained in his family, on a hill in Saint-Cloud, overlooking Paris. Archibald MacLeish’s poem “Sketch for a Portrait of Mme. G— M—” describes Sara in terms of her sitting room in this lovely old house (“Its fine proportions in that attitude/of gratified compliance worn by salons/whose white-and-gold has settled into home”), and expresses, incidentally, what all the Murphys’ friends have remarked on at one time or another—their talent for making any place they live in seem a revelation of their own personalities. The Murphys did not entertain lavishly. Although a recent biography of Scott Fitzgerald has them giving parties for forty people at Maxim’s, with Murphy tipping the coatroom attendant in advance to spare the “poorer artists” in his group any embarrassment (“My God!” Murphy exclaimed after reading this. “Can you imagine anything more arrogant?”), the fact was that neither he nor Sara could stand large parties (which Sara called “holocausts”), and, with the exception of the fête for “Les Noces” and one or two others, they never gave them. “It wasn’t parties that made it such a gay time,” Sara says now. “There was such affection between everybody. You loved your friends and wanted to see them every day, and usually you did see them every day. It was like a great fair, and everybody was so young.” Work on the Villa America was proceeding slowly, and when the Murphys went down to Antibes for the summer of 1924 they had to put up again at the Hôtel du Cap. Several of their friends visited them there—the Gilbert Seldeses (on their honeymoon), Etienne de Beaumont and his wife, and, later on, in August, Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald and their daughter Frances, or “Scottie.” The Murphys had met the Fitzgeralds in Paris that spring, soon after their arrival in Europe. Scott and Zelda had announced that they were fleeing the hectic life of social Long Island, and in June they had settled in Saint-Raphaël, where they planned to live on “practically nothing a year.” When they came over to visit the Murphys at the Hôtel du Cap, it was evident that the quiet life had so far eluded them. Severe marital strains, in fact, had put them both on edge. One night, after they had all gone to bed, the Murphys were awakened by Scott, who stood outside their door with a candle in his violently trembling hand. “Zelda’s sick,” he said, and added in a tense voice, as they hurried down the hall, “I don’t think she did it on purpose.” She had swallowed a large, but not fatal, quantity of sleeping pills, and they had to spend the rest of the night walking her up and down to keep her awake. For the Murphys, it was the first of many experiences with the Fitzgeralds’ urge toward self-destruction. Later in their stay, when Sara remonstrated with them for their dangerous habit of coming back late from parties and then, on Zelda’s initiative, diving into the sea from thirty-five-foot rocks, fully clothed in evening dress, Zelda turned her wide, penetrating eyes on her and said innocently, “But, Sara”—she pronounced it “Say-ra”—“didn’t you know? We don’t believe in conservation.” Toward the end of the summer, work on the Villa America had progressed far enough for the Murphys to move in, and from that time until they left Europe for good, ten years later, it was their real home, although they also kept a small apartment on the Quai des Grands-Augustins, on the Left Bank. They went up to Paris at least once a month and stayed in close touch with everything that was going on in the capital—that winter, Gerald exhibited a six-by-six-foot “miniature on a giant scale” of the inside of a watch at the Salon des Indépendants—but the Cap d’Antibes was now their base. Murphy had converted a gardener’s cottage into a studio, where he worked a good part of every day. Another small farmhouse, or bastide, on the property had been made over into a guest cottage. The children—then three, five, and six—were overjoyed by the new arrangements, and it seemed to most of the Murphys’ friends that the life of this fortunate family had fallen into its true pattern. Those closest to the Murphys find it almost impossible to describe the special quality of their life, or the charm it had for their friends. An evening spent in their fragrant garden, looking out over the water toward Cannes and the mountains beyond, listening to records from Gerald’s encyclopedic collection (everything from Bach to the latest jazz), savoring the delicious food that always seemed to appear, exquisitely prepared and served, at the precise moment and under the precise circumstances guaranteed to bring out all its best qualities (Provençal dishes, for the most part, with vegetables and fruits from the Murphys’ garden, though there was often a typically American dish, such as poached eggs on a bed of creamed corn); the passionate attention to every detail of his guests’ pleasure that gave Murphy himself such obvious pleasure; Sara’s piquant beauty and wit, and the intense joy she took in her life and her friends; the three beautiful children, who seemed, like most children who inhabit a special private world, to be completely at home in adult company (Honoria, who looked like a Renoir and was dressed accordingly; Baoth, robust and athletic; Patrick, disturbingly delicate, and with a mercurial brilliance that made him seem “more Gerald than Gerald”)—all contributed to an atmosphere that most people felt wonderfully privileged to share. “A party at the Murphys had its own rhythm, and there was never a jarring note,” Gilbert Seldes recalls. “Both of them had a passion for entertaining and for other people.” The central fact in all this was the marriage itself, which often seemed the most entrancing of all the Murphys’ creations. “The marriage was unshakable,” says Dos Passos. “They complemented each other, backed each other up in a way that was absolutely remarkable.” As with most good marriages, though, the Murphys’ was in many respects a matching of opposites. Sara was frank, direct, even brusque at times; she said what she thought, and she didn’t flirt. “Sara is incorruptible,” Mrs. Winthrop Chanler once remarked in admiration. “I’ve never heard her say a silly or indifferent thing.” And yet, with all her candor, Sara took her life and her friends largely, delighted in them, and was rarely provoked. Like her mother’s old friend Mrs. Patrick Campbell, who often visited them at Antibes, she “didn’t care much what people did, so long as they didn’t do it out in the streets and frighten the horses.” Gerald’s style, one felt, was a more conscious creation. “Sara is in love with life and skeptical of people,” Gerald once told Fitzgerald. “I’m the other way. I believe you have to do things to life to make it tolerable. I’ve always liked the old Spanish proverb: ‘Living well is the best revenge.’ “ Gerald’s Celtic good looks; his beautiful clothes, which would have seemed a trifle too elegant if anyone else had worn them; his perfectionist attention to subtle gradations of feeling—these sometimes acted as a barrier to intimacy, so much so that Fitzgerald once accused him of “keeping people away with charm.” “Oh, Gerald could be preposterous in those days,” one of their best friends recalls. “He’d become wildly enthusiastic about something like pacifism, and go around asking if you really wanted to kill people, and he loved to talk in aphorisms—‘I think the best way to educate children is to keep them confused,’ he would say, and then keep on saying it. Also, at times a chill would descend. He has always been the most Irish person I know, and when the black mood came over him, he was absolutely unreachable. But then he could be utterly captivating when he wanted to, which was most of the time. You had this feeling that he was doing all kinds of things for your pleasure, and always with the most exquisite taste.” It was, as MacLeish has pointed out, taste in the positive sense—not simply the opposite of bad taste—that the Murphys lived by. “Gerald could take something you hadn’t even noticed and make you see how good it was,” MacLeish says. “He knew all about Early American folk art, for example, long before the museums started collecting it, and he could tell you the towns along the New England coast where you could go and see marvellous old weather vanes or painted signs. He has always had this capacity for enriching your life with things he’s found—like those old Negro spirituals, like his collection of rare recordings of the early Western songs, which Nicolas Nabokov used when he wrote the music for our ‘Union Pacific’ ballet. Gerald had no interest at all in poetry until I introduced him to Gerard Manley Hopkins, and that set him off; he used to pin a Hopkins poem to his shaving mirror every morning, and to this day he can recite a good many of them. In return, he gave me back Wordsworth, whom I had long abandoned and thought dreadfully dull. Just four lines he’d seen, and how they sprang out!” The long, quiet days at Antibes centered on the beach, which Gerald gradually cleared of seaweed; on the garden; and on the little port, where the Murphys always kept a boat. They loved to cruise, and had a succession of boats, beginning with a small sloop, the Picaflor, progressing through a somewhat larger one, named after Honoria, and culminating in the hundred-foot schooner Weatherbird, which was designed and built by a member of the Diaghilev troupe, Vladimir Orloff, who had attached himself to the Murphy family in Paris and had come down to live in Antibes when they built the Villa America. Orloff, the son of a Russian nobleman who had managed the private bank account of the Czarina, had seen his father murdered by the Bolsheviks soon after the October Revolution; escaping from Russia, he had made his way to France, where, like so many of the young White Russian émigrés, he gravitated to Diaghilev. He worked for Diaghilev as a set designer, but his real métier, born of a childhood spent on his grandfather’s yachts on the Black Sea, was naval architecture. He designed the Weatherbird along the lines of the American clipper ships, which he considered the most beautiful vessels ever launched. (The Weatherbird took its name from a Louis Armstrong record with that title, which the Murphys had sealed into its keel.) Life at the Villa America was too varied, though, to allow for the establishment of any sort of daily routine. The Murphys usually had friends staying with them, in the bastide or at the Ferme des Orangers, a donkey stable that they had converted into a fully equipped housekeeping cottage in an orange grove across the road from the Villa America. (Robert Benchley, who spent a summer there with his wife and two sons, rechristened it “La Ferme Dérangée.”) They also travelled continually, not only to Paris and back but all around Europe, often with another couple. During the summer of 1926, they went to the fiesta in Pamplona with Ernest Hemingway and his first wife, Hadley, and Hadley’s friend Pauline Pfeiffer, who later became the second Mrs. Hemingway. “When you were with Ernest, and he suggested that you try something, you didn’t refuse,” Murphy recalls dryly. “He suggested that I test my nerve in the bull ring with the yearlings. I took along my, raincoat and shook it about, and all of a sudden this animal—it was just a yearling and the horns were padded, but it looked about the size of a locomotive to me—came right for me, at top speed. Evidently, I was so terrified that I just stood there holding the coat in front of me. Ernest, who had been watching very carefully to see that I didn’t get into any trouble, yelled ‘Hold it to the side!’ and miraculously, at the last moment, I moved the coat to my left and the bull veered toward it and went past. Ernest was delighted. He said I’d made a veronica.” Hemingway adored Sara Murphy, but he seems to have had reservations about Gerald. He judged men according to his own rigorous standards of masculinity (his favorite comment then about someone he admired was “You’d like him—he’s tough”), and Gerald, despite his performance in the bull ring, was perhaps not tough enough to suit Hemingway. At the same time, Gerald always felt a tacit competitiveness on Hemingway’s part, which weighed on their relationship. More than once, when Murphy expressed an opinion with which Hemingway agreed, Hemingway turned on him and said, somewhat resentfully, “You Irish know things you’ve never earned the right to know.” As a result of these undercurrents, Gerald was never as close to Hemingway as he was to Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald. The Fitzgeralds and the Murphys had seen a great deal of one another in Paris in the winter of 1925-26, during which Sara and Gerald had assumed, more or less unwittingly, the role of friendly guardians. A decade older than the Fitzgeralds, they looked upon their baroque exploits with a mixture of tolerant amusement and genuine concern, and the Fitzgeralds, for their part, often went out of their way to try to shock the Murphys. “Scott couldn’t bear to be ignored,” Murphy says. “If he felt that Sara was not paying enough attention to him, he would try to irritate her, or even revolt her—like the time she was riding in a taxi with Scott and Zelda and Teddy Chanler, the composer, and Scott suddenly pulled out some filthy old hundred-franc notes and began stuffing them into his mouth and chewing them.” Even in the early days, it was an odd friendship. The two couples had almost nothing in common except their great affection for each other. Neither Scott nor Zelda seemed to have the slightest interest in the art, the music, the ballet, or even the literature of the period; Scott knew the American writers in Paris, and spent a large part of his time that winter getting Hemingway recognized, but he met few Europeans, and he never learned to speak more than a few words of French, which he made not the slightest effort to pronounce correctly. The simpler aspects of the Murphys’ life at Antibes—their cultivation of the life of the senses—never appealed to Fitzgerald at all. He scarcely noticed what he was eating or drinking. He stayed out of the sun as much as possible, and his skin never lost its dead-white pallor. When the others on the beach went in swimming, Scott would get up, take a flat running dive into the shallow water, and come right out again. He never showed any curiosity about Murphy’s painting, and appeared to consider it a mere diversion. Gerald, for his part, was not particularly impressed with Fitzgerald as a writer. He had not cared much for “The Great Gatsby” (Sara had), and neither of them read the Fitzgerald stories that were appearing (infrequently just then) in the Saturday Evening Post. “The one we took seriously was Ernest, not Scott,” Murphy says. “I suppose it was because Ernest’s work seemed contemporary and new, and Scott’s didn’t.” None of this seems to have interfered with their spontaneous liking for each other, however. “We four communicate by our presence rather than by any other means,” Murphy wrote to the Fitzgeralds in 1925. “Currents race between us regardless: Scott will uncover for me values in Sara, just as Sara has known them in Zelda through her affection for Scott.” Looking back on the friendship today, both the Murphys tend to stress their feeling for Zelda. “I don’t think we could have taken Scott alone,” Gerald has said. Sara, particularly, liked this striking girl. “She hardly ever said anything that wasn’t personal,” she recalls. “She used to do such odd things, even back in the early days. We were sitting at a table in the Casino at Juan-les-Pins one day, just the two of us, and a man came over to be introduced. Zelda smiled her beautiful smile and sweetly murmured a taunt of her Alabama school days, ‘I hope you die in the marble ring,’—but not quite loud enough to be heard by the man, who thought she was making the usual pleasantry. And the strange thing was that no matter what she did—even the wildest, most terrifying things—she always managed to maintain her dignity. She was a good woman, and I’ve never thought she was bad for Scott, as other people have said.” The Murphys’ feeling for Zelda sometimes bothered Scott, who would demand to know whether they “liked Zelda better than me.” In February, 1926, the Fitzgeralds rented a villa in Juan-les-Pins and stayed on the Riviera through the following October. The summer, which began very gaily, ended by putting a severe strain on the Fitzgerald-Murphy friendship. The Riviera was no longer the quiet summer retreat it had been in 1923. It had begun to fill up with Americans, for one thing; some were old friends—the Charles Bracketts with their two children, Alexander Woollcott, the MacLeishes, the Philip Barrys (Barry later used the Murphys’ terrace as the setting for his play “Hotel Universe”)—but a good many more were not. The Hôtel du Cap was filled to capacity, and the little Garoupe beach now had a row of bathhouses for its clientele. The Murphys’ role in this rapidly changing scene was difficult to define. Their life centered on their children and their beautiful garden, and they never participated in the sort of high jinks that the Fitzgeralds were forever cooking up, such as kidnapping waiters and threatening to saw them in half. Even so, the Murphys, with their children and their house guests, their amusing talk, and their midmorning ritual of dry sherry and sweet biscuits, were generally the focus of the day’s activities on the beach that Gerald had reclaimed. Fitzgerald’s attitude toward the Murphys, and especially toward Gerald, had by this time become somewhat ambivalent. His affection for Sara was close to being an infatuation; he would sit gazing at her across the dinner table for long periods, and say, “Sara, look at me.” (Zelda, whose jealousies were notable, was never jealous of Sara, though.) For Gerald, he sometimes evinced an absolute and uncritical admiration. “Scott used to ask Gerald for advice on literary matters,” says MacLeish. “He seemed to feel that Gerald’s superb taste must apply to everything.” At the same time, Fitzgerald often appeared to be under a compulsion to ridicule Murphy’s elegant style. “I suppose you have some special plan for us today,” he would jeer upon meeting Murphy at the beach. Once, on the terrace at the Villa America, Murphy held up a hand and said portentously, “I hear a pulsing motor at the door.” “God, how that sort of remark dates you!” snapped Fitzgerald, completely missing the deliberate archaism. Fitzgerald’s ambivalence toward the Murphys was possibly related to his feeling that they were wealthier than in fact they were. The complex of illusions and emotions in which Fitzgerald always enveloped the rich is well known, and once, in a letter to Edmund Wilson, he coupled the Murphys with Tommy Hitchcock as his only “rich friends;” he seems to have had no understanding of the gulf that lay between the Hitchcocks’ scale of living and the Murphys’. He often asked Murphy, in his naïve way, what their annual income was, and when Murphy would try to explain that they did not live entirely on income—that they simply spent what they wanted to spend, and constantly reduced their capital to do so—Fitzgerald would merely look blank. Scott and Zelda lived poorly on a great deal of money; the Murphys lived extremely well on considerably less. They had no rich friends, and took pains to avoid the sort of wealthy society people who had started coming down to Cannes and Nice. But their money was inherited and they had more of it than most of the people around them, and since they did live extremely well, Fitzgerald’s affection for them was tainted with some of the animosity and awe that he inevitably felt for the very rich. When he was drinking heavily, as he did more and more that summer, this hostility took concrete form. He was scornful of the idea of a caviar-and-champagne party that the Murphys gave one evening at the Casino in Juan-les-Pins, and he set out quite deliberately to wreck it. “He made all sorts of derogatory remarks about the caviar-and-champagne notion to begin with, evidently because he thought it the height of affectation,” Murphy recalls. “We were all sitting at a big table on the terrace—the MacLeishes and the Hemingways and a few others—and when a beautiful young girl with a much older man sat down at the next table, Scott turned his chair all the way around to stare at them, and stayed that way until the girl became so irritated that the headwaiter was summoned. They moved to another table. Then Scott took to lobbing ashtrays over to a table on the other side of us. He would toss one and then double up with laughter; he really had the most appalling sense of humor, sophomoric and—well, trashy. The headwaiter was summoned again. It was getting so unpleasant that I couldn’t take it any more, so I got up and left the party. And Scott was furious with me for doing so.” Not long afterward, the Murphys gave a party at the Villa America that could have been, and probably was, the model for the Divers’ famous dinner party in “Tender Is the Night.” Fitzgerald again seemed to be under some compulsion to spoil the evening, which he later re-created with such sensitivity in his novel. He started things off inauspiciously by walking up to one of the guests, a young writer, and asking him in a loud, jocular tone whether he was a homosexual. The man quietly said “Yes,” and Fitzgerald retreated in temporary embarrassment. When dessert came, Fitzgerald picked a fig from a bowl of pineapple sherbet and threw it at the Princesse de Caraman-Chimay, a house guest of the Murphys’ friend and neighbor, the Princesse de Poix. It hit her between the shoulder blades; she stiffened for a moment and then went on talking as though nothing had happened. At this point, MacLeish took Fitzgerald aside, suggested that he behave himself, and received for his pains, without warning, a roundhouse right to the jaw. Then Fitzgerald, apparently still feeling that not enough attention was being paid him, began throwing Sara’s gold-flecked Venetian wineglasses over the garden wall. He had smashed three of them this way before Gerald stopped him. As the party was breaking up, Gerald went up to Scott (among the last to leave) and told him that he would not be welcome in their house for three weeks—a term of banishment that was observed to the day. Such incidents were bad enough, but the Murphys were even more disturbed by the Fitzgeralds’ accelerating process of self-destruction. Scott’s work was practically at a standstill. Although he talked about the new novel he was writing (the book that became, after eight years and countless revisions, “Tender Is the Night”), he hardly ever seemed to be working. (Fitzgerald produced no short stories at all from February of 1926 until June, 1927.) He was often depressed and uneasy about his talent, and his drinking had become a serious problem. Most of the Fitzgeralds’ spectacular escapades that summer, which have been enshrined in the Fitzgerald canon by his biographers, were blatantly self-destructive: Zelda plunging down a flight of stone steps because Scott had gone to make obeisance to Isadora Duncan, at the next table; Scott and Zelda returning from dinner with the Murphys at a restaurant in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, driving their little car onto a trolley-car trestle, and falling sound asleep there until early the next morning, when a farmer saw them and pulled their car to safety a minute or two before the trolley was due; Zelda throwing herself under the wheels of their car after a party and urging Scott to drive over her, and Scott starting to do so. Their behavior alienated a good many people that summer, but the Murphys stuck by them and worried deeply about them both. “What we loved about Scott,” Gerald says, “was the region in him where his gift came from, and which was never completely buried. There were moments when he wasn’t harassed or trying to shock you, moments when he’d be gentle and quiet, and he’d tell you his real thoughts about people, and lose himself in defining what he felt about them. Those were the moments when you saw the beauty of his mind and nature, and they compelled you to love and value him.” The Fitageralds went home to America in December, and the Murphys had what Sara, in a letter to Scott and Zelda, described as a “grand quiet spring” following “a dash through Central Europe with the MacLeishes.” (“But we never went to Russia as planned,” she added, “as by the time we got visas the theatres had closed and the snow started to melt, not to mention the opening of the season for executions.”) The summer of 1927 was relatively quiet, too, without the Fitzgeralds to contend with, and Murphy was painting steadily. The Fitzgeralds had settled outside Wilmington after a brief, riotous sojourn in Hollywood, and the news from and about them was far from reassuring. When they decided to come over to Europe for the summer of 1928, though, the Murphys were delighted. “It will be great to see you both again, because we are very fond of you both,” Murphy wrote. “The fact that we don’t get on always has nothing to do with it.” Nobody got on with Scott and Zelda that summer. Scott’s drinking was worse than ever. Zelda’s sudden decision, at the age of twenty-eight, to become a professional ballet dancer led to constant friction between them, although Scott outwardly supported her efforts and got Murphy to arrange for her to take lessons with Egarova, who had been a dancer with the Diaghilev company. For the Murphy children, though, the summer was a lovely one. Its highlight was an overnight trip on the sloop Honoria to a cove beyond Saint-Tropez, where Vladimir Orloff, digging in the sand to pitch a tent, “discovered” an ancient map with detailed instructions, in archaic French, that led them to a series of further clues, and finally, with almost unbearably mounting excitement, to the unearthing of a chest containing key-winder watches, compasses, spyglasses, and (for Honoria) a quantity of glittering antique and imitation jewels. Honoria has said that it was not until years later that any of the children suspected the authenticity of the find. On a visit to the United States in the late fall of 1928, the Murphy family went across the country by train, stopping off at a ranch in Montana to join the Hemingways, and then going on to Hollywood, where Murphy served as consultant to King Vidor on the filming of the all-Negro film “Hallelujah;” Fitzgerald had told Vidor about Murphy’s collection of old Negro songs and spirituals, and Vidor wanted to use them in the film. It was not a completely successful venture; Hollywood was then in the midst of the transition from silent pictures to talkies—“Hallelujah” itself changed to sound in mid-production—and the confusion was total. But the summer of 1929, back at the Villa America, was one of the happiest the Murphys had spent, full of gaiety and good friends. Honoria Murphy, then twelve, remembers looking down at the terrace from her bedroom window, seeing the flowers and the lovely food and the ladies in their beaded dresses, and thinking “how it all blended in, and how you just wanted it to last forever.” The Fitzgeralds were back again, too, like ghosts at the banquet. Torn and hounded by their personal furies, they would have been difficult company under any circumstances, but now another severe strain had been put on their relationship with the Murphys. Scott had decided to use Sara and Gerald as the central characters in his novel, and he was “studying” them openly. His methods were anything but subtle. “He questioned us constantly in a really intrusive and irritating way,” Murphy says. “He kept asking things like what our income was, and how I had got into Skull and Bones, and whether Sara and I had lived together before we were married. I just couldn’t take seriously the idea that he was really going to write about us—somehow I couldn’t believe that anything would come of questions like that. But I certainly recall his peering at me with a sort of thin-lipped, supercilious scrutiny, as though he were trying to decide what made me tick. His questions irritated Sara a good deal. Usually, she would give him some ridiculous answer just to shut him up, but eventually the whole business became intolerable. In the middle of a dinner party one night, Sara had all she could take. ‘Scott,’ she said, ‘you think if you just ask enough questions you’ll get to know what people are like, but you won’t. You don’t really know anything at all about people.’ Scott practically turned green. He got up from the table and pointed his finger at her and said that nobody had ever dared say that to him, whereupon Sara asked if he would like her to repeat it, and she did.” Sara had felt for a long time that Scott was too wrapped up in himself to understand even those closest to him, and she was not alone in this opinion; Hemingway warned him in a letter that he had stopped listening to other people, with the result that he heard only the answers to his own questions. Sara put her own irritation succinctly in a note to Scott soon after the incident at the dinner table. “You can’t expect anyone to like or stand a continual feeling of analysis, & subanalysis & criticism—on the whole unfriendly—such as we have felt for quite a while,” she wrote. “It is definitely in the air—& quite unpleasant . . . . If you don’t know what people are like it’s your loss. . . . But you ought to know at your age that you can’t have Theories about friends. If you can’t take friends largely, & without suspicion—then they are not friends at all.” A subsequent note from Sara was even more explicit: “We have no doubt of the loyalty of your affections (and we hope you haven’t of ours) but consideration for other people’s feelings, opinions, or even time is completely left out of your makeup. . . . You don’t even know what Zelda or Scottie are like—in spite of your love for them. It seemed to us the other night (Gerald too) that all you thought and felt about them was in terms of yourself. . . . I feel obliged in honesty of a friend to write you: that the ability to know what another person feels in a given situation will make—or ruin—lives. Your infuriating but devoted and rather wise old friend, Sara.” Fitzgerald never replied, but some years later, in a long letter, he tried to tell Sara a little of what her friendship meant to him: In my theory, utterly opposite to Ernest’s, about fiction, i.e. that it takes half a dozen people to make a synthesis strong enough to create a fiction character—in that theory, or rather in despite of it, I used you again and again in Tender: “Her face was hard & lovely & pitiful” and again “He had been heavy, belly-frightened with love of her for years” —in those and in a hundred other places I tried to evoke not you but the effect that you produce on men—the echoes and reverberations—a poor return for what you have given by your living presence, but nevertheless an artist’s (what a word!) sincere attempt to preserve a true fragment rather than a “portrait” by Mr. Sargent. . . . I know that you and Gerald are one & it is hard to separate one of you from the other, in such a matter for example as the love and encouragement you chose to give to people who were full of life, rather than to others, equally interesting and less exigent, who were frozen into rigid names. I don’t praise you for this—it was the little more, the little immeasurable portion of a millimeter, the thing at the absolute top, that makes the difference between a World’s Champion and an also-ran, the little glance when you were sitting with Archie on the sofa that you threw at me and said: “And—Scott!” taking me in too, and with a heart so milked of compassion by your dearest ones that no person in the world but you would have that little more to spare. Sara’s warning was prophetic, although she did not suspect at the time how very close to ruin the Fitzgeralds’ lives had veered. Scott and Zelda left Antibes in October to spend the winter in Paris, where Zelda sank deeper and deeper into the schizophrenia that culminated, the following April, in hermental breakdown. Whether or not Scott understood Zelda’s tragedy, he saw pretty clearly what was happening to him, and, with his writer’s honesty, he faced up to it squarely in his portrait of Dick Diver. Dick’s long “process of deterioration” has its origins, like Fitzgerald’s, in a fatal weakness of character; wanting to be good, to be kind, to be brave and wise, Diver “had wanted, even more than that, to be loved.” Fitzgerald’s own deterioration has the elements of a classic morality play, which may be one reason for the popular appeal of the Fitzgerald saga; the fact that Fitzgerald recognized his self-indulgence and yet never quite gave up the effort to be a first-rate writer gives the story its tragic dignity. It would be hard to believe that Fitzgerald ever considered Gerald Murphy to be self-indulgent in this sense, or that he attributed the catastrophe that overtook the Murphys in 1929 to anything but a gratuitous slap of fate. Perhaps the strange irony of circumstances and of coincidence helped convince him that he and Zelda and Gerald and Sara were somehow identified—were indeed “the same people”—but there was nothing in the events themselves to justify this notion. In October, 1929, soon after the Fitzgeralds left for Paris, the Murphys’ youngest child, Patrick, then nine, developed a persistent fever, which was first diagnosed as bronchitis and then found to be tuberculosis. While Sara and the others remained behind to close the house, Gerald took Patrick to a sanatorium at Montana-Vermala, in the Swiss Alps. This village was the family’s home for the next eighteen months. The Murphys did everything they could to keep their own and Patrick’s spirits up during the long ordeal. They rented a chalet on a mountain near the hospital, and furnished it with all their customary skill. Friends came to visit—Hemingway, Dos Passos, Dorothy Parker (for six months), Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife—and Fitzgerald came up frequently from Prangins, near Geneva, where Zelda had been placed in a sanatorium. Determined not to succumb to the gloomy atmosphere in the village, nearly all of whose inhabitants were tuberculosis sufferers in one stage or another, Gerald and Sara bought an abandoned little bar and dance hall there, did it over completely in American style, and engaged a five-piece band from Munich to come up and play dance music on Friday and Saturday nights. The Murphys’ refusal to go under was profoundly moving to their friends. “The memory of a night with the gay Murphys of Paris and Antibes in that rarefied cold silence and atmosphere of death is one of the most terrifying of my life,” Stewart said recently. “But I am prouder of them for that fight for Patrick than for anything else in their lives. The point is, they were not only the most alive, the most charming, the most understanding people—they were, when the roof of their dream house crashed into their beautiful living room, the bravest.” After a year and a half in Switzerland, Patrick was thought to be cured, and the Murphys returned to the Villa America. They spent two more years there, and these were in a sense a coda to the decade that had ended so jarringly for so many people in 1929. Many of their friends had gone home to America. Murphy no longer painted; he had stopped abruptly when Patrick first became ill, and he never took it up again. (His own explanation is that he realized by then that “I was not going to be first rate, and I couldn’t stand second-rate painting.” His total production—eight paintings—was exhibited in a one-man show by the Bernheim Jeune gallery in Paris in 1936, and in 1960 five of the pictures were sent on a tour of American museums in a show assembled by the Dallas Museum for Contemporary Arts, which now has three of them in its permanent collection.) The Murphys spent a great part of their time cruising the Mediterranean on their new schooner, the Weatherbird. But the world was changing, and the Riviera had lost its innocence. Putting into a tiny Italian harbor one day, they were surrounded by a group of swimmers shouting “Mare nostrum!” and when they went ashore they found pictures of Mussolini plastered on every wall. At Antibes, the Hôtel du Cap was now the Grand Hôtel du Cap, and its expensive new Eden-Roc swimming club functioned from mid-June to mid-August as an adjunct of the American film colony. “At the most gorgeous paradise for swimmers on the Mediterranean,” Fitzgerald wrote, “no one swam any more, save for a short hangover dip at noon . . . . The Americans were content to discuss each other in the bar.” Then in 1933, Patrick’s symptoms suddenly recurred in a new and grave form, and the Murphys decided it was time to go home. They sold the Weatherbird (to a Swiss, who was arrested after the war for using it to smuggle gold from Turkey into France), closed the Villa America against their eventual return, and sailed for New York. They have never been back. By the time “Tender Is the Night” came out, in 1934, the era, the places, and the emotions that the book evoked seemed fairly remote to the Murphys. Dick Diver seemed to have very little to do with Gerald, and if Fitzgerald had drawn a great many details, conversations, and incidents from life, he had somehow managed to leave out most of the elements of the Murphys’ experience in Europe that mattered to them—the excitement of the modern movement in Paris, the good friends, the sheer sensuous joy of living at Cap d’Antibes. And yet, a year later, when Baoth, the Murphys’ older son, died of spinal meningitis that developed with shocking suddenness from a case of measles he caught at school, Gerald could write to Scott from the depths of his grief, “I know now that what you said in ‘Tender Is the Night’ is true. Only the invented part of our life—the unreal part—has had any scheme, any beauty. Life itself has stepped in now and blundered, scarred and destroyed. . . . How ugly and blasting it can be, and how idly ruthless.” Then, in January, 1937, the long fight to save Patrick’s life ended in a hospital at Saranac Lake. One of the things that kept Murphy going during these years was the necessity of coping with a family economic crisis. The Mark Cross company, from which he had escaped so happily years before, had gone precipitously downhill since the death of Patrick Francis Murphy, in 1931, and was now about a million dollars in debt and under pressure to declare itself bankrupt. Murphy was obliged to assume responsibility for the firm. Taking over the management, he retained full control for the next twenty-two years, during which he cleared the debts, moved the store to its present Fifth Avenue address, and applied his imagination and taste to a variety of new items, which proved extremely profitable. But the work, he says, was never congenial and often seemed like sleepwalking. “The ship foundered, was refloated, set sail again, but not on the same course, nor for the same port,” he once wrote. In the years since they left Europe, the Murphys have continued to live simply and—in accordance with Gerald’s Spanish proverb—very well, following closely the new movements in art, music, and literature. Curiously, having never particularly cared to own paintings or hang them in their houses, they never bought any of the work of the modern masters who were their friends. In a summer cottage they have at East Hampton, though, there is one magnificent Léger, which they acquired by what Murphy still feels to be a small miracle. Léger made his first trip to the United States in 1931 as the Murphys’ guest (he was seasick the whole trip), and they were instrumental in getting him introduced to the right people at the Museum of Modern Art, which gave him a big one-man show in 1935. At the vernissage of that exhibition, Léger came up to Gerald and Sara and said that there was one picture in the show he wanted them to have, and that he would present it to them as a gift if they could pick it out. There were more than two hundred canvases on view, and Gerald quickly despaired of fixing on the right one. But as he and Sara descended a flight of stairs she pointed to a picture on the wall at the foot of the stairway and said, “I think I see it.” The colors, mostly muted browns and reds, were unlike anything they had ever known him to use before. While they were looking at it, Léger came up behind them and said, “I see you’ve found it.” He turned the painting around and showed them, written on the frame, “Pour Sara et Gérald.” Whatever their feelings toward “Tender Is the Night,” the Murphys never wavered in their loyalty to Fitzgerald. They stood by him through the vicissitudes of his last years, and lent him money to help send Scottie through Vassar. (When Fitzgerald paid it back in full, Murphy wrote him, characteristically, “I wish we could feel we’d done you a service instead of making you feel some kind of torment. Please dismiss the thought.”) Fitzgerald was deeply grateful. In 1940, he wrote from Hollywood, ‘‘There was many a day when the fact that you and Sara did help me . . . seemed the only pleasant human thing that had happened in a world where I felt prematurely passed by and forgotten.” They attended his funeral a few months later. This past winter, Murphy went to see the film of “Tender Is the Night.” He went alone (Sara flatly refused to go) one Friday afternoon to a theatre in Nyack, near the small Hudson River community where he and Sara now live, and when he sat down he realized that there was no one else in the vast, darkened auditorium but an elderly charwoman sweeping the back rows. “It was an extraordinary sensation,” he says, “and oddly appropriate somehow to the unreality of the film, which disregards everything except the battle of the sexes, and dismisses the lure of the era with a nostalgic ridiculing of the Charleston. It was so far from any sort of relationship to us, or the period, or poor Scott, that I couldn’t feel any emotion at all except a vague sympathy for Jennifer Jones trying so hard to play the eighteen-year-old Nicole. I came out of the movie house and found that it had started to snow, so I went and had the chains put on the car. And then for some reason, driving home, I had a really vivid recollection of Scott on that day, years and years ago, when I gave him back the advance copy of his book and told him how good I thought certain parts of it were—not mentioning Sara’s feelings—and Scott took the book and said, with that funny, faraway look in his eye, ‘Yes, it has magic. It has magic.” ♦ Calvin Tomkins has been a staff writer for The New Yorker since 1960. Sign up for the daily newsletter: The best of The New Yorker every day. Enter e-mail address Please enter a valid e-mail address Submitting... Thank you for subscribing. You’ll receive your first newsletter soon. View all newsletters » Most Popular	i don't know
Bushmills, Jameson, Tullamore Dew, and Writers Tears are brands of what nation's what (two-word answer required)?	#89 Saint Patrick’s Day \| Stuff White People Like Stuff White People Like This blog is devoted to stuff that white people like Feeds: #89 Saint Patrick’s Day March 16, 2008 by clander Normally if someone were to wake up at 7:00 in the morning, take the day off work, and get drunk at a bar before 10:00 a.m., they would be called an alcoholic, and not in the artistic, edgy way that white people are so fond of. On March 17th, however, this exact same activity is called celebrating St. Patrick’s day. This very special white holiday recognizes Saint Patrick , the patron saint of Ireland who helped to bring Catholicism to the Emerald Isle. His ascetic life is celebrated every year by white people drinking large amounts of Irish-themed alcohol and listening to the Dropkick Murphys. It is also the day of the year when you can make the most gains in your social and professional relationship with white people. Most of the time, white people consider celebrations of European heritage to be racist unless they omit large swathes of the 16th through 20th centuries. But since the Irish never engaged in colonialism and were actually oppressed it is considered acceptable and encouraged to celebrate their ancestry. For this reason, 100% of white people are proud to claim that they are somewhat Irish. A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them. If you find yourself talking with a white person who tells you about how their great grandfather was oppressed by both the English and the Americans, it is strongly recommended that you lend a sympathetic ear and shake your head in disbelief. It is never considered acceptable to say: “but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?” It is also worth noting that on this day, there is always one trump card that never fails to gain respect and acclaim. When you are sitting at an Irish bar and someone orders a round of Guinness, you must take a single sip and while the other white people are savoring their drink, you say: “mmmm, I know it sounds cliche, but it really is true. Guinness just tastes better in Ireland.” This comment will elicit an immediate and powerful response of people agreeing with your valuable insight. This statement also has the additional benefit of humiliating the members of your party who have not been to Ireland (and thus cannot confirm this proclamation). Having not traveled to Ireland and consumed a beer that is widely available in their hometown and throughout the world, they will immediately be perceived as provincial, uncultured, and inferior to you. It is also strongly encouraged that you memorize the lyrics to “ Jump Around .” It will come in handy. Like this: Posted in Activities , Culture , Food & Beverage \| 1,121 Comments 1,121 Responses Grumpus Being actually Irish, it’s my observation that we’re the only ones who don’t lose our shit on this day. Interesting fact: Irish people aren’t actually white. Well, aesthetically maybe, with the nocturnal-mushroom hide; however, I’m speaking under-the-skin here. On an unrelated note, here’s one for your list: white people like saying “I love you.” on March 16, 2008 at 8:12 pm ollie true, funny and perfectly timed. im guessing the author rushed this (to make it in time for tomorrow’s ‘big’ event) because there are quite a few spelling mistakes, but i appreciate it nonetheless! on March 16, 2008 at 8:17 pm gaycondo White ethnicities are great because white people get to implement them selectively. Nobody knows or gives a damn if you’re Irish until you put on a bunch of green, wear a plastic hat, and drink yourself stupid. If you’re Asian though everybody’s like “where are you from?” They may or may not ask this really slow and loud, as it the asian person can’t undestand English well. If the Asian person then tells the white person they’re from Boston or something like that it really confuses them. White people get to be from Ireland or Boston depending on their mood and whether it’s a holiday. on March 16, 2008 at 8:24 pm controlling chaos I’m Irish and extremely white, more like a pale ghost. I’m not ashamed of my roots. [I do wish sometimes I could get a tan…. O’ well that equals skin cancer later in life] Saint Patrick’s day is just another excuse to get drunk. Not much into drinking anymore but I still like the music. I’m playing “Bad Religion” and “Bouncing Souls” right now……;) on March 16, 2008 at 8:25 pm behindtheveils Great observation. I’ve noticed a larger trend in European descendants viewing themselves as part of a larger monolithic culture, rather than acknowledging the different developments of each country/territory. Fabulous insight, keep up the good fieldwork. Being actually Irish as well, I have to disagree with Grumpus; Irish people in Ireland will be getting smashed tomorrow in huge numbers. Great post too, made me laugh🙂 (And Guinness actually does tend to taste better in Ireland. Come over and try it some time.) on March 16, 2008 at 8:31 pm Portnoy's complaint #13 It’s simple: The Irish in America have so inter-married with the Poles, WASPs, Italians, Scandinavians, Germans, etc. that the people who call themselves “Irish” really should call themselves what they are: White or European-American. on March 16, 2008 at 8:32 pm Houman White people are also known to celebrate Christmas so long as by celebrating you mean arguing about the importance of putting up a menorah side by side with every coniferous tree dressed in tacky shit. God bless. on March 16, 2008 at 8:33 pm Shanks I don’t understand why people take St Patrick’s Day off. It’s the 18th we need off. And Guinness does taste better in Ireland. on March 16, 2008 at 8:33 pm Anonymous The people most responsible for cheapening the day are those companies that give away crap, or sell the cheap Made in China plastic stuff. Beer companies, Party Card Warehouse, etc. on March 16, 2008 at 8:36 pm Merv I don’t get it. Are the things here representative of all white people and what they like? I looked at this blog long and hard and I could not find anything I didn’t like and I am a discerning white person. Should I feel troubled by this? Help. on March 16, 2008 at 8:37 pm Beef Haha.. kind of like black people acting oppressed from slavery 150 years ago.. saying “i beez doin sum crime cuz we be slaves n sheeit” on March 16, 2008 at 8:37 pm Roman centurion #18 Bug off jew. Only the weasel hateful Jews know how to create such hostility at Christmas time. Everyone knows that Jews elevated a minor holiday solely to compete with Christmas. Disgraceful. http://www.amazon.com/Irish-Became-White-Noel-Ignatiev/dp/0415918251/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205728804&sr=1-1 In the first half of the 19th century, some three million Irish emigrated to America, trading a ruling elite of Anglo-Irish Anglicans for one of WASPs. The Irish immigrants were (self-evidently) not Anglo-Saxon; most were not Protestant; and, as far as many of the nativists were concerned, they weren’t white, either. Just how, in the years surrounding the Civil War, the Irish evolved from an oppressed, unwelcome social class to become part of a white racial class is the focus of Harvard lecturer Ignatiev’s well-researched, intriguing although haphazardly structured book. By mid-century, Irish voting solidarity gave them political power, a power augmented by the brute force of groups descended from the Molly Maguires. With help, the Irish pushed blacks out of the lower-class jobs and neighborhoods they had originally shared. And though many Irish had been oppressed by the Penal Laws, they opposed abolition?even when Daniel O’Connell, “the Liberator,” threatened that Irish-Americans who countenanced slavery would be recognized “as Irishmen no longer.” The book’s structure lacks cohesion: chapters zigzag chronologically and geographically, and Ignatiev’s writing is thick with redundancies and overlong digressions. But for the careful reader, he offers much to think about and an important perspective on the American history of race and class. Copyright 1995 Reed Business Information, Inc. –This text refers to the Library Binding edition. Carl stuffcollegepeoplelike, You really oughta quit now while you’re ahead (even though you are in no way ahead). Not only did you just blatantly ape the premise of your site from this guy, but you totally suck at it. All the posts are over-brief and not a lick humorous. This blog is funny because it’s original and well-written…if you really want to pay homage to it, you should start a blog in that sort of vein. on March 16, 2008 at 8:44 pm Anonymous Gay Condo, you are so ariwolfin’ myopic. I am as white as one can be and everyone always ask “whats your ancestry?” People always this I am jewish when I am rockin my beard and that is really annoying. Do beards on a white man automatically = Jew and if so who created this rule? on March 16, 2008 at 8:44 pm gaycondo White ethnicities are great because white people get to implement them selectively. Nobody knows or gives a damn if you’re Irish until you put on a bunch of green, wear a plastic hat, and drink yourself stupid. If you’re Asian though everybody’s like “where are you from?” They may or may not ask this really slow and loud, as it the asian person can’t undestand English well. If the Asian person then tells the white person they’re from Boston or something like that it really confuses them. White people get to be from Ireland or Boston depending on their mood and whether it’s a holiday. Real Irish of all colors miss the hell out of JP McCarthy this time of year. Will be hoisting a few to you JP! on March 16, 2008 at 9:01 pm Middler St. Patrick’s Day in the States is the douchiest of all holidays. It’s worth mentioning that the admiration that so many East Coast Americans have for the mythical concept of Ireland is as disturbing as the tribal nostalgia that American Jews feel for Israel. As unrealistic as American Irish-American Catholics feels about the Republic, so do American Ashkenazy Jews feel about the state of Israel. Both group suffer from historical nostalgia, and their non-rational tribalism in the form of excessive financial support of nativist groups in both Ireland and Israel. On this stupid holiday let us reconsider the way in which we foolishly worship arbitrary international myths and, by extention, perpetuate the violence of oppressed groups worldwide. on March 16, 2008 at 9:04 pm black mexican For some strange reason, white people also like cinco de mayo and they DONT even know what happened on that day. They think it is Mexican independence day. haha Anne Middler: re “the douchiest of all holidays”: you could not be more right. I am part Irish and at this time of year, I lie about it. I never wear green. If anyone had the temerity to pinch me I’d have him (or her) arrested. I have a sense of humor about things that are funny, or at least fun. St. Patrick’s Day is neither. Tomorrow I’ll wear black … like I do every year. And every other day, come to think of it. Why isn’t there a Mutt Day in the United States? People with the least well-defined racial backgrounds would do well on Mutt Day. We could have special pub crawls just for that day: if you were lucky, you could hit a German bar, an English pub, an Irish bar, then a sushi joint. And so on, depending on who you were. I’m done with the “let’s celebrate being this one thing” business. The half century of that is over. Celebrating the mess is better — and it fits far more people. on March 16, 2008 at 9:17 pm gaycondo My parents like to pretend they are Irish (they are in fact 1/8th) once a year. When I was a kid, they would force feed me boiled cabbage and corned-beef on St. patricks Day. Have you ever had corned-beef? It’s fucking disgusting. Oh, and it is boiled as well. I think it may be 65% fat. Awful stuff. However, I do like soda bread, another St. Patrick’s tradition. It so dry that you have to put about a pound of butter on it to make it chewable. So I guess maybe i just like butter. on March 16, 2008 at 9:20 pm Joey How can you bring up St. Paddy’s Day and now bring up the fact that white people love The Bagpipes! on March 16, 2008 at 9:26 pm rpost3 I love how non-Irish people think it’s OK to dress like leprachauns (sp?) and puke in the street to celebrate Saint Patrick. Do we celebrate Martin Luthor King Day by acting like stereotypical black people, or Columbus Day by acting like stereotypical Italians? The only reason it’s not controversial is b/c Irish people aren’t the types to go around bitching about stuff like that. on March 16, 2008 at 9:34 pm rpost3 Irish people build this country and were credited for winning the Civil War for the North by Robert E Lee, and how does America honor them every year? Mocking their culture by putting on green plastic hats, drinking themselves silly, pretending to be Irish, and puking in the street. on March 16, 2008 at 9:45 pm behindtheveils “How The Irish Became White” is supposed to be a good book. I’ve seen it in some whiteness studies lists. I’m sure a fair amount of Americans have some kind of ‘Irish blood’ in them though. How the Irish were able to integrate into the WASP community is an interesting topic. Intermixing of European groups was acceptable because the concept of whiteness via skin tone had changed. It wasn’t acceptable, and still is somewhat taboo to go outside of perceived race/culture of other groups. on March 16, 2008 at 9:59 pm transparent All so true. Every white person I know is convinced they are Irish. I maintain that you are not Irish unless you are Catholic, then you have something to complain about. However, I am just saying that because I am white, Irish(ish) and Catholic and I want to be reconized as being special and “ethnic”. I have even been to Ireland and forced to eat corned beef, soda bread and cabbage. Besides Tim Ferriss’s four hour work week blog, which is only read by whites, this has been my favorite blog since I found it. Keep up this funny stuff! Anonymous #27 take your hateful marxist jew Ignatiev’s trash and shove it. Irish are Celtic and therefore White. The Title of that book should have been “How the Irish became Anglo”. It’s disturbing that intelligent White would even listen to a bigot like Ignatiev, so we must assume you are not White. on March 16, 2008 at 10:11 pm Kathleen O'Donovan-Newsome I’m Irish-American and Catholic (both of my parents are immigrants and emigrated here in 1983). We go to the parade and all, but mostly on St. Pat’s we go to Mass and then have dinner as a family (my parents, grandparents and all 7 of us kids). There’s beer then, ’cause hey, we’re Irish. I love St. Patrick’s Day. I’m super white. And I’m cool with that. P.S. I also love Bastille Day and Canada Day. Two more occasions to celebrate being white, though I am neither French nor Canadian. Seward I have a few friends that celebrate Boxing Day. But seriously, tomorrow will do nothing more than give Texas State kids an excuse to drink even more than they usually do. on March 16, 2008 at 10:23 pm Anonymous #35 Your comparison of St. Pat’s Day to the 365/24/7 hysterical Zionists and the self-serving nature of the Jewish Lobby is totally ludicrous. Win Your Weight in Immigrants™ #48 transparent: “I have even been to Ireland and forced to eat corned beef, soda bread and cabbage.” No beer nor dispensation this Paddy’s, because it’s in Holy Week. Which is going to make the corned beef, cabbage and soda bread feel especially Lenten this year! But stale Russian kvass ought to wash it down well. on March 16, 2008 at 10:27 pm Portnoy's complaint The leprechaun was minor in Irish folklore. It wasn’t until the 1959 Disney movie “Darby O’Gill” that it was catapulted into fame. on March 16, 2008 at 10:30 pm Jordache The U.S. had a massive immigration of Irish, who were a huge part of the workforce that brought this country into the industrial age. So yes, the holiday became generally popular amongst the urban/industrial working class, and eventually worked its way up the ladder. Blacks were mostly in the rural workforce during that age, and when they flocked into big cities, industry moved out. So St.Patty’s Day tends to be a white, working class holiday (but its festive-boozing nature attracts a broader audience of course). This one isn’t pointing out white/upper class affectations. It’s just cultural history. on March 16, 2008 at 10:46 pm Miss Manners #50 Only Mexicans use the word “Anglo”, because it is not a word in English. Only blacks– excuse me, Blacks– spell “white” with a capital. So the whiteness of “Anonymous” is open to question. #53 I shan’t repeat his name. White people are supposed to have manners. Cussing in front of womenfolk is very, very unwhite. Charm lessons from Mr Jared Taylor are in order here. #63 Mr Portnoy, named for the noted Jewish self-abuser: “European-American” is an oxymoron, unless you mean Quebec. The original Anglo-Americans descend from the Anglo-Saxons (“Anglo-” is a prefix in English), who turned their back on the continent around 500 A.D. (Yes, I said “A.D.”) So anyone who considers himself a “European-American” isn’t finished assimilating. Portnoy's complaint Just because I’m homosexual doesn’t mean I can’t think critically about issues of Whiteness. on March 16, 2008 at 10:49 pm opiner st. patty’s day – such a non-holiday. i always forget it’s happening until some restaurant or another starts using shamrocks to collect charity money from me. white people love being irish. it’s really annoying. when i found out last year that i myself am 1/4 irish, i was pretty ticked off about it. i don’t want to live, eat and breathe boston sports teams, Guiness, and Good Will Hunting. on March 16, 2008 at 10:50 pm Portnoy's complaint Anglo is an often used word for WASPs, scots-irish, and “rednecks”. Where do you live? What are you talking about mexicans…. Someone in America who is Irish, German, Italian and Polish is a European-American, or a White-American. Why are you trying to complicate a simple issue? It doesn’t make you appear smart. Portnoy's complaint Nice fake post #64 Any person who uses the term “whiteness” or “white privilege” is a non-White, and an anti-White racist. Pure and simple, no denying it. #69 “and mutt children are actually easier to acquire.” Why do you think that is? on March 16, 2008 at 11:13 pm the real Port Listen, when it comes down to it I just don’t like brown people or Jews. Ok? I’ll try to intellectualize it, ignoring any non-racial causes of everything from drugs to global warming, but really I just believe in genetic superiority and the elimination/subjugation of said groups. I’ve never finished Roth’s novel, but I have read The Turner Diaries seventeen times and await the day I can take to the streets, showing those mud people whatfor. Whether or not I enjoy anal copulation with other men, which I do, is not the issue here. Miss Manners #66 Portnoy (apparently the real one): “Anglo is an often used word for WASPs, scots-irish, and ‘rednecks’.” Yes… by Mexicans. Check out this polite and eloquent letter from an early “American Renaissance”: “Sir — We studied your February 1993 issue at our caucus meeting last night, and we were startled to notice that you slapped Americans of European origin with the term ‘anglo’ on page one, and that you more or less validated the negative term, ‘white non-Hispanic’ on page three. “If we accept a name imposed on us by Latinos like ‘anglo’ or if we accept a name in the process of being imposed on us by Asians like ‘Caucasian,’ then we have marginalized ourselves. “S_ W_, Resisting Defamation Caucus, San Jose, Cal.” “On page one, Miss Evans wrote, ‘: …”Anglo,” to use the currently fashionable term that reflects the Hispanic perspective.’ Surely, she made her distaste clear enough. ‘White non Hispanic’ was a direct quotation from an application form. — Ed.” on March 16, 2008 at 11:25 pm Andy Capp What douchebag will say that it tastes better in Ireland? (Douchebag a preferred term among whitey.) I would slap someone upside the head for such a pretentious remark. The white people glorified on this blog are not really down with the Irish, i.e. cops, firefighters, movers, lightweight fighters, jockeys, etc. Nothing more irritating than the sound of bagpipes… St. Pat’s, ultimate amateur day right up there with New Year’s eve for drinking retards…or is that retards drinking? on March 16, 2008 at 11:25 pm the unreal Port they really ought to enable something to prevent me from impersonating people. Let this be a lesson. The floor is yours, Port. Actually, I like your posts. on March 16, 2008 at 11:30 pm mini mutt is a word used for dogs and dog breeding…not to describe people – or mexicans and mulattos. on March 16, 2008 at 11:30 pm SheQuon Unless they live in New York–in which case participating in the SPD parade would be an affront to their Gay Friends (SWPL #88). Participating in a parade Protest–or the new alternative parade they have on a different day–that would be acceptable. on March 16, 2008 at 11:30 pm Portnoy's complaint #74 Not to mimic this post, but I’ve been to Ireland and they say it, and ask if one can tell the difference. They don’t want a prized possession to taste the same everywhere in the world. OF course, you tell them it’s better there. That’s just being cool. ALL Guinness comes from one brewery, in Dublin, so it stands to reason that in Ireland it’s fresher. For anyone who gives a crap what I think, the most important factor in a Guinness is the glass. It must be thin glass, like a wine glass, and full-sized pint. Those fake, thick regular pint glasses they use for Bud Light tap are totally unacceptable, and one should always ask first about the glass. on March 17, 2008 at 3:27 am Chuck The Boston Marathon is another exceptionally white holiday. All white people in Boston know somebody who is running in the marathon (ideally for a charity) and it’s an excuse to skip work and start drinking at noon on a random Monday in April. on March 17, 2008 at 3:32 am stef YES. thank you for posting this shit. the blog is pretty hilarious, and i am glad that you did not forget to include saint patty’s. yeah, so why is it that saint patricks is the utlimate international white holiday? it seems like white people congregate together no matter what country they are in to celebrate this spurious occasion celebrating white history. guess there aren’t too many other opportunities (given colonization, oppression and all), so this is one of the few major validated occasions where white people can actually embrace the history and culture of a white country, and people go apeshit on it. including no so cute interactions with green beer and pinching (not irish, btw). i know even irish people probably get tired of pushing away the crowds of other white people trying to adopt this as their own holiday. especially when the same people did not treat irish that well in their early years of immigration to the us. Geoff Bravo on this one. That last one reminded me about the post regarding rap songs that white people like. I’m in Korea right now, and at a club in Seoul frequented by white people, the DJ played “Jump Around.” I watched and waited for my fellow white people to start jumping. I was not disappointed. on March 17, 2008 at 4:00 am Jen Whitson EVERY time I have a Guinness, I say “It’s just so much better in Ireland.” And I ALWAYS hope it leads to a conversation about my study-abroad time there. Soo so white. on March 17, 2008 at 4:07 am leifeng When St Patrick threw all the snakes into the sea, they all swam across the atlantic and became Irish Americans. on March 17, 2008 at 4:19 am JoseOle If I knew it was going to be this kind of party I would have stick my dick in the mashed potatoes. St Patrick 837 B.C. on March 17, 2008 at 4:31 am Mango Girl WP love anything Irish, whether St. Patrick’s day or Irish bars or The Pogues or trips back to the Old Country because, as they love to say, the Irish are the only white people “with soul.” on March 17, 2008 at 4:35 am Cato I suppose this would not be the day to walk down the streets of Boston or New York whistling “Lullibulero,” “The Old Orange Flute,” or “The Sash My Father Wore”…. on March 17, 2008 at 4:43 am sunscreen needed I know white people who use pretty much any holiday as an excuse to throw a party…not that it has anything to do with whatever history or ethnicity is behind it. Who really cares about the alleged history behind all these days, they’re just reasons for everyone to throw down. Besides, at this point in time the accepted origins of these “holidays” are dubious at best. It’s just fun! on March 17, 2008 at 4:46 am roisinmcginn the irish came to this country and lay with the blacks and hispanics and got drunk. they fought with the italians that have infinitely better cuisine and then headed out west where they now vote republican. on March 17, 2008 at 5:08 am asimplesinner If you want to be extra pretentious insist that Guinness not only tastes better in Ireland, point out that a real Irishman could “tell you what county they are in and how far they are from the brewery” based on the taste in the counties… (Yea, I have heard that BS) From there you can point out the reason it tastes so much better in Ireland is because it is not pasteurized… Neverminding the health concerns, you should shake your head and bemoan corporations “ruining a good thing” by, you know, trying to prevent disease…. Also, since white people know what is best for you, point out with great sadness that the irish have developped a fondness for Budweiser and, sadly, many have made it their beer of choice… (“Corporations have made them stop drinking the alcohol I associate with my sterotype, er ‘quaint ethnic image'”) Today is also a good day to engage in really affected “Irish Whiskey Appreciation” and saying things like “Truly the best single malt Irish Whiskeys compete with any Scotch!” (as though your subjective opinion on what people like is somehow objectively definative… What can people say? “Is not!” “Are too!”) on March 17, 2008 at 5:19 am Tom Cusack I’m 100 percent Irish and living in New Zealand, Colour has nothing to do with it or where your from, It’s just about having a good time and a few drinks and laughs. “mmmm, I know it sounds cliche, but it really is true. Guinness just tastes better in Ireland” and yes that is true. Victor Kulkosky Curiously, the Irish were not always considered white. At the beginning of the 19th Century, there was serious debate about whether blacks or the Irish were lower. In the old Five Points district of Manhattan — roughly where China Town is today — Irish and blacks mingled both socially and sexually, to the dismay of high-minded reformers who sought to clean up the gang-dominated, crime-infested neighborhood. Irish and black people actually united to fight racist mobs in the riots of July 1834, and again in the Draft Riots of 1863. The latter was probably the last signficant cooperation between the Irish and blacks in this country. Already by that time, the Irish were well on their way to becoming white. on March 17, 2008 at 6:15 am Goober I am glad us crackers have a holiday to celebrate……..hispanics and blacks have an entire month each! This site rocks! on March 17, 2008 at 6:25 am Grant I remember reading the Boston Globe’s Sunday travel section a couple years ago. Every year there is a Sunday in March dedicated to travel in the Homeland. Anyway, truth be told, SPD was no biggie in Ireland until the 80’s when so many Boston Irish, etc. started coming for the quiet, minor religious holiday. It was only then that the locals capitalized on the event. The article also referenced that MGD was the preferred quaff of the local hipsters (read: WP) and that Guinness was enjoyed chiefly by old men and American tourists! on March 17, 2008 at 6:28 am em I got to spend last St. Patrick’s day in a crowded bar, where a drunk guy with a stupid t-shirt told me he ‘digs Mexican senoritas’ (I’m not Mexican), my ass was grabbed at least 6 times the entire night to and from the bathroom (nah, I’m not flattering myself, these were real squeezes), and a sad, drunk white chick cried to me in the bathroom about how she was 30, single, and would probably die alone. Then she vomited a centimeter away from my shoes. Ah, memories! rpost3 Re #114 Victor That may be the worst piece of revisionist history I’ve ever read. Irish people never teamed w/ black people regarding anything. The Irish resented them the moment the stepped off the boat b/c they were being made to fight for a group of people who they feared where going to take the jobs they came here for in the first place. During the draft riots of 1863, Irish tensions boiled over, and they basically destroyed half of NYC, lynching blacks all over the place along the way. The two races never “teamed up.” I don’t know where you got that. Jose I was so disappointed the other day. I asked my mom if we had Irish in our blood and she said yes. It made me feel so common, and definitely the Wrong Kind of White. I wanted to be more Norwegian, because as a white person, Viking blood is so much cooler. http://joseelretardo.com on March 17, 2008 at 7:06 am praxenakis I’ve got Irish heritage, but I think St. Patrick’s Day is an annoying frat boy holiday. I also hate Guinness snobbery, leprechaun hats, and “Irish Pubs.” on March 17, 2008 at 7:15 am Janet So…if anyone hasn’t noticed by now, there is a poster (#9 Stuff College People Like), who has created his/her own blog that mimicks this blog’s format only it is FULL OF SUCK unlike this one. Whoever you are, please stop your blatant copy catting and spare the public from reading your LAME attempt at humor. Your writing style is absolutely horrible and your blog itself is an EPIC FAIL. DIAF, on March 17, 2008 at 7:30 am Paul There isn’t a group of people on earth who are as self-aggrandising as the Irish. Here in England, of course, we’re supposed to feel enormously guilty over the way they’ve been treated – even if, like me, you in fact come from very poor English stock. It’s this guilt – coupled with their endless whining – that led to the Northern Irish ‘peace process’ (which, as every sane person knows, is just another name for ‘letting vicious murdering thugs walk free’). Which had to happen, of course – how could we not understand their pain of living under the British flag? So great, in fact, was the pain of living under the flag of one of the world’s finest democracies that they felt the need to routinely murder innocent people (including women and kids). Lovely, lovely people. Funnily enough, the Irish always forget to mention their cowardice and collusion during World War II. Oh, and anyone who proclaims to be Irish who isn’t actual Irish born and bred (i.e. most Irish-Americans), is an utter, utter ct. Yeah sure, Jump Around… that’s great🙂 Happy St. Patrick’s Day everyone! on March 17, 2008 at 7:37 am LuckyD The Irish are a more diverse tribe of White People than many may realize, with migrations occuring over many centuries from the Iberian Peninsula, Scandinavia and other regions of Europe. Haplogroup R1b is the most frequent Y-chromosome haplogroup in Western Europe (particularly in Spain, Scotland, Northern England and Ireland) and many residents of Northern Spain and Ireland are therefore “racially” identical. Now, I’m off to eat some White People food–and start drinking heavily like a true Irish-American. P.S. I do believe providing the labor us synonymous with “building” something. I would say that of the many of miles of U.S. railroad that my great-grandfather and his contemporaries built. I would also say that of the swimming pool and the pool house a group of Hondurans built in my back yard last year. I provided the capital (I’m rich and white) and they provided the labor. THEY built it, not me–and I would never try to pretend to take that away from them. I’m not going to invite them over to swim in it, though. My White friends, Asian colleagues, Hispanic clients–and my black nephew–are more than welcome. on March 17, 2008 at 7:43 am Zelda Relax, Paul. I know you’re upset about the Irish getting a pass on the whole blowing people up thing but remember that 1) they really only blew up English people, so, whatever and 2) they were drunk at the time. I like to ratchet up the annoying factor by being half-Asian and then just Irish enough to make a complete ct of myself (as Paul would say) by spending the day eating corned beef and dressing my kids in green. I don’t drink Guinness or green beer though because my liver is 100% Asian. on March 17, 2008 at 7:44 am Kelso McCann I’m irish and I almost forgot to wear green today, I could care less. Why drink on St. Patrick’s Day when there are 364 other days in the year to get drunk? on March 17, 2008 at 7:45 am Kelso McCann The worst thing about St. Patrick’s day is that I’m going to go visit my folks this evening and I’ll end up eating corned beef, cabbage and potatoes…. yuck!! on March 17, 2008 at 7:49 am Paul Zelda, just because you flag up your shortcomings and display stunning self-awareness, it really doesn’t mean you’re any less of a ct. Really. Plus the comment about English people being blown up (your ‘whatever’) isn’t you being, y’know, a bit hip and chill (as opposed to my uptightness) – it’s you being a revolting moral degenerate. People died – children – and you think it’s funny? Ct. on March 17, 2008 at 7:49 am Expert Level White Person White people also like genealogy which comes in handy for talking about historical oppression and/or noblesse oblige depending on the the situation at hand. Rose Everything on your list is something I like. After looking at the list, my mother declared that she liked everything on this list too. As did my brother. I told my non-white girlfriend about the list and she uses it as a reference for dealing with my oh-so-white family, but came to me in a fury on Saturday over the lack of St. Patricks Day being on the list (I dragged her barhopping in chicago this weekend…she was surrounded by white people). I’ll tell her it’s up. She will be pleased. thank you for making our relationship a more cohesive one. on March 17, 2008 at 7:51 am Cato Jay wrote: “If you really want to piss off Irish people in a bar today, make the dominant color you wear orange.” Actually, all you have to do is sing “The Protestant Boys,” “Croppies Lie Down” or “The Sash My Father Wore”…. should get you a one-way ticket to a hospital or morgue. Shit, since I’m half white, I’m taking a half-day off at work! Pack it up, pack it in Let me begin Battle me that’s a sin I won’t tear the sack up Punk you’d better back up Try and play the role and the whole crew will act up Get up, stand up, come on! Come on, throw your hands up If you’ve got the feeling jump across the ceiling Muggs is a funk fest, someone’s talking junk Yo, I’ll bust em in the eye And then I’ll take the punks home Feel it, funk it And I got more rhymes than there’s cops that are dunking Donuts shop Sure ’nuff I got props from the kids on the Hill Plus my mom and my pops on March 17, 2008 at 7:57 am Zelda I think you’re funny. I’m a total c*t (really, ask around) and not super smart (brain is 100% Irish) but when I’m really into a cause my instinct is not to go to a satirical blog and try to interject a serious discussion into the comments section and then expect people to take up my banner. Waving the children around to bring people to their cause is the hallmark of the douc!ebag, btw. Top o’ the mornin! rpost3 Hey Paul The Irish could be the world’s only superpower over the next millenium and they still wouldn’t come close creating the body count England rang up during their reign. Anonymous “but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?” lol! Dude, everyone claims to be Irish on St. Pat’s because virtually everyone (that I know) IS part-Irish. But then, I always sort of suspected I was from the Wrong Kind of White People… :p So I have no idea if this actually applies to Real White People or not. Happy St. Patrick’s Day, everyone! Patrick RE # 135 The Italians have usurped Columbus Day. Unfortunately, no one but the Italians care, and even then not even all the Italians care. on March 17, 2008 at 8:33 am LC my favourite part is when every 3rd teenager you talk to says “i’m [enter a fraction, example 1/4] irish!” riiight. on March 17, 2008 at 8:35 am Russell White people like celebrating Oktoberfest in spite of the fact that Germany has a rather colored recent history… No offense meant to Germans/y (I am German), just thought it was worth pointing out that this is another white holiday that white people enjoy celebrating on March 17, 2008 at 8:36 am akp Aha, we did a St. Patty’s brunch and someone definitely brought up the fact that guinness tastes better in Ireland with everyone shaking their head in agreement. How funny!! on March 17, 2008 at 8:46 am White Lady I love St. Pat’s and Oktoberfest. Hey, I really am part-Irish (er, Irish Protestant, though!) and the husband is from German stock. Most of the Wrong Kind of White People really do have some Irish in us, though, so what’s the big deal? At least we’re not appropriating “people of color” holidays. LOL. Anti-racists have even less of a sense of humor than internet white nationalists, which is saying something. Happy St. Patrick’s Day, everyone! on March 17, 2008 at 8:53 am MickBastard There is no “wrong kind of white people”, And get away with nothing, why are you ashamed of being white when NO ONE else is ashamed to be what they are…have some fucking pride!! Happy paddy’s and fuck the pope I really ought to try that Guinness trick sometimes. It sounds like it might actually work. Also, right now I am listening to “Jump Around,” Pete Rock remix. on March 17, 2008 at 8:58 am White Lady I’m not at all ashamed of being white. I just know that when upper-middle class liberal whites preach about White Privilege, it has never even occurred to them that all white people aren’t exactly like they are. And my people aren’t from their particular little tribe. So I wish they would stop speaking for us. We don’t really need them to… but they need us to further their own self-serving quasi-religious agenda of white guilt. on March 17, 2008 at 9:03 am Astonished Redneck Nailed it again! I never understood why so many white people talked about being Irish until you spelled it out. Though I’m half Irish and definitely the “wrong kind” of white, I always wondered why (myself included) whites so proudly proclaim they’re Irish. I guess it works the same way for Jews, too? I mean, regardless of the fact that they seem to be at the top of any institution from finance to media to medicine, there’s a whole lot of oppression that you can talk about as if it ever touched you. Hmmm. Very interesting indeed. on March 17, 2008 at 9:14 am Bill Wilson My Iraish wife makes me eat corned beef and cabbage on St. Patrick’s Day. This makes me hate St. Patrick’s Day. Maybe I’m not white enough. Yeah, I might take off two days… I’m a throw some rhymes out there Maybe y’all come check out my lyrics blog At lyrica1.wordpress.com You wanna know the world’s most played stereotype Yeah, it’s called bein’ muthafuckin’ white You automatically assume I like sittin’ on the porch wittlin’ wood And spittin’ backy in a spitoon And dancin’ a fuckin’ shindig unda the moon I don’t even dance Though I do like beans and tatas Still half of y’all muthafuckas wont give me a chance Cuz y’all be some muthafuckin’ hataz Unda-rataz Let me tell ya when it comes to lyrical tongues Ole Evil Eye be the greatest And I don’t even like Nascar Caint stand most country music I don’t go two steppin’ at the bar I get too sick Wit’ tha shit you caint fuck wit’ The rhymes that I spit Are phenominal So go ahead and lable me It aint phazin’ me, it’s comical Anything you can throw at me Would be a minor obstacle on March 17, 2008 at 9:27 am Melynn Glusman Who are you? Reading this post, I just laughed harder than I have laughed in days. And I laugh A LOT. Thank you. The Dude While you all drink yourselves silly with artificially colored beer, I’m smoking the NATURALLY GREEN chronic!!!! Houston true true true, a day to stay inside and avoid the college kids. i think the NCAA sponsors St. Paddys day. Plus, everyone is like from the 4th grade with wearing green as not to get pinched. ridiculous. on March 17, 2008 at 9:40 am Louie “Irish and black people actually united to fight racist mobs in the riots of July 1834, and again in the Draft Riots of 1863. The latter was probably the last signficant cooperation between the Irish and blacks in this country.” That’s because the blacks starting leading the racist mobs who were trying to kill the whites (oops .. I meant the Irish). on March 17, 2008 at 9:43 am Tammy “A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them.” LoL. Brilliant! dcwp Even though I hate comments that go all serious and stuff… Here’s a political cartoon from the 19th century dealing with the fact that Irish folks were not always considered “white” by American standards: BTW – Awesome blog, satire on so many levels at once is really hard to do. on March 17, 2008 at 9:50 am R. Ellis Wow. This post really brought out the xenophobia in some of the readers. This blog isn’t supposed to be an academic survey of the “stuff white people like.” It’s a tongue-and-cheek look at some of the things that (mainly middle to upper-class) whites tend to do that are similar. Although I must say that some of the things tend to be so widespread in this demographic, it is by no means the foundation of a sociological study. Stop taking the fun out of these posts with all of the racist and bigoted comments that have popped up, especially on this thread. To everyone else, have a good day. Have a Guinness. And… absolutely wonderful blog, by the way. Haven’t had this many laughs in a bit. Keep it up! on March 17, 2008 at 9:54 am Epheros “Most of the time, white people consider celebrations of European heritage to be racist unless they omit large swathes of the 16th through 20th centuries.” Quoted for truth!! That’s why I’m going to start up my own corporate “diversity’ series celebrating the euro-culture. It’ll be a reckoning to place to the white brutha back on par with their contemporaries. on March 17, 2008 at 9:57 am Bob Tired St Patrick’s Day always makes me think of the Irish Americans who raised money for NORAID and supported terrorism throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s and then decided they didn’t like it in 2001. On behalf of all of those (like me) who grew up listening to bombs going off, I would like to wish them a very special St Patrick’s Day. And just out of interest, how is your new found war on terror progressing? #197 Tammy: “Guinness in carrot juice with a touch of nutmeg is excellent stuff!!!” In which proportions? Enquiring minds want to know… I once had a Guinness float at the Town Talk Diner. Never again. on March 17, 2008 at 10:12 am Whitey McWhite I am half-Irish yet have never much liked St. P’s (all times of year are great for Guiness after all!) yet was never driven to disgust by the day until I witnessed a lame chick who got married on St. Patrick’s day, gave out pint glasses as her wedding favors, went to Ireland on her honeymoon and was photographed downing a pint in her wedding dress. Now I really hate the day. It’s just an excuse for white American drunks to claim their (distant) heritage (or worse: fake-heritage) as an excuse to be drunk and stupid in public. funny, as i was walking into work today wearing my green sweater, i thought, “why do i feel so white?” now i know. Ms. Havisham @ 35 Middler – spot ON. And do you amateurs slamming green beers and moaning about the ‘mother land’ know what Irish people (i.e. people who..live in Ireland!) call you? PLASTIC PADDIES. They also roll their eyes and laugh at you when you make the trek to Ireland then tell the nearest strangers in the bars about how you are Irish, too! And excitedly hope that will forge a bond. Fuck that. I’m third generation Irish (mixed with German) and I applaud my ancestors for getting the fuck out when it was time. Hang out during a famine? Or get on a boat and roll the dice? More like thinning the herd. And anyone who has been to Ireland knows that in the factory itself – in the bar- they serve that shit room temperature. They have one tap for cold Guinness for the American tourists and the warmer stuff they give the Irish. 116 116 Victor Kulkosky Curiously, the Irish were not always considered white.” The Irish were always “white”. They just weren’t considered civilized by a lot of the establishment in 19th Century America. And yes, there was a difference between the two concepts. “Irish and black people actually united to fight racist mobs in the riots of July 1834, and again in the Draft Riots of 1863.” Black people were rioting against the draft in 1863? Shame on them if it was true because the main cause of the riots was the fact that poor whites (many from Ireland) didn’t want to fight a war to “free the slaves”, who they could care less about. I find that idea absurd. I actually forgot it was today. That’s how I know I’m not Irish. Anyway, to add to your list of Stuff White People Like: Flip-flops! The only time I don’t see White people in flip-flops is when there’s a distinct possibility of frostbite. And even then they’ll wear flip-flops. I wonder if that’s the reason for the Weather Channel: to let White people know when they can wear flip-flops. “Chad, the weatherman said it’ll be partially sunny and above freezing today. You know what that means?” “YAY! FLIP-FLOPS!” on March 17, 2008 at 11:03 am Thatemw Also, after taking a sip of a Guiness one could say: “Guiness is good, but I prefer Smithwicks, you know, real Irish beer.” Then when you get to explain, “It is only served in Ireland” and the proper pronunciation; it is that much better. Also, use the word ‘pissed’ instead of drunk often. Tony M This has been mentioned before in the thread, but it must be made clear – Those of us who are almost all Irish, or totally Irish in heritage DEFINATELY stick our noses up at the St. Patrick’s day thing – we get bored looks on our faces and do that whole “it’s not really my thing” thing. Actual Irish people celebrate the holiday, but straight down the line Irish Americans use the holiday as a way to define their “irishness” by not taking part. I’m sure there are 4 zillion people that are going to shrilly and indignantly tell me that I’m wrong, but I can only report what would go on in my neighborhood when the “green beer day” rolled around. Maybe sport a green sweater from Gates, but that’s about it. on March 17, 2008 at 11:12 am Max St. Patrick’s day is on March 15th this year😉 It got moved because it interferes with Holy Week. on March 17, 2008 at 11:15 am Anonymous The funny thing about White Nationalists is that they honestly believe that their comments and links are “in our face” and will shock us with the truth (man) to the point where we have to join their group and share in their paranoid fantasies. The reality is, most of us are too mentally stable to ever join such a hysterical and sadistic gang of low-functioning dickwads. on March 17, 2008 at 11:16 am haha The funny thing about White Nationalists is that they honestly believe that their comments and links are “in our face” and will shock us with the truth (man) to the point where we have to join their group and share in their paranoid fantasies. The reality is, most of us are too mentally stable to ever join such a hysterical and sadistic gang of low-functioning dickwads. on March 17, 2008 at 11:58 am writ3003 Well, I just have to say that even though I’m not even white I have so much fun on St. Patricks Day and I enjoy the guinness as much as an Irish do. In my opinion some people should be more open minded. It’s true that this is an Irish Holyday and it was meant to be for white people but, what the heck we all can enjoy it. We live in a multicultural society and we have to learn to adapt to it. For example the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro Brasil was created for people from Brasil to Brasilian people only, today thousands of tourists from all over the world travel to Rio De Janeiro every year to be part of the carnival. so lets forget about races or religion lets enjoy St. Patricks’ together and CHEERS!!! D Leal-Robles. Nice try Captain Garbarrassing #150… Your blog isn’t even worth the words used to dismiss it. DIAF Hurst Honestly, I don’t get drunk on St. Patrick’s Day. I protest Christianity by listening to Cruachan and other Celtic oriented music and reading Pagan Celtic tales like The Children of Lir. Though, St. Patrick was a Christian I hold more respect for than many. At least he didn’t so much obliterate some Pagan things like a lot of Judeo-Christian culture destroyers. The nonwhiteness of the Irish is more than just the mistreatment in America. At one point in Europe they were looked at as orientals as much as the Finnish. “A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them.” Sort of like blacks….oops I mean “African Americans” today who complain about oppression all the time, when in reality they get special treatment. on March 17, 2008 at 12:14 pm Richard Lord Curzon, on seeing cockneys swimming naked in the Thames is supposed to have said ‘I didn’t know the working-classes were so white’. Same with the Paddies, perhaps they were just, to use a Scottish, clatty. Danno Capyain Gabarrassing, Most repair manuals are far more interesting than your blog, and far less turgid to read…I’m curious to know what possessed you to even think that you were capable of being entertaining or interesting to read? Calling your blog dull is a gross underestimation of just how tedious it is. just sayin’ on March 17, 2008 at 12:16 pm James I can think of one thing that loads of white people like. It’s a blog called ‘Stuff White People Like’. This allows the white person to show how tolerant and self deprecating they are. ‘Wow, look at me and how able I am to laugh at myself!’ Unlike some other races, self-deprecating humor is a way of feeling less guilty about some of the more sinister things that their race has done through history. It is definitely advisable to show your friend this blog and chuckle heartily while you say, ‘wow. This guy has really got us down.’ Today happens to coincide with another White Person Holiday: NCAA Men’s Basketball Bracket Day. White folks love to fill out those brackets and talking on and on about the “purity” of college basketball and how the “kids play as a team for the love of the game” and not for money like the really talented players. on March 17, 2008 at 12:18 pm Anonymous You need to do something on cuisine or the food network or Top Chef. White people all love to think of themselves as “chefs,” when in reality they couldnt stand the long hours working alongside diverse groups of people they proclaim to be tolerant of, when they have their graduate and arts degrees. on March 17, 2008 at 12:20 pm Palouse 239 – Or maybe it’s just good writing and it’s funny. Besides, anyone who feels guilty for things other people do just because they happen to share the same skin color has other issues, like being an idiot. Portnoy's complaint OK, ready to clean up all today’s misinformation and anti-White musings. #93 “Do you not get it, lads? The Irish are the blacks of Europe. And Dubliners are the blacks of Ireland. And the Northside Dubliners are the blacks of Dublin. So say it once, say it loud: I’m black and I’m proud. ” Actually Sinn Fein is marxist and ironically they love non-whites and other niggers since they need more votes. Their motto is: British out, Nigerians in. The true blacks of the new Ireland are true niggers, see here: “A Nigerian man who arrived in Ireland as an asylum seeker seven years ago has become the country’s first black mayor. Rotimi Adebari has been elected as first citizen of Portlaoise in County Laois. The move was the result of a voting pact between Fine Gael, Sinn Fein and independent councillors.” Portnoy's complaint OK, ready to clean up all today’s misinformation and anti-White musings. #93 “Do you not get it, lads? The Irish are the blacks of Europe. And Dubliners are the blacks of Ireland. And the Northside Dubliners are the blacks of Dublin. So say it once, say it loud: I’m black and I’m proud. ” Actually Sinn Fein is Marxist and ironically they love non-whites and negros since they need more votes. Their motto is: “British out, Nigerians and Chinese in.” The true blacks of the new Ireland are true honest-to-God negros, see here: “A Nigerian man who arrived in Ireland as an asylum seeker seven years ago has become the country’s first black mayor. The move was the result of a voting pact between Fine Gael, Sinn Fein and independent councillors. on March 17, 2008 at 12:47 pm wahmburger “A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them.” I can think of another population that does this…Hmmmmmmmm So much disinformation and White-hatred around, it needs to be pulled up by the roots!! #137 Italians have Columbus Day and st. joseph day on Mar-19 #138 An anti-semite is someone who the Jews hate. Over-used slur. Yawn. #142 It was England that declared war on Germany, not the other way around. If Ireland stayed neutral how is that cowardice or collusion. nice try. Besides, in another 100 years England won’t even be White or English, so I don’t know what you guys think you “won”. Plus kids in 100 years won’t even know who dead Churchill is, that’s already the case today, but the ideas of Hitler will never die, whether you like him or hate him. Irish and Protestants really need to bury it, considering they are both getting overrun with pakis, muslims, jews, and other semites. on March 17, 2008 at 1:07 pm Any Celt in a storm Actually, when it comes to deflecting anti-Anglo hostility, appeal to Celtic ancestry of any sort will do the trick – Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Manx. Even though Glasgow was the “second city” of the British Empire, Scotland was granted perpetal immunity from imperial responsibility by virtue of having fought the the Battle of Bannockburn five centuries earlier. After a brief moment in the sun when they sacked Rome in 387B.C., the Celts pretty much cornered the market in being Europe’s favourite losers (apart from a certain well-known village of indomitable Gauls). So much so, in fact, that no-one would believe you if you said that Scotland is named after Irish colonisers, or that the Romans had to build a wall across the north of England to try to stop the annual invasion of Scots trying to find jobs in London. on March 17, 2008 at 1:10 pm Mexellent Don’t forget Cinco de Mayo! White people can’t get enough of this holiday!!! It’s just so much fun and they love to be “cultural” and go to Mexican restaurants and bars! No matter that Mexicans don’t give a crap about this holiday… White people think it’s just great to celebrate Mexican customs! Look how tolerant and accepting and DIVERSE they really are! I’m going to wait until 6 pm to start drinking… But that is only because I’m part irish. Don’t worry though! I will still do a ton of “white” things tonight. Love you guys! on March 17, 2008 at 1:22 pm Terri Please please please post about college basketball before the NCAA tournament! White people really like college basketball as opposed to professional basketball. First of all, it makes them sound like they went to a big university with a Division 1 athletic program, even if they only did a semester at a community college. They also like to sound knowledgeable about basketball by saying things like “it’s still truly a team game” and talking about bounce passes and zone defenses. By feigning this knowledge, white people believe they establish or up their street cred. Street cred is important to white people when they need to parallel park in a neighborhood with no driveways. I am so whitethat I am clear and my shadow is a prism. tooneen A few corrections: Genetically, the Irish were a mix between the Celtic (western France and Iberia) and the Viking peoples. The Roman name for Ireland was Hibernia because the soldiers thought the people looked like the people from Iberia (Spain, Portugal). The Irish are divided into the Catholic Irish and the Anglo-Irish (read Protestant). The Catholics, like the Italians and the Polish, were seen as second-class white people. “Ethnic White”, as oxymoronic as that may seem. “Irish Stew” was made with dog in pre-Christian times. Mutton tasted most like dog so became the new meat. Guinness on tap is not refrigerated in Ireland so it does taste different. Victorians actually believed potatoes were an aphrodisiac for the Irish poor. I’m 1/2 Irish (been there too) and 1/2 Portuguese and I loathe boiled corned beef, cabbage and carrots. I do not wear green. Thomass 36 black mexican “For some strange reason, white people also like cinco de mayo and they DONT even know what happened on that day.” Yeah, if we partied every time someone beat the French in a battle…. nothing would get done… on March 17, 2008 at 2:14 pm Beleaguered DIL You hit the nail on the head. My MIL is 1/2 Swiss, 1/2 Irish but advertises her Irishness so that she can revel in being oppressed (an interesting stance for an arch conservative). This really comes out when discussing world events and history: “It’s no different from what happened to the Irish.” In her mind, here are some things that non-Irish people can just stop sniveling about: – American Slavery – The Holocaust -The Colonization of the “New World” and Westward Expansion (we do love that “Dead Pawn” jewelry, though!) – Genocides in Africa and the former Yugoslavia on March 17, 2008 at 2:18 pm Hazel I guess I’m the “wrong kind” of white person, because most of the stuff listed on this site strikes me as being pretentious, shallow, vain, snobby bs that only a complete waste of flesh would like. St. Patrick’s Day is one of the few exceptions. on March 17, 2008 at 2:44 pm Ummm? “A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them. If you find yourself talking with a white person who tells you about how their great grandfather was oppressed by both the English and the Americans, it is strongly recommended that you lend a sympathetic ear and shake your head in disbelief. It is never considered acceptable to say: “but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?” Aren’t you asian? Your people were being oppressed in this country at the same time as the Irish and stopped being oppressed in this country around the same time too. So, what’s the problem? St Patrick was a Welshman who was enslaved by the Irish. Good reason to celebrate…. on March 17, 2008 at 3:10 pm The Dude It’s unreal. Our local White People radio station (CD101) has been in an “Irish” pub all day, playing the Pogues and whatnot every other song. It’s a great station, but it’s like black framed glasses and ironic t-shirts are mandatory before tuning in. They love this holiday! I though of this site when I was listening, and thought, hmmm, St. Pat’s day should be a topic. And it’s so true about why this day and no other day (German-American Day is in October, betcha didnn’t know that) is celebrated. The Irish have never been colonists, at war with the US etc. And knowing what Irish people think of Americans is also very White People. So don’t bother telling us. I’ve been there. Unimpressed. They like to drink and talk, and avoid work. Guiness from the cans is just fine. Don’t share with us how much better it is there. It’s is, but it’s not like you’re gonna blow your wad all over. mi2la I’d like to raise a slight issue with the article. Pertaining to this section: “When you are sitting at an Irish bar and someone orders a round of Guinness, you must take a single sip and while the other white people are savoring their drink, you say: “mmmm, I know it sounds cliche…” If they had actually been to Ireland, and shared pints with locals, they would know that taking a sip of Guinness is unacceptable as it’s meant to be consumed in mouthfuls. (Or in the case of the Irish Car Bomb, half-pints at a time) Happy St Pats, and I hope this information allows a few of you white people the opportunity to be a little more smug on this wonderful holiday. on March 17, 2008 at 3:15 pm Bostonian who is sitting at home instead of working Here in Boston we call this particular day “Evacuation Day” and if you work for the city, which I do, you get it off as a paid holiday. on March 17, 2008 at 3:20 pm Benji this is spot on…what is more intresting is that true Irish ( i am half) don’t even care…we laugh at everyone else. but i do watch the Boondock Saints…which is a film all white people love. but you are wrong about one thing, Guinness does taste different in Ireland. on March 17, 2008 at 3:39 pm Kristin I read this post this morning, and being from the South (before I got my degree at a small liberal arts college), where St. Patty’s Day isn’t a big deal, I wasn’t sure I could relate. As I was waiting in line at Trader Joe’s after I got out of my publishing job in Manhattan (I’m applying to grad school in literature), buying some natural organic almond butter and Greek yogurt, I overheard the post-grad age guy behind me, the employee holding the “end of line” sign, telling a younger employee, “So that’s what St. Patrick’s Day is really all about -” (at this point I’m praying I’m going to hear the word “oppression” in the next few seconds) “Celebrating overcoming the oppression of the English.” I laughed out loud. He was definitely revelling in indignation over oppression that “in no way trickled down to him.” I turned around and told him to read your blog. You proved it again. I’m a cliche. on March 17, 2008 at 3:40 pm stuff retarded people like This site isn’t even stuff middle or upper class white people like. It’s a VERY small subset of white people. Tiny, even. Nevertheless, it is funny and entertaining. on March 17, 2008 at 3:44 pm Pelkor “guinness tasting better in Ireland” DEAD ON! For every time some conniseur of guinness says that, i will stab a kitten. YES REALLY! on March 17, 2008 at 3:47 pm Brooklyn girl Ditto the poster who pointed out that St.Patrick did not bring “Catholicism” to Ireland. He was pre-schism, so he brought Christianity in its undivided state. Ireland ended up on the Catholic side of the East-West split, but the Eastern (Orthodox) church celebrates St. Patrick’s life too. on March 17, 2008 at 3:47 pm LMAO So much fighting! Are all of you fighting actually Irish? And a St. Patrick’s themed wedding? So tacky! Now I have seen everything! Pelkor 220 Max St. Patrick’s day is on March 15th this year😉 It got moved because it interferes with Holy Week. But March 15th is Holy Week?… usually there is an exception for corned beef during holy week. But i screwed up starting palm sunday, had some delicious bacon, then realized oh shit… on March 17, 2008 at 4:15 pm johnmayerfan What if I listen to the song titled “St. Patrick’s Day” by John Mayer on SP Day? How white is that? i live and work in mendocino california. the very people you speak of are in my face, every day. there are the visiting white people as well as a certain number of resident white people that embody most everything you write about here, just wanted you to know that it applies beautifully, in certain regions anyway. thanks for making it amusing, rather than strictly frustrating and annoying. on March 17, 2008 at 4:29 pm Logan Train 299…johnmayerfan….that is, indeed, very white. I know, as I am listening to the song now…and I am, after all, very white. Oh my ! in england it is racist to celebrate st Georges Day (the english saint), but ok for the Welsh (where it rains) and Irish to celebrate theres. It must be the rain ? on March 17, 2008 at 5:10 pm Ms. Havisham Tommy- Actually, I’m not way off. I’ve been to Ireland 4 times (last time @ 2 years ago) and made the same lame trek to the Guinness factory because that’s what we do. Anyway – the bar at the factory- they do NOT refrigerate Guinness served to most of the locals. Sit and watch some of them order.. a matter of taste I guess. You would know that if you went to that particular bar. And it seems that Tooneen knows a thing or two : A few corrections: on March 17, 2008 at 5:46 pm Godzson yes…..this blog is very true. i was once able to land a big job interview on st patty’s day, by just mingling a drinking with hundreds of white people in the middle of the street. its amazing how some of this stuff is meant to be funny but is actually very true. on March 17, 2008 at 5:46 pm whitey It’s not just sentimental nonsense. Guinness is different (some say “better”) in Ireland because the stuff they send overseas is made to travel better and to be drunk at a later date than stuff that is made, shipped and drank all in the same week, and shipped within an Island that is 150 miles across. Guinness is definitely thicker in Ireland, taste is up to you. on March 17, 2008 at 5:50 pm whitey Most white people actually claim German heritage. But can anyone here remember the last St. Boniface party they got tanked at? on March 17, 2008 at 6:02 pm Flippy Pimpstein As a seasoned (and White) Alcoholist, I personally loathe St. Patrick’s day, as well as Jesus Mary and Joseph. on March 17, 2008 at 6:21 pm s.a. From the excellent movie The Commitments: “Do you not get it, lads? The Irish are the blacks of Europe. And Dubliners are the blacks of Ireland. And the Northside Dubliners are the blacks of Dublin. So say it once, say it loud: I’m black and I’m proud.” P.S. British people suck! on March 17, 2008 at 7:34 pm oldwhitegrouch “From the excellent movie The Commitments: “Do you not get it, lads? The Irish are the blacks of Europe. And Dubliners are the blacks of Ireland. And the Northside Dubliners are the blacks of Dublin. So say it once, say it loud: I’m black and I’m proud.” P.S. British people suck!” That’s funny. The movie was made by an Englishman and shows an English stereotype of the Irish—soulful and talented but lazy, undisiplined, given to factionalism and lacking resolution and will to succeed. And you thought that was excellent? Portnoy's complaint @285 The Dude: “I’ve been there. Unimpressed. They like to drink and talk, and avoid work.” Wrong. “Ireland has the second highest per capita income of any country in the EU next to Luxembourg, and fourth highest in the world based on measurements of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita.” Say No to a black Ireland! on March 17, 2008 at 7:38 pm troy I fukin hate stupid st patricks day… and yes im NOT white. Also I hate yuppies and hipsters. on March 17, 2008 at 7:48 pm Zeppellyn In the same vein as “Jump Around”, I suggest white people like any song that includes instructions on how to dance to that same song. on March 17, 2008 at 7:48 pm Andy White people aren’t just into this stuff to try and trick the others. I think they/we actually enjoy it. Jumping around with a pint of guiness can be fun regardless of whether or not you’ve seen civil war. The best satire points a finger at the dirty side of humankind, but the very best lets a glimmer of hope shine through. I think you’ve failed in that regard. al franken is a comedic genius, lovits, sandler as well… the rest, not so great… um, snl was perfect comedy within the years 88-92,93…that’s it. on March 17, 2008 at 9:50 pm tellmenosecretstellmenolies THIS IS A HATE CRIME AND I WOULD LIKE TO START A CLASS ACTION LAWSUIT AGAINST YOU! This is so racist, how about I write a blog about stuff “idiots like” that would be YOU and your commentators. If I posted a blog about “Stuff BLACK people or RED people or GREEN people” liked, you’d probably be the first in line at the courthouse, gee, I think I will start a class action case about you, your IP will show where you are you racist pig! Bridget on March 17, 2008 at 9:55 pm Andy Well this is the thing…I don’t think “white people” actually means white people. I think it’s like a placeholder for us or them or something like that. That’s it…right? @342 You can sit through an Adam Sandler movie??? Al Franken is just a pissed-off little kike. @343 It’s not racist, we are celebrating our “diversity”. on March 17, 2008 at 9:59 pm Nigerians are not Normans or Vikings On Saint Patrick’s Day we reflect on “the Luck of the Irish”: 700 years of bloodshed, occupation and civil war, ethnic cleansing, religious hatred and exile. To add insult to injury, a whole “industry” has grown up around the suffering of the Irish people, exploited today by the likes of Gerry Adams of Sinn Fein, the political wing of the Irish Republican Army, who rests on the laurels of “armed struggle” while advocating the eventual extinction of the Irish people through abortion, homosexual behavior and large scale Third World immigration. Depending on your point of view, the IRA were either glorious freedom fighters or Marxist thugs. But what is beyond dispute is the frankly lunatic position of Sinn Fein now that the IRA has abandoned the Armalite for the ballot box: Sinn Fein’s “nationalists” are the number one supporters of Third World immigration into the Emerald Isle. That’s right: the men who now wear the “nationalist mantle” won at the cost of blood, sweat and tears on both sides of the Irish divide are working hand over fist to displace the very people all this pain was meant to aid: the native, white inhabitants of Ireland. on March 17, 2008 at 11:19 pm Michelle I am completely infatuated with this website, but I don’t agree with the statement made early on in this certain ‘blog’ i don’t know what you’d call it; I’m drunk. Anyway, I have yet to meet a person that has constantly, extensivley, or ever brought up the fact that the Irish were opressed for a reason to celebrate this holiday. I think its a fun holiday, and a lot of people–including people NOT from the Irish ‘descent’ enjoy it. I think that the majority of US don’t dwell on the fact that we wrre discriminated by the whole east coast when my ancestors arrived because we feel the sense that the past other that to learn from it, will do us no good. I’m sorry for disagreeing, but I think its the truth on March 17, 2008 at 11:28 pm Anonymous I’m white and mostly irish. I love st. patricks day…it makes my last name, sullivan, special. and im white too. im actually drunk too. i love stuff white people like! on March 17, 2008 at 11:52 pm rpost3 In my family, my father’s whole extended family would get all dressed up on Paddy’s Day, go to mass, then head over to Uncle Regis’ or Aunt Rose’s for a big feast. Plastic Paddies are douchebags. on March 18, 2008 at 12:06 am Shayla Phillips-McPherson My scots-irish husband’s birthday is on St Patrick’s day. And he is pasty white, god bless him! And with the last name of McPherson is just icing on the cake. Actually there are a number of black immigrants from Africa who moved to Ireland for political asylum and now are citizens. There’s even a black mayor in one of their cities. on March 18, 2008 at 1:20 am Rachel #324: I HATE those kinds of songs! White people must like them because they like to stand still at concerts and have forgotten how to move, lol. I used to think I was part Irish, but it turns out I’m not. I find men in kilts tossing cabers more impressive anyway. on March 18, 2008 at 1:52 am dugortguy Kathleen Newsome;s commentary (item 53) most clearly expresses the Irish Holy Day (Holiday’s derivative) in Ireland, England, Scotland, Wales, USA, Canada, Australia, Puerto Rico and all over the world. St. Patrick’s Day is an opportunity to express Gratitude and Thanks. For this reason, many Irish Catholics all over the world start the celebration with attendance at Mass, not stop at the nearest pub. Those who are not part of our faith and culture do not fully know why we celebrate one of our saint’s feast days. As a people we love those who have donated their lives selflessly for our benefit. St. Patrick, St. Bridget, St. Brendan, and many others are a case study for us to pattern our lives. Above all, we hope to follow the example of our patron saint in both Ireland and America, our Blessed Mother Mary. Our memories are long and hopefully our gratitude is eternal. I am both an American and Irish citizen and spend every day thanking God that I have the grace to be both. My family fled the poverty of the early 20th Century in Achill Island, County Mayo, Ireland and traveled to the United States, leaving forever the hope of being with precious family for the hope of providing a better life for those of us who follow. My grandparents were truly courageous to leave all they love and know to go to a strange, new, and exciting country of infinite possibility. Their selflessness resulted in generations enjoying those freedoms that were denied their ancestors and themselves. Our family was no different than those who fled tyranny, persecution, poverty, and hopelessness from other countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our story is no different than those who desperately try today to do the same from the Americas to the United States. Modern technology has been most generous to us. The water that was an huge separation between the Americas and Europe has become a mere pond. My family knows well and loves its cousins. We have the luxury of maintaining treasured bonds with our extended family in Ireland, England, Canada, as well as the United States. So many of us have the same names that we have to resort to middle names and nicknames to distinguish each other. In reviewing the commentary of this blog, I was saddened to see the misunderstanding of the Holy Day and the resentment and anger by some. We openly welcome all to celebrate a great saint’s life. The antithesis of his life is the paganistic evolution of the day. For the record, yesterday night was spent with my father, our patriarch, and my immediate family. Yes, a feast of stew, potatoes, and soda bread were prevalent. No beer, wine or spirits. The meal always starts out with Grace in gratitude for all that God has given us in His bounty. Where St. Patrick’s Day begins, can St. Joseph’s Day, St. Ignatius of Loyola’s Feast Day, St. Stanislaus Day, St. Margarat of Hungary, St. Bonaface Day, the Feast of the Assumption of Mary, and the Feast of the Immaculate Conception be far behind? on March 18, 2008 at 1:55 am Simian God Even though some of these posts are spot-on for any group of white people, I feel a need to say that this blog is really about stuff that white americans like. It’s probably been said already. Nevertheless, it is extremely funny. Kate Paul #142 I am Irish (Dubliner). I would just like to defend if not Irish people, at least myself. I have never thought that English people should feel guilty about Northern Irish history. Just like I have never thought that I should feel guilty about the crimes that terrorist groups like the IRA. May I also suggest that you are generalising (wildly) about Irish peoples attitudes. You don’t seem to realise there are massive differences in opinion throughout the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. I would also like to point out that these are separate countries, no matter what some would like to hope for or believe. It is offensive and simply wrong for you to assume that all Irish people hate and begrudge all English people. In fact by doing that, it seems to only point out your dislike of all Irish people. I do not associate or sympathise with the IRA. I would never assume that you, just because you are English, sympathise with Unionist terrorist organisations such as as the UVF. These groups do not stand for anything noble. They are little more than organised crime. I am proud of being Irish. That has nothing to do with religion or violent history. So fuck off. GO! Smell the flowers Awesome site n Hi from Dubai! We’ll be featuring you in our multi-cultural east meets wst garden where Guinness is served from time to time! Cheers, top of the blog to ya! To be sure. Chinerish Hi. I am Chinese. Anecdote one: I was at a party in Paris, and this Prince Edward type wearing a smoking jacket and cravat turns to me and asks, “Are you Irish” [bourgeous accent]. Anecdote two: London, in toilet stall of a pub: i was urinating, and some limey yells, “oy, only one toilet in the house and some irishman is pissin’ in it”. I couldn’t figure out what the joke is. I figure maybe because Irish have 4 inch penises or something. But maybe they are eluding to the Irish as being foreign, a colony of people to be oppressed. But then, no white imperialist nation has ever succeeded in colonizing China. Or maybe I’m such a lush, they thought i have Irish blood in me. on March 18, 2008 at 6:34 am Jenny Some white people like pretending their particular aberrations are standard, most specifically because those particular white people need to feel superior. Look at the antics of some of the more vocal supporters of candidates in the democratic primary campaigns. Hillary Clinton’s, white, feminist nazi-like borgs, and then look at Barack Obama’s, white fascisti-like borgs. It makes me feel that were we able to DNA test these particular white people, and compare the findings to the DNA of the Hitlers, Goerings, the Marxes, Stalins, the Klan types, etc.. we could possibly find some particular connection, perhaps learn that there is a strain of “white people” that need, say, early psychiatric intervention? on March 18, 2008 at 7:21 am Jenny Some white people like to create little sub cultures to help enhance their feelings of superiority. A recent example of this is the “foodie”. In blogs, at farmer’s markets, and just about any where else affluent white people, who have never experienced real hunger or malnourishment can expend massive amounts of carbon dioxide (and wasted carbon of other kinds) on the subject, they proclaim their superiority (moral and otherwise) in that they have refined palates, and simply know better than the lesser orders. Foodies, young and old feel obliged to sojourn, whether for a time or permanently in France, so they can blog or speak about the supremecy of the quality of the food there. They prefer meyer lemons, and particular strains of wild strawberries grown on the mountainsides of the Swiss Alps to more common varieties. They seek a gazillion specialized varieties of produce, the rarer the better. Those unable to travel to La Belle France like to moan when there isn’t a Trader Joes or whatever the latest craze in foodie shopper bliss in their close proximity. One such foodie blogger had a recent whinge-fest when all the stateside foodie bloggers were all a-twitter about pancakes, Fat Tuesday being iminent, and she was berefit because she was currently residing in, gasp, a city with “no Trader Joes!” and she could only make fairly decent pancakes if she used Trader Joe’s pancake mix. How crushing would it be for her if she learned that TJ’s store brands are common variety domestic brands repackaged under the TJ name. She could have been buying Aunt Jemima’s or Bisquick all along and never knew it. They squawk about “really good quality olive oil” and the scarcity of authentic artisanal breads and cheeses. They spend vast sums on machines so they can then spend vast sums purchasing green coffee beans and roast them in the convenience of their own kitchens, looking down on those who don’t. They condescendingly criticize the poor in their own back yards who get sick, labeling them as ignorant because they don’t eat more healthily, willingly indifferent to the fact that the outsourcing of jobs, and the importation of foreign labor to displace their fellow citizens in the workplace, they profit from, has caused long term un/under employment, and that you can’t adequately feed yourselves and your childen on the little money they are able to earn. The fact that these particular affluent white people consider themselves “progressive” and enlightened, is a farce, because they are no different from the affluent white people of more than a century ago who rationalized slavery. on March 18, 2008 at 7:23 am Anonymous #323 white people don’t do the suduku they do the crossword puzzle. it doesn’t come in the times you would have to buy the post which is an un-white paper on March 18, 2008 at 7:25 am Jenny Anonymous #379, I’m not a scientologist, but it’s true that some white people created scientology and other bizarro religious cults. Again though, they do so because of their pesky need to prop up that pesky need to feel superior. Then of course those cults are filled with the same sort of white people, Tom Cruise is a prime example. Again, test the DNA and do something to treat that crazy strain of white people. KG Strange that my original comment did not get posted but was under moderation for a long time so I’m retrying again. You said: [“But since the Irish never engaged in colonialism and were actually oppressed it is considered acceptable and encouraged to celebrate their ancestry.”] The Irish may not have had the manpower of the British or Spanish but they were part of the cog of European colonialization of South America. That puts them in league with the opressors. Here is timeline for Irish history in South America: Anonymous LOL #209: You know here in the North of Ireland all the bars actually serve 2 different types of guiness too; room temperature (normal) and extra cold. Extra cold is, as a friend of mine is fond of saying, “for the Huns” on March 18, 2008 at 7:34 am Jenny The ancient Celts lived in what is now known as Germany, before migrating to what is now known as Ireland. There is speculation that their precursors originated in the Middle East, but that hasn’t been substantiated, nor does that automatically translate to their not historically being white. Many natives from the Middle East have historically had what is considered white skin.. though if you use a color chart, you’d be hard pressed to find any human being whose particular skin tone matches what is considered white. The Irish are not even largely Celt any more. They include Scandinavian and even Spanish ancestry from the raids on the island nation over the centuries. on March 18, 2008 at 7:37 am Jenny Anonymous #389, beer or stout is the least of Ireland’s problems. How can you even talk beer when you people keep electing corrupt stooges like that fat bastrd Bertie Ahern into office? Cripes, you people ought to be ashamed of yourselves for electing such a bendover man. Jenny Evan #392, Cinco de Mayo is so been there, done that. It should be redefined as a reminder of Mexico, as well as the rest of Latin America’s participation as the descendents of the Spanish people who were the creators of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, inspired by their Arabic trading partners. Also that those same ancestors committed genocide against the Mayan, Incan and Aztec peoples, and attempted to commit genocide against the native peoples of the American southwest. There should also be discussion about Spain having to make restitution for the riches the Spanish crown and people accrued through enslavement, genocide and theft. Only then would it be worthwhile as a holiday to celebrate. @387 you must be pretty white to know where to find sudoku! all the white folks i know just love to start filling their sudoku sheets in front of you, then stop to tell you about how many they have completed. in fact, some white ppl even travel with sudoku books. when you tell them you’ve never played, they get a spring in their step (naturally because they are superior and the fact you don’t play is proof), then explain how much fun it is and how to play. my guess is half of them haven’t completed one in the presence of someone else. on March 18, 2008 at 8:05 am Jenny Speaking of some white people and St. Patrick’s day, here’s one Carl Stanley McGee (Irish surname). A former Rhodes Scholar, Harvard graduate, summers on Nantucket, sudoko playing, Mass Equality activist and high profile aide to MA governor Deval Patrick. Here’s the NY Times article covering his wedding a number of years back: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/20/fashion/weddings/20vows.html?_r=1&oref=slogin And here’s a link to his mug shot photo after being charged with brutal sexual battery on a 13 year old boy at a resort in Florida back in December: on March 18, 2008 at 8:10 am ohdeariambeingmoderated Speaking of some white people and St. Patrick’s day, here’s one Carl Stanley McGee (Irish surname). A former Rhodes Scholar, Harvard graduate, summers on Nantucket, sudoko playing, Mass Equality activist and high profile aide to MA governor Deval Patrick. Here’s the NY Times article covering his wedding a number of years back: on March 18, 2008 at 8:21 am Foodie I dunno Jenny….enjoying food and seeking the best ingredient varieties is simply a hobby and I don’t think there is anything wrong with it..We all have to eat to survive..why not eat good and seek the best? The term foodie was recently given to food enthusiasts. I grew up eating soup and sandwiches and government cheese so believe me I can relate and know know what it’s like to settle for less than stellar meals. I just happen to enjoy cooking, grilling and getting creative in the kitchen with different ingredients… Big deal. I don’t hate on people that east fast food on a regular basis, so don’t hate on folks like me. That’s all. I think that Guinness tastes like liquid pumpernickel bread. That’s NOT a good thing. I guess I have minority-person tastes. on March 18, 2008 at 8:36 am Aidan Foy Jenny; as a most sincere compliment, you are something else. I thoroughly appreciate your sassy and fiery nature. I do bear disagreements with some of your impositions; having studies, relatively deep, Celtic anthropology and international politics. Regardless, I hope that this reply acts as a tenacious encouragement to your, or what I believe is your, spirited nature! To digress. . . . Fucking A!!! on March 18, 2008 at 8:53 am HappyGirl This morning, I saw a black man, wearing a green plastic St. Patrick’s day hat while panhandling to morning commuters. What do you make of that? on March 18, 2008 at 9:22 am Justin Last night at my bar of employment, I overheard two conversations involving Guiness tasting better in Ireland and how a girl’s great grandfather was oppressed. This all while karoke was hosted by the gay waiter. It was white heaven. on March 18, 2008 at 9:28 am Was Beckett Irish? I rather like #27’s comments. We are, after all, less than a century away from Ireland’s brutal colonization, and even less distant from racism against the Irish that emphatically refused to consider them ‘white.’ American slavery is more distant than that (not to diminish the ongoing effects of either history)… #389, you’re right too, but then again, I find it hard to locate any race or nation or culture that hasn’t mixed equal parts vicious repression with kindness and culture. But perhaps it’s time for a “‘What White People Like’ likes” blog. Top of the list would seem to be refusing to recognize brutal oppression if it happened to a white person… The second posting could be naive discussions of race and ethnicity with a hip twist, rapidly followed by “how liking anything good is pretentious and should be turned into a hip ethnic joke.” It seems to me that this blog and a good proportion of its comments simply encourage a naive bigotry against anything that’s perceived as different. It is funny, but aren’t most ethnic jokes? “White” isn’t a real ethnicity, nor is “coloured.” They’re terms that mask a host of differences and commonalities. “Irish” in this posting is a good example — what nation, ethnicity, group, immigrant population, religious collective, etc. does this term designate? It’s a term implying an essential commonality among a heterogenous group, in this instance one that has been characterized over the past 2 centuries by tremendous internal divisions that a blog like this pretends don’t exist. And yes, Guinness is better overseas. It isn’t pasteurized, so it doesn’t have that bitter edge. Perhaps the truth is pretentious. Oh, and I’m not Irish, but genetic testing shows no identifiable traits that distinguish between the Irish and the English, so that Celtic line should be recognized for what it is — a broad part of European history that was used in the late 19th century to construct a sense of difference to help promote the Irish struggle for independence. on March 18, 2008 at 9:47 am Lost on the Underground Did you know because of Holy Week starting yesterday the Catholic Church officially moved St. Patrick’s day to the 15th this year, so you entry was a couple of days late… love the blog though! Have you watched “Waiting…” recently? Well, at least the Irish dont mix mexican and continental…. T-Money #96 – LOL so true but then again Boston is white period! #263 – I don’t know where you live but come to Brooklyn honey it’s a whole different dynamic! on March 18, 2008 at 10:20 am american irish A little Irish history for you. Since my great great great great grandfather and his brother got off the boat and were immediatley drafted into the Union Army to fight for the freedom of slaves that they never knew or owned how about a little thanks. I think you could make a new category of things white people like. oldwhitegrouch The only things worse than Presbyterian Irish are Irish from Boston and New York. I used to look down my fine nose at Kerry people but my son married a great gal whose folks are from Kerry so I had to rethink that. on March 18, 2008 at 10:28 am Cantilever I notice that your item on the NYT article, “Leaving Behind the Trucker Hat” has been taken down. If it’s because the Times came after you, that proves you hit them where it hurt. on March 18, 2008 at 10:33 am Patrick How does such an amazing blog attract easily the lamest collection of comments on the net? I had to stop reading after the first few comments before I got geek. That guy trying to plug his sh!t book was a low point for self esteem everywhere. on March 18, 2008 at 10:45 am Albert “There isn’t a group of people on earth who are as self-aggrandising as the Irish. Here in England, of course, we’re supposed to feel enormously guilty over the way they’ve been treated – even if, like me, you in fact come from very poor English stock. It’s this guilt – coupled with their endless whining – that led to the Northern Irish ‘peace process’ (which, as every sane person knows, is just another name for ‘letting vicious murdering thugs walk free’). Which had to happen, of course – how could we not understand their pain of living under the British flag? So great, in fact, was the pain of living under the flag of one of the world’s finest democracies that they felt the need to routinely murder innocent people (including women and kids). Lovely, lovely people. Funnily enough, the Irish always forget to mention their cowardice and collusion during World War II. Oh, and anyone who proclaims to be Irish who isn’t actual Irish born and bred (i.e. most Irish-Americans), is an utter, utter c*t.” Good grief, you utter pilgrim. It’s stuff like this that has led you to being a lonely, racist half wit. Please hurry your, no doubt long promised, move to Australia. on March 18, 2008 at 10:55 am Portnoy's complaint #390 “I’m Irish” and “The Irish may not have had the manpower of the British or Spanish but they were part of the cog of European colonialization of South America. That puts them in league with the opressors.” Here we go again……. Why do you choose to live in a Western nation then? Seriously, why don’t some White-hating liberals just put their money where their mouths are and move to a nice sunny blissful non-oppressor inhabited place like Cuba? why not? Go move to a place like Peru where the Iindians there haven’t been “corrupted” by the Europeans. There are tons of nice villages. Douche bags like Mr. 390 are obsessed with winning status struggles over other whites, and feel the need to choose “liberalism” to do so? It doesn’t work and it’s not “smart”. You are not any better than the real Whites you so disdain. on March 18, 2008 at 10:56 am AppleJuce “Normally if someone were to wake up at 7:00 in the morning, take the day off work, and get drunk at a bar before 10:00 a.m., they would be called an alcoholic, and not in the artistic, edgy way that white people are so fond of.” Not to mention that if this was a black people holiday, they be considered ghetto, uncouthe, loud, rambunctious and uncivilized. Portnoy's complaint #416 “Funnily enough, the Irish always forget to mention their cowardice and collusion during World War II.” You said that before. It was England that declared war on Germany, not the other way around. Ireland was neutral during WW2. I love how these English are so proud of WW2, but what did the English win? A country loaded up with muslims and non-whites and the English won’t even be a majority in 50 years. A win? Ireland is choosing a similar stupid path with allowing in Nigerians, Chinese and all the rest. The future generations will curse ours for being so stupid. on March 18, 2008 at 11:01 am Portnoy's complaint #418 The big difference is that with Whites on St. Pat’s Day, there are NO SHOOTINGS or RAPES, nor destruction to property etc. etc. Nice try. on March 18, 2008 at 11:21 am Really Now #420, white people don’t rape?? They most certainly do. You might not know it because they might eat the body after they have finished the raping! They don’t destroy property? Those drunk bastards make the town look awful when they are done with it. White people don’t shoot?? Maybe not one person at a time…They like to wait until they have a gathering of people before they open fire! on March 18, 2008 at 11:22 am Portnoy's complaint You really have to credit the White engineers and architects, etc. as the people who “built the country” There’s tons of labor sitting around in Africa, and they don’t build anything. Portnoy's complaint #425 How many rapes are there on St. Pat’s Day or even a frat-boy football weekend? NONE the ilfigga #36, word!cinco de mayo is a historical reference to the french colonial rule over what is 2day known as mexico..an indigenous homeland of ancient tribal cultures…just as ireland once was b4 colonial imperialism of kings and queens, and certainly st. patrick, who came to”drive out the snakes”.. many people seem to be caught up on race(especially whites, thus the need for this site)…there is but one human race,no? we all originate from the land which is africa,no? perhaps we should try to heal the reasons why we need to consume numerous substances in so called homage of these meaningful days and events..for many will celebrate st.pats and go next into easter..and right in between is the vernal equinox, a sacred celebration of all our ancestors indeed.. perhaps it’s just that, our sorrow over the loss of connection to our earth mother and natural cadence of time on March 18, 2008 at 11:37 am Luck o' the Irish LOL @ “White people don’t shoot?? Maybe not one person at a time…They like to wait until they have a gathering of people before they open fire!” So TRUE!! i.e. colleges, high schools, churches, subway trains, political gatherings, at presidents. LOL. Portnoy's complaint #429 Nice try again. Anyone remember the NBA all-star game in Las Vegas? A major chimp-out, hundreds arrested, rapes, shootings, and other typical black assorted mayhem. You guys really how to celebrate. Frat boys have college degrees, and they don’t get arrested for rape. Rowdy ass Frat Boys rule!!!! ha ha….. Blacks never get any degree whatsoever, have low reading levels, other basic educatioal impediements, and usually end up incarcerated. St. Pat’s Day is nothing compared to “Freaknik”. ——————————————————————— Freaknik was a meeting of (primarily African-American) college students from all over the United States, occurring yearly in the city of Atlanta, Georgia. It was usually held during the third weekend in April, which at that time was Reading Day (or the break between classes and exams) for the schools of the Atlanta University Center. It began in 1982 as a small quiet gathering in Piedmont Park. It was initially sponsored by The California Club of Morehouse and Spelman Colleges. For whatever reason, the event suddenly increased in popularity in 1991 and became a gathering primarily focused on dancing, drinking, and partying. The main problem with the event was that black youth were either driving slowly or stopping completely throughout the streets and highways of Atlanta. In 1995, Greenbriar Mall was looted. After 1994, city leaders took measures to curtail Freaknik’s accessibility and hence its popularity. Because of those plans, Freaknik in its later years moved to Memorial Drive in Dekalb County to take part in heavy late night club activity during that time. At its peak in the mid-nineties, it drew upwards of 250,000 revelers to Atlanta. The primary complaint of Freaknik was that it brought extra criminal activity upon the city of Atlanta. It was last held in 1999. The Reverie of Freaknik passed on to Daytona Beach, Florida until the city officials also grew tired of the antics of the attendees and they took steps to kill Freaknik once and for all. A major catalyst for the death of Freaknik was the brutal rape of a college female in the city center. on March 18, 2008 at 12:06 pm Patrick AppleJuce, do some research. Most of the Irish immigrants (specifically Irish Catholics) who came to America in the 1800s (when they began emmigrating in mass) were dirt poor and took the jobs that were considered “too dangerous” for slaves as slaves were considered by their owners to be too expensive to risk. The Irish were building railroads, canals, streets, and sewer systems, not black slaves. Slaves were working on Southern plantations while the Irish were building the Northern cities. I’m by no means saying slaves had it easy, but when telling people to open a book, you might want to open a few yourself. I advocate the use of capital letters to start sentences. Thank you, ‘ollie’.😉 on March 18, 2008 at 12:13 pm Patrick Columbus Day a Hispanic celebration? Certainly not where I’m from (just outside Chicago). Sure, Columbus sailed in the name of Spain, but he was Italian and many Italians have claimed Columbus Day as a day for all Italians. I’ve never met a single Hispanic (and I’ve known plenty) who give a shit about Columbus Day. Actually, I haven’t really met many people who give a shit about Columbus Day… Portnoy's complaint #432 is right. Good job. White indentured servants were wrung dry over the 5-7 years they served, many died etc. Slaves were treated better since they were considered valuable property. One half to two thirds of all immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants. At times, as many as 75% of the population of some colonies were under terms of indenture. Only a FRACTION of Whites owned slaves. The incessant black whining about reparation is pathetic. But we have the jew$ to thank for creating that “game”. on March 18, 2008 at 12:46 pm Sean Wow, how unoriginal. At first this site was amusing and quite poignant at times. But now, the author or creator appears to be content with examining their calendar or reading the cover of Entertainment Weekly and attaching the label “white people love this” to whatever it contains. What’s next? White people love Mothers day? White people love the NCAA tourney? White people love the Olympics. Get over yourself, and your no longer creative website. on March 18, 2008 at 1:18 pm Irish OK….a fellow white person (my girlfriend) and I were debating last night (at a bar) whether this would should up on SWWL. I said NO because just like Steelers t-shirts made of stiff cotton, St. Patrick’s day attracts buttloads of white people, but entirely the wrong kind of white people to get any mention in this blog. Even though the bar was full of white people (mostly polish) getting drunk and pretending to be Irish, the most white people at the bar were wearing no green, sitting at the bar wearing tweed, smoking unfiltered cigarettes and talking about their creative writing programs. After this experience, the blog entry shouldn’t be St. Patrick’s Day, but PRETENDING TO BE JAMES JOYCE or THE IDEA OF BEING IRISH. Perfect. Portnoy @ 436— ‘The incessant black whining about reparation is pathetic.’ True. You can’t oppress an equal race. Portnoy @ 436— ‘But we have the jew$ to thank for creating that “game”.’ You can’t oppress an equal race. on March 18, 2008 at 1:27 pm Entry Level White Person Entry Level White Peeps wax poetic about how their green Boomba of Old Style would taste better on Division Street. Shite & Unyuns! Emaura I must admit, it makes me sad when non-Irish people steal my thunder and plaster their bodies with “Kiss Me I’m Irish” messages. I really am irish, but I don’t ask anyone to kiss me! That’s how you spread mono. Now a shameless plug: on March 18, 2008 at 1:56 pm Anonymous Jews love to traumatize innocent White kids by dragging them through their Holohoax museums. Don’t let your kid fall for that propaganda, keep them home from that field trip and teach them something positive and something that has to do with America. Some Irish guy in Boston got fed up with all the Jew whining and their reparations/swindling schemes that he set up an “Irish Potato Famine museum”. I’m not sure acting like a jew is good for his health, but here it is, a page out of the jewbag playbook: White people always like to brag about being drunk, being high. on March 18, 2008 at 2:05 pm Whitey#1 You have to do one on DIET COKE! White people love the fvck out of that stuff. They also love to refer to it as diet crack on March 18, 2008 at 2:11 pm wasp Guinness does taste better in ireland. it is brewed all over the world. if you visit the guinness factory in dublin, you will also learn that guinness makes different brews for different regions. in africa, for example, you can buy a variety of guinness unavailable in the states. also this blog does not apply to all white people. only upper middle class yuppie types and middle class people who aspire to the former category. take the vintage clothing entry for example. white trash people do not wear it. and the whitest people do not wear it either. they wear seersucker and nantucket reds. on March 18, 2008 at 3:40 pm blah The Guiness brewed in Ireland tastes a lot different. The people at the factory claim that it’s because Guiness has been going through the pipes at the brewery for so long that it has its own “seasoned” taste. It’s much thicker than the crap in the states – it’s like mushroom gravy over there. I have not found one bartender in the states who can pour Guinness properly. It takes several minutes to actually pour a proper pint. Also, the term “black and tan” pisses me off to no end. No one seems to realize that the proper term for a “black and tan” (half Guineess and half Harp) is “half and half”. The term “black and tan” is a derogotory term that refers to the British police officers that harrassed/harrass the citizens of Northern Ireland. This was especially true during The Troubles. on March 18, 2008 at 4:15 pm todman777 I love St. Paddy’s day! and im white. what a surprise. You never cease to amaze me on how accurate this are. toxik —It is never considered acceptable to say: “but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?”— Jews are much the same way. Despite being among the most affluent people on the planet, we must treat them all as victims because of the Holocaust (and why “Antisemitism” is such a taboo). I think Jews and blacks love being the oppressed ones more than the white Americans who try to relate to some Irish ancestry. on March 18, 2008 at 4:27 pm Patrick Blah…if you go to a proper Irish bar in the US, they know that Guinness and Harp is a “Half and Half” and Guinness and Bass is a “Black and Tan”. If they don’t, turn around and walk out. Harp hasn’t been as good since they started selling the stuff brewed in Canada instead of Ireland (at least the shit they sell around me is from Canada). on March 18, 2008 at 4:40 pm A As an african american lesbian with a caucasian domestic partner i find this blog hilarious! as does my partner and all of my caucasian friends in interacial relationships ! on March 18, 2008 at 4:55 pm Anna Hm, really? From my experience I wouldn’t say that white people spend much time thinking about the oppression of their Irish ancestors; most of them don’t even know what the holiday is really for. We just like a good party.😉 s.a. To 325 oldwhitegrouch “From the excellent movie The Commitments: “Do you not get it, lads? The Irish are the blacks of Europe. And Dubliners are the blacks of Ireland. And the Northside Dubliners are the blacks of Dublin. So say it once, say it loud: I’m black and I’m proud.” P.S. British people suck!” “That’s funny. The movie was made by an Englishman and shows an English stereotype of the Irish—soulful and talented but lazy, undisiplined, given to factionalism and lacking resolution and will to succeed. And you thought that was excellent?” The Commitments was based on a novel by a Booker Prize winning Irish novelist by the name of Roddy Doyle. on March 18, 2008 at 5:45 pm supertitan what about those hats like the guy in the dog category is wearing, or shirtsleeves that are too long? Under The Hill To post #435 (Patrick): It could have been worse: Columbus Day would have been called Colón Day. It’s the Spanish version of his surname or known as the sausage-like intestine. Heh. Portnoy's complaint #455 stuffasianslike FYI: That guy from Prison Break, Wentworth Miller, is some sort of mixed-soup mongrel. He’s not White. on March 18, 2008 at 6:01 pm JR I guess I didn’t need reminding, but I guess white people also (don’t) like Jews. The amount of anti-Semitism in the comments is disturbing. But maybe we’re not the white people who are acting like this on St. Patrick’s Day, so maybe we’re not white people. Whatever. I got to this site by mistake, linking in from another blog. Ooops. on March 18, 2008 at 6:26 pm One of the Satirized I love this blog for the right reasons (I hope) which just makes me all the more mockable for saying this: but I really wish you would purge the more severe hate speech from your comments. I was subbed to the comments to see who was saying what and maybe meet some folks who like this blog for the same reasons I do, but after feeling pummeled by so much creepy scary racist blather, particularly by the comments with open hate speech and racial epithets, I have decided to stick strictly to reading your most excellent posts as long as they maintain their integrity (and make me laugh). Of course it’s your blog and your call but I just thought I would let you know how I feel. In case you care. daniel1992 St. Patrick’s day is pretty essential. Every white person gets to goof off and get drunk for a day, while wearing green for no apparent reason. Not much to actually do with the true holiday, at least not in America. on March 18, 2008 at 6:32 pm oldwhitegrouch “The Commitments was based on a novel by a Booker Prize winning Irish novelist by the name of Roddy Doyle.” Which doesn’t negate the fact that the picture depicts the Irish as lazy and undisiplined, given to factionalism and lacking resolution and will to succeed and was made by an Englishman. Cate Middler(two days ago)- What the hell are you talking about? How could you even compare the two cultures/religions to one another. St. Paddy’s Day is by far an amazing day to celebrate our history. Irish Americans are known for being the greatest war heros in American History. (Read Born Fighting if you need proof.) They were also the majority of the NYPD and NYFD that sacrificed their lives and continue to do so on a daily basis. So before you compare our culture to a greedy/cowardly heritage back it up with facts. Yesterday marked our 5th anniversary in this war and I thank god for all the brave US soldiers out their fighting. There is nothing unpatriotic about celebrating our Irish roots- esp. when our boys are risking their lives to protect your sorry ass on a daily basis. on March 18, 2008 at 8:02 pm MrGalt I have noticed that the “wrong kind of white people” he keeps referencing are the majority of white people you meet in your average day in most of North America. Makes me wonder who the white people you’re talking about are. I suspect they are Californians, or some equally divergent subspecies. Win Your Weight in Immigrants™ Eamonn de Valera. Bernardo O’Higgins. The Irishman started the Spanish country. The Spaniard started the Irish country. You can’t get more symmetrical than that. people are silly come on everyone go drink a beer and relax by the way, i bartended in the UK and all of the older men complained about guinness selling out and having an “extra cold” option for the younger generation. so you know, there’s always something to bitch about on March 18, 2008 at 8:49 pm oldwhitegrouch An affinity between the Irish and Spanish and Spanish subsets goes back to at least the days of Tyrone’s rebellion. The Spanish aided Tyrone with arms and troops and after the rebellion’s failure many Irish fled to Spain, enough so that Irish names are not uncommon in Spain. The last Spanish viceroy of Mexico was named O’Donoju and the fortifications of San Juan were built by Colonel Thomas O’Daly at he prompting of Field Marshall Alexander O’Reilly. There was a Mexican president named Obregon (O’Brien) and Irish soldiers known as the San Patricio Battalion fought in the Mexican Army in the Mexican-American War, there is a memorial to them in the City of Mexico. I also know of quite a few Mexican-Irish marriages in Chicago and my cousin Tommy in Baltimore married a Mexican. The Johnson I wonder if this site was replicated a la [insert ethnicity here] it might be considered horribly racist… just guessing. The sad part is finding out that my black friends are more white than I (a white person). For instance I went to this BBQ where everyone was pining over the jerk chicken and the only thing I had to say was ‘ damn, this Shi7 is HOT!’ (this particular jerk was pretty hot, then again i sweat profusely with hot stuff and tend to enjoy it, or say i do even if i don’t) and immediately went for a glass of water. Well, everyone starts laughing at me… cause i have a glass of water from the tap and they’re all drinking out of their freshly cooled water bottles. Similarly, in my neighbourhood, there are A LOT of blackrish (irish africans or the likes). Apparently they don’t drink beer too much despite their irish roots, even on st paddy’s. and they don’t know why it’s green. ohhhh to be white again… Éirinn go Brách #443 Holohoax? Really? Do the gene pool a favor and don’t reproduce because it’s shallow enough as it is. on March 19, 2008 at 12:20 am Anonymous #476 Relax you crybaby. I say 5,999,999 died, so what now? You gonna put me in a jail for “denial”? These idiot creepy jews…..go sue a Swiss bank and go away. on March 19, 2008 at 12:21 am poetic one Saint Patrick Day, perfect excuse for everyone to claim they’re part Irish and get drunk. Doesn’t matter if you’re ancestry is German, Swedish, Italian, Mexican, Korean or Swahili. I wonder if the rednecks celebrate it too. I’ve heard Savannah has a huge Saint Patty’s celebration. on March 19, 2008 at 12:39 am Anonymous I love the scene in Gone With the Wind when Scarlett O’Hara’s father is telling her how important the land is. His accent. Gives me goosebumps. hehehe… this is so american!🙂 Just to clear a few things up… it’s Paddy’s day, not Patty’s, corned beef and cabbage is an American dish, not Irish (and soda bread is not a Paddy’s day tradition, it’s just everyday bread), Green beer is an abomination, (never seen in Ireland) Irish people are white, but also black, asian…….. ÁthCliathach “451 Patrick Blah…if you go to a proper Irish bar in the US, they know that Guinness and Harp is a “Half and Half” and Guinness and Bass is a “Black and Tan”. If they don’t, turn around and walk out. Harp hasn’t been as good since they started selling the stuff brewed in Canada instead of Ireland (at least the shit they sell around me is from Canada).” This is also an abomination. Please don’t go to such Irish bars in the US. (And please don’t ask for a ‘black and tan’ in Ireland)😉 on March 19, 2008 at 5:32 am Patrick I never ask for a black and tan anywhere. But I live in the US, so I limited on my Irish bar options… on March 19, 2008 at 5:44 am White Guy #2,897,546,234,983,555 Wait a second…. I’m confused, I’m from the Greater Detroit Area and well, our city has a black mayor, but his last name is Kilpatrick. WOW…. it’s obvious its not just a ‘white’ thang. on March 19, 2008 at 5:54 am Keef Man, you ain’t kidding. Being black, I could care less about St. paddy’s and cinco de mayo or any other “holiday” that isn’t remotely important to folks on a cultural standpoint except that it gives them an excuse to be dicks and vags while getting hammered. Thos holidays obviously give folks a reason to live it up at the bar, which is another thing white people like. If I could add to the list, white people are apparently fond of non-threatening black guys who suprise them by being well-spoken, articulate and nothing like the guys and girls they see on music videos and The Wire. I also know that it’s a fact that they love to share that fact despite it being intrinsically racist. I have plenty of stories about that one… on March 19, 2008 at 6:30 am Manxie Arghhhhhh!!! I was just saying the other day why is it the US makes such a big day about St. Pats? Your AMERICAN, not Irish. Try going to Ireland and claiming your irish (cos your great grandmother was from Cork or something) and watch them roll their eyes and cringe for you. Saying that though that goes for all Americans, when you get out of your country your American first, ethnicity second, its only in the US you make such a big deal about your heritage. Éirinn go Brách #477 I’m not Jewish, i’m a wrong kind of white person so if it were up to me i’d stick your non funny ass in a EZ Bake Oven. on March 19, 2008 at 6:32 am vanya Oh man you missed the mark on this one. Your average NYT times reading, NPR listening, no TV having White Person looks on St Patrick’s Day with condescension at best. Either they ignore it or, if they actually are Irish-American, they make remarks about how St. Patrick’s Day is “amateur day” and that real Irish “drink on the other 364 days.” Or make knowing remarks about how in Ireland, of course, St. Patty’s day is no big deal and everyone knows only Americans celebrate it, not “real” Irish people. on March 19, 2008 at 6:53 am Andrew Y Didn’t like this one, St. Patrick’s day is something that the WRONG kind of white people like (White people that read USA Today and like chain bars). In my experience as a white person, we tend to loathe this day and make sure to stay away from the more Irish areas of the city, perhaps commerating the day with a simple vintage kelly green t-shirt or by purchasing a Guinness and Jameson at our local dive bar, nothing more. Bob It’s great watching all these ‘oppressed’ Irish-Americans wallowing in victimology….on Native American soil. And yes, i’m English, and I enjoy oppressing people – so shove your guilt up your arse! on March 19, 2008 at 10:27 am Clavell My ex hailed from Belfast. St. Patrick’s day in America was always a good day to just stay home and close the drapes as far as he was concerned. When he lived on the East Coast he also got heartily sick about all the “controversies” surrounding the parade in New York, i.e. the role of gays and lesbians marching in the parade or not. oldwhitegrouch “It’s great watching all these ‘oppressed’ Irish-Americans wallowing in victimology….on Native American soil. And yes, i’m English, and I enjoy oppressing people – so shove your guilt up your arse!” Good for you, you’re a member of a courageous though violent and piratical race and proud of it, that’s refreshing, were I a Limey I’d be proud of it too. My grandfather rather than be a victim joined the game and was a Regular, 1st Battalion Royal Irish Fusiliers. Was an Old Contempible at LaCateau, Ypres, Somme etc. and killed many a German for the King. By the way, every Indian I’ve met calls himself an Indian, not a Native American. Shane Paul…. Your posts are so hilariously misinformed and hate-filled that I don’t know what to say. If you equate “Irish people” to those members of the Republican movement that killed innocent people, why not equate “British people” with the UVF, LVF, etc.? You know, those who gave birth to horrific killers like the Shankhill Butchers that are glorified by many “British people”? As for calling Ireland cowards based on WWII…..I don’t know where to begin there. Have a read of this speech; de Valera says it better than I ever could. on March 19, 2008 at 10:34 am oldwhitegrouch During WWII more than 40,000 men from the Free State served in the British military, more than from Northern Ireland. This led to the quip overheard by an officer from a foxhole under heavy shelling at Anzio “I’ll say one thing for Dev, he kept us out of this fucking war!” on March 19, 2008 at 11:57 am Portnoy's complaint #497 Your ex “closing the drapes” is cowardice and that’s why we have gays running our school boards today, etc. White people need to stand up against hate, not close the drapes. on March 19, 2008 at 12:04 pm @486 @486 ‘white people are apparently fond of non-threatening black guys who suprise them by being well-spoken, articulate and nothing like the guys and girls they see on music videos and The Wire.’ Hey black dude: I don’t know any sane human beings of any color that want to hang with the illiterate ghetto negroids. You seem surprised by this rather normal instinct? Why? on March 19, 2008 at 12:09 pm Portnoy's complaint #490 Oh man you missed the mark on this one. Your average NYT times reading, NPR listening, no TV having White Person looks on St Patrick’s Day with condescension at best. That’s because your average NPR & NY Times person are not whites in the normal or healthy sense, but weaselly little kikes or people who hang with them. Come on. St. Pat’s Day parade in NYC is the World’s largest parade!! It’s totally White! It’s 247 years old!! You need to get some perspective on life. Patrick Keef @486 I find saying that white people like to hang with well-spoken articulate, non-threatening black men and not the people they see in videos to be an odd complaint. I am a white man who prefers to hang out with non-threatening people regardless of their race. It seems bizarre to me that anyone would want to hang out with someone they thought was threatening. I’d no sooner hang out with some ignorant ghetto black guy than I would some ignorant trailer trash white guy. Anyway, to the topic on hand. I’m an American of Irish descent and I’m proud of my heritage and have done my best to know a thing or two about it. I like St. Patrick’s Day, but it’s for my own reasons. Being over 21, I can really drink anytime I want. It does sadden me that so many so-called Irish Americans would so readily embrace a negative stereotype (as well as non-Irish Americans; I’ve seen blacks, Asians, Indians, and Hispanics donning the green and getting plowed in the name of Saint Patrick, too), but it has more to do with finding an excuse to drink than it actually has to do with a real appreciation or understanding for the Irish themselves. The frat boy mentality has overrun the public celebration of the day, but I still celebrate in private with my family. I wouldn’t disavow the day because of the morons. After all, all of us, of all races and ethnicities, know people who embody the worst stereotypes of our backgrounds. I prefer to educate instead of distancing myself. on March 19, 2008 at 1:36 pm Éirinn go Brách Saint Patrick’s at my house was a family get together after mass where we sang traditional songs and had a huge meal which didn’t include corn beef and cabbage. If people want to make fools out themselves I could care less. Under The Hill Some years ago, I’d learned that the earliest people who lived in ancient Ireland hundreds years before the Romans came were originally from the ancestral tribe who lived in Spain for generations. I nearly forgot about it until one of the above posts mentioned an Irish-Spanish connection. on March 19, 2008 at 2:15 pm Anonymous Romans never arrived in Ireland. There is much debate about the origins of the Celts of the British Isles and whether they are derived from Celt-Iberians or France. A good discussion about it can be found on Stormfront,org Black Irish I am a Black American. About four years ago on my last job, it was about to be St. Patrick’s Day and one of my White male co-workers had the nerve to ask me: White Male Coworker: “Your last name is Irish. Do you celebrate St. Patrick’s Day? Are you going to go out after work to a pub? What kind of green are you going to wear?” At first I was shocked. Then I got pissed. Then…I looked at my coworker and realized that he was totally confused by my death glare at him. He wasn’t asking me because he was a racist azz. He was asking me because he was genuinely clueless about certain aspects of American History. I briefly explained to him that my last name is Irish because most Black people who are descendants of enslaved Africans simply took on the name of the plantation, or White family, who held them in bondage after Slavery in America became illegal due to the Emancipation Proclamation. White Male Coworker: “The Irish had slaves? No we didn’t. That can’t be right. We didn’t have slaves” Me: “Yes, there were many plantations and small farms in America, especially in the South, that were owned by Scotts-Irish, Irish, Germans, English, French, and even Spanish” I told him that I come from a legacy of Slavery on both sides of my family. One side were Irish, the other were English. White Male Coworker: “So you protest St. Patricks’s Day?” Me: ” No, I don’t. I’ll probably go take advantage of the beer specials at the bars like everyone else.” I then walked off. He felt like crap the rest of the workday but I didn’t care at the time. Sometimes I resent having to treat White people like babies when it comes to race issues. I’m not here to make anyone comfortable with the color of my skin, period. And they need to read ALL of American History instead of hoping that certain aspects will go away. Hell, I was nice to him. I didn’t even go into why my skin is on the light side of Black Beauty. If I had started talking about American Slavery and rape, I probably would have made him cry. Because that’s IS the reason why I’m so light. Historically, it’s all, for the most part, because of rape during Slavery. I’m not that bitter about my family history….I mean, I still wore a little green on St. Patricks Day. on March 19, 2008 at 2:52 pm blah People in America claiming to be Irish is annoying as hell. You’re not Irish; you’re American. Go to Ireland and they will tell you so. Also, many people will talk about how proud they are of their Irish heritage, but have absolutely no idea about the history of Ireland, the language, The Troubles, or the religion. Does anyone actually realize that leprechauns were/are a part of people’s beliefs? It’s embarrassing and I find it offensive that we can use leprechauns, sirens and banchees for our own amusement. You don’t see too many cereal boxes with Jesus on the front do you? on March 19, 2008 at 3:06 pm Portnoy's complaint People in America claiming to be Irish is annoying as hell. You’re not Irish; you’re American. Go to Ireland and they will tell you so. Oh shut up. What about all the Irish in the USA today, many of whom are illegal, that are joining up with Third World scum so the can selfishly become American? These same Irish left their own country!! They left it, in a day and age where they don’t have to. The Irish left in Ireland are getting duped by a marxist Sinn Fein who’s new motto is Britain out, Nigerians in….so they can get votes.😦 Ireland today is choosing a path of suicide by opening its borders up. I really don’t think they are in a position to judge anyone. FYI about history History also teaches us that modern humans came from Africa. History does not tell about the millions (if not billions) of women of every race, creed, and religion who were raped and had children from those rapes through all the centurys. Lest we forget about women and children who are still slaves in the world today, as we type. sciencesays Oh man….the “Jump Around” part could not be more true. Ironically, this reminded me of an article I read called “How the Irish in America became White” a couple of years ago on March 19, 2008 at 4:00 pm Bad Boy Brown Hey! I hope everyone had a great St. Patrick’s Day! I know my girlfriend and I did. We drank lots of GREEN BEER and had a great time at McMenamin’s. Best of all – I didn’t drink a drop of Guinness at all since the local distributor is a client of mine; and we get FREE Guinness all year long. Anonymous People should get their facts straight. The Irish did not build America. It was the Protestant Ulster Scots who moved in the Mid West and South and through hard work, sweat and blood, caused the agriculture to flourish. The Irish Catholics themselves moved primarily into the big cities Boston, Philly, New York, etc, etc and brought with them alcoholism and crime. Slums like the Five Points were second only to those in London’s East End during the 19th century. So called ‘Irish Americans’ have little or nothing to be proud of. Their part in the winning of the Civil War is also overstated, if anything it was the man power of the freed blacks that provided the north with the strength required to win the war. on March 19, 2008 at 4:33 pm Éirinn go Brách I see we have a Orangeman amongst us. Who do you think was the labor in most of the construction projects in the Northeast like the Erie Canal smart guy? on March 19, 2008 at 5:05 pm eyelinerrobot Wow, I read about a hundred posts into this before my mouth burned with bile. If this has already been said, I don’t care. There are many different blends of Guinness that are exported to different parts of the world to appeal to different tastes. So yes, Guinness in Ireland tastes different than Guinness in the US. As to which tastes better, I have no idea as I have never left the shores of the US. You can see reviews for yourself on any number of beer websites eyelinerrobot.wordpress.com on March 19, 2008 at 6:01 pm Bob I’m half Irish by descent and this entry is exactly why I keep a low profile on St. Patrick’s Day/weekend. I agree with Drew, #524. There are far more drunks on St. Patty’s day than usual, and all these extra drunks are tools because they’re the over the top ones who don’t go out drinking every other weekend. Black Irish #514: of course you’re pissed. You’re black. The media tells you its okay to be pissed/angered at almost anything, and that combined with your natural proclivity toward it (being black) means you’re always on edge..its no surprise. Its all “whiteys fault”..eh? Your Blug is a Crime against Humanity. HipHop Crackers on the Dance Floor. HipHop Crackers on the Dance Floor. I have never seen utter destruction. on March 19, 2008 at 6:04 pm Bob Oh and 497 is not the real Bob. 497 is a faggot scrawny boy whose daddy pays his 30k/year tuition at a private school. Sorry 497 people like you and the real Bob don’t wind up in the same place in life. You wind up deep in debt in a low wage job and wonder why that is because you espouse what you see on TV. I wind up better off and you can’t get your head around why someone ideologically opposed to your in every sense is so successful. I will fill you in: its called reality. on March 19, 2008 at 6:23 pm Anne #514 Black Irish, I’m sorry your colleague is such a yokel. You appear to have run into the one fool who never heard of Scarlett O’Hara. That man needs a fact checker, stat. Thanks for wearing the green this week. You’re a bigger person than I am. God bless. on March 19, 2008 at 8:23 pm furious1 Uh oh Bob, sounds like you and Portnoy, or “Anonymous” here, have parted ways. I didn’t know that the white power movement was so balkanized. on March 19, 2008 at 8:27 pm furious1 And Bob, are you jealous that you didn’t go to a private college? What else would cause your little rant? Sounds like somebody is mad that the private college kids get offices while the night-school MBAs get cubicles. on March 19, 2008 at 8:58 pm Portnoy's complaint I love the cheap epithets and slurs, and it never stops with furious1. Anyone who is not a raving lunatic multi-culturalist drone is “white power” LOL!!! Tell it to Rev. Wright or Ariel Sharon. Now there are some racial supremacists. To: “The Irish are the blacks of Europe!” Ireland’s GDP per capita is 2nd in the EU. on March 19, 2008 at 9:07 pm oldwhitegrouch “The Irish did not build America. It was the Protestant Ulster Scots who moved in the Mid West and South and through hard work, sweat and blood, caused the agriculture to flourish. ” The only people who worked hard in the old south were the Black slaves and the Catholic Irish dockhands in the ports The Scotch-Irish, also known as Hillbillys, are noted for their indolence and lack of enterprise and would rather hunt and make whiskey than go about the backbreaking work of serious and profitable farming. Note that White southern farmers were subsistance level slash and burn farmers who let their livestock run loose in the woods. The lower Midwest was indeed settled by Hillbillys but the productive praries of the upper Midwest were settled by New Englanders and upstate New Yorkers of mostly English descent. These were the people who tackled the prarie and turned the upper Midwest into the world’s most productive breadbasket. There were also some Germans and later Scandanavians involved of course. The Scotch-Irish do know how to hate though and this combined with their undoubted courage makes them excellent warriors though their arrogance and lack of disipline makes them less excellent as soldiers. on March 19, 2008 at 9:22 pm furious1 Portnoy, are you just trying to make me think you didn’t break up with your boyfriend Bob? Otherwise why would you suddenly have a change of heart about the Irish? Gee, are they white? Or not? Yes, Irish GDP is good, in no small part because like the United States, the Republic of Ireland has always had an open door policy toward immigrants. But I imagine that you must hate the EU, way too much like a “one world” government for you. After all, places like the United States, Ireland, Britain, and Germany are all destined to split along racial lines according to you. Just like Russia, right? Please, go back to stormfront and belly-ache with the rest of the minorities. on March 19, 2008 at 11:13 pm Parnell “Gardaí are appealing for witnesses to an assault on a woman in Dublin city centre in the early hours of yesterday morning. The victim was attacked while walking along East Essex Street in Temple Bar at around 5.20am. She was approached and assaulted by a man described as being Asian. Gardaí say they would like to talk to anyone who was in the area between 5am and 5.30am and who may have witnessed the incident.” SAY NO TO A BLACK IRELAND Portnoy's complaint You lack reading comprehension: I love the cheap epithets and slurs, and it never stops with furious1. Anyone who is not a raving lunatic multi-culturalist drone is “white power” LOL!!! Tell it to Rev. Wright or Ariel Sharon. Now there are some racial supremacists. on March 20, 2008 at 1:32 am Adam I hate it when people call it “St. Patty’s day.” PADDY is the diminutive of Patrick. “Patty” is short for “Patricia.” Éirinn go Brách Paul How about Croke Park in 1920 or Derry in 1972? We can play this game all day chump and there will be more blood on the Huns hands not the Irish. on March 20, 2008 at 7:07 am BlaxicanWhoLovestheTJ Even though I entered a white terrirory when I went to trader joes the first time, I hereby proclaim the TJ Blaxican country Bitch… Dave St. Patrick’s day requires Celtic music, which is making a big comeback amongst white people, and is becoming popular all year around. Doesn’t every ethnicity deserve music and art of its own? Do we have to buy CD’s that embarass us just because they’re trendy? on March 20, 2008 at 7:39 am Wheezer One day out of the year to complain about my oppressed ancestors isn’t bad. Others use the crutch 365 days out of the year! PS: I prefer Flogging Molly on March 20, 2008 at 10:03 am WASP Sadly there are a lot of old WASP like my parents who would never consider anyone Catholic to be truly “White” and write off St. Patrick’s day as a ethnic holiday about as important as cinco de mayo. tom #549. Wow. That’s the most annoying thing about White people: pretending to be above and “over” race yet being so exclusive about who’s White and who’s not. I bet your parents think that Spaniards and Hispanics are one and the same, right? (no offence to you) Northern Jay Hehe, I liked this blog. I love St. Patricks day and I drank twice as much Guinness as I normally do to celebrate it. I’m not Irish but who cares! on March 20, 2008 at 11:50 am The King Of Dirk Here in Boston we have “Evacuation Day”. This is the day we mark to commemorate the day that the British occupation of Boston ended and they got back on their boats and went back to Mother England. Coincidently(?) this happens to fall on March 17th so city workers don’t even need to call in, they get a paid day off to drink all frickin day and go watch The Dropkick Murphy’s play on a flatbed truck in southie. P.S. Guinness does taste better in Ireland on March 20, 2008 at 11:53 am Well said “For some strange reason, white people also like cinco de mayo and they DONT even know what happened on that day. They think it is Mexican independence day. haha” Good point black mexican. I think white people like cinco de mayo because they like eating chips and salsa outside while downing Caronias. As for finding out the history of the holiday, who cares, look at me I’m wearing a sombrero and speaking spanglish! on March 20, 2008 at 12:27 pm John Q Whitey I beleive it has been mentioned, but it is important to realize that the Irish are not white. Just like light skinned blacks look down on darker skinned blacks, True white people look down on the Irish. on March 20, 2008 at 12:32 pm Adm Moe Howard I live in a community that’s about 80% Irish. I have no Irish in me at all. I’m unmistakenly non-Irish and very Italian in my appearance. It’s all good though. Being white, I can’t help myself enjoying the holliday. Columbus day used to be for Italians to act up in town on a Saturday night, but that day has recently fallen out of favor among white people. At least, among the white people depicted at this site. on March 20, 2008 at 12:50 pm John Q Whitey response to 515 about being annoyed by Americans proclaiming theselves Irish. I think you are misunderstanding St Paddy’s day in America. Its not appreciation for the Irish, its making fun of the Irish. Getting all drunk and acting the fool, “hey look at me im a drunk leprachaun tool” No self respecting white person would ever want to be considered Irish. That would be like calling a person from Spain, hispanic….. Irish ? Forgetaboutit St. Paddys day is like New Years Eve. All the rookies come out to drink. Real drinkers got so smashed the day before St. Paddys day they slept through the green beer fest for posers. Proud Dego “For this reason, 100% of white people are proud to claim that they are somewhat Irish.” As a pure-bred Italian, I can say with pride that I never, on any occassion, consider myself Irish. Never have, never will. on March 20, 2008 at 1:38 pm Katherine Just thought I’d let you all know that Guinness in North America does taste different from Guinness in the UK, but that’s not because it was brewed in a different place…it’s all brewed in the copper kettles in Dublin. The difference is that they concentrate the beer into a syrup to cut down on shipping costs and then reconstitute it once it gets here. I’ve never visited the Guinness factory (my parents have), but this is what my Sensory Evaluation/Food Science prof has told me. Also, I’m white and Canadian (Newfie) but I still celebrate St. Paddy’s every year by drinking copious amounts of Guinness and wearing green (albeit in a dark forest shade from Club Monaco). Perhaps it’s because Newfoundlanders have faced similar oppression from the British (and some would argue the Canadians)? Love the blog…it definitely holds true for the most part. You are very astute🙂 on March 20, 2008 at 2:00 pm oldwhitegrouch “As a pure-bred Italian, I can say with pride that I never, on any occassion, consider myself Irish. Never have, never will.” So when did your ancestors cross the land-bridge from Africa? on March 20, 2008 at 2:49 pm Takano-san Whites like Saint P’s Day because pretending to be Irish is about as close to being ethnic as most white people can dream. on March 20, 2008 at 2:50 pm Éirinn go Brách John Q Whitey is right. Being Irish more than one day a year is simply way too ethnic, blue collar and catholic for the type of white people this blog is about. They desperately want to be European but in a generic sense. David O'Connor “I have even been to Ireland and forced to eat corned beef, soda bread and cabbage.” Irish people do not eat corned beef. This is complete fabrication. Obviously your trip to Ireland was one made in your sleep. “I maintain that you are not Irish unless you are Catholic” Utter sectarian idiocy. Get out. Moron. on March 20, 2008 at 3:41 pm Brown Sept St. Patrick’s Day is more amusing if one wears orange. Some Papist Mary-worshipping idolaters with ancestors from the South will notice. Most others will just wonder why you wore a loud tie. I am pleased to be in a country where this is merely an amusement rather than an occasion for violence — at least, not any more. The South Irish won the Day here — you’re entitled to all of the MacDonald’s shamrock shakes you can consume! But, and in general: liking anything Celtic is a very White thing to do. I think all Celts are slightly mad — including me. on March 20, 2008 at 4:37 pm Blackrook I laughed so hard at this one I almost bust a gut. I am Irish and I confess: guilty as charged. Just yesterday I was on a b-board whining about the Potato Famine and the way Irish Catholics were excluded from country clubs and New York law firms when they got to America. In today’s political environment, playing the victim gives you leverage. Look at how playing the victim has opened doors for blacks through race quotas and affirmative action. Irish are the only white people who get to play the victim and get away with it. Furthermore, we feel absolved of all white guilt for slavery because our ancestors were treated just as bad. Who was building the railroad for white America? Blacks, Chinese and Irishmen. So Irish have the best of both worlds. We’re white but we still get to whine about the past and make other white people feel guilty. Trevor Carpenter Patrick was not a Catholic, much to the ignorance and consternation of most Irish today. Nor was he Irish. He was British. Additionally, his rejection of the gifts given to him regularly and his immense focus on evangelism clearly separate him from the traditional church from Rome. on March 20, 2008 at 6:24 pm Éirinn go Brách Oh Trevor… he also wasn’t a Anglo Saxon protestant either. He also is clearly different than the Mega Church televangelists of today. Go ahead and call the Catholic church the Great Whore and us catholics cultists, you know you want to. Brit Basher #142 “So great, in fact, was the pain of living under the flag of one of the world’s finest democracies that they felt the need to routinely murder innocent people (including women and kids). Lovely, lovely people.” It must be hard for you, as an Englishman, to understand the killing of innocent people (including women and kids!). Unless you count your countrymen’s actions in parts of Africa, India, the Middle East, Ireland (for 800 years, you fucking prick), France, Germany (Dresden is simply lovely this time of year, what with no industrial capacity – let’s firebomb it what what), Russia, and China. I heard that even a few women and children were killed during your foreign adventures. I’ve never met a Brit who wasn’t an outright bitchy prick. Not surprised by your post. So go fuck a goat you crooked-toothed cunt. flat-broke college kid You’re all danged web quibblers. Everybody has similar DNA, which hints that we are all “of common descent.” So, a white dude with freckles is just as black as a black dude with freckles. I’d also like to point out, the Africans (the REAL black people) Started the selling of each other to the French; We can all agree the it’s the french’s fault, no? Brit Basher #570 Trevor your ignorance is showing . St Patrick was not British (or English). He was born in the late 4th/early 5th Century in Roman-ruled Britain. The Germanic Anglo-Saxon migration to Britain did not even Begin until the fifth century AD, and they were not Christianized until much later. St. Patrick’s father was a Christian deacon. Therefore St. Patrick was not Anglo-Saxon, or English. He was also not “British”, as “Great Britain” would not exist for more than 1000 years. He may have been a Briton (a Celt), or a Welshman (a Celt), or even a Roman citizen of undetermined ethnicity (not Anglo-Saxon). “British”, is not even an ethnicity, as it encompasses Welshmen, Scots, English (in its original use), and today even encompasses Nigerians and Pakistanis. If Patrick was ordained a Bishop by a Papal representative, how is he not Catholic? I’m just curious. Nice try though, Trevor. on March 20, 2008 at 7:39 pm Blackrook Yuck. There sure is a lot of hatred floating around on this website, directed at people because they belong to a different race/nationality/ethnic group. I think the author intended all this “what white people like” to be taken in good fun. But it seems that this site has attracted racists assholes like a piece of shit attracts maggots. #575 Racist? ASSHOLE? Um, takes one to know one. Go away, jerk. I love these arrogant-types who exhibit their intolerance of others under the guise of ‘tolerance’. Hilarious! IF you want ‘control’, then start your own blog and censor it. Nick Griffin The whole idea of arguing about Orange vs. Green is OVER. Europe, Britain, and Ireland are getting overrun with Turd World scum, and you are still arguing about the 1600’s? Wake up. Say NO to a black Ireland Say NO to a Muslim Europe Say NO to an Asian UK The worst is sinn fein who’s marxist scum motto now appears to be: British out, Nigerians in. Just pathetic. Michael Collins must be turning over. Didn’t Churchill fight so England wouldn’t be invaded by “foreigners”? So what the hell has happened? If I was a WW2 English veteran, I’d wonder why I even fought. perhaps it would have been better for the Western World had the Axis won, and England never declaring war on Germany. There certainly wouldn’t be Muslims traipsing all over Britain. JewishandProud of It All you anti-Semites are douche bags. Jews are the most upwardly mobile people in America. Jews moved out of the ghetto faster than any other group in America, and black people should take a lesson from them, and stop bitching about the government. That said, with out Jews, you would not have Google, Facebook, comedy, and a bunch of dead innocent Japanese people. JEWS RULE! on March 20, 2008 at 11:55 pm Anonymous The Irish were as discriminated against as the blacks when they came to this country. They are discriminated against in the UK too. The world isn’t made up of “white” or “black.” It’s made up of different cultures. But, the simple minded will never understand that. No, the Irish were told that they need not apply. The Irish were also told they were worth less than a slave! That’s even worse. on March 21, 2008 at 5:53 am Somewhere in SC Everyone, I have to tell you about something I witnessed last Saturday while near Savannah, Ga. As most of you know, Savannah has a large St Patricks Day event. I was passing through the area while traveling from Florida back to South Carolina and my car broke down near Savannah and I had to have it towed to a car dealer to have it repaired when they opened on Monday in Savannah. I am driving down to Savannah today to go pick it up. While I was awaiting the tow truck at the gas station where I stopped and the car died, I saw many people with the St Patricks attire and many obviously drunk or near drunk folks in various vehicles. What struck me as interesting was this, many of them were African- American. I have always heard of Black Irish so maybe that is what I was witnessing. Looks like another take over of a “holiday” by another ethnicity. Now I am not racist. I am a “mutt”. Mixed heritage of Irish, British, French and Native American (Cherokee). Now see, what I saw has confused me. This is like Mardi Gras celebrations in New Orleans where there are many races and heritages celebrating, partying, having fun. I guess St Particks Day has also become the same melting pot as Mardi Gras. Interesting also that it falls in-between Ash Wednesday and Easter Sunday so I guess it’s another excuse for practicing Catholics to break Lent sacrifices for one day. on March 21, 2008 at 6:16 am Maureen O'Donnell When I read that there was a website called “Stuff white people like”, it was after midnight and I wasn’t paying much attention. I interpreted as “Stuff white people, like”, with stuff being in the imperative mood as in “Get stuffed”, a less than gracious end to an argy bargy. The “like” at the end of the sentence is used as a modifier to soften the idea of assertion. An example would be “I don’t trust him, like”. Apart from the meaning of the verb “like” we have other uses for it in Ireland such as “I thought Michael Ignatieff was interesting, like, until he returned to Russia to write a book about his posh Russian ancestors whose estates had been seized by the Commies. He came across as full-of-himself, like, and when I read the comments on St. Patrick’s Day I was disappointed by , you know like, the lack of whimsy and the boring obsession with the “black stuff” Guinness, now the favourite drink of Nigerians and very old Irishmen. Anyone who really wanted to get stoned on any festival day would be drinking a powerful libation called “Fat Frog” (which is green) or “Slippery Nipple”, like. As for the person bemoaning the fact that her mother told her she’d Irish ancestry, although she’d prefer Viking, she’d want to learn some history, God love her. Dublin was founded by the Vikings, extensive Viking raids took place in Ireland . Charmed by our ineluctible beauty etc. etc. and much milder climate, many stayed and mated. St. Patirick was long gone so we can’t say if these couplings were formal or informal, like. Their DNA is here though in the hair colour “rua”. Only 2% of the world’s population has naturally red hair but it is around l0% in Ireland and Scotland. I knew you’d want to know that, like. on March 21, 2008 at 6:18 am brian you never see an irish bar packed on a saturday night…not with the 51 yr old bartender who has been doing it for 22 years and the 42 year old waitresses white people love scented soaps and candles (dont know if thats on there) Anonymous “mmmm, I know it sounds cliche, but it really is true. Guinness just tastes better in Ireland.” i have totally said that. btw dont believe anyone who says things like this: “Being actually Irish, it’s my observation that we’re the only ones who don’t lose our shit on this day.” seriously dude? i like in nyc, went out on st. pattys, met tons of your people (read: actually irish people, not americans like myself who are part irish and pretend) who in fact really truly lost their shit. their shit was no where to be found and it was hilarious. and to this guy: “ANOTHER THING WHITE PEOPLE LIKE (THINGS) WORKING, BEING ACCOUNTABLE FOR YOUR OWN CHILDREN, KNOWING ALL YOUR KIDS NAMES, NOT STEALING ANYTHING THATS NOT TIED DOWN, STAYING OFF WELFARE………” my response to him: dont talk. ever. seriously. to all non-white people: dont worry, we arent all that stupid. on March 21, 2008 at 10:40 am Cailin As an Irish person of indeterminate ethnicity in that I am neither white nor dark but somewhere in between (people think I am Greek or Italian usually) – I can say that I hate St. Paddy’s Day – not only because St. Patrick represents the attempt to destroy our earth-based heritage (luckily he was not entirely successful) but because I have buried way too many people I love who died from postcolonial disorders like alcoholism and drug addiction. I get angry with the “part-Irish” people who use this day to celebrate the destruction of my ancestors and my heritage – we are still here. on March 21, 2008 at 10:44 am Cailin And Irish people and Black people did team up together when they were enslaved together in the Caribbean! The Draft Riots of NYC happened much later – Read the Many-Headed Hydra for the hidden history of the Atlantic! on March 21, 2008 at 10:48 am Cailin I keep reading these posts and they just get more racist and horrible – its true, everyone DOES hate the Irish – for those who posted crap about Irish Americans not being Irish – F&&ck you. Just because you say so, does not make it true. on March 21, 2008 at 10:57 am O'Malley Guiness tastes very good in Ireland, the closeer to the brewery the better. The Guiness Brewery Bar has some foinne tasting Guiness. The defensive comments on this blog pretty much both prove the point and improve the humor of the posts. So… White. on March 21, 2008 at 12:20 pm jhunkadore Errr, this is a straight white thing. Straight folks love to puke along the parade route, nail easy drunk chicks in green eyshadow, and spend March 17th at O’Hetero’s Irish neighborhood-pub(tm). Face it, it’s the straight version of “gay-pride day.” on March 21, 2008 at 3:10 pm Keywacat Guinness tastes better in FRANCE! (Look up “Guinness Foreign Extra, they send the potent stuff across the channel) #583 No, the Irish were told that they need not apply. The Irish were also told they were worth less than a slave! That’s even worse. Being told move along isn’t the same as “I shackle you and you work for free”. Irish were never slaves in America, that’s because they were White, pure and simple. on March 22, 2008 at 1:06 am Éirinn go Brách No the Irish weren’t slaves in America but they were enslaved by the Huns and sent to the West Indies(oh that lovely British democracy…spit!) and they didn’t gain whiteness for some time. In fact you had racist so called scientists saying that Anglo Saxons were superior to Celts based on the measurement of skulls on the 19th century. on March 22, 2008 at 1:39 am Nigelwyn “Actually, most people in Dublin don’t drink Guinness, that’s just for the tourists. They all drink Bud now.” trumps “Guinness is better in Ireland” on March 22, 2008 at 6:50 am MorganStateMan Why do white people always send Christmas cards with pictures of their dopey kids? And if they don’t have kids they send a picture of their dopey dog, usually some yellow or black Lab. Drives me nuts. on March 22, 2008 at 6:48 pm blah For that asshole who thinks that the issue of “orange and green is over” obviously doesn’t know what he’s talking about. Check out NI newspapers my friend; it’s not over. Also, douchebag who thinks that it was the Scots that built America: The word Scotland comes from the term “Scoti” which is Latin for “Irish”. Scotland literally translates to “land of the Irish”. It was merely members of the same tribes that migrated to different pieces of land. Without the Irish coming to America (thanks to those monsters known as the English) America wouldn’t have been such a success. BTW, Ricky Gervais is the only Brit who’s not a total prat. on March 22, 2008 at 10:13 pm Anonymous For that asshole who thinks that the issue of “orange and green is over” obviously doesn’t know what he’s talking about. Check out NI newspapers my friend; it’s not over. Martin McGuiness and Paisley, I know all about it. The point is, bigshot, that while these two groups are still bickering, the rest of Ireland becomes non-White. What’s the point of that? You are saying that “British out, Nigerians in” is a good policy for the future generations of Irish kids? Are you nuts? Look at England and how multi-racial crap has totally fucked up that place and London in particular. If you are Orange, then again, is having Nigerians and Chinese and Pakis in Belfast a good thing in the long haul? These people need to wake up fast and see what the real threat to Irish stability is. Scott What cracks me up, (as an Irish/Scots-Irish American) is when Hispanics call us all “Anglo”, LOL. That’s like calling a Mexican a Spaniard. We were at war with the “Anglos” for a few hundred years as Celts, and are a completely separate and distinct ethnicity, yet we are all Anglos to every Hispanic, especially on the West Coast. Jamison To the black guy in #514…you say “even the Spanish” as far as owning slaves in the US. Uhm. DUH..you post as if you are “enlightening” us all on some issues of blackness, and then you say something like that. Dude, the Spanish RAN the freakin slave trade, and were the largest slave owners for a period of time, as were the Portuguese and Arabs. In fact, the word for a “black person” in Arabic, is “Abid” which MEANS slave. On the other topic, it is true, the US was built by the Scots-Irish largely. on March 23, 2008 at 7:34 am odd In this blog it is stated that 100% of white people are proud to claim that they are somewhat Irish. Funny cause every St. Patricks day every body is suddenly Irish. Every race on this day wears those stupid plastic hats, green , and drinks like there is no tomorrow. Portnoy: Anyone who is not a raving lunatic multi-culturalist drone is “white power” LOL!!! Its true. Just look at the amount of Furious1’s posts here and his claims. So typical of a multiculturalist, he claims to know so much but in reality knows so little! He is the product of a middle class family who is probably scrimping to pay his 30k/year tuition. He thinks the cost of his undergrad combined with parroting the MSM party line on multiculturalism will somehow open more doors for him. People like him wind up very disturbed when reality doesn’t turn out the way they thought it should by their late 20s. Sorry Furious1, I work in reality and people with your paradigms definitely don’t wind up in corner offices. In fact you don’t wind up even close to corporate America. The mail room doesn’t count. Dave I’m amazed at how seriously folks can take this blog! 1. Can’t we celebrate St. Pattie’s day (w/o being Irish) christmas (w/o being christian), or the 5th of May (w/o being Mexican), just for the sake of enjoying ourselves? I mean you’re often celebrating the spirit of and the celebration itself, not the actual milestone it marks. Halloween is likely a Scottish/Irish Pagan, tradition that has been Americanized and made fun! So from now on… No candy for minorities, Christians, Jews, Muslims, (or Anglos, Frenchies, Slavs, Italians, Germans!) on Halloween!!! So if any of you turds who are so damn offended by green beer have ever trick or treated, attended a Halloween party, or carved a pumpkin… REPENT! for this is not a holiday for YOU! You’re going to argue someone’s opinion of if a beer tastes better from one place to another? really? I don’t like Bud Lite, but it seems to taste better on a hot day at the ball park than when my buddies bring it over! Egg Nog tastes better during the holidays… It’s the experience stupid. Seriously anyone offended by this hilarious site is clearly missing the point. I’m a honky through and through and find this site funny because much of it is true. take the piss out of yourselves will ya? Oh and btw. Corned beef and Cabbage is Awesome if cooked properly! Damnit now I’m hungry… disclaimer: I’m 1/2 German 1/2 Irish and I’ve never been to Ireland.* on March 25, 2008 at 3:30 am Dolores Bravo “repost”. I’m from an Irish immigrant family (since late 1600’s). We’ve tried to stay as Irish as possible but, sometimes some middle handsome Europeans have snuck in. I am familiar with relatives through 5 generations (I’m 80)this amounts to at least 100 aunts, uncles, cousins etc. The only drunks I’ve seen, were the Europeans, who, by the way, do not limit their boozing to Saint Pat’s Day. So there!!! Cymruambyth Damn right he was! Cymru am Byth! p.s. I wonder how many people who walk around on St. Patrick’s Day saying “I’m so damn Irish!” could even identify Ireland on a World map. on March 25, 2008 at 8:15 am ryan “Guinness tastes better in Ireland” is the biggest f-ing farce ever committed. It tastes the goddamn same. I went to Ireland for the express purpose of trying this much better tasting Guinness. I was disappointed with my discovery that it does, in fact, taste absolutely no different there than it does here in the States. While it may have been true at some point in the not so distant past, modern refrigeration techniques has made it completely possible to have the same quality beverage all over the world. Pleb True, but the book the film is based on was written by Roddy Doyle, an Irish man. on March 25, 2008 at 11:07 am Caliann G. Having observed St. Patrick’s Day celebrations in the U.S., I have to disagree that this holiday is anything like what some Jewish people feel for Israel. (I say “some” because I know that not nearly the majority of Jewish people are in favor of a Jewish State. There are religious reasons for that.) My experience with those that celebrate St. Patrick’s Day in the U.S. is that a vast majority of them would not be able to point out Ireland on an atlas, would ask you what retirement has to do with green beer if you mention the IRA and likely do not have a clue who St. Patrick was or what century he lived. These people are not perpetuating myths, espousing tribalism and/or violence nor have much of a grasp of history, nostalgic or otherwise. What they are doing is getting drunk on beer with green food coloring. Ben Seriously? You’re tarnishing the sanctity of this site with antisemitism? As a weaselly, hateful Jew myself, I resent the claim that we make hostility only at Christmas. Year long, baby! on March 25, 2008 at 1:55 pm Joe Leiberman McCain is more jew than he is “Irish”. What a joke that guy is. He’s gonna let the israelis lead us right into another war and $200/barrel oil. on March 26, 2008 at 12:17 pm White Actually Irish assimilated to “Anglo-Americanism”, but that never meant they weren’t White!! Don’t any of you morons have eyes that work? My God, how easily Whites can be duped by a clever book title. (written by a virulent anti-White racist and Leftist marxist). Ignatiev is damn hideous too, a fucking White-hater of the top order. Sooo True. My nutty Prof. tried to use this as a source and the TA (who’s a Sikh and also a leftist) went behind his back to tell all of us to read but only as an example of liberalism run amok. It’s kind of sad that the only person who is standing up for white people is a young man in a turban and a che shirt. I’m sure he thought of Michelle Malkin for a second and questioned his own sanity. on March 26, 2008 at 12:20 pm White Actually Most of my family lives in Ireland but I get kind of weird around Saint Patricks day. I feel almost like a black person if there was a minstrel show day. Buut I do get massively ripped and tell people I’m hungarian. Also–mexicans and mongolians should be grandfathered in as officially Irish for the day. on March 26, 2008 at 12:22 pm White Actually Just like to add that I think Saint Patricks is subversively becoming “cool to be white day”. If the day ever comes when we have an official white history month, I’ll bet it’s March. The foundation is already being laid. AMG Paul, i think you might be late for your National Front meeting. Unfortuantley, your glorious colonisers forgot to pack the democracy handbook when they embarked on their trail of murder and opression. on March 26, 2008 at 8:00 pm No really Ahh see those same people wrote the handbook on modern democracy, but they didn’t write the handbook on murder and opression. I mean it’s not like the world was full of barbarism for 99% of its existence. Heck if you look at a place like China, it’s accomplishments were felt by a far broader portion of the population. Most of China has been literate for quite a long time now. Side note, the africans weren’t selling themselves into slavery and the class of untouchables that still exist in West Africa—don’t pay any attention to that. on March 28, 2008 at 9:57 am Paul Too Truth is the IRA blew up many non-English. The troubles did no favours for the image of either side as one perpetuated acts of blatant terrorism while the other continued to oppress a nation they’d pretty much been oppressing since Cromwell. That said, neither nation can seriously be generalised as cts, but that doesn’t mean that neither has their share of them… You do come across as being somewhat bitter though, Paul. I’m happily English, feel no sense of guilt for the acts of my compatriots and have a get on very well with the Irish… aren’t I great! Ehanson Great blog, very witty insights. Most people go to St Patrick’s Day parades just because its one big beerfest. Most aren’t even Irish. Thankfully, it’s easy to tell who isn’t Irish on St Patty’s Day: on March 28, 2008 at 1:41 pm IrishJew First of all – as an Irish Jew, the above post by middler is rediculous. Most people feel an affinity to their ancestral homeland. When their allies, or cousins are under seige it is natural to want to help. While on their surface, the conflicts appear to be the same, they are not. First of all Irish Catholics have a state. Its called the republic of Ireland. Even if the protestants gained full control of the North, they would still have a state. That is not to argue the merits of either Catholic, protestant, UK, shared power, home rule or any other “solution” to the troubles in Northern Ireland. It is simply to express a fundamental fact. Israel is another story – It seems lately like the statute of limitations of post holocaust anti-semitism has expired and people feel comfortable returning to good old fashioned Jew hatin’. The statement above that starts “buzz off Jew” along with this one are shameful examples. Israel is the successful result of a global refugee crisis caused by Christian and occultist antisemites and chamipioned by Christian Anglo-American allies of human rights and justice. It is the worlds biggest refugee camp. That the American Jewry supports it (both Ashkenazi and Sephardi) is not a surprise, nor is it something they should have to apologize for. A nation that has given the world the 10 commandments, the new testament, the theory of relativity, workers rights, and have contributed to every field of human endeavour far above their numbers and have been repayed with pogrom, inquisition, holocaust, expultion, forced conversion, and pithy anti-jewish blog comments is really disgusting. And before you say, “see every time you criticize Israel someone calls you anti-semitic” I would suggest that Israel is happy to be held to the same standards as every other nation. The problem gets to be when they are admonished for protecting their citizens against threats within and without in the same manner that any other country would and does daily. Happy St.Paddy’s Day. on March 28, 2008 at 6:02 pm DomiGirl I’m not white, but I love Saint Patty’s day as they say here in Boston. Can’t help it, I’m the only non-white and non-Irish in my office. Hell, even our vendors are Irish. Cheers!! on March 29, 2008 at 3:08 am Eugene I really hate it when I ask where Asian people are from and they tell me “LA”, “Bay Area” or “New York”. Just tell me your damned ethnicity already, you Chinese or Korean bitch. Why else would I ask you where you are from? Obviously, so that I do not mix my konichiwa with a nee-how. on March 29, 2008 at 3:10 am Eugene I would expand this entry and say that White People Are Obsessed With The Irish. Every ethnicity has its goods and bads, and its; lovers and haters. Hell, even Italians are not liked by everybody – just ask southern French or the Austrians. But the Irish – well, they are just universally loved, and for no good reason, really, other than that they have never invaded or oppressed anybody. Hence St. Patricks’ day popularity. on March 29, 2008 at 6:09 am Agog Wow! I was surprised (pleasantly, too) that someone had actually used the words “white people” in a somewhat non-derogatory manner. My granny came over on the boat and only had a nip of blackberry brandy for medicinal puproses. on March 30, 2008 at 12:23 am shoebat Not exactly. I just checked that forum, and almost half think it’s okay. Plus, it’s not all Nazi’s on that forum fwiw. Hell, not everyone listed is even caucasian. on March 30, 2008 at 12:52 pm Michael That is great! I can totally relate. The soda bread / butter thing should go in the main post! on March 30, 2008 at 12:52 pm moo I think this should be added to the list of things white people like: white people like calling themselves mutts. Sample question posed to white person: “What is your background?” Usual Response: “I’m Irish, French, German, English and a little bit Scottish. I’m basically a mutt.” No. That just makes you white! OR they sometimes add Native American for extra flare, even if it is from like 200 years back, it MUST be mentioned. Extra points if that relative was a native “princess” or supposedly high ranking member of their tribe. I suppose it makes them feel multi-cultural. It also devalues the experience of people that actually look bi-racial or multi-racial and are questioned about it ALL the time as a reminder that they don’t look “normal”. People that are asked where they are REALLY from (Hawaii? Brazil?). I have yet to see someone approach a white American and say “Hmmm. Are you 1/2 English and 1/2 French? You look 1/2 English 1/2 French.” The word mutt also seems to be a word used almost exclusively by whites (racist and otherwise) to describe other people and/or dogs. Michael White people love to say: “You Have Jumped the Shark” — it is funny, because it is ironic… This blog rocks, I have been laughing for 10 minutes Michael So, basically you are saying that you are Irish (at least a little right)? I wouldn’t get so worked up, there are horrible things that happened to all colors of people in history. Most people don’t even know their own family history, sounds like you have a great deal of detailed information. That is something to be proud of. Knowing the types of people you came from can be challenging and inspiring. I wouldn’t take pride in making other people uncomfortable, but I am glad you took the opportunity to educate someone about a larger concept and your unique perspective on history. Maybe some day we can talk to your coworker about American Indians, the Japanese internment camps, the Chinese labor in the west, and all the other problems in our immediate US history. The Mantra Africa for Africans, Asia for Asians, White Countries for Everybody “Liberals and respectable conservatives say there is this RACE problem. Everybody says this RACE problem will be solved when the third world pours into EVERY white country and ONLY into white countries.” “The Netherlands and Belgium are more crowded than Japan or Taiwan, but nobody says Japan or Taiwan will solve this RACE problem by bringing in millions of third worlders and quote assimilating unquote with them.” “Everybody says the final solution to this RACE problem is for EVERY white country and ONLY white countries to “assimilate,” i.e., intermarry, with all those non-whites.” “What if I said there was this RACE problem and this RACE problem would be solved only if hundreds of millions of non-blacks were brought into EVERY black country and ONLY into black countries?” “How long would it take anyone to realize I’m not talking about a RACE problem. I am talking about the final solution to the BLACK problem?” “And how long would it take any sane black man to notice this and what kind of psycho black man wouldn’t object to this?” “But if I tell that obvious truth about the ongoing program of genocide against my race, the white race, Liberals and respectable conservatives agree that I am a naziwhowantstokillsixmillionjews.” “They say they are anti-racist. What they are is anti-white.” “Anti-racist is a code word for anti-white.” sophie making Patrick a saint may be the best joke the Catholic church has ever played on itself. We don’t know much about him, but supposedly he was an expert at converting pagan practices and holidays into Christian. So the Shamrock, sacred to the Irish pagans because it was the first green to appear after the winter, became Patrick’s metaphor for the Christian Holy Trinity. For those who pay attention, this serves to perpetuate pagan beliefs and practices. Like celebrating the coming of spring in March. He’s also said to have persuaded many Irish women to enter convents, which saved them from forced childbearing and early death. He only left two pieces of writing. In one, his Confession, his opening line is “I, Patrick, a sinner, most rustic …” He was a Roman Briton, in whose native language pagan or heathen meant a country person, a rustic. LOL and Blessed Be! on March 31, 2008 at 5:04 am Sophie you fool Thanks for letting all of us idiots in on the secrets. Celebrating the coming of spring in March wouldn’t have anything to do with the fact that it usually starts transitioning from winter weather to spring weather in March would it? How do we explain celebrating the coming of spring in Western European countries outside of Ireland who either didn’t know of him or consider him a minor saint, like the Irish would consider saint cyril or saint olaf–both of whom are important in other countries. on March 31, 2008 at 8:06 am R So ask the right question. That would be “What is ethnicity?” or “What is your ancestry, if you don’t mind me asking?” That is true, it’s the one White holiday everyone is ok with….ever see a protest on St. Patty’s day? And Guinness DOES taste better in Ireland! anglo-irish says "yankeeeeee go home" haha yanks you aint irish you’re yanks – fat stupid ugly rednecks that nobody likes. you make fun of everyone then some shitty blog does it back and you all go nuts, just shows how insecure you lot are. well, white people weren’t ever suppossed to live on that land – i mean what the fuck are you doing living there you !MORANS! white people are suppossed to live in europe… it’s gonna be fun watching your country collapse as europe and china grow strong… st. pattys day lol, it’s paddy you fucking fools you can’t even do that right. you just wanna be the non oppressive white man, you want to feel different from all the other white people that talk, act, look like you. going on about how oppressed you are whistling us your immigrant story from the safety of middle-class suburbia. reading through this blog it seems that it should be renamed ‘stuff white americans like’ cos the real white people who live in the real home of white people and the only fucking place white have any business living in don’t like none of this shit – fuck i dunno what most of this crap is. bbbbyyyyyeeeeeeeeee diseased yankee fucks on March 31, 2008 at 5:10 pm oldwhitegrouch ” i mean what the fuck are you doing living there you !MORANS! white people are suppossed to live in europe…” Well what do you have against the Morans? I know many and they’re fine folk, let’s see there was Frankie Moran from 32nd St and his brother Jimmy. And the Morans from Downpatrick and the ones from Lurgan and even some from Kerry…… St patricks day is for the irish white or black on March 31, 2008 at 8:25 pm White guy What is your problem? You need to chill out. When someone asks a white person what their background is, they don’t want the answer “white.” The person asking them already knows that because it’s their skin color. That’s just vision. They want to know your dominant ancestery or your full ancestery. Also a lot of Americans are of partial Irish Catholic decent. Around 40 million. So it’s only natural for them to celebrate St. Pattrick’s Day. The same way Italian-Americans celebrate Columbus Day and Chicanos celebrate Cinco De Mayo. Like those Holidays, Irish Americans revolutionized the holiday to fit their experience. Corned beef and cabbage, St. Paddy’s Day Parades, green beer, “When Irish Eyes Are Smiling,” all invented in the Americas by Irish decendants. The Irish went through a lot of shit in this country when they weren’t considered white. But they also did a lot of horrible things to be considered white. My patrilineal ancestors weren’t perfect, and they weren’t always oppressed. They were just people. on March 31, 2008 at 8:40 pm Proud American national & Irish decendant I’m pretty much a white American mutt. However, my patrilineal ancestors immigrated to the U.S. from Kilkenny during the potato famine and my father’s family has lived in a (non-Italian) urban Catholic enclave for generations. So they still exhibit some Irish American cultural tendencies. “Everywhere we celebrate the land that made us refugees”. And so what if we do? Feck off. on April 1, 2008 at 12:50 pm The Modern Irish are sad EU asskissing fucks My parents were born and raised in Ireland and I have no desire to visit that god forsaken liberal ass country. Actually I take that back, I wouldn’t want to confuse the effete, self hating, destruction through massive immigration landslide loving Irish who do nothing but kiss the ass of the UN and the EU–with american liberals who at least have hope and a will to survive. Also, for such a tiny country Ireland has quite a few bastards trolling American websites just for the sole purpose of venting a little America hatred even though they don’t know why. What the Irish won’t tell you is that they depend on the U.S. for quite bit of trade including selling us microchips (well not really we just outsource some production to them) that we use throughout the DoD. How does it feel to be a programmed bunch of mentally colonized pavlovian dogs? Celtica Yeah, kinda like how the African American actor’s Guild is for Charlize theron too, right Steppy? on April 2, 2008 at 3:24 pm Celtica Wow, that was a long-winded, but thoughtful tirade…The only problem is that you only included Jewish virtues and no vices in it….For instance, you excluded how many times the Zionist state has bit the very hand of those Christian Anglo-American allies you mentioned earlier… It’s events like the Lavon Affair and the bombing of the U.S.S. Liberty that raise the ire of people, not the fact that they contributed to science or political endeavor far beyond their overall numbers….They also contributed to Communism far beyond their overall numbers, but you left that part out for some reason…If you’re going to state a believable case, you really need to expose both sides of the truth, not just what’s convenient to mention…Are you not appalled as I am that in 2005, Israel chose to honor those terrorists invovled in “Operation Susannah”?..Instead of aknowledging this outrage, you choose to just chalk up any negative sentiment to “good old fashion Jew hatin'”…I can admire and applaud Jewish men like Jerry Lewis who raises millions every year for M.S. research, or Steve Guttenberg who serves up Sunday breakfast to local homeless people, however, I cannot turn a blind eye when overwhelming segments of the larger Jewish community call for the release of a scoundrel like Jonathan Pollard…Now I’m not suggesting that there aren’t unstable individuals out there who hate Jews for the same reasons certain other unstable individuals kick puppies…What I AM saying is that to blow off any and all criticism of Israel or the Jewish community as anti-semitism is completely irresponsible and ignorant…I’d be more than happy to hold Israel to the same standards as every other nation, but they must first stop behaving like they’re above it… irish american history Though life in Ireland was cruel, emigrating to America was not a joyful event…it was referred to as the American Wake for these people knew they would never see Ireland again. Those who pursued this path did so only because they new their future in Ireland would only be more poverty, disease, and English oppression. America became their dream. Early immigrant letters described it as a land of abundance and urged others to follow them through the “Golden Door.” These letters were read at social events encouraging the young to join them in this wonderful new country. They left in droves on ships that were so crowded, with conditions so terrible, that they were referred to as Coffin Ships. Even as the boat was docking, these immigrants to America learned that life in America was going to be a battle for survival. Hundreds of runners, usually large greedy men, swarmed aboard the ship grabbing immigrants and their bags trying to force them to their favorite tenement house and then exact an outrageous fee for their services. As the poor immigrant had no means of moving on, they settled in the port of arrival. Almshouses were filled with these Irish immigrants. They begged on every street. One honest immigrant wrote home at the height of the potato famine exodus, “My master is a great tyrant, he treats me as badly as if I was a common Irishman.” The writer further added, “Our position in America is one of shame and poverty.” No group was considered lower than an Irishman in America during the 1850s. Free land did not lure them. They rejected the land for the land had rejected them; yet even so they always spoke reverently of the old sod in Ireland. All major cities had their “Irish Town” or “Shanty Town” where the Irish clung together. Our immigrant ancestors were not wanted in America. Ads for employment often were followed by “NO IRISH NEED APPLY.” They were forced to live in cellars and shanties, partly because of poverty but also because they were considered bad for the neighborhood…they were unfamiliar with plumbing and running water. These living conditions bred sickness and early death. It was estimated that 80% of all infants born to Irish immigrants in New York City died. Their brogue and dress provoked ridicule; their poverty and illiteracy provoked scorn. The Chicago Post wrote, “The Irish fill our prisons, our poor houses…Scratch a convict or a pauper, and the chances are that you tickle the skin of an Irish Catholic. Putting them on a boat and sending them home would end crime in this country.” Instead of apologizing for themselves they united and took offense. Insult or intimidation was often met with violence. Solidarity was their strength, they helped each other survive city life. They prayed and drank together. The men seemed to do more drinking than praying, yet it was their faith and dogged determination to become Americans that led one newspaper to say, “The Irish have become more Americanized than the Americans.” The Church played an integral part in their lives. It was a militant Church–a Church who fought not only for their souls but also for their human rights. After the religious riots in Philadelphia where many Catholic churches were burned, the mayor of New York asked Archbishop Hughes, “Do you fear that some of your churches will be burned.” “No sir, but I am afraid some of yours will be. We can protect our own.” Later, public officials asked the Archbishop to restrain New York’s Irish. “I have not the power,” he said. “You must take care that they are not provoked.” No Catholic church burned in New York. Actually the Irish arrived at a time of need for America. The country was growing and it needed men to do the heavy work of building bridges, canals, and railroads. It was hard, dangerous work, a common expression heard among the railroad workers was “an Irishman was buried under every tie.” Desperation drove them to these jobs. Not only the men worked, but the women too. They became chamber maids, cooks, and the caretakers of children. Early Americans disdained this type of work, fit only for servants, the common sentiment being, “Let Negroes be servants, and if not Negroes, let Irishmen fill their place…” A prominent hotel keeper was asked why all the women servants in his hotel were Irish. He replied, “The thing is very simple: the Irish girls are industrious, willing, cheerful, and honest–they work hard, and they are very strictly moral. I should say that is quite reason enough.” The Irish were unique among immigrants. They fiercely loved America but never gave up their allegiance to Ireland…and they kept their hatred of the English. Twice they tried to invade Canada, believing that they could trade Canadian land for Ireland’s freedom. In New York City, during the Civil War, they rioted against the draft lottery after the first drawing showed most of the names were Irish. For three days the city was terrorized by Irish mobs and only after an appeal for peace by Archbishop Hughes did it end. In Pennsylvania they formed a secret organization called the Molly Maguires to fight mine owners who brutalized the miners and their families. They ambushed mine bosses, beat, and even killed them in their homes. The Irish used brutal methods to fight brutal oppression. They loved America and gladly fought in her wars. During the Civil War they were fierce warriors, forming among other groups, the famous “Irish Brigade”. A priest accompanied them and, before each battle, they would pray together before charging into the enemy–even against insurmountable odds. Their faith guided them. They felt the English might have a better life on earth, but they were going to have a better life after death. The days of “No Irish Need Apply” passed. St.Patrick day paraded replaced violent confrontations. The Irish not only won acceptance for their day, but persuaded everyone else to become Irish at least for St.Patrick’s Day. The Orangemen or New York City copied the St.Pat’s Day parade in 1870 and, as they marched, played “Boyne Water”, “Derry” and other songs derogatory towards the Catholics. Fights broke out and only the police (themselves mostly Irish) saved the Orangemen and women. The next year another Orange parade was scheduled…the police banned it. The appearance of large numbers of Jews, Slavs, and Italian immigrants led many Americans to consider the Irish an asset; their Americanization was now recognized. Hostility shifted from the Irish to the new nationalities. Through poverty and subhuman living conditions, the Irish tenaciously clung to each other. With their ingenuity for organization, they were able to gain power and acceptance. In 1850 at the crest of the Potato Famine immigration, Orestes Brownson, a celebrated convert to Catholicism, stated: “Out of these narrow lanes, dirty streets, damp cellars, and suffocating garrets, will come forth some of the noblest sons of our country, whom she will delight to own and honor.” In little more than a century his prophecy rang true. Irish-Americans had moved from the position of the despised to the oval office. on April 6, 2008 at 5:48 am Mo The Irish are the criminal sect of the whites, used for violence and hatred. Drunk and crazy, good people to avoid. on April 6, 2008 at 3:54 pm Settled Huh? I’m Irish and I’ll admit that the stereotype of Irish drunkenness is unfortunately very true. However, the Irish have a strong economy based on a careful and driven workforce that speaks english (hmm a few good things have come from British occupation) and seeks to compete in the global market. Violence, I wouldn’t say they are as predisposed to it as the average british soccer fan. on April 6, 2008 at 10:36 pm scott The Irish? Drunk and crazy? What about the Cajuns? Goodness, how i hope my mother wasn’t lying when she said I am mostly Cajun, and therefore have been oppressed just like the Irish!! Does the kind of Stuff White People Like include things like Truth, Equality, and Justice? on April 8, 2008 at 8:20 am Dennis Colby An ‘F’ in history. “Christianity” and the Church of the councils were synonymous when St. Patrick was alive, unless you’re talking about the Nestorians. Bonus: White people love pointing out other people’s mistakes online. on April 8, 2008 at 9:14 am Meerkat Manor Isn’t Glasgow Celtic the FC Irish fans root for?? I thought Celtic and Rangers fans would beat the crap out of one another and sling ethnic slurs. on April 8, 2008 at 10:10 am Halfie Most Mexicans don’t know what Cinco De Mayo is either. They just want to get drunk. Cinco De Mayo=Mexican St. Patrick’s Day. on April 16, 2008 at 2:12 pm IRONBLUEEYES WHAT WOULD SOMEONE NAMED NOEL IGNATIEV KNOW ABOUT THE IRISH? GO WRITE A BS BOOK ABOUT SOMEONE ELSE. on April 16, 2008 at 2:26 pm IRONBLUEEYES This book is bullshit . The Irish did not integrate into WASP society they surpassed it and the pathetic little nativists who comprised it, We are the most successful and affluent ethnic group in this country . Because we value education we were able to confront WASP society on its own terms and beat them. Don’t believe some Marxist bullshit that they let us in,we beat them and they know it. Do as well. on April 16, 2008 at 3:02 pm soulstice Oh my goodness!! I moved to Chicago about 6 years ago and damn it if white people don’t LOVE LOVE LOVE St. Patty’s Day! I don’t know about anywhere else, but in Chicago people can walk around the city drinking beer, liquor, gasoline… whatever the hell they want and they start at 8AM!!! I’d rather be stranded in Compton at 3am than be in the streets of Chicago on St. Patty’s Day!! LOL!! on April 17, 2008 at 8:27 am Mr. x I have got to say this website is absolute trash. It does nothing but promote more racism. Can you imagine the backlash if there was a website called “Stuff Black People Like”? Its ok though because this one is making fun of white people..not blacks…they would get all offended and sue somebody. happyjack And after the dust settles, only happyjack remains. With the Stuff White People Like blog officially slain, it’s time for me to move on to more challenging prey. Perhaps I’ll meet some of you on my next target. Stuff White People Like died on April 17th, 2008. RIP. on April 20, 2008 at 1:44 pm Jill I live in Southern California, and it is 72 outside right now. I am wearing socks….does that mean I’m not white??? Mom? WTF!! on April 20, 2008 at 1:52 pm Jill Check out the Home Depots in SoCal; quite non-white!! But that describes just about everywhere in SoCal. lol on April 20, 2008 at 2:39 pm hibernia Explotatoin of a stereotype for pure profit? Seriously, irish people couldn’t be further from the caucasian stereotype. You come to ireland and go to some of the proper local towns and villages. go to leitrum. caucasian liberal ideals don’t come into the eqution when women can still be stoned to death for adultery. on April 20, 2008 at 2:46 pm hibernia unless you live here, your not irish, no matter how proud you are. End of story. only true born and bred irish people understand true irish culture. its hard to explain, and even if i could i wouldn’t for fear of death. on April 22, 2008 at 7:32 pm cuckoo What are you talking about cabbage for? The problem with asking a white American their background is that 9 times out of 10 the only legit. background/experience they have is a generic white American one. If you dropped the average American that claims partial Irish “background” in Ireland, they wouldn’t know their ass from their elbow. So what we end up with is a bunch of people with minimal or diluted Irish roots trying to be a part of something by drinking green beer. It just seems like a desperate attempt to cling to a culture that isn’t theirs anymore. It may have been for the first generation that came to the U.S., but wearing green one day out of the year and eating corned beef doesn’t make you Irish. I’m quoting another post that said, ” unless you live here, your not irish, no matter how proud you are. End of story. “ on April 25, 2008 at 2:16 am kilgore trout I think a lot of you are missing the point of this… Though the Irish are most definitely an ethnic group (that has been shat on by the oppressive power of the English) and by circumstance has fair skin (or sometimes not), that one aspect lends itself oh-so-well to the would be Irish (i.e. white “americans”) who might at best be ten percent Irish and are looking for another occasion to “throw cation into the wind” and get wasted and make fools of themselves at the expense of another “exotic” holiday that they really know nothing about (ex. Carnival, Dia de los Muertos and Cinco de Mayo). anyone who doesn’t see the humor and/or gets personally offended by these valid observations is only denying their own racist tendencies that they need to get past. on April 27, 2008 at 9:18 pm Caribou I’m from the neighbouring county to Leitrim (not leitrum). No-one in Ireland gets stoned to Death, half the country is the throes of committing adultry and no-one bats an eye. The only people getting stoned are the middle-classes on their imported weed. That is such a hilarious comment that I must email my mates with it so that we can all get a laugh. Stoned to Death for Adultery, you’re gas! on April 29, 2008 at 11:38 am Lindsay Are you nuts? I’m glad you could find the time to intelligently critique this site by immitating what you think black people a) sound like b) think and c) that they are criminals. Bravo asshole. on April 29, 2008 at 11:44 am Lindsay You cannot credit the Ten Commandments, the new testament, the theory of relativity, and worker’s rights to people from members of the nation of Israel. They were also Americans, Poles, and Germans, in addition to being Jewish. However, at the time these things were created, there was no Israel as a nation-state. What I credit to Israel as a nation-state is somehow managing to create a state out of millions of refugees who had the world’s sympathies after wwII and managing to incur wrath in the decades that followed through occupation of palestine, human rights abuses and dehumanization of palestinians. Yes, Israel is being attacked by some, but deserves some retaliation for their military attack in civilians. on May 6, 2008 at 4:49 am someone Cinco de Mayo is another holiday just like St. Patty’s day, but funnier. The same people who claim to be Irish on St. Patrick’s Day celebrate Cinco de Mayo. Well, they celebrate it by getting pants shitting drunk, but I’m sure none of them could tell you why it is a holiday in the first place. on May 8, 2008 at 10:26 am damien The ‘I love you’ thing. Yeah, it always unnerves me when white American blokes act macho as hell and then go around hugging each other and telling each other they love each other in public. And I was out with a bunch of white American dudes last week and one of em went into a long story about how when he was in Ireland drinking a pint of Guinness he actually called the states to tell a friend “Guess what, I’m in Ireland drinking a pint of Guinness”. When the story was over they all turned to look at me for some kind of approval. I said “Yeah, good stuff” while really wanting to say “thanks for the public stereotyping”. Thing is, I get this kind of thing on a daily basis. One white American friend who hangs out with me a lot now tells me he squirms with embarrassment when this kind of thing happens!!! Its water off my back though – I like to call it ‘affectionate bigotry’ or ‘profiling lite’. on May 8, 2008 at 11:11 am Bill I used to do the St. Patrick’s Day thing in my 20s and early 30s, but showing up at the office on the 18th all hung over lost it’s appeal. Why did I do it? Well, I am 7/8 Irish and because all my buddies did it, too. I’d wear the “Kiss Me, I’m Irish” button on my belt buckle, pick up some chick who I wouldn’t go near sober, and do it in the back of my Suburban. At least I’d wait until after work to go out. I knew some guys who used to start at lunch. The closest I have come to that in recent years (since say, 1994) was visiting a local Irish Pub owned by a friend of mine on that day in 2007 with my wife. We had a beer (Guiness for me, Harp for her) and I FINALLY went home with someone I wanted to be next to the following morning. No hangover either. on May 8, 2008 at 11:35 am haha right, cause there are many, many black people in ireland. its a country known for its ethnic diversity. Alix completely ignoring the fact that there are not a ton of black (asian, latino, etc?) in ireland… just because something is for black people too doesn’t mean white people can’t like it. is there actually anything on this list that’s solely for white people? or are coffee, bicycles, and scarves for white people only? on May 14, 2008 at 8:12 am Luarela LOL people of color get freckles too, it’s called sun damage no matter what color your skin is! on May 19, 2008 at 7:09 pm D$ Mentioning drinking on St. Patrick’s Day and not listening to huge amounts of “The Pogues” is just unacceptable. Especially the song “Body of an American” which was made more popular on my and fellow white people favorite shows “The Wire.” Well, damn. Irish folk get all the fun, don’t they? We get Saint Basil of Caesarea. Whoop-de-freaking-do. asimplesinner breaking plates at a wedding and shouting OPA! counts for something! Imagining saints in heaven looking down to earth… Saint Patrick himself must be pretty embarasses on March 17th every year. Ricardo Clement Most Irish people are criminals and should be avoided at all costs. They excel at drinking, fighting and vomiting on each other. All the Irish want is their fucking dole, rotten scumbags I say, go have another pint and piss your pants. I guess I'm not white who the fuck are the drop kick murphys??????? am i supposed to like them??? Julie Baciu How To Be Irish (for those who were not born there): [1] If you see someone breaking some minor law, and it’s not actually causing injury; ignore it. Put up with it, secure in the knowledge that Irish people will pay you back by letting you break minor laws when your time comes. Never say “Hey! What do you think you’re doing?” unless you are a member of the police. [2] Don’t speak your mind directly. It is considered social failure to say what you are thinking in plain language. Instead, you must wrap your message in a witty and oblique comment designed to amuse your companions. Everybody in Ireland wishes to be a comedian. If the recipient of the message fails to decode it, that’s their problem for being stupid. [3] You may slander the Pope, you may allege that St. Patrick was intimate with sheep, but you must never question the chemical dependency of Irish culture on alcohol. For you, the word ‘drink’ is synonymous with ‘good’. [4] Lower all your standards and expectations. This will help you to live happily in Ireland where almost everything is crap by European or American standards. But if you come from a dysfunctional Third Word country, you can skip this step. [5] Be negative. When you hear bad things about people, pass them on. Be especially vindictive towards people who try hard and succeed. on June 17, 2008 at 6:45 am Ashley Awesome. I’m a quarter Irish and even I know I have virtually no more ties to the culture than the douchebag frat boy warbling “Fairytale of New York” at Christmastime. And, uh, Guinness tastes the same there as here. Close enough for the palate of anyone who’d say otherwise, anyway. Irish McIreland (Note: An actual Irishman speaking…ie. Born and raised in Ireland Ugh! Nothing worse than a bunch of yanks talking about ethnicity and claiming to be Irish/know about culture. You’re arguments are almost certainly and chronically tawdry . I really have only one issue here, though. Some idiot roughly spewed the rambling monologue “I asked my mom if I had Irish in me and she said yes. I wanted Viking blood in me” Ok, I forget this egregious hound’s name, but I quote him as above. Unfortunately this dog has erroneously skipped over the fact the Vikings invaded Ireland roughly around the 7th an 8th AD (being an Atheist: AD is, of course, a fictional date imo, but it gives you the rough idea that it was a long time ago) and intermarried with the Irish, adopting their names and customs and became “more Irish than the Irish themselves” . Almost ALL Irish people (people like me, who were born and raised in Ireland..yeah that‘s right…actual Irish people…) have some Viking in them. All it comes down to is the Americans are idiots Not all of course, but the vast, vast majority. An intelligent American would admit this. We‘ve build an entire industry on our stereotypes, so we don‘t care. You, however, are the worlds whipping boys when it comes to idiots…the English are fine…they just had a bunch of overblown Arthurian cockroaches running their empire for a long time…Cromwell, being the turd that he was, even banned singing….what an abhorrent man! But saying that, he was totally fair and gave the Irish equal opportunities in the middle ages. HaHa, just kidding. He was basically the Irish people’s very own Hitler. And yet to this day, he is worshiped by mongoloid orange men and English Protestants. Oh well at least it’s 2008 we‘re loaded….we are super awesome looks like Cromwell missed one with your ancestors. ’tis a shame… who cares anyway if the kid wanted to be Odin’s love child? and fyi, it was the Normans who came to be known as “more irish than the irish themselves.” get a clue. on June 24, 2008 at 6:56 pm meg you mean they DYE the damn river green … see #99. and the guinness DOES taste better in ireland if you have taste buds. i know, i’m very white. this site reminds me everytime i read it … absolutely hilarious. by the way, i’m 1/8th irish. (c; on June 30, 2008 at 2:46 pm VCB Don’t y’all miss the days when bigots had balls and told you to your face how they felt instead of trolling the Internet like puss, and ruining every good blog out there? on July 1, 2008 at 11:45 am Zach The thing about people always saying “Guinness tastes better in Ireland”? Totally true. Of course, it’s nonsense (I did live in Ireland for a year, you provincial miscreants!). But people always say it because they think it makes them sound cool and cultured or whatever. Too funny! This list is obviously meant to be primarily pejorative, but still, I’m having fun reading it. on July 4, 2008 at 6:18 am LJM this whole who/what is Irish is just hilarious. St. Patrick’s day celebrations are about as much about celebrating Irish heritage as Christmas is about Christ. Both are pretty much crass commercialized holidays. I am not really Irish, Irish great grandparents, but also English, French Canadian Grandparents, and not really a Christian, my mother is Catholic but I don’t consider myself to be anything, but I celebrate them both, St. Patrick’s Day because I want to get drunk and listen to live music at a pub and Christmas because I like getting gifts and eating Turkey. The great thing about St. Patrick’s Day is really you don’t have to do much planning, no shopping, no gift wrapping you don’t have to drive anywhere or have dinner with boring relatives just hit a local pub and take the next day off work. on July 7, 2008 at 3:50 pm RedCent St. Pat’s is one of the occasions Alcoholics Anonymous refers to as “amateur night” (the other is New Year’s Eve). The real Irish never need an excuse to knock back a shot of Jameson. blirish i totally saw a family of obese blacks waving irish flags in NYC this past st. patties on July 8, 2008 at 8:34 pm Irish Philly Is bobz serious!?!?!? NY and SF? You skipped the top two cities with the largest Irish decent. Boston of course being number 1 and Philadelphia being number 2. Really dumb buddy….. red beerstein i thought the river in the movie the fugitive has a wierd tint during the sp parade on July 9, 2008 at 10:32 am red beerstein iam irish don’t drink anymore on sp day then any day of the year does drinking at 7:00 am make you a drunk if you work midnight on July 9, 2008 at 10:42 am red beerstein beer can be pretty usefull like turning something from boring to trolerable like family gatherings like x-mas or turkey day get drunk stuff your gut win win pass out wake up find out u have been victim of “white” prank with majic marker wash face. on July 9, 2008 at 10:59 am red beerstein kinney’s the name drinkings the game got off a mightnight shift drinking a pabst got a few 24’s listen to drew and mike(wrif.com)now just mike and readin this crap that is funny and true of mainstream white society don’t really fit into this site but really haven’t read all dson’t really fit in like a peg uncdle sam would have my head cause i think for myself i don’t like green eggs and ham give me a case than a burger will do i guess the buzz is showing cause my grammer sure sucks if you don’t like it rewright for me what the fuck. on July 10, 2008 at 5:49 am Stephen Being Scot-Irish, I love Saint Patty’s day. Not for the drinking, but more as day to celebrate being of gaelic descent. Kinda like Black History Month, only fun and not preachy or guilt-ridden. on July 11, 2008 at 7:31 am Joe You know your people don’t celebrate St Patrick’s Day, and refuse to believe it in fact, exists. Tomorrow’s for you… the glorious twelfth… you should light a fire, maybe throw some tires on it… or Catholics, you know, whatever. on July 11, 2008 at 7:44 am Joe Okay as an Irish person lol. We HATE that americans pretend to be Irish. And pretend being Irish is somewhat associated with suffering. Its not at all lol. St. Patrick’s Day is about the four million of US. Not every single American who has one great great great grandparent who was a Protestant from Belfast and didn’t probably consider themselves Irish anyways. Do what you want, really… but we are NOT impressed when hearing that you have such and such an ancestor whose surname was something or another, or that they left after the famine, or that you’re oh my god, so Irish because you bought this t-shirt once AND you drink Guiness. Irish people don’t drink guiness. Except really really old men. Its not cool, its kind of disgusting, and it tastes like mould. Seriously, diageo want to PULL OUT people. Back off my country!!! sonofnob Normans = Norsemen/ Northmen = Vikings: Some of the Vikings conquered northern France/Normandy, settled a bit, and went on to conquer the Isles, including Ireland (they also bothered other places down south on the continent). on July 14, 2008 at 10:13 pm jared Joe, I will celebrate St Paddy’s Day if I like. You know, it’s really none of your business. Tolerance my friend. on July 15, 2008 at 7:02 am clare Joe, get a grip and take your zoloft, quick. Every American I know who has been to Ireland recently got a series of self rightous political speeches before they got out of the first cab. Yes, we know we are not really Irish. We’re not pretending to be. Were just celebrating a day that is also celebrated in Ireland. You really have to work to be offended by that. Maybe you should check out #101 being offended. They could put your picture next to that one. on July 16, 2008 at 1:37 pm SamFrancis Sure an begorrah! Top o the marnin to ya,ya heathen bastards!! Sure an its meself an’ maggie O’Rourke wuz getting drunk an didnt i slip off her panties and Saints preserve us!–what a hairy Bush!!! By the Grace O’ God,Saints be praised,I fooked her good! But not,thank the Blesed Virgin,before I ate that hot pussy! Who says irish dont eat well????? Now, now… I celebrate it just like I celebrate Halloween or Christmas! I am by no means Irish, but I buy the hat and t-shirt and have some booze! on July 18, 2008 at 5:07 pm Flaherty We hate that the Irish back in the old Emerald Isle dream of being British while feeling inferior to them. The old slave-master problem on a national level. We also hate that you think of yourselves as Celtic Tigers when you are mostly under educated farmers living high on American high tech firms camped out in Ireland to avoid higher taxes in other more developed EU countries while feeding from EU taxpayers and taking your over inflated real estate incomes to buy cheap flats in Spain which have now dropped in value leaving you to go back to the bog and feel inferior to the Brits again. American Irish often wonder why when the British starved 75% of the population of the country in the 19th century while leaving you few to stay. And why was your first head of state of Spanish origin? on July 18, 2008 at 5:22 pm Bondy Irish McIrish you are just a bog Irish idiot feeling put upon by the British and inferior to them. Why not try to get an EU handout or a job at a US high tech firm outside Dublin. Get a few bob in your pocket and open up a fake “Irish” bar in Spain where you can turn your hobby into a profession: drinking. on July 18, 2008 at 5:34 pm Bondy Hibernia, you would fear death because the Irish have been killing each other for the last 400 years- a non stop civil war- that is your Irish “culture” and the most backward country in Western Europe and the least educated. The only things the Irish of Ireland have contributed to Western culture are a few songs- forget your famous beer- that was invented by an Englishman. on July 24, 2008 at 6:57 am Jennifer I go to the St. Patrick’s Day Parade in NYC every year. I bring along my book of shamrock stickers. During the parade, I walk among the crowd and ask people (Black, White, Asian, whatever) if they are Irish. If they answer “no”, they get a shamrock sticker slapped on them. They are Irish for the Day! on July 29, 2008 at 10:06 am Chris I prefer the discerning literate gentleman’s Irish day, anyway – Bloomsday, 16 June, the day celebrated in James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’. 17 March seems to me (in the UK anyhow) to be one huge Guinness advert and besides, “Go to a pub and have a lot to drink” – how does this differ from other days really? To make matters worse, in England we seem to have started copying the Irish and doing the same thing on 23 April, St George’s Day, never mind that 23 April isn’t an official holiday, England doesn’t have a national day, there is very little tradition of it, and why should our national day if we had one be linked to Christianity? 23 April is also Shakespeare’s birthday and if people wanted to make it Shakespeare Day, now then I would be in favour of it. on August 1, 2008 at 8:02 pm Kara Yikes…someone seems a bit bitter! Maybe…just maybe did you consider that the first head of state was of Spanish origin because there is just a little less hatred and discrimination than you, yourself, might have? Sit down, drink some green beer and keep your whining to yourself… on August 3, 2008 at 1:12 pm letters2mary If what is done with Irish heritage were to be done to any other ethnic group in this, our national lovefest of diversity, there would be no end to the outrage. on August 5, 2008 at 8:50 am Jessica Irish people owned slaves, and were probably the biggest oppressors of Italian and Greek-Americans. So I wouldn’t exactly think of them as innocent victims. Being Irish is boring anyway so I don’t see why people are so proud of it. Everyone’s Irish. Big deal. on August 10, 2008 at 12:24 am Mas I actually recall in a bar in Texas a clock that counted down St. Patrick’s Day. I think around the time I was there it was 265 days and some odd hours away. on August 11, 2008 at 1:26 am neil It’s probably been said before, but as a child in Ireland, St Patrick’s Day was the most pointless holiday of all. Zealots went to church. To everyone else, it was just a day off. Now we feel obliged to celebrate and the booze hounds amongst us have another excuse to drink, simply because the rest of the world believes this is what we should do. The reality has been adjusted to suit the myth. Weird. on August 13, 2008 at 3:25 am Alex St. Patrick’s day is an extremely important holiday because on this day I (The Messiah) was born, despite having no Irish ancestry. on August 14, 2008 at 1:02 am Todd No offense but I’m glad the holiday (to Americans) is more a celebration of having Irish ancestry and getting intoxicated. Better than praising someone for spreading Catholicism. Look at the wonders that did for Ireland. on August 14, 2008 at 1:39 pm Joe Both my parents have Masters degrees actually… and de Valera was our SECOND head of state. I don’t rely on American multinationals, in fact, the largest renewable energy corporation in the world is owned by an irishman… my uncle if you don’t mind. We have the second highest per capita number of millionaires in the world. that’s not from mooching off some other country. No Irish person I know dreams of being British… you must be thinking of northern ireland… a common mistake for an idiot. Undereducated is a joke by the way. You’re american! have you taken a LOOK at our leaving cert? not to mention the fact that most people my age are coming out of universities and using their skills for more than your people EVER could. 75% of our population? no. get your facts straight before you try to argue with an irish person. particularly an irish person who’s doing leaving cert history, because you’re WELL out of your league. Our VAT is 21%… we more than make up for our EU incentives. But how would you know? pretending to know what you’re talking about and ACTUALLY knowing what you’re talking about are very different things and you should learn not to play with fire… or the irish because we’re DAMN smart. and one of the few sustainable countries on the failed states index… fourth from the bottom, after norway, iceland and some other country VASTLY happier, more successful and with a better quality of life (and education) than yours. Joe Probably? how? Everybody THINKS they’re irish but trust me they haven’t a clue love and neither do you. on August 21, 2008 at 8:40 am Singh is King Why don’t Americans actually admit they are chiefly descendants of the “German race”, instead of continuing this farce that they are all really Irish. Where exactly is there any evidence – other than superficial – of Irish influence on American culture? on August 22, 2008 at 1:02 pm Nippysnaps Actually, under Cromwell the Irish were enslaved by the British directly and sent to Jamaica and were also defacto slaves serving as indentured servants. Might I also suggest that you do a quick google search for Black slave owners before trying to come off as a keyboard historian. Additionally, I’d like to add St. Patrick’s day in its current form is a money making farce for brewers and distillers. Nippysnaps Dear Joe, As someone who was born in New Ross and then moved to the US as a child, I can play both sides of the fence. I also visit often and keep in touch with my family at home. I see your point, but you also sound like a self righteous prick with a chip on his shoulder. It wouldn’t surprise me if you were one of the neo-age yuppies sipping shandies at the pub and then takes off in his Jaguar en route to a night cap at Starbucks. Let me guess, you live in Dublin too. Ireland has a lot to thank the US for. First off, De Valera, one of the primary authors of the Irish Constitution was a yank. Secondly from the famine years up until the 1980’s, who provided the primary place to escape the horrible economy at home and provided work for millions? That’s right the US. Thirdly, excluding funds funneled to the IRA, there were innumerable charities helping fund basic needs such as the education system you so tout. Who did that come from back in years not so long gone? Yes, you guessed it, the Irish-American immigrants you so detest. If people want some means of identifying with their ancestors, be it 1/16 or whatever what business of it is yours to launch off in to a sermon? I find St. Patrick’s day to be a mutated joke as well. That didn’t seem to stop Dublin from extending it in to St. Patrick’s week however to suck in as many tourist dollars and euros as possible. Once you descend from your high and mighty cloud, you may want to try and look at things from others points of views. It might help you get your head out of your ass. Yours truly, on August 24, 2008 at 2:27 pm TKay I think the current tally is—every group of people known to man…were at some point slaves…have people tell it. on August 24, 2008 at 2:29 pm TKay That’s nice! You are my kinda gal! I celebrate St. Patty’s day…and many times I get no so friendly stares. I think next year I will wear a sticker shamrock in memory of you and your diversity! Seriously. Wow this list is so eerily…accurate to me…that I think I will finally sign off after hours of being in this same seat responding to people who posted here weeks ago. get over it! They have a right to celebrate their ancestory…..as it related to them. You have a right to shut up and like it.🙂 on August 24, 2008 at 2:33 pm TKay Now that’s funny! I enjoy black history month and never feel a moment of guilt. Maybe it’s just me…or maybe it’s just you. on August 25, 2008 at 4:31 pm jlw I’m European. That’s about as close to being “Irish” as I’ll admit. But in all honesty, I think I am just plain old English. And now, I am American: The NEW English. Ha. on August 26, 2008 at 10:47 am Phil Eh, Singh is King, the evidence is over 1 million people immigrating from Ireland to the US from the 1800s onwards. Go check New York & Boston if you don’t believe me. on August 29, 2008 at 3:59 pm Darth Darko I’m thankful for the Irish. If it weren’t for them, there really wouldn’t be any reason to hate white people. on August 31, 2008 at 3:30 pm Charlotte Yeah, Singh is King, you are way off. Everyone here is not German. What would even make you think that? English would be a more obvious guess. Most people here are a great mix of Western European heritage – English, German, Irish, Polish, French, Italian, etc. I’m Polish/German myself. Nobody’s ashamed to say they’re German, if that’s what you’re getting at. Eddie Probably referring to the fact that the Angles and Saxons are German — English/Anglish and England/Angland. Of course, they were in turn conquered by the Normans (Norse Men) from France. Though the Normans mostly made up a ruling class rather than a colonizing people that displaced the Anglo-Saxon population. Then again, the Normans did bring a goodly bunch with them. Mostly Bretons (Britains) from Brittany in France. So the Celtic Britains came home, merged with Anglo-Saxons and the Celtic Welsh who remained behind and never submitted to the Anglo-Saxons which brings us full circle. I probably had a point to make here. But I can’t imagine what it was. on September 5, 2008 at 2:45 pm Juan Carlos castro y Castro Come on, everybody knows the purpose of St. Patrick’s Day is to run parades in which heroes can hide from the bad guys. on September 6, 2008 at 9:09 pm Andy singh is king* We don’t admit it because quite a lot of us have proof that we are not german but are in fact Irish on September 9, 2008 at 1:54 am Tristan Paul dude st. pats is a reason to just get wasted not to drink irish beer, thats so stupid. or even talk about being irish. the person who wrote this is silly on September 16, 2008 at 11:36 am Ben I just disagree with this one. I’m very white and I don’t participate in this debauchery. And I’m very white. on September 18, 2008 at 3:55 am james hand am white english irish, i dot drink guinness it taste horrible, and dont bovver with st pats day find it boreing..i do love english football..leicester city football club..up the foxes…keep it up black bloke ur writing is funny…… on September 25, 2008 at 7:14 pm Irish O'Irish @Bondy, tut tut…you’re such a little tool. Most of the US high tech firms are closed down now. What are you talking about? At least know the facts if you want to comment. Also by the use of the word “bob” I guess you’re English. Some council estate English person, possibly from the north. Your dad, if you know the guy, probably works down a mine or is on the Giro and you identify with the crown and British Nationalism because you’re insecure and you want identity. It’s a primitive state of mind but a common one, especially with the peasant classes of certain nations. The suggestion being put upon by the British? How exactly? I’m from the South, born in 1983…how the hell would the British “put” anything “upon” me. I Never once felt any implications from the British administration. Also National identity to me is pointless…where you’re born was an accident of birth and yet you feel the need to reply to some bullshit post that I made taking the piss? So your argument of inferiority falls flat on it’s face. I’ve loads of English mates btw, but I steer clear of the nationalistic ones, because just like Irish nationalists and nationalists every where else, they’re generally idiots. P.S St Pat’s day is bullshit on September 25, 2008 at 7:31 pm Irish O'Irish Bullshit, I would have the say that on the contrary, any “dream” or “wannabe” culture is acutually Californian, which stems from crap like the OC, whereas England has a shows called…Cornation street…or maybe Eastenders. The kids don’t aspire to be Pate Butcher or Vera Duckworth mate. Also people identify with Nationalism because they’re insecure and they want identity. It’s a primitive state of mind but a common one, especially with certain nations. Surely everyone who “gets” this website is familiar with this concept. I never once felt any implications from the British administration. I live in the south and was born in 1983. I’m completely oblivious to any from of British oppression which was just romanticised by the Irish nationalists anyway. I’ve loads of English mates btw, but I steer clear of the nationalistic ones, because just like Irish nationalists and nationalists every where else, they’re generally idiots. on September 25, 2008 at 7:43 pm Irish O'Irish Wrong mate. She’s talking about NY, back a century ago when the Irish were pretty rough on black and outsiders. The Irish “oppression” from the English is a bit like st pats day. Blown up. Sure the British were cunts back in the day. Religious nuts. But they were cunts to their own people too. And this is coming from a born and bread Irishman. on September 25, 2008 at 7:47 pm Irish O'Irish Oh and the Irish “oppression” from the English is a bit like st pats day. Blown up. Sure the British were cunts back in the day. Religious nuts like cromwell. But they were cunts to their own people too. And this is coming from someone who is Irish. Surely everyone who “gets” this web site is familiar with the whole concept of nationalism is meaningless…causes conflict, for idiots blah blah blah…you know if were all left wing libs…huh? on September 25, 2008 at 7:48 pm Irish O'Irish Actually, I actually can’t believe I even wrote that shit…who even cares, don’t bother replying…I won’t again on September 25, 2008 at 7:49 pm Irish O'Irish Actually, I actually can’t believe I even wrote that shit…who even cares, don’t bother replying…I won’t again on September 25, 2008 at 7:54 pm Billy Blogs Who cares…I’m Irish and st paddys day is bullshit. Most sensible people here avoid it like plague…I guess it’s ok for overseas, something different on October 9, 2008 at 5:36 am kurt i’m always sick for st patricks day because it falls shortly after my birthday and i always drink way too much and cant drink anymore on st pattys. on October 10, 2008 at 4:55 am P Dizzle umm…how the fuck did you get MY photo…who ARE you? btw I was celebrating in KOREEEAH with non-whites u douche on October 10, 2008 at 11:56 pm Chris I don’t think that’s it – there were never that many Anglo Saxons outside South East England anyway, England is really divided into a Celtic west and a Scandinavian east, much like Scotland (not that Eddie is wrong basically, he’s right about the Normans). It’s more likely to be the prevalence of German surnames in the US – there are far more people with German and other Central European ancestry than most of us would think. And isn’t everyone a bit of a mixture anyway? jello learning, “oh Danny boy” wouldn’t hurt either. Incidentally, I’m curious why there are so few references to booz in this blog when there is almost nothing white people love more then getting completely smashed off there asses on the most expensive spirits possible. Do a few posts on beer, wine tastings and crown royal, plus beer pong to get a good picture of white folk at there best. on October 20, 2008 at 12:08 pm Saedhlinn I have mixed feelings about this holiday…. on one hand, I’m a fiddle player, and St. Patrick’s Day= good gigs. On the other… I really want to smack a fake Irish person. They’re right up there on my peeve list with fake Scots and fake Native Americans. I’m also expected, apparently, to join in and celebrate, even though my only connection to Irish ancestry a far-off and lonely great-great-grandparent who was shuffled off to Canada with a bunch of Scots. Bottom line– I don’t want your green beer. English Lady Dear Saedhlinn, Am wondering if St P’s Day is something different in USA? In England it just seems like an excuse to market disgusting Guinness to blokes and is over and done with in a day. on November 2, 2008 at 5:06 pm Bridget Wow racist. You have no idea what your talking about. What’s you race, I’m sure I can find 50 stereotypes about it and we’ll see how you feel. But, I’m a proud Irish person so I’m not going to sink to your level of stupidity and ignorance. CHG You know, my parents are from Ireland and growing up it was a day we could cheat and eat what we gave up for Lent. I went to college and discovered my Jewish, Italian, and mixed friends all celebrated. I admit I go out on St. Patrick’s day, but I am a little resentful that everyone comes out in drives to celebrate the Christianization of Ireland, but we can’t even mention to word “Christmas.” on November 17, 2008 at 9:46 pm Ian I have mixed feelings about St. Patrick’s Day. I sometimes want to shake people and say “I’m Irish 365, bitches!” But at the same time it’s not such a big deal, considering that by now, as you said, Irish=generic whitey. It’s not like I get discriminated against for it. Though…I do love Irish music (not just the Dropkick Murphys, thanks so much). 😀 on November 18, 2008 at 4:21 pm Cory Wow. There is far more to St. Patrick’s day than alcohol, but I’m proud of you for grasping that much of it. Some people go to church and celebrate with their families. Some people use this time of year to tell their children about their family’s past. This post is nothing short of hateful and racist. But then, you know that. Poking fun at drunks pretending to be Irish while on the street at a parade is one thing, but singling Irish people out as an ethnicity and talking about our ancestors and oppression? Since you’re not Irish, what the hell do you know about it? Your bloated opinion of the people who celebrate this holiday – most of them not even Irish – shows not only your ignorance, but brings to light the superior opinion you have of yourself over others. Congratulate yourself over the wonderful service you’re doing to spread racial harmony. You’ve done a great deal to smooth the path with this post alone. judy alexander If you are truly Irish, you loathe Danny Boy – just ask a 100% Irish lad or lassie! Oscar the Mild Irish are also supposed to have a sense of humour “But since the Irish never engaged in colonialism and were actually oppressed it is considered acceptable and encouraged to celebrate their ancestry. For this reason, 100% of white people are proud to claim that they are somewhat Irish” Come-on! That’s hilarious! Besides, since Ireland’s National Day gets celebrated in half a dozen ex British colonies – we’re doing all right🙂 Richard “It is never considered acceptable to say: ‘but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?’” Uh huh. Just like it is never considered acceptable to say: “But you’re not a slave, nor have you ever been a slave, so what’s the problem?” “We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately.” ~ Benjamin Franklin on November 30, 2008 at 7:02 am babalugatz ….the negroes can claim an entire MONTH to celebrate their “blackness”, and that’s not to be commented on? nobody, but people of color, are supposed to show pride in their heritage, or they’d be classified “racist”. on December 2, 2008 at 8:06 am brian nope…it’s not. oh-, but in america, they advertise budweiser and coors year long during all sporting events, so guiness is considered quality beer over here ( admittingly, i LOVE it) but for what type of beer white peope like, see the post on micro brewries. Mrs. Harrington Caliann G. The people drinking green beer are most likely not Irish. However, the probability is very high that they are being laughed at by 100% Irish people like myself while I drink my Beamish. My Nana was born and raised in the Rebel County (Up Cork!). Her first memory as a child was of English terrorists beating down the door of her Nana’s house to try to find her uncle, a priest, so they could beat him to a pulp and jail him. I was allowed to swear if I was referring to that orthodontically challenged inbred family living at Buckingham Palace. I don’t drink Black and Tans because I know what they draw their name from and see no need to memorialize them. I believe that the uneducated people you are referring to you are most likely once-a-year Irishmen. Don’t lump us all in with the ignorant. on December 22, 2008 at 5:27 pm profit For anyone who is a christian they should realise that after the Roman empire fell Christianity all but disappeared for the rest of the world and Ireland, having not been colonised by the Romans were the ones that returned Christianity to the rest of the world, so the man that brought Christianity to Ireland is pretty important to the Christian world and that St Pats is a very important day for those who are. That said, i am not christian and really do like getting drunk on St Pat’s and remembering that I am part Irish. But people do have a point that this sight is very racist an the whites are the only ones that could have and like, a sight that is really racist towards them, most other races would get very angry at such a sight and at the comments that people who arent white say about white people on this sight. Just be careful… trying for equality is one thing but dont do it by dragging others down. on December 30, 2008 at 11:19 am hbrwn This is too true!!!! I have always thought this. Also, white people like to wear flip flops in the winter. btw, I’m white so you can’t call me a rascist. on January 3, 2009 at 9:35 pm George Best Well, some Irish were sent to Jamaica as slaves, but on the other hand, the Gaels from Ulster (Northern Ireland / North of Ireland) destroyed the Pictish culture in Northern Britain by Colonizing it (the article is wrong, the Irish were colonists at one time). Not that any of that matters, but you’re right, it is an overly commercial holiday. on January 3, 2009 at 9:38 pm George Best Actually, the Irish did colonize other peoples, the Picts, Caledonians and Northumbrians, pretty succesfully too; the Pictish language no longer exists. Still, it’s a funny post. on January 7, 2009 at 4:09 pm Gerry Lynch You have no idea how funny this post is if you actually are Irish (as in Irish-Irish). But jump around is still a great song! on January 7, 2009 at 4:23 pm Gerry Lynch St. Patrick’s Day in it’s current form is as Irish as Yankee Doodle Dandy. Until about 10 years ago in Ireland, a small number of old men paraded around in green shashes and ill-fitting black suits, religious people went to Mass, sporty people went to various high school soccer/rugby/GAA championship matches and most people enjoyed the day off work and maybe got a little drunk in a pub, without green beer or emptying a factory full of green dye into the local river. Then, sometime in the 1990s when Ireland got rich, we decided to import Plastic Paddy’s Day from America complete with marching bands, pom poms and all the rest. Although, unlike our more-Irish-Catholic-than-the-Irish-Catholics brethren in New York, we actually allow gay people to take part too!!! Because we’re so white and we enjoy any form of diversity in a country where racial tolerance consists of forcing ourselves not to swear at Krysztof or Enugu who we pay sub-minimum wage rates to to serve us in petrol stations. If you want to see a real St. Patrick’s Day, stay in New York or Chicago, because Irish St. Patrick’s Day is as plastic and fake as it comes. I still enjoy the day off work and getting drunk, though… on January 9, 2009 at 11:42 pm baby hahahahahaha!!! I find this so funny to read b/c 1. americans think that for a day they can pretend to be something they arent. and 2. b/c im irish and watching my non irish friends celebrate this holiday is fanfreakintastic! flogging molly inChi town on st. patty’s day! be there!! Alex This is 100% on the money. Irish-Americans are HILARIOUS. It seems all white people in your country is so desperate not to be “just another white person” that they cling to any and all other spurious ethnic roots that they can. Hey, I’m not an Anglo-Saxon, I never oppressed nobody! My great, great grandfather was apparently from a place called Galway in Ireland (must pronounce it Ire-Land), and his name was O’something! The American ‘Polish’ are also hugely funny in this regard, as are Italian-Americans. You’re just another American, that’s all. Get used to it. The real Irish/Polish/Italians laugh at you. You’re nothing like them, you’re a yank. Enjoy your green beer. on January 15, 2009 at 8:51 pm Mike Right on the money. Don’t forget your fake Irish brogue: another surefire St. Paddy’s Day white person’s tradition. “What county are ye from?” is an effective opening line when delivered in said brogue on January 15, 2009 at 9:26 pm Mike And while you’re out at the “pub” on St. Pat’s Day, don’t forget to periodically spout a pro-IRA platitude like “Give Ireland back to the Irish” or something equally inane…this is quite possibly be the only time of the year where you can win cool points by praising a terrorist organization that has slaughtered thousands of innocent people! on January 16, 2009 at 6:15 pm another thing... Ummmm, No. Yes, St. Patrick was a very important missionary at the time, but to say he restored Christianity to the entire world is a bit of a stretch! About the racist thing, the funny part about this site is that the folks it good-naturedly pokes fun at don’t necessarily have to be Caucasian! My buddy’s girlfriend, who is Chinese (yes, born there) does about half the annoying things on this site. Ditto for my friend from college who is black, but grew up in a rich suburb of NYC, and is accurately described by pretty much almost everything here! Calm, down profit! Let’s get drunk on St. Patty’s Day! I’m not Irish either! on January 16, 2009 at 9:10 pm Brad funny, you didnt say that about black people, huh ? example:Your not an African,just another black guy !your ancestors didnt come from Jamaica so you must not be Jamaican ! on January 17, 2009 at 6:51 am Alex The second bit didn’t make any sense, however if your only link to Jamaica is that your great grandfather or just your grandfather was from there then guess what: you’re not. Re. “African” trust me, there is/has been some just as funny shit going on amongst African Americans. The Nation Of Islam are ridiculous for instance. Wear a fez and a bowtie, pick a name that sounds vaguely arabic – congrats, you’re now an honourary African/Arab! The same goes for everyone playing at being pretend africans – you can wear African clothes and talk about “mother Africa” as much as you like, you’re still from Detroit, so was your father and his father before him, and have absolutely no real connection to the place. The Hiphop scene is pretty funny like that. It’s understandable though. White Americans are another kettle of fish though, they weren’t uprooted unjustly from their homelands. I suppose it says something about America’s homogeneity: your country is huge, yet despite a few regional differences your culture is the same throughout, so you invent spurious differences so you can claim to be unique. Maybe a hundred years ago or more a few Americans could say they were Irish with a degree of truth, now it’s mostly just a people playing at it. For second, third, or forth generation immigrants to go around wearing their “cultural heritage” like a badge of pride is pretty silly. The Sri-Lankan working in K-Mart that just came off the boat has more right to celebrate his differing ethnic status than you do. on January 19, 2009 at 2:43 am J St Pats day in London is a joke! They now have a parade like in NYC and is basically sponsored by Guinness, it should be called St Guinness day. I hate it. You don’t see the Scots, Welsh and English making a fuss about their St day. Oh yes, and I did see a couple of young honkies wearing shorts and flipflops yesterday, it was about 4 degrees. It’s usually Aussies who do this, complete with Fat Face hoodie and beanie hat!?? on January 19, 2009 at 12:25 pm paxvox Me personally, I HATE St. Patrick’s Day. Nothing against the Irish (and St. Partick was not Irish) but I always refuse to wear green just because it’s freaking March 17th! I spent St. P’s in 1997 in Boston, and THAT was an interesting experience, I must say. Damn glad there was rapid transit available since the streets were (otherwise) impassible. I DO like Guinness, though.🙂 on January 19, 2009 at 12:28 pm paxvox I love how people bastadize English by incorrectly spelling contractions. YOU-ARE would be “You’re”, NOT “Your”, you dolt! on January 19, 2009 at 12:39 pm paxvox Or the Sri Lankan posing as a rap-singer (MIA) and all the “hip” folks loving her music totally obvlious that Sri Lanka is even a country. Better yet, ask them how far Ceylon is from Sri Lanka and see how they respond (correct answer DOES exist, but it is in years not physical space). The “Ethnic American” is an interesting topic to ponder, and cultural exclusivity is a fact. Consider “Cajuns” as a case-in-point. French, in one regard, but just as much African as anything else. Would a “white” Cajun acknowledge “African” cultural ties? Not likely. But if “Joe the Cajun” likes his music, authentic, he’s got a Carribean beat with African tempo. My “people” are as UK as it comes, but there is clearly no culturally homogenious bond that ties them together. Scots don’t like English who hate Irish who won’t talk to Welch. Go figure in a land smaller than Texas with no-fewer than five languages. on January 19, 2009 at 12:44 pm paxvox IF you don’t think Americans retain their ethnic identity for generations, you’ve never been to Baltimore, MD. There are still pockets of TRUE Italians, Czechs, Poles, Ukes etc… For that matter, Pittsburg remains a town full of ethnic pockets even today. I guess if one moves away from “home” that his/her ethnic ID may become dilluted. Alex Like a good little white person, I have seen ‘The Wire’. I have a similar line about ‘The Wackness’ I use whenever New Yorkers talk to me about ways in which the city was better before Guiliani. Pisses them off no end. on January 22, 2009 at 9:42 am tim only thing i don’t like about this is that they are actually white ppl in america who’s heritage is actually irish. dont hate on them on January 23, 2009 at 9:48 am Phillip First, I am of French-Canadian heritage. And yes, my great-grandfather was from Quebec. French as a ‘spoken-at-home’ language died out with my grandmother. But there are still small things that are traditional. Fridays, and even Saturdays, family would come out of the woodwork (read cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, god-parents, second cousins, cousins twice removed, etc.) , play cards, drink, and generally joke around. Also, my whole family (Texan mother excluded) were named for saints, in the Roman-Catholic tradition. Also, Guinness should be it’s own category, because I have not yet met an American who didn’t like it. I don’t get why people take more than one sip, because it after wards tastes like crap. on January 30, 2009 at 3:15 pm Texasgal77 So your saying if some “white person” offered you free food and spirits on this magical day you would refuse? Everyone should be proud of who they are and were there family is/was from. If they want to drink till they fall over and wear all the green clothes in their closet let them do it. I have never seen any black people party with us White Folks on St. Patty’s day. It isn’t that you aren’t invited so bring it and let’s all party up! Then you might understand what it is all about! Come on the Mexicans love it! haha on February 1, 2009 at 1:25 pm Brainmatters Sadly, St. Patricks day is not celebrated in Ireland as it is here in the states-they spend the day in church. Maybe there was a mix-up in translation from gaelic to american; we thought they said drink dyed beer at the bar instead of pray at the church. As a decendant of irish blood(50%)-it would seem that I would go nuts on St. Patty’s day but I’m white now so everythings ok. Also, I’m neither catholic or protestant but my family has been planning a trip “home” to see our roots for 10 years now and my husband has beefed up his pedigree from 1/7 irish to only claiming his irish blood. That’s the kind of obnoxious behavior us whities are known for! Bring on the green beer baby! on February 1, 2009 at 2:15 pm Saltin If you’ve been to Ireland, especially Dublin, you’ll know they damn well celebrate the day in exactly the same way it is celebrated in North America…. a big parade followed by 12-16 hours straight in the pubs, surrounded by drunks. I hope this comment has sufficiently humbled anyone who’s never been. on February 1, 2009 at 6:29 pm Chris Believe it or not…Guinness is different in Ireland. I’ve been to the Guinness factory 4 times and they teach you about their history, brewing process, etc. One thing you learn is that they are like Coca Cola in that they tailor their beer to the country they are sending it to. The US version is watered down according to their own definition because that is what most Americans like. This is not myth…it is fact. ponty “St. Patty’s day” It’s ‘Paddy’s’ you ignorant texan bint. More offensive than white people celebrating St. Patrick’s day? American’s claiming a cultural heritage they clearly do not understand. on February 3, 2009 at 12:37 pm big bink I’m 100% irish ancestry, but I can’t say that I really think anything of it. All these dudes bragging about “where they came from” whether it be Ireland or Poland or Italy or whatever seem to forget one simple thing: you were born and raised in America. If you or your parents didn’t move over here from there, then you have virtually zero connection to your “homeland” at all whatsoever….I don’t see what’s so bad about embracing the fact that you’re a citizen of one of the most powerful nations to ever exist in human history. …and even that paragraph sounded pretentious. God, is there no escape from the plight of the white man? on February 7, 2009 at 9:00 pm E. M. B. I am proud to say that I am 100% Irish and that is probobly one of the things i like besat about myself. And as for the “you’re white now”, comment; that’s completely ridiculous. Honestly, my being white (and having a common Irish last name) hurts me more for things such as getting into college because I am considered to be run-of-the-mill, not diverse. White people have problems too. on February 7, 2009 at 11:03 pm Moran My born-in-Ireland grandparents were dirt poor, only had 6th grade educations and believed everything the Catholic Church told them. My family’s f- up’d and I think it has a lot to do with us being of Irish descent. So yeah, the oppression of my ancestors did trickle down to me. on February 10, 2009 at 3:11 pm evan Ya well I am from ireland im there right now and ive never left and opression never trickled anywhere it only created needless violence in da north and a hatred of da english, but were just normal people who just got on wit it “oh im american but dont hold it against me!” too bad i already am on February 14, 2009 at 2:12 pm H The best Guinness is in Dublin because thats were its made and Guinness doesnt travel well. thats why outside of ireland it tastes like shite. and to Evan who said “needless violence in the north” that only created a hatred of the english; the troubles are considered a civil war so dont be so ignorant. J WOW!! I can’t believe the tirades that people go off on here. This site is obviously not meant to be taken seriously. Anyhow, As an AMERICAN with a strong ancestral heritage based on Irish Catholics leaving Ireland, I do get a bit miffed on Saint Patrick’s Day. (throw in other religious holidays that have nothing to do with being Irish too, i.e. Saint Valentine’s Day) Along with Saint Brigid’s Day, St. Columba’s Day (and saints of my other heritage) I do go to Church on Saint Patrick’s Day. I enjoy traditional Irish music anytime, but it’s nice to hear on Saint Patrick’s Day as well. As with any other time I have it available, I drink Guinness, along with Harp or Smithwick’s and Magner’s Irish Cider (yeah, we can’t call it Bulmers here) on Saint Patrick’s Day. I also enjoy my Irish whiskeys and the differences between them. Tullamore Dew being my fave. So, OK, I’m rambling. But along with friends of mine from Ireland, I find it a little upsetting that a bunch of folks who do not believe in the Patron of Saints think that listening to Dropkick Murphy’s and drinking green beer til they get shit faced makes them “Irish” one freakin day out of the year. They do provide tons of amusement though when they can’t walk and puke all over themselves!! on February 17, 2009 at 9:32 pm Melanie PLEASE don’t take this stuff so seriously! This whole site is obviously tongue in cheek. NOTHING IS SACRED HERE so if you don’t like it, I suggest you don’t log on. White and proud of it. Melanie on February 18, 2009 at 3:55 am Melanie Oh, yeah – and one more thing. I love it when people who obviously are probably NOT Irish wear T shirts that say, “Kiss me – I’m Irish!” See – just like the white people who are parodied on this site, they just want to be cool too… Let them have their fun! on February 18, 2009 at 3:59 am Melanie Oh brother – one more piece of EuroTrash who hates America. Can’t get much more unoriginal than that. And what’s up wit dat weird spelled out accent? It was sort of endearing in that Uncle Remus story I read as a kid, but it comes across as contrived in this setting. Who let da dogs out?????? Oops, another white person listening to black music that black people don’t listen to anymore – GUILTY AS CHARGED! LOL on February 20, 2009 at 2:49 pm irishguy this site is hilarious and this topic hits home for me. i’m irish-american, i play irish music and, with dual citizenship, travel back and forth between the u.s. and ireland with ease and frequency. when i’m in the u.s. for st. patrick’s day, i stay home unless i’ve gotten a gig that pays more than $1,000 and is sure to be free of drunken college kids acting like assholes. seriously, if your in a bar on st. patrick’s day and yelling “i’m irish today”, you should beer bong a bottle of bushmills so, hopefully, your liver explodes and the rest of us civilized people can start having some fun on the holiday. on February 28, 2009 at 10:34 am tonyuncleal u idiots.. the site is laughing @ you taking st patricks day too serious by over analizing you roots,, sure enuff a few of u qualified this thought by looking deep into your past and referring to ireland. someone even mentioned their messed up families!!!! SO, YOUR WHITE NOW!!!! << opps i wasnt suppose to mention this!! I forget many of you were “oppresed” !!! ha ha!!! For the BEST MJ in NYC & the boroughs check out this delivery service I just found. Email [email protected] for answers to all ?’s and instructions on how to place an order. on March 17, 2009 at 10:46 am California Suites Ah yes, st patricks day… the anniversary of the day that the CCTer met up again with the CCTee (er = giver and ee = receiver). Anyway, things ended poorly on this day once again–a bar full of vomit, a random walk around campus with Jimbo, and furthermore, no closure to the past tragedy. The tragedy as you may already know that dealt with the creation of the CCT (The Cormier Cock Tease). Sigh, I watch California Suites on repeat to forget this terrible ordeal. on March 17, 2009 at 12:47 pm Cris Oh shit. Busted. I came thiiissss close to making Irish soda bread with my daughter today (St. Patrick’s Day). Thank goodness I was out of flour. I’ve never actually had it before (if that counts for anything). Although…I will shamefully admit that I am wearing a silver bracelet that has icons on it that chart the history of Ireland. My mother bought it for me from…gulp….QVC. I’ll go shoot myself now. on March 17, 2009 at 5:16 pm Jane Out of curiosity, Melanie, where did you get the idea that Evan hates Americans? Yes, his spelling is atrocious, but he only mentioned hatred against the English. Or are you just one more American who assumes that foreigners who don’t sing the praises of America are automatically “EuroTrash who hate Americans”? As you said yourself, you can’t get much more unoriginal than that. Come up with some fresh excuse to hate non-Americans. tzaranorange I LOVE IRISH SODA BREAD but i actually do hate st. patrick’s day…maybe it will make a difference when i’m old enough to get drunk legally, but till then i never wear green on st. paddy’s and i make death threats to any asshole who tries to get away with a fake irish accent. it is on st. patrick’s day that americans rape ireland. on May 25, 2009 at 11:29 pm SarahnotfromAmerica Aaah [enlightenment]. I never understood why St Patrick’s day was such a big deal. I come from a place where a lot of people do have Irish ancestry [actual as opposed to assumed for self enrichment] and where social alcoholism is normal, so I just assumed that was the reason. But it’s really colonial guilt – that makes much more sense…. on June 11, 2009 at 6:38 pm coco cryspies In many ways St. Patrick’s Day has been turned into a shallow commercialized holiday but you don’t have to celebrate it that way. Growing up Irish-Catholic March 17th meant an hour in church and seeing my extended family. I’d say that’s pretty close to what the holiday was originally meant to be. on June 15, 2009 at 2:53 pm Paddy O'Furniture But Guinness really does just tastes better in Ireland – although I have never said that to anyone after taking a sip – wait… I just did – ooops. Erin Go Bragh! on June 26, 2009 at 2:39 am Justcan't keep my mouth shut Everyone knows the song from “The Departed” It’s the only one that gets any air play anyway. So Your not that cool and your not that edgy, get over yourself. on June 29, 2009 at 1:51 pm Free Ireland Yes, it can seem like there is little point when people with Irish ancestry complain about ancestors’ oppression, but it is important to realize that there are still people being oppressed in Ireland. 840 years 1 month 29 days unfree (accounting for shifting calendars) Mayor McCheese LOL Yeah, Americans would be able to talk shit on that score if their own country weren’t stolen from the massacred indigenous population and built via the blood and sweat of black slaves, the descendants of which haven’t even been truly free for a hundred years yet. “Free Ireland” – from whom? The terrorist gangsters abhorred by 99% of the population who continue to try to further their stupid old war that everyone else has gotten past a long time ago? You know nothing. An American can say the words “Free Ireland” when centuries of genocide and oppression have been paid for and whitey’s the one that lives in a reservation. Go chug a green beer and stfu. on July 3, 2009 at 11:44 pm Some Guy Along with your Guinness comment, the one thing you can say on St. Patrick’s Day to elicit immediate praise and respect from the white people in your local Irish bar would be the always handy, “Everyone’s Irish on St. Patty’s Day.” Beg-a-thon begins I WANT A MILLION DOLLARS!!! Can one million RICH WHITE PEOPLE send me one dollar apiece, puh-lease???? I don’t want money from any Asians, or Blacks or Hispanics. You guys NEED your money. I only want one dollar apiece from RICH WHITE PEOPLE who seem to WASTE their money like drunken leprechauns on St. Patrick’s Day. Waste it on me instead. Thanks so much! (First person who comments “You ARE a waste.” is a rotten egg. You thought it. I know you did. Stop lying. See? I knew it.) on August 4, 2009 at 9:55 pm niger11 the fact that u can say that the irish were suppressed and we today still bitch even though todays generation were never saw these days and they have no right to complain. And yet blacks can not stop talk about being slaves and how they were suppressed , and in all fairness they were, but today not one black slave is alive. wut did the irish do after being oppressed they created the republic of ireland, moved to new york build sky scrappers never seen before. what did the blacks do they moved to ghettos, and yolanda can still bitches about how the white man made blacks slaves. on August 8, 2009 at 11:05 am lol this shoudlnt be “stuff white people like” this should be “stuff americans like,” i hate to brake it to all the europeans out there, but most of you are technically white too lol basically this site is saying that only americans are considered “white” on August 14, 2009 at 7:43 pm Michael It’s the new P-C code speak for “yeah, black people are like Africans alright” or “you can integrate/assimilate/convert a person to the white culture, but they never change”. That race is a construct by social or tribal customs, but biological or genetic tracking indicates groups of people do exist and geographical human geneotypes are traced to a country. + on August 14, 2009 at 7:49 pm Michael damn…and all I had is green milkshakes, get out the green food coloring and you got some shakes for St. Patricks day. I’m not even abit Irish, perhaps a Scotch-Irish ancestor from Ulster, Northern Ireland and most likely Protestant. I’m hafl-French and by what I read, St. Patrick was from Gaul (Roman France) was originally sold a slave to Britainica. Let’s all act like Irish: sing, fight, dance, drink, starving, being poor, ragged, worship pagan deities known as the “Virgin Mary” and all that Celtic pride. 150 years ago, the English thought the Irish are animals, primates, Africans or a cult against “her majesty” and the Church of England. Today, this would be racist despite the white Irish are said to be the lightest-skinned, look their faces are full of ginger: freckles. The red hair is a sign of “whiteness” and many are blue or green-eyed, not as green as the Emerald Isle, but hey, everyone is Irish today than 150 years ago. I see how nobody wants to be “Mexican” on Cinco de Mayo.+ on August 14, 2009 at 7:51 pm Michael Barak O’Bama? Yeah, ha ha funny (sarcasm). He’s probably one of the “black Irish”. John F. Kennedy and his family are the “Lace curtain Irish”, not enough pot o’ gold (J/K, they are filthy rich). The anti-Irish sentiment in England/Britain was one of the reasons for public secular celebrations of St. Patricks’ Day to be proud of Irishness while the group was outcasted by the English (Anglo-Saxon) establishment. + I know a very un PC joke (prepared to be offended): What’s the difference between St. Patrick’s day and Martin Luther King Day? Everyone wants to be Irish on St. Paddy’s (Patrick’s). You may well be part-Jewish on Hannukah, part-Rican on Puerto Rican day or part-Vietnamese on the Tet festival (new Years day). White people find it convenient to be 1/16 Irish for a 24 hour day, but has no clue on the Irish came to America as indentured servants, punished for worshipping the Catholic religion or are literally starving to death. + on August 14, 2009 at 7:58 pm Michael Rednecks are more Irish than the Kennedys, but taught the Irish were saved by Jezus to stop being them Popists and proved they are white enough to start treating the black plantation slaves very badly. Same goes to 1850’s gold rush-era California when the newly arrived Irish miners and railroad workers fought and brawled with the Chinese, and how the Irish tried to avoid being around other Catholics or Jewish immigrants moving into the Lower East Side, NYC until the end of the 19th century. Irish have “self-hatred” of being who they are? I think so. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:01 pm Michael The Lost Irish of Quebec, my French language teacher in high school told me on a large Irish imprint in Quebec is present. Her parents came from Italy after WWII settled down in Montreal’s neighborhood known as “Le Petit Italie” and she grew up in a trilingual environment before moving to the US as a teenager. She speaks some Chinese, Serbo-Croatian and Spanish, in part she’s a linguist. Parts of the Ontarioan interior has an Irish-speaking organization to help and promote the Irish Gaelic tongue in North America. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:04 pm Michael What urks me about cosmopolitian whites of the elite like Justin C Lander here (I kid you not) is the homogenization of America is over, multiculturalism and diversity is the rule, and if you’re black be black, you’re Asian be Asian, Latino be Latino, etc. except there are hundreds of African groups, 50 Asian nations and 20 Latin American countries. I rather be celebrating Bastille Day every July 14th in Dad’s house, instead of pretending to be Irish every March 17th, LOL.+ on August 14, 2009 at 8:07 pm Michael Is that what made Louisiana and New Orleans renowned to the world? Cajuns, a subgroup of departed Acadien French down to the Mississippi delta and gulf coast 250 years ago. There are still thousands of Acadiens in Maine, US and New Brunswick, Canada stayed in their lands after the British takeover. French culture in North America remains intact, one reason why you have a Quebecois identity. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:11 pm Michael The origin of Irish “drunks” came from the 19th century Protestant Yanks in the social-religious movement to ban alcohol in the USA, known as Prohibition (1920’s to repeal in 1933). The stereotypical Catholic immigrant was seen as drinking, also the puritanical view of alcohol was immoral and to add in the anti-Catholicism of Irish “pagans” whom remained Catholic after English king Henry the 8th declared a new Church of England (the Anglicans) in 1550. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:14 pm Michael The self-name of Irish people in Gaelic is “Eireann”, almost close to the notorious word “Aryan”. Is this part of the so-called Aryan Nations thing of white kids proud to be Irish, not Germanic or “white” skinned? I thought the Germanics and Vikings fought the Celts (esp. Irish) to near extinction. The Romans also done the same throughout Gaul (France) except a peninsula on the Northwest tip of France known as Brittany or Brita, where a Celtic-speaking group remains (the Bretons) to this day. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:17 pm Michael Jews are described a religious group, while the Irish are a nationality from an island…and black Americans due to the skin color issue. One of the things divides people into each group: in Canada, the Anglophone and Francophone over a person’s native language. + on August 14, 2009 at 8:18 pm Michael One St. patrick’s day tradition to school children in the US is to pinch people for not wearing green. How cruel & sadistic is that? I have fun seeking a four-leaf clover in the school campus lawn (no luck). + on August 15, 2009 at 1:13 pm Matt and for that matter if i were to make a blog “stuff black people in america like” would that be racist? Go to St. Patrick’s day parade, puke and punch your cousin. Go to the Puerto Rican Day parade get groped. Go to Gay Pride parade see an over weight fellow in a g-string. Message: Don’t go to parades. on August 22, 2009 at 2:40 pm eoin Well I’m actually from Ireland and have lived here all my life. Just thought I’d put that out there. OH and I have never eaten corned beef, we don’t actually eat that. And guiness is better in Ireland, don’t ask me why but it just is… let tell you gaelic is a crazy language. my name is eoin but its pronounced owen. Even though I can speak it fluently I still don’t understand why some letters arent pronounced. Bhuel béidh mé ag dul anseo. Slán leat mo raicleach on August 27, 2009 at 6:55 pm Becca White Jews are white. While we’re on the subject, being a white Jew is the best. You get all the perks of not feeling guilty about history, but at the same time people are not secretly afraid of you. Also, people will pull out the whole “I know your heritage thing” when they find out you’re Jewish. They’ll be like, “I had a friend who’s Jewish. He’s so funny.” (White people find Jews hysterical.) Then they’ll mention how attractive they find Israelis. Telling someone that you’re Jewish is a very interesting scientific transformation. The conversation instantaneously transforms from “conversation with fellow white person,” to, “conversation with minority.” Pure gold. on September 9, 2009 at 9:15 pm Michael D. We came a long way since the 1850’s when the Irish are portrayed as primates in newspapers such as the Times in London or New York city. At the same time, Charles Darwin wrote an earth-shattering book “The origin of species” to be used for nationalistic purposes in both America and the UK to describe “the Irish, Africans and Amerindians” are closer to apes than “white Anglo-saxon Aryan” nonsense. + on September 13, 2009 at 3:00 pm Michael D. Irish Dinner parties should come with a notice on the RSVP letter: “Etiquette will be strictly enforced. No man will get into my mouth unless you wash off your meat (unless you’re Irish. I love to clean off dirty Irish dicks with my mouth, but you have to have on green). Leprechauns can just come in my ass for free. This rule is strictly enforced. yoink Just want to reiterate this is ME in the photo. Word to the wise: photos posted on facebook are apparently PUBLIC DOMAIN! This still makes me laugh 2 years later so no complaints😉 on October 10, 2009 at 8:18 am Liz yet another excuse for dumb whites to get tanked and act stupid. why not study, read a book, listen to Mahler, talk a nature walk—that is another reason why usa is a sinking ship…… on October 13, 2009 at 9:00 am dudo What the fuck!!!!! all comments that i have read are bullshit. How whites this and how whites that , and how whites are racists and how can whites be oppresed by another . The only thing certain and i mean certain not every black person is yepping about is racism and how you musn’t say anything even closely resembling to colour or else you are racist. If you are a blck person that was born lets say in 70’s or 80’s even before , how the fuck did you feel the oppresion or slavery ? um, yeah…only americans are created by people that came here on purpose. so only cubans that swam here are non european americans. on October 13, 2009 at 8:23 pm Stuart Appleby no. they should have been cooked in that oven back in the day…they should be black or shades of decaying gray now. on October 13, 2009 at 8:25 pm Stuart Appleby all those in canada need to suck a big black african cock and shut up. fucking frenchspeaking jackasses. (oh, sorry, you that speak AMERICAN suck cock too) on October 14, 2009 at 5:10 pm beige race “Most of the time, white people consider celebrations of European heritage to be racist unless they omit large swathes of the 16th through 20th centuries. But since the Irish never engaged in colonialism and were actually oppressed it is considered acceptable and encouraged to celebrate their ancestry. For this reason, 100% of white people are proud to claim that they are somewhat Irish.” Seriously…you’re kidding? What a bunch of crap, there is no social taboo against European celebrations, just the so-called white pride demonstrations involving skinheads and klan robes are the kind of white European celebrations of racist hatred the blogger was pointing out (or so he says). In the southeast, confederate flags and other historic symbolry of the old south may be frowned upon or divides people (white, that is), it is common knowledge about the southern heritage involved a sense of victimhood and alienation of the rural (and mostly white) underclass. on October 14, 2009 at 5:16 pm beige race “A big part of St. Patrick’s Day is having white people feel particularly upset at the oppression of their ancestors that has in no way trickled down to them. If you find yourself talking with a white person who tells you about how their great grandfather was oppressed by both the English and the Americans, it is strongly recommended that you lend a sympathetic ear and shake your head in disbelief. It is never considered acceptable to say: “but you’re white now, so what’s the problem?” ” Any white person without Irish ancestry can say sht to get sympathy on “our Irish (Catholic) background was disliked, oppressed and hated”. Is there a lesson on all of this? The concept of racism and ethnic bias affects everyone, we can go on about how the Jews feel on their experiences in Germany, Bosnians whom lost their family in the 1990’s war and Koreans had Japan colonize their land with brutality. What about PC rule #997 (random number) do not bring up the issue to someone of another group about being a member of another group. You can’t approach a tourist from (oh let’s say Northern Ireland) on how wonderful it must be to be Irish. You’re gonna be mega-offensive and just plain stupid on the Irish are “always treated good” when in historical fact the “white” Irish Catholics have struggled. on October 17, 2009 at 5:21 pm kitty Eh, eoin, speak for yourself. I eat corned beef all the time, man. And letters can be silent in all languages. AAAH. Stop showing yoursef up. Plus, well done for the “Gaelic”. Yeah, we all took Irish for the leaving cert. Bravo. Riddlin I agree. Unless you are purple. I don’t like purple people. Gotta draw the line somewhere… on December 23, 2009 at 5:24 pm ryan terwelliger That’s because St. Patrick’s Day is not a religious holiday, and certainly not a Catholic holiday, in the US. If you weren’t so white, you would understand this paradox. True white people are blind to it, however. To them, Irishness is just…so…well, cool is the only word! Because don’t they, like, party a lot or something? on December 25, 2009 at 2:05 am Andrew St. Patricks Day is not a religious holiday? And certainly not a catholic holiday? Where have I been… Isn’t it all about celebrating St. Patrick going to Ireland and spreading Catholicism to Ireland? Sounds like a religious and catholic holiday to me. on January 10, 2010 at 6:19 am Squint The blacks and Chinese were just as involved in American engineering projects if not more so. In a lot of cases they were ignored and excluded from the photographs you see nowadays, because they did not present the right image. Yes the Irish were oppressed but, not so much in the US, a drop in the ocean compared with other races. on January 15, 2010 at 4:41 pm An ode to Eireann How Irish are you? Please stand and salute the Irish national anthem. A real Irish person has patriotism to his country. Any Irish-Americans here should willingly do that. on January 21, 2010 at 7:04 am Robin St. Patrick’s day is the best! I don’t care what the rest of you say. Being Irish, I LOVE that holiday. Love love love it! on January 22, 2010 at 12:24 pm damien No way man, I was born in and raised in Ireland and now live in San Diego. Halloween is waaaay better – about 10 gazillion times better. on January 24, 2010 at 3:40 pm Áine St Patricks day is a Catholic holiday. I’m Irish American & Catholic. I celebrate St Pat’s because he brought us the faith, and because I love my family& heritage. However, not all Catholics hate gays. Really. HAHAHAHA!!!! ok i’ll give you this one. This whitey LOOOOVES st. patty’s day!!!!!! but…… a) I love Guiness ANY day of the year. Never at 7 AM😀 b) I have never been to Ireland😦 but my mom says that Guiness is really gross in Europe because it is served at room temp. However, the Ireland comment is GREAT because you can appear elitist when the real fact of the matter is, most people just don’t really care for Guiness!!!! c) Flogging Molly IS BETTER that Dropkick Murphys. Once again, any day of the year!!!! d) last but not least…… I look super cute in Green!!! Whether you’re drinking, a red headed step child, or just don’t want some irritating person to pinch you, Happy St. Patty’s day y’all!!!! on March 9, 2010 at 4:38 am JP My grandfathers Irish but I’ve never celebrated Saint Patricks day I don’t even have a single item of green clothing on March 9, 2010 at 12:57 pm Michael I was in the UK last year and Guiness was served chilled just like in the states. They call it Guiness Extra Cold. It tasted so much better than the stuff in the states. on March 15, 2010 at 10:56 am elizebath my grand father was irish and married a native american in NY and I dont even own a single green clothing either but i have a tattoo that has green in it so there you go get a tattoo with some green and you never have to worry. LOL on March 24, 2010 at 12:34 pm Barry O'Halloran I’m Irish – born, raised and living here – some of the worst Guinness I’ve ever tasted was served in Dublin, while one of the best was in a country pub in … guess where … England. Geography makes absolutely no difference to the quality of Guinness, any more than it does to the taste of a Big Mac on April 26, 2010 at 2:45 pm Sinn Féin All the rich suburban yuppies need to get out of Southie and stop calling themselves Irish. First you devastate a generation of teenagers by busing them to Roxbury, and now when no one has a job because the kids dropped out back then, you drive the property values through the roof. Leave our neighborhood alone! on April 30, 2010 at 3:02 pm Ron Williams What I have found is that, along with 100% of white people claiming to have Irish heritage, they also claim to have some percentage of Native American heritage. Native Americans have been persecuted and screwed over by Europeans in America for so long and been silent about it, that every white person feels like it is their duty to feel sorry for them, even claim that they have some in their family. I love when a pale, fair complected blonde haired, blue-eyed white claims to be 1/3 Cherokee. But when is the last time you heard a white person who, say, possibly has some black in their family willingly admit it? As for the Irish ancestry claims, the Irish are seen as belligerent, tough-guy upstarts who love to drink (hence Americans claiming they can drink anyone under the table if they THINK they have an Irish background, or any surname that starts with “Mc” or “Loy”) and fight. Here is an excerpt from a Joan Aiken (who is ACTUALLY from the U.K.) story explaining a British immigrants encounter with a group of Irish folk: “They came on board barefoot, gazing about them like jungle animals that have been rounded up by the hunter. They wore rags, their heads were shaggy, they had no belongings, and they spoke a language that nobody could understand…Their eyes were blue and rolling, like bits of the sky, they seemed to have no focus…they were used to fighting for all they had, the women pushed in front with elbows and fists, battling to be the first for whatever was coming, and the men were drunk most of the time-they were yelling, singing, and dancing from dawn to dusk.” (Aiken 12) How cool is that??? on May 22, 2010 at 1:08 pm Patrick One of the largest ethnic influxes into America was from Ireland. So it’s not that far fetched that LOTS of Americans are on Irish decent. on May 24, 2010 at 4:44 pm Joe I’d just like to point out that in 432 St Patrick didn’t bring Catholicism to Ireland, he brought Christianity to Ireland… and as an Irish-American (in the sense of having one Irish parent and one American parent- raised mainly in Europe), “Irish-Americans” are among the most irritating of all white people! You think it’s awful when they try to understand your culture? See how it is when they think it’s THEIR culture! on May 31, 2010 at 5:41 pm Whitezilla Ron, ever see the movie “At Play in the Field pf the Lord?” Great exchange in it regarding being “part Indian.” I don’t recall it verbatim, but the exchange goes something like this: Whitey: “I wish I was part Indian…I’d be proud to be Native American.” Half-Indian Guy: “How much Indian would you want to be? Half? A quarter? An eighth?” Whitey: “Uhhhh…” on June 1, 2010 at 4:43 am Paul I found the inclusion of St. Patrick’s Day in the list strange in that wherever you were to find an aggregation of other things in the list, it would be a St. Patrick’s Day free-zone. on June 8, 2010 at 5:00 pm Jerry Very funny, but bashing the plastic paddy syndrome has been done to death. Listen, the truth of the matter is due to a lack of long standing and defined American culture and the melting pot make up of its citizens Americans of all breeds, creeds, and attitudes latch on to other ethnic traditions. When your nation’s greatest claims to fame post frontier are jeans, Jaws, and the Big Mac there is nothing wrong with spending a day here or there celebrating the notion of being someone else. Further, the Irish and others complaining about it should count their blessings. I don’t know of any other culture in the world holding drinking contests on Columbus Day to celebrate the wonderful story of America. Usually foriegn gatherings relating to the U.S. involve burning flags and weaponry. on June 14, 2010 at 7:33 pm Jenna As a Pagan, I’m a bit skeptical about celebrating St. Patricks Day who I can only recognize as one who was prostilitizing the Druids into converting to Christianity. It just doesn’t add up to being an honest biblical story since Christianity is deep rooted from Paganism. The beer and parties are something that do kinda have me reconsidering sometimes. on June 16, 2010 at 4:09 pm silicone paddy I’m a red haired fiery blooded easily sunburned Irish man and I can tell you, over here, we love all Paddies, plastic, pewter or otherwise But please remember we are not a race, we’re a nation. So as far as we are concerned anyone can be Irish, in fact we encourage it. We even invented a feckin’ day for you people to try it out. So if on Paddy’s Day you develop a taste for being Irish feel free to consider yourself one of us! And if you feel the need to get a passport or buy a Riverdance DVD or even smother yourself in green body paint while emptying the local pub into your liver you’re of course welcome to it. Really.Go mad. We won’t try and stop you. Aspirants can relax, becoming Irish is easy! Any vague wish or silent declaration is enough to do it. Don’t worry being Irish isn’t hard, no special training’s required We don’t have a reading list or an entrance exam. We’re not even all that good at taking attendance And drinking, while not mandatory, is a lot of fun. (We recommend to anyone who doesn’t want to be Irish too.) Better yet you can stop being Irish any time you like! It’s just as easy and we promise not to pursue apostates. There’s only one rule, added after some past… unpleasantness. Anyone can be Irish (or not), just please, don’t fight. on July 13, 2010 at 5:11 pm Irish people To be Irish, one should know their ethnic history and nation identity. Irish people are originally Celtic, their presence in the British isles goes back over 3000 years…and Ireland is the sole Celtic majority republic in the world. I’m sure the Welsh and Scots are on their way declaring independence from the British crown soon. The Irish are fascinated with pre-Christian folklore and tradition, their language revived in a country that is 80-90% English-speaking dominant and the Roman Catholic church has extended powers on some important legislation in the government, therefore not much separation between church and state than in the US. Mixed race people To quote this excerpt from a post by Ron Williams – “I love when a pale, fair complected blonde haired, blue-eyed white claims to be 1/3 Cherokee. ” You can encounter plenty of mixed-race Cherokee/American Indian people like what you describe, but they can have a genetic dominance of dark hair, brown eyes and tan skin while they are 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6 and rarely, 1/8 Cherokee. Many Cherokees in the US encounter questions, comments and mistaken identity from white Americans “You look like a Mexican, are you part-Japanese?” or “You can’t be Indian!” I thought they would be treated like a black person, except white people desired to have a bit of ‘Injun or ‘redskin than to be a “Negro or mulatto”, to descend from a plantation slave carries a heavy burden and social stigma to this day in the US (esp. in the Deep South or mid-Atlantic states). on August 2, 2010 at 6:45 am irish fella you’re a douchebag and you’re not irish you’re an american who thinks he knows about ireland on September 13, 2010 at 10:36 am mofall this comment is not true. the irish language is very weak and the catholic church has an ever weaking influence. irish people are also fascinated by the English Premier League in a much more obvious why than any celtic traditions on September 27, 2010 at 5:25 pm plastic paddy listen you freeloading, bout to be deported, shower needin pasty faced green jelly bean. im in the last full blooded irish generation here in america and i have grown really tired of you and your fellow drunken brethren from the old country acting as if irish americans are the worst thing that ever happened to you. at least our ancestors had the sense to leave a country where there was no food or is it that they had the balls to leave home. not climb on a eire airlines with a ticket pappy bought either but cram into a cattle car with a captain drunker than dean martin on new years eve kind of balls. so dont be pissed and embarrassed bc we got here first and through outdoor labor (ya we were oppressed haha) and taking care of our bodies by not drinking toddys with bfast became kennedy pretty while you still look like some misshapen cave dweller. you can actually look at that family to visualize the transformation i speak of; go from honey fitz (you) to jack (me) and you can see for yourself. i know i know we talk about the war and the british and have no real concept of what we are talking about. if you were raised surrounded by insane drunken women who at the end of the day claimed that all of their problems could be traced back to the british bc that is what her drunken irish mother (probable the last one to ever have set foot on that mossy rock you call home) that is what to blame everything on you might have a skewed image of the biggest bully in europe as well. i am beginning to see as the rest of europe seems to be in sync with, that the real problem is with the lazy drunks in your country. so stop whining about how we are the problem, after all when you compare what irish americans have accomplished to what the REAL irish have accomplished its pretty funny. presidencies, “heavyweight” championships, comedians, non whiny writers, supreme court justices, etc. . so have bono and you can have sean hannity back, and riverdance with his narrow minded ass back across the pond so you can sing stupid songs like my grandmother did, im an american. like the chicago bears it looks like all the talent left that island a long time ago. on September 29, 2010 at 8:23 am I read alot to the people talking about mixed races and people not appearing to be a non-white race, maybe check out the book “The Color Line.” Sorry folks, it hasn’t been made into a major motion picture yet, but if it had it would feature a character who looks completely white but is in fact half black. Its a true story and the dude who wrote it(and incidentally is the star of it) is the president of CCNY. So yes, while someone who looks like they were part of hitlers master race claiming they’re native american may seem strange, it is quite likely true. Kerry Yeah because what you write about is really well-researched, persuasive and accurate. I wouldn’t mind except there are a million other “white people” sites where people are more thoughtful and better writers yet don’t feel entitled to a book publishing deal. Maybe if you had an original and carefully thought out idea and cared enough to impress you’d write like something other than an ignorant bully. on October 27, 2010 at 10:42 pm rs This one is hilarious! It’s like the ultimate ethnic holiday or something. I used to get invited to St P Day parties and assumed that it must be an excuse to celebrate Guinness, green jello shots, dissing the English, and Being White But Not Really Being White But Irish. I think you should also write something about pilgrimages to Ireland. That’s certainly a multi-generational phenomenon, it seems… on November 8, 2010 at 8:21 pm E Doyle True story- Irish-Americans LOVE talking about how goddamn oppressed we are and how much we hate the English. Even if we’ve never been to Ireland. The concept that past racism doesn’t amount to much when you’re now one of the most integrated, normalized, and ‘white’ groups in America doesn’t occur to most Irish-Americans once they start thinking about their Irishness. Needless to say, the Irish pretty much hate this shit. E Doyle @ plasticpaddy Um, dude. The hell? Why the rage at the Irish? Have you ever been over there? It’s not all drunks- hell, I see more drunks in America. Also, the Irish took on the British Empire and won everywhere except Ulster, and had (after a Civil War and a few decades of terrorism) a major economic boom and became a thriving Western European country. Come on. Give them some credit. Of course we did better in America. It’s America, and we’re white. E Doyle @ Irish People: Actually, Ireland is an increasingly secular country with no great interest in either Catholicism or neo-Paganism, an increasingly diverse population including many eastern Europeans and non-Europeans, very limited Gaeltacht areas. Also, the Celts as a society are gone, leaving only their descendants and remnants of their cultures. Ireland is a social democratic capitalist Republic, and the native Irish (themselves likely descended from invaders) are so interbred with Germanic peoples that they have no genetic distinction from the English. Also, the Welsh independence movement is weak, and the Scots not much stronger. on November 29, 2010 at 8:06 am Hayley Bauer All these comments are showing mixed feelings towards the celebration that occurs on this day each year. Some of you have been talking down on white because they are celebrating an “illegitimate” holiday, but this is their heritage. Yes it is true that many of these people celebrating may not have irish ancestors but if all your friends were having a party wouldn’t you want to join in? You are calling this holiday a “white persons holiday” in a negative way but the majority of irish Americans are caucasian which is why it appears to be something white people like. on November 29, 2010 at 8:12 am Hayley Bauer I think so many people have the impression that all irish are drunks because when they celebrate things (such as St. Patricks day) they like to have a nice traditional irish drink. Yes there are many alcoholic beverages produced by the irish but it is not just Ireland that drinks, Europeans are the world’s top consumers of alcohol so that includes all 47 countries. on January 12, 2011 at 7:28 am J. Fitzpatrick Best thing about being Irish in the US is how easy and entertaining it is to fustrate some”irish” American to the point of tears. Sample conversation: American: Hey, are you Irish? NO WAY! I’M IRISH!! Me: NO WAY! Where are you from? American: Well, I’m originally New Jersey but my grandad came from County Kilkenny. Me: Oh, so you’re actually American. American: No way dude, I’m Irish through and through. Me: But you were born in America. My grandmother was born in France but I’m pretty sure I’m not French. You can keep this going for as long as need be really, depending on whether you get punched or not. on January 20, 2011 at 2:04 pm Scott My friend loves telling people here’s “Irish,” going as far one day to say he was born in Ireland. His parents told him that wasn’t quite true and it made him pouty. Now, wihtout getting too high-brow, he said that his family is from Dublin and he’s Protestant. People do realize there is a difference between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, right? on February 27, 2011 at 12:45 am Dave Okay so let me summarize this article: white skin = bad. Doesn’t matter what your individual history is, or what your recent ancestors went through and how hard they worked, all of that is worthless because your skin is pale. Got it Hikaru I find it annoying how people that aren’t Irish feel the need to celebrate the tradition as one of their own, like drinking loads, partying, wearing stupid giant Guiness hats (Not just because of the picture…everybody wears them round here) and so much more. >.< McPherson True point Fitzgerald! This is because America is such a hodge-podge of heritage that nobody actually associates with being American when they are still in the country. Sure, everyone may be a mut but they feel they have something to cling on to, something more interesting about themselves when they can identify with another culture they really have NO idea about. When they are tourists somewhere, however, they slap “AMERICAN” all over them in whatever way possible. But when they are actually in their homeland, they are 100% irish…or 95% german….you get my point. It’s weird, but true. on March 16, 2011 at 1:58 pm AJ I can see the future: It’s 2035, and whites are no longer a majority–you are merely a plurality in the American demographic spectrum. Your totally mediocre son has just been rejected from Northeast Missouri State University, so you will begin a lifetime of nagging, complaining and outright bitching about “reverse racism” and the sheer oppression you face as a “new minority.” Crybaby. on March 17, 2011 at 8:58 am Emily I think you missed the fact that this website is a joke. It’s meant to satirize white people, not to claim reverse racism. Good try though. EVIL. You pay for the financial disaster God sent you. God brings wrath of destruction like he did on Japan. Keep on drinking booze, we the Westboro Baptist Church don’t drink, smoke, sing, dance, smile, and party.😛 on March 18, 2011 at 9:16 am Lola I agree St. Patricks day is a excuse to get drunk all day but compared to all other cultures holidays it’s pretty harmless. Sure frat kids run around wearing moronic hats acting like, well, morons. All in all people are having a good time and not only that they want everyone else from all other cultures to celebrate with them. “everyone’s irish on st. pattys day” Now let’s examine some other cultures holidays… the west indies days celebration(multiple rapes and stabbings sometimes murders) puerto rican day( rape and stabbings seems to be the norm at this celebration) Cinco de mayo is pretty awesome and i enjoy celebrating that holiday, mexicans are pretty simililar to the irish. Hard workers who like to drink. Speaking of complaining about oppression our ancestors received yet never experienced. I know of a huge majority of people who pull that card ALL THE TIME. on March 21, 2011 at 5:58 pm Elisa Ewww! Are you one of those people who live in a whole in the middle of no where claiming that you hate all races who aren’t white. Honestly, God hates you for hating everything he created besides your stupid selves!You guys are disgusting😦 on April 21, 2011 at 8:58 am Scott I know this sounds toolbagish but I wear orange on St. Patty’s Day because I am a English Protestant. I do not like the Irish. They bombed our Chippy. I prefer to get drunk on St. George’s Day. on April 28, 2011 at 4:16 pm OliverCromwell Think the word is xenophobic Scott. I’m sure you already know that St. Patrick is the patron saint for both predominant Christian denominations in Ireland (Catholic and Protestant). Religion does not equal nationality. What’s the difference between St Paddys Day and MLK Day? On St Paddys day everyone wants to be white… on March 14, 2012 at 10:05 pm Sophie People of Irish and Scottish descent are white and were part of the colonizing British as they colonized Asia and Africa. They actually wielded power. In the case of Nigeria, the British like to export colonized laborers from one part of the empire to another, so at the most, Nigerian servants or laborers may have been exported to other parts of Africa or the world. But they were not in a position of power. The oppression of the Irish does not compare to the oppression of the blacks and brown people under white racist colonialism. The above happened no where else in the British Empire Why were the Brits so mental towards the Irish? The Irish (native/gaels etc etc) were in the eyes of the British commited to letting the Holy Roman Empire use the country as a landing for an invasion of Britain. This fear resulted in the worst case of British behaviour in their preety shabby colonial history: A quick look at how they tried to deal with this threat posed the native gaels included; Ethnic Cleansing east of the Shannon River (that sucked) Forced removal to the west coast (it’s barren out there) Forced removal to Barbados and Montesurrat as the initial wave of slaves to the newly colonised Caribbean (no sunscreen) Plantations (thats when you kill people and put your people on their land) Ireland has a smaller popualtion than it did in 1840 – it and Rwanda are the only documented countries in the northern hemisphere with this instance For the Irish that benefited and were members of British establishment when they were actively colonising – see the Protestant Ascendancy (descendant of British planters who saw themselves as colonial Britons in Ireland and were given the right to ownership of the country from the native gaels by the British Empire) – native catholics were banned from the being a part of the Irish parliment until the mid 19th century Scotland became a fully paind up member of the British Empire in the 17th century – Ireland was merely Britains closest colony. And British historians agree was essentially used as a lab to test colonial practices worldwide. Frank (UK) “And British historians agree was essentially used as a lab to test colonial practices worldwide.” (Dean 20/3/12). Agree totally – did an interesting course on black history many years ago and I’ve got to agree with your sentiment. What I could never get though was why some many black Caribbeans, who were often forced to take the name of their ‘owners’ or overseers, have Irish names. Rose Farm Just for your information – the Irish name for Ireland, Éire, (genitive = Éireann, an Irish person = Éireannach) has NOTHING to do with the word Aryan: “The modern Irish Éire evolved from the Old Irish word Ériu, which was the name of a Gaelic goddess. Ériu is generally believed to have been the matron goddess of Ireland, a goddess of sovereignty, or simply a goddess of the land. The origin of Ériu has been traced to the Proto-Celtic reconstruction Φīwerjon- (nominative singular Φīwerjū < Pre-Proto-Celtic -jō).[1] This suggests a descent from the Proto-Indo-European reconstruction piHwerjon-, likely related to the adjectival stem piHwer- (cf. Sanskrit pīvan, pīvarī and pīvara meaning "fat, full, abounding"). This would suggest a meaning of "abundant land"." Aryan comes from the Sanskrit word ārya ('Noble') Betty I know I should ignore such comments and it was written years ago but anyone who claims to hate the whole Irish populace cos of the IRA needs to be put straight. I also deplore the IRA and do not in any way condone what they did, I am deeply saddened by the fact that they killed innocent people in the name of Irish freedom. However, to deny that Britain committed similar atrocities in Ireland on a much larger scale is horrendous. Of course people in the UK today should not have to feel constantly guilty about what their ancestors did in many parts of the world but they should accept it as the truth and say yes that was awful, I will do everything in my power to make sure it will never happen again. There are no accurate estimates about how many Irish people died at the hands of the British, one source mentions the numbers killed on both sides in the 20th century: “In all, the Provisional IRA and other anti-British paramilitary groups have killed about 2,170 people, including more than 160 of their own members; anti-Irish gangs from Protestant areas killed 1,065, mostly Catholic civilians; the British Army killed 309, the Northern Ireland police 52, and Irish security forces five; and about 100 died in mob violence or unclear circumstances.”The numbers of Irish killed in previous centuries run into several million, (and a few million more if you include the numerous completely unavoidable famines – interesting fact – a Native American tribe, the Choctaws even donated money to Ireland in the mid-19th c during the famine, amazing as they had little themselves and a decade before had suffered terribly when forced to move from their homelands – the ‘The Trail of Tears’). Hundreds of thousands if not millions were killed, for example, under Elizabeth I and again under Cromwell. The Irish were not allowed to own property, or purchase land, land they owned was taken away from them, they were not allowed to speak their language, nor practice their religion, not allowed to intermarry, not allowed have an education of any kind, not allowed vote, there were restrictions on the type of work they were allowed do etc etc. The saddest of all is that yes the Irish, or at least many of them, who emigrated to America or were deported for crimes to Australia often turned into the biggest bigots and racists of all, they were at the bottom of the pit and had to fight “to advance” in the Anglo-American society, I guess part of that meant doing anything they could to not be associated with Africans (or Native Americans?) – it is shameful (just as the above is shameful for the Brits of earlier years) that they didnt support these people, whose fate they must have at least partly understood, and take a stand against slavery and racism etc., some public figures back in Ireland even called on them to do so! Anyway enough of the serious stuff, I dislike Paddy’s day, (PaDDy, never PaTTy which is a woman’s name) and hate St. Patrick for bringing bloody christianity to Ireland. Never heard of cabbage and corned beef, that must be a US thing, but cabbage and ham, yes, both boiled to bits, my biggest nightmare as a child. Best Paddy’s day as a kid was when we got Chinese takeaway! Very funny blog😉 Patrick S. Patrick This is particularly dear to me as I am one half Irish (another half German), and like to celebrate. I mostly don’t celebrate in bars like the mainstream ” white folks” on St. Patrick’s Day, but in the quiet and peace of my own house. It is a healthy and wonderful thing to celebrate one’s heritage and ancestry, and regardless of Patrick’s work to Christianize the people, that’s how I view the day. I’m Irish and I can relate. And I give everyone that is not and cannot relate the grace to do so!	Irish whiskey
What creature appears in the coat of arms of Berlin?	Portland State Vanguard Holiday Guide 2013 by Portland State Vanguard - issuu issuu VOLUME 68 \| ISSUE 16 \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 2013 ARTS & CULTURE SPORTS PSU dean New President of the Wim CollegeWiewel of the Arts, asks Robert Bucker, students and faculty plansfor to input reach on outthe to Portland’s art university’s budget community. plan. pg.pg. 5 5 Despitemovies Horror endlesswith news characters of shootings who know in America, they’rewhy in horror are some movies people and why fanatical still you should about loveguns? them.pg. pg.99 PSU celebrates Japanese culture with this year’s Nihon Matsuri Autumn Festival. pg. 34 The Vikings come up short against Dam Cup rivals Eastern Washington to finish the season 6-6. pg. 37 FRIEND US ON FACEBOOK FACEBOOK.COM/DAILYVANGUARD CONTENT NEWS OPINION SPECIAL SECTION ARTS & CULTURE CALENDAR SPORTS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 4 8 11 33 35 37 COPY EDITORS [email protected] Whitney Beyer Emily Keith, Margo Pecha, Meg Riley MANAGING EDITOR OPINION EDITOR [email protected] Breana Harris ADVISER Rachael Bentz, Sarah Jones, Alan Hernandez-Aguilar, Christopher Peralta [email protected] Jesse Tomaino WRITERS [email protected] Miles Sanguinetti Corinna Scott Brie Barbee, Joshua Benson, Karisa Cleary, Tristan Cooper, Hannah Griffith, Joel Gunderson, Emily Herrera, Konrad Juengling, Jeremy King, Chelsea Lobey, Kennedy Martin, Caroline McGowan, Alex Moore, Jay Pengelly, Eva-Jeanette Rawlins, RaChelle Schmidt, Ryan Spilsbury, Brandon Staley, Gwen Shaw, Tobin Shields, Stephanie Tshappat, Drea Vick, Heather Wilson ONLINE EDITOR ASSOCIATE NEWS EDITOR [email protected] Ashley Rask PRODUCTION MANAGER [email protected] Sean Bucknam PHOTO EDITORS COPY CHIEF [email protected] Allie Clark Jose-David Jacobo, Brittney Muir, Kayla Nguyen ADVERTISING SALES Robin Crowell, Monty Peterson, Deborah Thompson, Chelsea Ware The Vanguard is published weekly as an independent student newspaper governed by the PSU Publications Board. Views and editorial content expressed herein are those of the staff, contributors and readers and do not necessarily represent those of the PSU student body, faculty, staff or administration. One copy of the Vanguard is provided free of charge to all community members; additional copies or subscription issues may incur a 25 cent charge. The Vanguard is printed on 40 percent post-consumer recycled paper. Cover: Photo by Miles Sanguinetti, Design by Sean Bucknam ©2013 PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY VANGUARD 1825 S.W. BROADWAY SMITH MEMORIAL STUDENT UNION, RM. S-26 PORTLAND, OR 97201 Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 3 NEWS PORTLAND STATE REMEMBERS THE TOULANS EMILY HERRERA On Nov. 19, Portland State held a memorial service for Nohad and Dirce Toulan in a nearly full Smith Memorial Student Union ballroom. The two perished in an automobile accident near Montevideo, Uruguay, on Oct. 28. Nohad was 81 and Dirce was 78. The service consisted of a series of short speeches on how their lives have affected both the city and people of Portland. Dr. Nohad Toulan helped found the School of Urban Studies and Planning at PSU and worked as its dean for nearly 30 years. It was named after him in 2005. His wife, Dirce, had a master’s degree in city planning and was also a key figure at PSU, helping fund scholarships while giving input on her husband’s endeavors. Speakers throughout the service asserted that it was difficult to talk about about one of them without mentioning the other. The service included speeches from colleagues, students and members of the community, sharing stories about the many different facets to the Toulans’ lives as leaders in the community. What follows are a selection of those reflections. U.S. Rep Earl Blumenauer, Ore. The Congressman offered his thoughts in a video message. 4 “It’s hard to think of all the ways the Toulans have contributed to the evolution of our once-obscure continuing education center for returning veterans to the establishment of a vital, strong, thriving university with particular expertise in urban studies,” Blumenauer said. “Dr. Toulan was a renaissance man, a scholar, planner, academic leader, a force in the community for human rights, sound foreign policy and protecting the planet…We mourn the loss of this extraordinary couple, even as we celebrate their lives. Portland State University, the community, and the nation is a better place because of them.” “Dirce herself was an accomplished professional,” Blumenauer continued. “They met when she was a Fulbright scholar. She didn’t just support Nohad throughout his career. She had a strong academic and professional background and was very influential and respected at the university. It is not an accident that hers is the name on the library for the College of Urban and Public Affairs.” Omar Toulan, son One of the Toulans’ two adult children, Omar spoke about his parents’ roles at PSU and in Portland. “In his 28 years as dean, my father helped create a nationally recognized institution which has attracted students and faculty from all over the world,” Toulan said. “His per- sonal legacy is intrinsically tied to the college. The same is true for our mother. While it may have been our father who was called the dean of deans, it was our mother who supported him and enabled him to have the public success he did. In addition, our mother was heavily involved in a variety of PSU initiatives, from fundraising for student scholarships to the [CUPA] library which now has her name on it.” Thomas Hacker, architect Many of the speeches were given by people who had professional relationships with the Toulans and helped them put their plans into action. “Nohad was a man with a fundamental confidence in his perceptions of what is strong and what is lasting in the culture and the commerce of the city,” Hacker said. “He was rigorous, he was intellectually brilliant. But what distinguished him most to me was his ability to see the intrinsic beauty in the human order, and that kind of entanglement we have with urban life. He had an almost instinctual sense of how to guide that human order forward into the future in subtle and often amazingly transforming ways. “He recognized that PSU’s greatest asset is being a vital part in one of the great urban environments in the world,” Hacker said. “He wanted PSU to grow as an active force in that city, not an Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com ©PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY inward-focused Park Blocks academy, but an outward force for the future and integration of the university with the immense human resource that this city offers.” Professor Bird Yesilada A professor of political science at PSU, Yesilada spoke about the inspirational effect the Toulans had even in regards to their personal life. “Nohad and Dirce Toulan were true bridge-builders,” Yesilada said. “They accomplished this talk in their personal as well as public lives. They didn’t just talk the talk—a lot of people do that—they also walked the walk. They were two giants who walked this earth and bettered the lives of everyone they met and everything they touched. […] On a personal level, they showed us how a marriage between people who came from two different countries, who spoke two different languages and practiced two different religions could endure the challenges of this world and raise a beautiful and successful family. For nearly 50 years, Dirce and Nohad showed us how to make it work. Their devotion to each other was exemplary.” Connie Ozawa, dean of the Toulan School The memorial service concluded with a short speech from Connie Ozawa, summing up the event. “If you’re like me, this service has led you to recall the special moments that you were lucky enough to have had with [the Toulans],” she said. “We will miss them dearly. But they are not gone. They live in the memories that we hold, and more importantly, in the commitment that they shared with us—a vision of tolerance, equity and justice, of service to others, of letting knowledge serve the city.” NEWS PRESIDENT WIEWEL ASKS FOR BUDGET PLANNING INPUT KARISA CLEARY On Nov. 6, Portland State President Wim Wiewel wrote a letter to the PSU community acknowledging the $15 million expected deficit in the university’s funding for the next two years and asking for input on the university’s budgeting plans. In his letter, President Wiewel announced his hope for a university-wide conversation about the long-term future of the university’s revenue. This includes a budget feedback form available for students and faculty to fill out online. “This is a great way to get creative ideas about new sources of revenues, or possible areas of budget reduction, that we would not know about otherwise,” Wiewel said in an email. “It also gives us a sense of whether there are current activities and programs whose value is questioned by people.” Due to various subsidies, health care and flat enrollment, the cost of education is becoming more expensive not only to students but to the university as well. Scott Gallagher, director of communications at PSU, said 20 years ago the state was supporting over two-thirds of the university’s revenue. It now supports less than 12 percent, creating a large increase in tuition’s impact on the budget. The state of Oregon essentially brought down tuition increases, lowering tuition this year by 3.5 percent, but this has no effect on the budget because there’s still the same amount of revenue with no increase. To solve this issue, six areas are being considered for financial amendments. These include administrative restructuring, academic priorities, energy and real estate savings, student services savings and efficiencies, staff and benefit savings and other areas involving athletics and public safety. President Wiewel wants the community’s opinion on the details of what they feel is beneficial and what isn’t. “Often budget rebalancing is done by across the board cuts. The way we are doing it now is more strategic, which means some activities will be reduced more, or eliminated entirely, so that the most important ones can continue to thrive,” Wiewel said. “Faculty, staff and students have a lot of knowledge about what works and what doesn’t. This allows us to tap into that.” The Finance and Administration site has already received feedback. In a letter sent out by President Wiewel on Nov. 25, he stated that PSU’s Executive Committee has already made some decisions regarding the budget. “Unrepresented unclassified administrators and staff earning an annual salary of $100,000 or more will not receive general pay increases in 2013-14 and 2014-15,” Wiewel said. “This will save approximately $860,000 over two years, which allows us to maintain critical academic programs and reduce the number of potential layoffs.” Wiewel also said in his letter that no decisions have been made “regarding salary increases for unrepresented staff who earn less than $100,000 annually.” He went on to say that salaries and benefits make up 81 percent of PSU’s annual budget. Ideas will continue to be reviewed and some may even be put into action immediately, while others will take further revision and discussion into the winter quarter. President Wiewel clarifies the process of this review. “It’s the job of the Executive Committee, and ultimately me as president, to weigh all the pros and cons of specific ideas, and think carefully about possible consequences that may not be clear to everyone,” Wiewel said. “It’s hard to get consensus about budget cuts, because people naturally want to protect their own areas.” This efforft is being rolled out as a part of reTHINK PSU. Sona Andrews, the provost and vice president for Academic Affairs as well as head of the reTHINK initiative, described in an email where these projects came from and the benefits they have already revealed. “The genesis for reTHINK PSU came from President Wiewel wanting to make certain that PSU was being responsive to changes in pedagogy and delivery and that PSU continued to provide access to a diverse population of students at an affordable cost,” Andrews said. “The conversations, plans and actions by the faculty have been robust. The benefit to students is already being seen in some of the initiatives that have been launched—4 year graduation guarantee and the increase in online courses.” Gallagher explained the future of this initiative by President Wiewel. “There’s going to be a lot more to come, including a series of ongoing discussion to focus on [the six] categories,” Gallagher said. “We don’t do [financial decisions] in the background; it is transparent to the community.” PSU’s Executive Committee will be posting regular updates to the budget plan and will be holding a campus town hall meeting during winter term for students, faculty and staff to attend. Check out the budget feedback form online at pdx.edu/ fadm/budget-feedback-form. PRESIDENT WIEWEL said in an email that community input will help to prioritize PSU’s programs and activities. MILES SANGUINETTI/PSU VANGUARD Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 5 NEWS CAMPUS LIGHTING OVERHAUL IS CHEAPER AND BRIGHTER STEPHANIE TSHAPPAT Chief of Campus Public Safety Phil Zerzan first noticed it on his way to work one fall term morning—Portland State’s campus was brighter. “I get to campus when it’s still dark and I can see how, compared to the areas around it, the PSU campus is much more lit up,” Zerzan said. These changes are the work of PSU’s electricians, who emphasized the benefits of replacing old light fixtures with LED lights, said Dan Zalkow, PSU’s executive director of Planning, Construction and Real Estate. “There are many benefits in replacing these outdated light fixtures,” he said, “and it’s really impressive the amount of work the electrical staff has done.” According to Zalkow, over the last two years there’s been a strong emphasis on replacing old light fixtures with LED lights for three reasons: LED lights are brighter than those they replaced, so they create a safer environment; they are more energy efficient, decreasing the university’s utility costs; and they are more environmentally friendly, reducing the university’s carbon footprint. Since the changes were implemented a year ago, university electricians have replaced 1,200 exterior lights, mainly in the major parking structures, some stairwells and in the Park Blocks. 6 Ryan Roberts, lead electrician in the Facilities and Property Management office, said the updates are all about student safety. “[These light fixtures] produce 2 1/2 times the amount of light, using less wattage than the old lights,” he said. “These lights have an occupancy sensor and come up to full bright within three seconds. They’re bright for five minutes, and then they ramp down to 50 percent power within five minutes, yet only consume half the wattage as the old lights.” “I’ve heard my officers talking about it,” Zerzan said. “In the last few months they’ve noticed a campuswide significant improvement in lighting.” According to Zalkow, Roberts worked with Electrical Supervisor Mick Nelson to lead the effort to make these changes happen, adding that incredible amounts of research went into selecting the new fixtures that were purchased. “These guys are absolute experts,” Zalkow said. In researching which lighting fixtures would best suit the university’s needs, Roberts looked at several factors. “I picked the fixture we went with based on energy output, price and what was best suited for parking structures. The fixture we went with, compared to others, was the best, hands down,” he said. “These new fixtures will save the university about $28,000 a year in power costs.” Roberts worked with the Leadership and Facilities department as well as Transportation and Parking Services and began looking for funds, then made a presentation to upper management, Zalkow said. “The university saw how much sense these improvements made and ultimately everyone was convinced this was a great use of PSU’s financial resources,” he said. “They were impressed at how compelling the case was that Roberts and Nelson made at the presentation.” Roberts was able to involve Energy Trust of Oregon, a company that provides custom incentives to complete projects like updating lighting fixtures. “It will work out to where they pay approximately half the cost of these updates,” he said. “Transportation and Parking Services will be receiving about $65,000 from Energy Trust.” The manufacturer Roberts picked is based out of Garden City, Idaho, near Boise, and Roberts said it was a choice that proved beneficial. “I was able to develop a personal relationship with the manufacturer,” he said. “I knew what I wanted and needed in the fixture and I was Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com KAYLA NGUYEN/PSU VANGUARD able to negotiate directly with them on the price, which ended up saving about $85,000.” Through these efforts, all the lights in Parking Structures One, Two and Three, and the Fourth Avenue Building parking lot have been replaced. They’re now working on the lights in the Park Blocks and have updated between 10 and 15 of those light fixtures already. “For the lights in the Park Blocks, the whole globe is diffused well and designed to not have light pollution,” Roberts said. “I was also able to have the manufacturer match the paint around the top of the globe to the paint on the base of the fixtures, so they look really classy.” Light pollution is a term for excessive or misdirected light. The next step will be to update the lights inside university buildings. “We’re updating the lights in the study areas on every floor in Cramer Hall,” Roberts said. “I’ve done a lot of work to make this project awesome,” he added, smiling, “but it really is all about student safety, and we’re trying to be proactive [about it].” “Little Vikings” raid PSU KARISA CLEARY The Resource Center for Students with Children is currently building the foundation for the only drop-in center for children on campus. “Little Vikings” will be accessible to students, faculty and staff and will require a Portland State ID when dropping a child off. While some details for the Little Vikings Drop-in Center are still being developed, the location will likely be Epler Hall, where it will share a floor with the Urban Honors Lounge. The projected opening date is in mid-February. Lisa Wittorff, the coordinator for the RCSC, is in charge of launching the program and chose to include student-parents in work groups in order to create the most beneficial program for the rest of the parents on campus. “[We] wanted to have student-parents’ input since the center is principally for them. We have 26 students working with us to publish hours, prices and more,” Wittorff said. The motivation behind this project came from Wittorff herself, and she explained how it all came together. “I saw an article in [an] OSU newspaper for a similar childcare center that they had opened. I brought it up to my boss, then the student fee committee, and everyone thought it was a great idea,” Wittorff said. The center will consist of one room with the capacity to hold up to 14 children at a time. Infants as young as 6 weeks will be welcomed, along with children up to 12 years old. The infant area will be separated by a 24-inch tall divider. Parents will have the opportunity to reserve a spot in advance for their child for a certain amount of time, and all no-shows will still be required to pay for the time they reserved. So far, the hours are currently expected to be 9:30 a.m. to 7:30 p.m. Monday through Thursday and 9:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Fridays. The center will be closed throughout the weekend. Hourly prices have yet to be established, but students will receive a 30 percent discount from staff and faculty pricing, and infants will cost $1 more per hour. Parents will be able to pay as they go, but the minimum amount of time a parent can use the facility is one hour. HUNTER SHARP, a designer and illustrator at PSU’s Resource Center for Students with Children, works on the logo for the new drop-in day care service. MILES SANGUINETTI/PSU VANGUARD Since this daycare will solely provide supervision of children, openings for employment at Little Vikings will be available beginning in January including a position for a childcare professional as the lead teacher. One question that came up during the planning process was whether the center will be available to the public during PSU concerts or other public events. Wittorff says this will ultimately depend on popular CRIME BLOTTER Week of Nov. 18 - Nov. 25 STEPHANIE TSHAPPAT Nov. 18 Theft Fourth Avenue Building At 2:01 p.m. Officer Jared Schuurmans responded to a report of items missing from a lab. Two Lego sonars were reported as taken. No further information. Nov. 19 Arrest Academic Student Recreation Center Officer Schuurmans responded to a report of bicycles possibly being stolen near the west entrance at 10:04 a.m. Upon arrival, Schuurmans contacted non-student Steven A. Slane, who had an outstanding misdemeanor warrant and was arrested on said warrant. Arrest Urban Plaza At 5:43 p.m. Officer David Baker and Officer Denae Murphy contacted non- student Steven Stewert, who had a current PSU exclusion for trespass. Stewert threw a glass methamphetamine pipe on the ground and attempted to break it further with his boot. Stewert was taken into custody without further incident and admitted to possession of the pipe and that he attempted to destroy it in an effort to avoid arrest. Stewert was lodged at Multnomah County Detention Center on charges of criminal trespass II, unlawful attempted possession of methamphetamine, tampering with evidence and a probation violation detainer. Nov. 20 Arrest Officer Chris Fischer contacted non-student Matthew Blackburn who was very intoxicated and attempted to get Blackburn to go home with friends or to detox. Blackburn refused and became hostile and unpredictable, refusing to co- operate with multiple verbal commands. Blackburn was taken into custody for disorderly conduct after a brief use of force. Blackburn was cleared to be lodged at Multnomah County Detention Center by medics but eventually had to be transported to OHSU due to preexisting health issues. Citation issued in lieu of arrest. No further information. Nov. 21 Motor Vehicle Accident Ondine Parking Lot At 4:05 p.m. Officer Shawn McKenzie received a report from a student who stated she hit a cement pillar with her car in the basement parking lot. Theft Cramer Hall Officer Smelzter received a report from a student who stated her cell phone was stolen after she forgot it in the second floor east side women’s restroom. No further information NEWS buildings. Dean was issued a PSU exclusion. Nov. 22 Suspicious Circumstances Millar Library A student reported to Officer Nichola Higbee that an unknown male subject has followed her on several occasions at the library: Nov. 18, 20, and 2, at about 5 p.m. Subject is a white male, bald, approximately 55 years old, 6 feet tall and skinny build; wears “casual, outdoorsy” clothing and large headphones. Nov. 25 For full crime blotter listing visit psuvanguard.com Theft Neuberger Hall, lobby At 2 a.m. Officer Fischer received a report from janitorial employee who stated he left his personal backpack and coat secured in the lobby and items were later discovered to be missing. demand and whether or not it is financially feasible. “We are hoping to get enough need from the PSU community to [not have to] open to the public,” Wittorff said. GET THE DEETS IN TWEETS @PSUVANGUARD Esclusion Broadway Housing Building, first floor At 5:28 a.m. Officer Brian Rominger observed nonstudent Marvin Jacob Dean Jr. sleeping on a table near the Southwest Jackson Street entrance. Dean stated a resident of the building let him in for a party earlier in the evening. The individual Dean mentioned was determined to be a PSU student but not a resident of any PSU Housing Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 7 OPINION ENDA AND GOVERNMENTAL POWER CONGRESS WON'T PASS DISCRIMINATION PROTECTION OR ANYTHING AT ALL Just a Phase by Konrad Juengling For the first time ever, the Senate passed a piece of legislation that protects people from being fired based solely on their sexual orientation. There are multiple reasons to have mixed feelings about this news, the first being the fact that this is even an issue in 2013. There are currently 29 states in the U.S. where you can be fired for being lesbian, gay or bisexual and 34 where you can be fired for being transgender. While there are workplace protections against firing someone for their skin color, gender, religious affiliation, age and health status, you can lose your job just for being perceived as LGBT. This sounds like a policy from 1913, not 2013. This shows that rampant homophobia still lingers in politics and that politicos are still more interested in their approval ratings than giving people equal workplace protection. Another reason why this is sad news is because while the Employment Non-Discrimination Act has passed the Senate, House Speaker John Boehner won’t bring it up for a vote in the House. It’s completely ridiculous that one person has the power to make the decision if something gets called up or not. Theoretically, if a piece of legislation gets enough support in both the Senate and the House to pass, Congress should both be allowed to vote on it. Realistically, even if Boehner were to bring this up for a vote, it’s unlikely that it would pass the Republican-controlled House. It’s gross that someone can be fired for being gay. I think that’s a common consensus, at least with people who have some form of reasoning skills. What’s even worse, though, is that our oligarchy government has become so bloated, corrupt and self-serving that they can’t do their jobs. This 113th Congress passed only 22 bills in its latest session before they took off for a five-week break that began in August. That’s the lowest in U.S. history. To put things in perspective, 8 LGBT EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION LAW IN THE UNITED STATES : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_employment_discrimination_in_the_United_States Sexual orientation and gender identity: all employment Sexual orientation: all employment Sexual orientation and gender identity: state employment Sexual orientation: state employment No state-level protection for LGBT employees © WIKIMEDIA COMMONS the Washington Post reported the 112th congress passed 561 bills, which was the lowest up until now. In all honesty, Congress doesn’t do much of anything these days. Congress gets every weekend off. In 2013, they did not have a single five-day workweek. They had 126 working days, leaving 239 days off that year. That’s well over half the year. Other perks? They get paid $174,000 per year, and they aren’t actually required to pass anything. In fact, it’s actually a law that their pay cannot be withheld. In theory, they could get zero bills passed in their session, then sit around and eat lead paint for the rest of the year. (Which is what I assume they’re doing, based on their track record.) When the government went into shutdown because the House GOP wanted to make a point, those politicians still got paid while government workers had to make ends meet without paychecks for over a month. In other words, they’ve got the best job in the world. Congressional members don’t have to actually do anything, yet they still get exorbitant paychecks, health care and paid “fact-finding missions,” aka state-funded vacations. They also get free postage, meaning one congressperson can pretty much level a forest, print out campaign fliers and send them to an entire district while you subsidize the cost. Why wouldn’t someone want a job where you don’t have to meet goals, can literally let the place shut down, still get paid since no one can withhold your check from you, get top health benefits for you and your family, can write off any mail you send and get to fly around the country on the company’s dime? Anyone with an inkling of common sense can see that these benefits are exponentially self-serving and, frankly, abuses of power. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com Our government has become an oligarchic club with intertwined kickbacks, revolving doors, embedded lobbyists, super PACs and apathetic legislators. This might seem like an extreme opinion, but looking at the facts given here makes me think that how we describe our politicians has become interchangeable with how we describe white-collar criminals. The stalling of ENDA is just one more example of how our current U.S. Congress is pretty much worthless. What I would love to see is congressional leaders on minimum wage. If it’s good enough for constituents and the American people, shouldn’t public servants be earning the same wage? Let’s see how fast the minimum wage gets increased at that point. I’d love to see leaders held accountable for their actions. If the government goes into shutdown, the first thing that gets stopped is their pay. If I don’t do my job, I don’t get paid. It seems like a pretty simple concept, so why should it be any different for them? I’d love to see these “leaders” putting in a full workweek. I’d love to see them paying for their own mailing campaigns. There are lots of things that could be changed that would really improve our inept, money-pilfering Congress. Something that I would love to see in the short term, and something that is much more realistic, is the passing of ENDA. It’s asking for basic workplace protections so LGBT people will not be fired for just being who they are. It’s not asking for LGBT people to work only 126 days of the year, or to get kickbacks or get paid if they don’t do their jobs, all of which Congress gets. What it’s asking for are just the basics of job protection, like the rest of nongovernmental elites. I think it’s only fair to raise those protections up to the level of other American workers. Then it’ll just be two castes of people instead of three: our gross, abusive government and people who have to work for their money. OPINION GUN SKEPTICISM, NOT GUN FANATICISM This, not That by Chelsea Lobey I started following the news a bit more closely a few months ago. And you know what I noticed was the overarching theme, story after story, day after day? Guns. People hurting and killing each other with guns. Every day, I read about the guy who shot somebody, or the crazy person who was waving around a gun in a crowded mall or the kid who brought a gun to school to show his friends. Every day, people shoot and kill each other with guns, and it’s getting out of hand. My very first job was working as a cashier at an outdoor store that prided itself on its bustling and brimming gun department. We sold rifles, shotguns and handguns. We had aisles filled with every kind of ammunition as far as the eye could see, and if we didn’t have what you needed, we could even special order it! The sky was the limit when it came to things that could kill another person. I was there when Obama first got elected in 2008 and everybody started screaming and panicking because they all thought he was going to “take away our guns.” The sales for our gun department skyrocketed. During the first few months of Obama’s presidency, it was not uncommon for people to come in, fill up entire shopping carts with ammunition and buy as many guns as they could possibly carry. People were spending thousands of dollars at a time, all in the name of our Second Amendment rights! “You just try to take our guns!” But even when people aren’t grabbing up every spare gun and bullet they could find in a strange attempt to protest against our president, the culture and fanaticism that surrounds the gun is terrifying. There’s a sense of pride that comes with owning a really expensive gun, and there’s a definite gleam of power that flashes across the eyes of a person who picks up a gun for the first time. They hold in their hands a weapon of immense power, and they know it. They can feel it. I’ve seen men brag to each other about how many guns they own, and I’ve seen them drool over the gun’s power and size, carefully weighing the pros and cons of each gun in turn. I’ve witnessed a man boast about how he could take down an animal the size of a car, and another who could blow through bulletproof vests with ease. I’ve seen a dad tearfully, joyfully, buy his teenage son his very first gun, and I once watched a man point an unloaded handgun at the head of the salesperson behind the desk and say “Bang!” as a joke. I’ve seen all of this firsthand, and it’s scary. CORINNA SCOTT/PSU VANGUARD “Buying guns to combat the other people with guns does not fix the problem” A lot of people say that they want a gun because “you never know what kind of crazy person out there could have one,” and it makes them feel safe. But a peer-reviewed study published this month in The American Journal of Public Health looked at the relationship between gun ownership and rates of homicides in the U.S. and found there is “a robust relationship between gun ownership and ﬁrearm homicide rates.” Basically, the more guns we have, the more we tend to kill each other. How can that make anybody feel safe? Buying guns to combat the other people with guns does not fix the problem; it just leads to more death. In 2010, over 31,000 Americans were killed by a gun. Doesn’t that seem just a bit sad? With these kinds of statistics, why are people so fanatical about guns? Why do some people revere a gun the way other people revere God? Why are so many people in this country defending the absolute right to own as many guns as they could possibly ever want, and why are they so unbelievably easy to buy? People slap bumper stickers on their cars saying “guns don’t kill people, people kill people,” but the more people there are who carry guns around, the easier it is to kill somebody and the more likely it is to happen. Why would anybody ever want that? Why do we allow this to happen? I’m not saying we need to put a ban on guns—which would never happen in the U.S. anyway—but we should rethink how easy it is to buy them, and we should seriously reconsider the culture of fanaticism that surrounds them. Seriously, who needs to buy entire shopping carts full of guns and ammunition? The answer is nobody. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 9 OPINION LOCKER ROOM LANGUAGE THE PROFESSIONAL SPORTS CULTURE ISN'T CULTURE Everywhere and Here by Eva-Jeanette Rawlins If you’ve been following the NFL Miami Dolphins controversy at all, you know that what happens in the locker room and usually stays there has now been splashed everywhere. And it’s a very good thing, too. The accusations of bullying have shed a whole new light on the mysterious NFL culture of brotherhood that has been mostly under the radar. A few weeks ago, reports surfaced that second-year lineman Jonathan Martin had abruptly left the Miami Dolphins. It soon became apparent that he did so as a result of what he said was “player misconduct.” Alleging “a malicious physical attack on him by a teammate, and daily vulgar comments,” Martin’s camp named Dolphins veteran offensive lineman Richie Incognito as the main perpetrator and said the behavior had gone so far that Martin felt he could no longer remain in the organization. It’s all still up in the air as to who did what. Suspended Incognito’s got a checkered reputation from his college days for being a jerk (to put it politely), and a voicemail he left for Martin in which he used the n-word has been widely publicized. But there’s an ongoing investigation. Ultimately, nothing has been proven. The outcome of this case is less interesting than the public response, however. As is often the case, there are two very split camps: some calling for Incognito’s firing, and others saying Martin was a big enough boy to have stood up for himself. Bullying brings about a fascinating dialogue, especially when you’re talking about men who weigh over 250 pounds and stand over 6 feet tall. There still seems to be a perception that someone big and strong can’t possibly be bullied. In a USA Today interview, Giants safety Antrel Rolle said, “Jonathan Martin is a 6-foot-5-inch, 320-pound dude. I think he should be able to stand up for himself and say ‘No I’m not doing it.’…If he takes it out of line, you take it to a higher power. Either you take care of it yourself or take it to a higher power. He’s the one that’ll be in trouble, not you.” How little we know, and sadly, how far we have to go. INCOGNITO (LEFT) and Martin at a Dolphins training camp. ©2013 NYP HOLDINGS, INC. 10 Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com It’s mind boggling that people still think somebody’s physical size defines whether or not they can bullied. It’s right along the lines of the old “sticks and stones” quote that we all know is a load of rubbish. Also, apparently people think that as a victim of bullying, all you have to do is tell someone in authority and they’ll take care of it. Yeah, if you live in a place called denial. Go to any playground and you’ll find out pretty quickly that this method doesn’t even work for the youngest and tiniest members of society. How many of us who experienced bullying found that it got worse when we told our teachers? There’s a reason why so many victims suffer in silence. Another fascinating discussion has re-ignited around the use of the n-word, specifically when it comes to sports. I’ve watched several interviews where commentators, current and former players and analysts have discussed the word in the context of the locker room. Almost every person affiliated with professional sports concluded that as hard as it is for us on the outside to understand, the use of that racial slur is simply part of the “culture.” It’s how players show affection for each other, and we can’t possibly understand unless we’re in the inner circle. Former basketball player Charles Barkley recently said, “The language we use in the locker room, sometimes it’s sexist, sometimes it’s homophobic and a lot of times it’s racist. We do that when we’re joking with our teammates, and it’s nothing personal.” I get culture. I get that I’m not a football player and that there are just some things I will never understand about that arena. What I don’t get is how employees in a professional workplace can claim the right to use sexist, racist and homophobic language and brush it off as “nothing personal.” Try that in a law office, or as a teacher, a CPA or a postman. You’d be fired in a minute. Why are grown men who make millions of dollars a year above the rules that every average American abides by in their workplace? They shouldn’t be. Instead, I’d like to take a page out of Tony Dungy’s book. He’s a former Indianapolis Colts coach and an overall amazing human being, who coincidentally passed on Incognito in 2005 due to his questionable behavior. “A football locker room,” he maintains,“and any workplace has to be a place where no matter how you are as a person, no matter what your personality is, that is respected. Everybody is not the same in a locker room. You’re not going to get 53 people that all fit in the same way. I think good teams and strong organizations promote that type of environment, where you don’t have to be like everyone else to flourish.” No one should ever have to quietly endure pain that someone else says “isn’t personal.” It’s not acceptable for sexist, racist and homophobic language to be chalked up to a sports thing, and bullying shouldn’t be either. Athletes are employees, which means their bosses need to get a clue and treat them that way by asking them to achieve a standard of excellence in all they do, on and off the field. ©FLICKR USER ZIP.GOODIE Happy Holidays, PSU Turner Lobey Another year gone! November is retiring and December is at our doorsteps. By now we’ve begun to bundle up and don our scarves and sweaters to beat winter’s chill. As we begin to lock ourselves in the library and bury ourselves in textbooks, notes, spreadsheets and flash cards to prepare for final exams, it’s hard to believe that fall quarter has come and gone so quickly. It’s times like these that make you realize how fast life can move. Wasn’t it just summer? What happened to shorts, sun and picnics in the Park Blocks? I can’t be the only one who had this term pass by in the blink of an eye. Getting caught up with school, work and life’s curveballs makes it easy to overlook how fast life can move. If you keep your head down long enough, there’s no knowing where the world will be when you finally find the time to look up. This year is coming to a close, but we have a chance for a fresh start. We are fortunate to find ourselves days away from a lengthy break. This is our chance to step away and unplug. Though you may find yourself manning the front lines in a retail shop somewhere, in a restaurant serving someone their Christmas dinner or on a plane to visit loved ones, this is your chance to recharge and return to campus with a new found energy and a fresh outlook. Use this break wisely—do something fantastic. Be fantastic. Kiss someone wonderful and tell them you love them. Read a good book, eat plenty of food and earn your fluffy winter belly. (Don’t be ashamed, you worked hard for it.) Drink liberal amounts of tea, sleep too much and wear pants as little as possible. Do something new, try something old or do nothing at all. That’s fine, too. Here at the Vanguard, we’ve been blessed with an incredible year. You readers have accepted our new faces, new drive and new format with open arms. I can only give my deepest and sincere thanks and gratitude for everything. With this Holiday Guide, I hope we can return the kindness you have shown us. Let it serve as an aid to you in your holiday celebrations, whatever they might be. Be merry and be well. Thank you for a wonderful year. Here’s to another. Cheers. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 11 HOLIDAY GUIDE Potato latkes with dill and garlic ©CLEMENS PFEIFFER Ingredients To be grated and mixed baking potatoes 22 large onions ½small cup of all-purpose flour 2 eggs, lightly beaten Brandon Staley Latkes, otherwise known as potato pancakes, are a delicious holiday treat renowned for their soft centers, crunchy exteriors and for being delivery mechanisms for a wide variety of toppings. With the holiday season approaching, there’s no better time to dip your toes into the starchy waters 12 and learn all there is to know about making everyone’s favorite tuber-based treat. First, one of the best latke recipes I’ve found belongs to Smitten Kitchen. I’ve included the recipe here with my own alterations and additions. I’ve reduced the amount of salt while also adding some flavorful ingre- dients like dill and garlic. If you’re feeling traditional, just nix the dill and garlic from this recipe. Or, if dill and garlic just aren’t your thing, try some other spices! Latkes are traditionally served with toppings like sour cream and roe, but there are plenty of alternatives. The simple addition Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com of ketchup won’t necessarily spice up your latkes—because it’s ketchup—but the age-old combination can’t be ignored. A spicy aioli or Sriracha sauce can add a kick to your potato pancake. If you’re looking to go absolutely crazy and try something completely different, try dipping your latkes in some sweet chili sauce. It might sound nuts, but an appropriately sweet sauce can counteract the greasy saltiness of the latkes. If all else fails, put an egg on it. My preference is poached, maybe with some hollandaise sauce. Start by grating the potatoes and the onions and mixing them together. The easiest way to do this is in a food processor using the grater blade. If you don’t have a food processor you can use a handheld grater, but it’ll be slow going. salt 1½teaspoon teaspoon ground black pepper 1 teaspoon dried dill 2 teaspoon chopped garlic Oil, for frying Remove the water from the potato and onion mixture. Place the mixture in cheesecloth and squeeze until water no longer runs. Let the mixture rest for a couple of minutes and squeeze again. (Note: if you don’t have cheesecloth, you can maybe use some strong paper towels. But that just sounds like a recipe for disaster, and this recipe is for latkes, so: reader beware.) Lightly beat the eggs in a small bowl. In a mixing bowl, combine the ingredients for the batter, starting with the dry ingredients: the flour, salt, pepper and dill. Then gradually mix in the wet ingredients: the garlic and the beaten egg. Mix the batter thoroughly until it forms a paste. (Note: if you find yourself without fresh or pre-chopped garlic, you can substitute in a ½ teaspoon of dried, ground garlic powder, adding it with the dry ingredients.) Heat a pan to medium heat and add 2 tablespoons of oil to it. While the pan is heating, add the batter mixture to the grated potatoes and onions and combine thoroughly. The pan should be fully heated by the time the two mixtures are fully incorporated. Drop a dollop of latke mix into the pan, one tablespoon at a time. Spread the dollops into pancake shapes using a spatula. Check the undersides of the latkes frequently and flip when golden brown, usually every 3 or 4 minutes. The latkes are done when both sides are crisp and brown. Remove to plate with paper towels to drain the oil and serve immediately. Top with something extravagant and enjoy! HOLIDAY GUIDE Cooking for everyone during the holidays A guide to special dietary needs Kennedy Martin Living in Portland, I’m sure we’ve all met our fair share of vegetarians, vegans, celiacs, etc. After all, Portland was voted the second most vegan-friendly city in the country this year by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Now the question is, what do you feed these lovely but especially picky people when you bring them home for the holidays to your meat, potatoes and bread-loving family? Luckily, it’s not as challenging as most people think. First, let’s get some definitions straight. A vegetarian can be slightly difficult to figure out at first. In general, you can be sure that none of them consume meat, poultry, game, fish, shellfish, crustaceans or any other byproducts of slaughter. Getting more detailed, the most common “type” of vegetarian is the lacto-ovo vegetarian; they eat both dairy products and eggs. Lacto vegetarians will eat dairy but not eggs, and ovo vegetarians will eat eggs but not dairy. That should pretty much cover your vegetarians invited. Vegans are along the same lines as vegetarians, with just a bit more to think about. They avoid any meat, dairy products, eggs, or any other animal products (for example, some skip honey and gelatin). Now, a celiac is someone with a medical condition that damages the lining of the small intestine (causing the person to become very uncomfortable) when they ingest gluten. Gluten is found in wheat, barley, rye and sometime oats, so they’ll want to avoid those things. Another thing to be aware of is that some people have such a high sensitivity to gluten that a reaction can even be caused by eating something gluten-free that was cooked in a pan that previously had a wheat tortilla in it. It works out nicely that several of these people overlap in the things that they prefer or do not prefer to eat. For example, if you cook something vegan, any type of vegetarian or lactose-intolerant person (someone not able to digest lactose, found in milk and dairy products) will also be able to enjoy it. Recipes: This is a great gluten-free recipe that vegetarians will also appreciate, and it’s a holiday classic. Gingerbread Men Ingredients: 1 cup brown rice flour (this is the key ingredient to making this recipe gluten-free) 1 cup arrowroot starch 2 teaspoons ground ginger 1 teaspoon cinnamon 1/2 teaspoon nutmeg 1/2 teaspoon salt 1/2 teaspoon baking soda 1/2 teaspoon guar gum 1/2 cup molasses 1/4 cup confectioner’s sugar 1/4 cup softened butter 1 teaspoon vanilla extract Cooking Instructions: 1. Preheat oven to 350 degrees. 2. Line two large baking sheets with parchment paper. 3. Sift all dry ingredients together and set aside. 4. Cream butter and sugar, beating on high speed for 3–5 minutes until light and fluffy. 5. Add molasses and vanilla and beat until combined. 6. Slowly add dry ingredients to butter mixture and beat just until a stiff dough forms. 7. Place dough between two sheets of plastic wrap lightly dusted with sweet rice flour. Roll out to 1/8 inch thick. 8. Dip gingerbread cookie cutter in sweet rice flour and cut out gingerbread men. Use a flour-dusted spatula to transfer cookies to baking sheet. If the dough should get too soft while you are working with it, just place it in the freezer for about 5 minutes. 9. Bake for 10 minutes in preheated oven, or until cookies are firm to the touch. Cool and decorate. This recipe could also easily be made vegan by replacing the butter with margarine. This next recipe is sure to please any vegans, vegetarians, and/or lactose-intolerants in the house. “Chicken” Pot Pie Ingredients: 1/4 cup vegetable bouillon or faux chicken broth powder 2 1/2 cups hot water 1/2 cup nutritional yeast flakes 1/2 cup flour 1/2 cup oil 1 teaspoon garlic salt 1/2 teaspoon pepper One 15.5-ounce can white potatoes, drained and cut into small pieces 1 1/2 cups frozen or canned and drained mixed corn kernels, peas and diced carrots 1/2 pound faux chicken, cut into tiny cubes 1 box puff pastry sheets Cooking Instructions: 1. Preheat the oven to 400 degrees. 2. Mix the vegetable bouillon or faux chicken broth powder with the hot water to make stock. Set aside. 3. Combine the nutritional yeast and flour in a large pot and stir constantly over low heat until lightly toasted. 4. Add the oil, stirring to make a roux. Slowly whisk in the stock, garlic salt and pepper. Add the vegetables and faux chicken. Cook for 5–10 minutes, or until heated through. 5. Roll out one sheet of puff pastry and place in a 9-inch pie dish, trimming to fit. Place the pastry in the oven for 5–10 minutes, or until it starts to puff. Remove the pastry from the oven, pour the filling into it and place the other sheet of puff pastry on top, cutting and pressing the edges together and making several 1-inch slices on top to allow the steam to escape. Continue baking for approximately 20 minutes or until the pastry is golden and puffed. (This recipe could be made gluten-free by using rice flour and gluten-free puff pastries.) Just remember, all of these people eat simple fruits and vegetables. A vegan and/or vegetarian can always grab a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. Celiacs can snack on popcorn. It can be surprising how many foods you have laying around that just happen to be vegan or glutenfree. And don’t worry; most people with special dietary needs try to be as accommodating as possible and will let you know what they can and can’t eat. A great resource is PETA’s “Accidently Vegan” food list, which lists items produced by well-known brands that you may have never known were vegan. Some examples include Oreos, Swedish Fish, and Spicy Sweet Chili flavored Doritos. Another resource is the website glutenfreegirl.com, which is home to tons of classic recipes reinvented as gluten-free. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 13 RACHAEL BENTZ/PSU VANGUARD A Holden Caulfield Christmas Breana Harris I hate Christmas. I don’t think it makes me cool or rebellious to have that opinion, and in fact, I always feel awkward sharing it. Even those who aren’t “holiday people” still get excited about some aspects of the holiday season, and they still manage to use words like “joy” and “togetherness” without irony. I just can’t do it. I still feel like a cynical, Salinger-esque adolescent sighing about how phony everyone and everything seems to be. The first reason for this is that I grew up close to my dad who also hated Christmas. He didn’t understand the point of it, or why feelings that nobody seemed to express or act on the rest of the year were arbitrarily tacked onto the month of December. He was 14 an old hippie who hated consumerism and felt like buying Christmas presents was the equivalent of trying to prove to your relatives that you loved them by spending money. He passed away eight years ago, and I always find it ironic when family members talk about missing him more during the holidays. I miss him all the time. The only reason I have for missing him more at Christmas is because he’d be there to make fun of it. Another reason is simply taste. I think Christmas music is almost universally terrible. Most Christmas movies are also terrible. I like Love Actually, but it’s because of my love for great British actors more than anything else. Holiday sweaters are ugly. Holiday light displays are Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com garish. I’ve never in my life understood the appeal of a pumpkin spice latte. I don’t bake. I’m not religious. I’m just not sentimental. I’m also a summer person. I’ve never been able to romanticize winter weather, and tinsel is small consolation. Maybe you want to drink, bake and wear ugly sweaters. That’s okay. But I’m willing to bet I’m not the only Holden Caulfield at Portland State. So my message for the holidays is don’t feel bad if you don’t feel the things everyone tells you you’re supposed to feel. If you’re excited about winter break because of a trip you’re taking, or because you get to catch up on sleep or because of the Doctor Who Christmas special, you’re not a bad person. If you hear people talk about togetherness, joy, peace and other sickly sweet terms, and deep down you don’t really know what they’re supposed to mean, it doesn’t necessarily mean you’re forever removed from them. We can be grossed out together. You know which holiday I don’t hate? New Year’s. There’s something really powerful to me about shedding the skin of the old year and starting fresh. I like the idea of resolutions. I like staying up until midnight and celebrating. Sure, it’s an arbitrary date on an arbitrary calendar, but I still look forward to champagne and watching the ball drop on television. See! I can do this stuff. I bet Holden hated New Year’s. Happy 2014. We can make it if we try. HOLIDAY GUIDE An atheist’s guide to the holidays Finding commonalities in the time of good cheer Brie Barbee The holiday season is supposed to be a time of laughter, good cheer and spending time with your friends and loved ones. However, if you happen to not belong to the Christian faith—or any faith at all, for that matter—the holidays can seem quite overwhelming. What are you supposed to celebrate if you are not a part of any religion? If you don’t celebrate Christmas or don’t believe in the religion it was founded on, does that mean you aren’t allowed to celebrate it? As an atheist in a predominately Christian family, I know what it’s like to struggle to find a place for yourself during the holidays. Many holidays that are celebrated during the winter—especially Christmas—seem to be deeply rooted in religion. Does it make me less firmly rooted in atheism if I want to celebrate Christmas with my family? What would my family think if I decided that I wasn’t going to celebrate with them this year? Is there some sort of medium that I can find between the holiday season and my beliefs? Many modern holidays have evolved quite dramatically from their original forms, at least in the U.S. Instead of focusing on religion, the winter season has transformed into a time that is more focused on being close to your family and friends and showering each other with gifts. It’s a time to reflect on all the things that you are thankful for in your life. It shouldn’t matter whether you are Christian, of a different faith or belong to no faith at all; you should be able to celebrate whatever you want and be able to enjoy the holiday season. Because in the end, aren’t the holidays supposed to be about spreading good cheer? It doesn’t seem right that not everyone can be happy when so many holiday traditions are designed to bring happiness. We shouldn’t limit our good cheer and kindness only to people who are just like us. People should feel comfortable celebrating Christmas, even if they don’t have a religion. Instead of focusing on the apparent differences, we should instead search for commonalities. Because in the end, we are humans; we all have families, and we all deserve to be happy during a time of celebration. I propose that we take this time of the year to be compassionate, caring and kind to everyone. And I mean everyone. We shouldn’t aim to change people or try to find one holiday to fit all, because that would never work. However, if we ever hope to live in a peaceful world where everyone can get along no matter how different they might seem, we need to start somewhere. Why not here? Why not vow to make an effort, a really solid effort, to be the kind of person that the holiday season is supposed to inspire? So whether you celebrate Thanksgiving, Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, Festivus, the winter solstice or the many cultural variations of the New Year, you should be able to celebrate it well and enjoy all the season has to offer, no matter what. ©DR. SEUSS Kringle jingles Our picks for the essential songs of the holiday season Tristan Cooper By now you’ve probably heard a Christmas song or two playing overhead on a grocery store trip. The typical bland covers of classic holiday standards you’ll find at Safeway or Freddy’s range from annoying to irritating. It’s enough to make you go home and set up your own playlist. The Vanguard has you covered. We’ve compiled a list of contemporary and classic tunes for that special time of year. We couldn’t fit in everyone’s favorites (sorry, Burl Ives) even if we had two Holiday Guides, but we like to think that we’ve nailed the essentials. Kringle Jingles Eartha Kitt Santa Baby Willie Nelson Pretty Paper Bing Crosby Silver Bells Zooey Deschanel & Leon Redbone Baby It’s Cold Outside The Kinks Father Christmas Barenaked Ladies Hanukkah Blessings Jackson 5 Santa Claus is Coming to Town The Ronettes Sleigh Ride Trans-Siberian Orchestra Carol of the Bells Jose Feliciano Feliz Navidad John Williams Somewhere in My Memory Run DMC Christmas in Hollis Wham! Last Christmas Frank Sinatra Let It Snow Mariah Carey All I Want For Christmas Is You Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 15 HOLIDAY GUIDE Portland’s local lights Jordan Molnar Finally, that special time of year has come! You must be feeling the overwhelming need to look at an assortment of lights. Well, you are in luck: Portland has a wide variety of holiday light displays to choose from. So instead of driving slowly down streets you don’t live on and risking the wrath of neighborhood watchmen, try one of these tested Portland traditions. place around 5:30 p.m. and will be facilitated by the Chabad of Oregon and Jewish Family and Child Services in association with the Oregon Food Bank. Canned food donations will also be collected at the lighting for the Oregon Food Bank to help feed families in need for the holidays. This event is free of charge and anyone is welcome to attend. Winter Wonderland The Miracle of a Million Lights When: Nov. 28—Dec. 25 (For scheduled hours visit www.portlandraceway.com) Where: Portland International Raceway 1940 N. Victory Blvd., Portland, Ore. 97217 The Portland International Raceway invites you to take a trip through the largest drive-through light display in the Northwest. For your listening pleasure a radio station fashioned specially for the drive is also available so that you can really get into the holiday spirit. Prices vary depending on what is going on at the track, so check the website for more information about this. If you are not into a drive-through holiday be sure to check out PIR’s dog walk and other holiday events. Christmas Ship Parade When: Dec. 6–21 Where: The Columbia and Willamette Rivers (Visit www.christmasships.org for full schedule and parade routes.) For 59 years two fleets of ships have paraded up and down the Columbia and Willamette rivers decorated in full Christmas fashion to the delight of onlookers. Between 55 and 60 ships between each fleet will be lit up and ready to be viewed from many places along the rivers or a variety of restaurants and hotels along the route. This is a great opportunity to view Christmas lights for free and to be able to stay in one spot while they come to you. Director Park Menorah Lighting When: Nov. 28 5:30 p.m. Where: Director Park 815 S.W. Park Ave., Portland, Ore. 97205 What about Hanukkah, right? Well, Director Park is a great place to celebrate the season with a menorah lighting ceremony that has been a tradition for 30 years. The lighting will take 16 When: Visit the Queen Anne Victorian Mansion on Facebook for a full schedule. Where: 1441 N. McClellan St., Portland, Ore. 97217 Every year the Queen Anne Victorian Mansion in North Portland celebrates the holiday season with the “Miracle of a Million Lights,” an event that invites visitors to tour the 2.5acre grounds and enjoy the festive atmosphere. The mansion itself will be open for tours as well, and a cafe featuring holiday treats will be running during tour hours. Tours of the grounds and mansion are $6 for adults and $3 for students and seniors. Children under the age of 5 will be admitted free of charge. Peacock Lane When: Dec. 15—31 (Times vary, visit www.peacocklane.net for more scheduling information.) Where: Between SE Stark St. and SE Belmont St. and one block east of SE 39th. Since the 1920s the residents of Peacock Lane have been coming together to decorate their houses in spectacular holiday fashion. Take a walk down the street and take in the sights, and be sure to grab some free hot chocolate from one of the stands along the way. Certain days allow vehicles while others are for pedestrians only. Be sure to check the website for more information about this and to find out how you can rent a horse-drawn carriage for your visit. Peacock Lane is always free, and everyone is welcome. Pioneer Square Tree Lighting When: Nov. 29 5:30 p.m. Where: Pioneer Courthouse Square 701 S.W. 6th Ave., Portland, Ore. 97204 Thousands of Portlanders flock to Pioneer Square every year to be a part of the tree-lighting ceremony. The cel- Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com ebration begins with a holiday sing-along featuring Thomas Lauderdale with members of Pink Martini, “Oregon’s Own” 234th Army Band, the Pacific Youth Choir and many more special guests. It will conclude with the lighting of the 75-foot tree. This event is free and open to people of all ages, but be sure to get there a little bit early. It can get extremely crowded extremely quickly. If you want to avoid the crowds, the tree will be up in the square and lit up nightly through the season. Christmas Festival of Lights When: Nov. 29–Dec. 30 5–10 p.m. Where: The Grotto 8840 N.E. Skidmore St., Portland, Ore. 97220 If Christmas is your thing, the Grotto is a great place to start your tour of holiday light displays. The grounds are made up of beautiful garden features that are decorated with over 500,000 lights to provide a dazzling walk-through experience. Visitors can also expect to see choral performances, a petting zoo, carolers and puppet shows. Delicious holiday food and drink options will also be available, as will access to the Grotto’s chapel, where five indoor concerts will take place each night. Admission is $9 per adult, $8 for those 65 and older and $4 for children ages 3–12. Children 2 years of age and under can enjoy the festivities free of charge. Zoo Lights When: Nov. 29—Jan. 5 5—8 p.m. Sunday—Thursdays 5—8:30 p.m. Friday—Saturday Where: The Oregon Zoo 4001 S.W. Canyon Rd., Portland, Ore. 97221 The Oregon Zoo has been celebrating the holidays with zoo lights for years, making this event a true Portland tradition. This year, however, the tradition will be altered slightly due to the temporary shutdown of the zoo train for route alterations. Instead of taking a ride through the zoo, visitors are allowed to walk the grounds through more light displays than ever before and to stop in at the Cascade Grill to try the special holiday menu or pick up some hot chocolate for the walk. Admission is $10 for adults, $8.50 for seniors (age 65 and over) and $7 for anyone between the ages of 3 and 11. Children 2 years of age and younger will be admitted for free. HOLIDAY GUIDE THE OREGON ZOO LIGHTS have been illuminating Christmas for over 25 years. ©TODD KULESZA STROLL DOWN PEACOCK LANE and marvel at the homes decked out in full holiday regalia. GET A LOAD OF THIS SHIP! The Christmas parade lights up Portland’s waterways. SEAN BUCKNAM/PSU VANGUARD ©STEVEN LANE/COLUMBIAN FILES Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 17 HOLIDAY GUIDE A simulacrum in a pear tree Fake it till you make it when it comes to holiday cheer Joshua Benson “Christmas isn’t about presents,” never sat well with me. Even as a 7-year-old with dreams of PlayStations dancing in my head, I recognized that, sure, Christmas isn’t all about presents, but it is in part. Now at 24, an age where mothers stop even paying attention to the obligatory Christmas list they ask you to email them, I’m still not so sure that Christmas and other holidays aren’t largely about the stuff. The stuff doesn’t necessarily mean presents, either. I’m sorry to tell this to festive parents attempting to raise super-children with no interest in material goods, but the mistletoe, latkes, ornaments, trees, dreidels and replicated nativities also commercialize and signify the holidays. I think that’s wonderful! In the 1970s and 1980s, this guy Jean Baudrillard developed a theory of simulacra. The idea is that things in the world once represented reality. Then these representational things started to stand in for reality, and subsequent things started to represent the representational things. The best example I’ve heard is the 20th-century American front lawn. The American front lawn, at some point, became a more or less homogenous composite representation of “the front lawn”—basically the image of a square of short grass, a paved walkway, flowers, shrubbery and, perhaps, a fake flamingo. This idea of “the front lawn” now stands in for the original reality of the front lawn and is what other front lawns are copied against. A symbol like “the front lawn” that supplants reality’s representational role is a simulacrum. Another case of simulacrum is the modern holiday. Instead of recognizing the pure truth of holidays—in this case, a sense of humanity, cheer and honor—we see holidays symbolically, like when we hear “Little Drummer Boy” playing lamely in the local 7-Eleven or see the dreadful giant Menorahs and lit pine trees they put in city parks. This is doubly true for college students, who spend the days leading up to the holidays away from hearth and home. They are, more often than not, actually surprised by simulations signaling the approaching holidays. I think holiday cheer dissipates when one is farther away from home or tradition. Not to mention, at the risk of sounding like a “back in my day” guy, we’re prone to looking at our 18 THREE FRENCH HENS, two turtle doves, and a Pinnochio in a pear tree. CHRISTOPHER PERALTA/PSU VANGUARD phones and feeling self-conscious in the Internet Age. This makes us less interested in holiday behavior like carrying on a jovial conversation with the person in front of us, dancing and singing to “Rockin’ Around the Christmas Tree” or sipping eggnog in the company of our insufferable relatives. However, if we’re not interested in human interaction and actual experience, we’re still interested in materialistic spectacle. The more we can pretend to be excited about something by exploiting ostentatious stuff, the better. Nothing provides a more fertile plain for this sort of exploitative behavior than the holidays, where holiday simulacra have already been massproduced and may be purchased at Target. I say we go for it. In the case of the contemporary holiday, I think simulacra provide a nostalgic link back to a very real experience. For example, “the front lawn” reminds us of a carefree childhood, so we act carefree. By the same token, stringing our dorm Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com rooms with icicle lights, lighting the Menorah’s nine candles diligently or baking a fruitcake can trick us into nostalgia that begets holiday spirit. In other words, we can move back down the chain of simulacra to the origin of reality. It’s a small thing, but I watch Love Actually after Thanksgiving dinner every year. I try to decorate whatever godforsaken space I’m occupying during the holiday season. I give all the homeless some coin (which, in this city, will ruin me this year). These little symbols of love, festivity and giving are initially simulations. However, this simulated “stuff” eventually fabricates real feelings. If I was simulating before, I’m not when I get that strange feeling below my ribs as I read the words “to me you are perfect,” sit in a bedroom revivified by decorations or make a homeless man jolly. Sure, it requires a little bit of faking it, but honestly, who doesn’t want to fool themselves into peace on earth and goodwill toward people? HEATHER WILSON/PSU VANGUARD Make-ahead mason jars Heather Wilson Mason jars are the miracle of busy cooks. They’re cheap, easy to clean and can go from freezer to oven and straight to the table. They make elegant serving dishes and great wine glasses. There is a Mason jar for every occasion. If you’d rather spend your holiday relaxing and watching the game, you can make your holiday dishes the weekend before and freeze them in Mason jars. That means no prep time, no mess and easy clean-up. The best part of this holiday meal is that you can cook and serve everything straight out of the jar. You will need half-pint widemouthed Mason jars with matching caps and rings. Make sure you buy actual Mason jars, because they are made to withstand the heat of cooking without breaking. To serve what you make, put everything in the refrigerator to thaw the night before. When you’re ready to eat, uncap all the jars and put them on a cookie sheet in a cold oven. Turn the oven on to 350 F degrees and bake for 20–30 minutes. Remove jars from the oven, grab a fork and eat straight out of the jar. Semi-homemade stuffing Ingredients: 1 teaspoon olive oil 1/2 small onion, coarsely chopped 1 stalk celery, coarsely chopped 1/2 small apple, peeled, cored and coarsely chopped 1/4 cup maple syrup 1 box of stuffing 1 and 1/4 cup water 1/4 cup margarine or butter In a large saucepan over medium heat, saute olive oil, onion and celery for 5 minutes. Add apple and garlic, saute 5 more minutes. Add water, margarine and maple syrup. Turn heat to high and bring to boil. Remove from heat and stir in stuffing mix. Fluff with a fork. Spoon into Mason jars, cap and freeze. Turkey breast pinwheels Ingredients: 2 turkey breast tenders 2 tablespoons sun-dried tomatoes, diced 2 large pieces prosciutto 3 ounces goat cheese Salt and pepper Put turkey breast tenders between two pieces of plastic wrap. Gently pound until flat. Sprinkle with salt, pepper and olive oil. Cover each turkey tender with 1 piece of prosciutto, 1 tablespoon of sun-dried tomatoes and 1/2 ounce of goat cheese. Starting on one end, roll into a pinwheel. Freeze in individual Mason jars. Seriously good green bean casserole Ingredients: 1 can green beans, drained 1/2 can condensed cream of mushroom soup 1/2 can condensed cream of chicken soup 1/2 cup shredded cheddar or jack cheese Salt and pepper to taste Reserve for topping: 1/4 cup french fried onions Mix first 5 ingredients in a bowl. Fold in 1/4 cup of french-fried onions. Fill Mason jars and freeze. When preparing, top with french-fried onions halfway through cooking. Easy as apple pie Ingredients: Refrigerated ready-rolled pie crust 2 small apples, peeled, cored and thinly sliced 2 tablespoons sugar teaspoon cinnamon 1/2 1 tablespoon margarine Unroll pie crust. Use Mason jar ring to cut out four rounds. Line bottom of two Mason jars with crust. Toss remaining ingredients together in a bowl until apples are evenly coated. Divide apple mix evenly between two jars. Place remaining rounds on top and tuck edges of crust under rim. Cut a small X in the top crust. Dot with margarine and sprinkle with sugar. The easy vegan quick pumpkin ddition Ingredients: 1 small pumpkin or acorn squash semi-homemade stuffing 1 can kidney beans, rinsed and drained 1/4 cup chopped pecans Olive oil Salt and pepper Cut top off pumpkin and scoop out seeds. Lightly coat inside of pumpkin with olive oil, then sprinkle with salt and pepper. Place cut-side down in a microwave-safe baking dish. Add just enough water to cover the bottom of dish. Microwave 8–10 minutes, or until tender and easily pierced with knife. Mix stuffing, beans and pecans together and warm in microwave. Remove from microwave and scoop stuffing into pumpkin. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 19 Handmade holidays: your DIY guide KAYLA NGUYEN/PSU VANGUARD Stephanie Tshappat and Ashley Rask When you’re a busy college student, it’s hard to find the time to find the perfect holiday present for each special person in your life. It also doesn’t help that you’ve been eating ramen for a month to afford said presents (or that you spent the rest of your money on that Game of Thrones box set—oops). Here we’ve compiled a list of cheap and easy do-it-yourself presents that you can throw together at the last minute. Break the holiday norm without breaking the bank this year. No-sew fringe infinity scarf Materials: T-shirt you’re willing to part with Scissors First take any T-shirt you’re willing to cut up, or purchase a cheap one from Goodwill or Jo-Ann Fabrics. Cut and remove the top part of the T-shirt by cutting straight across, below both sleeves. Toss the top part aside—you won’t need that 20 anymore. On the side you just cut, slice inch-wide strips to about halfway up the shirt, making a fringe. Finish by pulling each strip to stretch it out. Final step: Try it on and consider your calling as a future fashion designer. Homemade bow ties Materials: Fabric of your choosing Strip of elastic (most craft stores have small rolls for less than $2) Velcro Hot glue gun Recommended: iron Everyone knows that “bow ties are cool” (thanks, Eleven), so why not bask in the coolness of hip neckwear with your friends? First cut a 9-by-5-inch piece of your fabric of choice. Then cut out a 2-inch-wide strip of fabric. Make the length relatively long so you can trim off extra later. Set this piece aside. Iron the rectangular piece of fabric so it’s completely flat, without any creases or wrinkles. Then, folding hot dog style, fold each side up 1 inch and iron down so the folds stay in place. Next, folding hamburger style, fold each side equally until the fabric meets in the middle, overlapping by about a centimeter. For those with sewing skills, sew a running stitch straight on top of the two overlapping pieces. If you’re not sewing-savvy, hot glue a thin strip of glue between the two overlapping pieces. Once the glue has cooled, pinch the middle part together to form a bow shape. Grab the longer strip of fabric that you set aside earlier and fold it in half, hot dog style. Wrap twice around the middle of the bow to hold the bow together. Next, stitch or hot glue the long strip in the center of your bow tie. Cut off the extra fabric of long strip. Take your strip of elastic and measure out 10–12 inches. (You’re estimating the size of the recipients neck. Or you can just ask them.) Glue the direct center of it in the middle of the bow. Cut out 2-inch pieces of Velcro and glue to the ends of elastic. You can also make this into a hair bow by gluing the bow to a barrette instead of a strip of elastic. Candy cane sugar scrub This recipe makes enough scrub to fill six 1/2 pint Mason Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com jars. Everyone loves Mason jars now, and they’re the perfect containers for gifts like this. Plus, you can make them festive with ribbons, bows and paper gift tags—wherever your creativity takes you! Ingredients: 5 cups granulated white sugar 1/3 cup olive oil 2 cups coconut oil (Pure, unrefined coconut oil works best—make sure there are no additives in it. This is available at stores like New Seasons Market.) 1 1/2 teaspoon pure peppermint extract Food grade gel food coloring To melt the coconut oil, measure it out in a microwave-safe bowl and heat it in the microwave for 30 seconds at a time. Once the oil is melted, add the olive oil and peppermint extract. Stir to combine these ingredients. Next, add the sugar, mixing until there is no dry sugar left. And that’s it! Your scrub is done! To get the candy cane effect, do the following: Separate the scrub mixture into halves in separate bowls. Mix in the food coloring into one bowl of scrub until the color is consistent. For the traditional candy cane look, use red in one half and leave the other half white. If you prefer the tropical candy canes, try blue food coloring in one bowl and green in the other. Then just layer the scrub into the Mason jar, alternating colors until you reach a 1-inch headspace at the top. Wipe the mouth of the jar. Add the lid and band, and huzzah! Your spa scrub is finished! (Adapted from jacolynmurphy.com/2011/12/oh-sugarsecrets-of-scrub.html.) Super easy DIY lotion Nothing goes with a body scrub better than a super moisturizing lotion, and this DIY lotion recipe is simple and easy! Plus, it uses the one of the ingredients you already have on hand from making the sugar scrub: coconut oil. Ingredients: 16 ounces baby lotion 8 ounces coconut oil or petroleum jelly 8 ounces vitamin E cream Measure out all three ingredients into a mixing bowl. Using a kitchen mixer, beat all ingredients until they’re light and fluffy. That’s it! Essential oils can be added to give the lotion the scent of your choice. Pour the lotion into a Mason jar until you reach a 1-inch headspace at the top. Put on the lid and band and decorate! (Adapted from latina.com/ beauty/makeup/diy-beautyproducts?slide=2#axzz2kqri SuXT.) HOLIDAY GUIDE DIY holiday decorations Karisa Cleary Whether you’re living in a dorm, at home with family or elsewhere, it’s hard to get in the holiday spirit without the right decorations. Shopping for decorations can be fun, but also quite detrimental to a bank account. One cheap alternative is do-it-yourself, although the majority of the time it seems impossible to actually create decorations impressive enough to put on display in your own home. Here are five easy and inexpensive exceptions to those seemingly difficult DIY decorations that will be worthy of showing off. Be sure to include eggnog and some favorite holiday tunes while crafting. Ornament Garland Materials: Ornaments with closed loop hangers—a lot of them! One roll of thin ribbon This project is simple; just string the ornaments on the ribbon, tying a knot around the first and last ornaments. Eventually they’ll start to form a bubbly shape. Take your candle and a piece of burlap large enough to wrap all the way around the candle. The burlap frays and is more flexible once you have washed it with some fabric softener. Then take the ribbon, wrap it around the burlap and tie it in a bow. Voila! Cinnamon Dough Ornaments Cinnamon Candles Materials: Wax paper 1 cup cinnamon 1/4 cup glue (school glue works great) 3/4 cup applesauce Optional: 1/2 cup glitter For this project there’s an option to use either the same round candles as used in the Christmas Candle craft, or glass candle holders that are plentiful at the Dollar Tree. Materials: Candles or candle holders Whole cinnamon sticks Craft glue or a hot glue gun The only step is to glue the cinnamon sticks vertically to the chosen medium, all the way around. This is a great project to add your own personal touch to by simply tying ribbon around it, using colored candles, etc. Here’s another decoration to customize that’s also very child-friendly. Mix and knead the ingredients, then roll the dough out flat. From here, this DIY decoration can be taken in any direction. Use cookie cutters to make trees, stars, gingerbread men or any other desired shape. You can also cut a circle and imprint a little hand print onto your ornament. Once the dough is shaped and styled, poke a hole somewhere near the top so ribbon can be strung through it later on for hanging. No baking necessary—let the dough dry on wax paper. Melted Snowman Ornament The possibilities are pretty much endless with those clear plastic or glass crafting ornaments. Pouring paint or glitter glue into them or filling them with shredded paper are quick and easy ways to make one-of-a-kind ornaments, or even for crafting with a child. Materials: Clear plastic or glass ornament Scarf: one piece of ribbon or fabric cut into a rectangle Eyes: two whole peppercorns Snow: kosher salt Hat and nose: black and orange construction paper or modeling clay Arms: two tiny twigs Craft glue or a hot glue gun Use a funnel to pour your desired amount of salt, or “melted snow,” into the empty ornament. Next, glue on the rest of the materials in any order. And that’s it! Christmas Candles All it takes is a little burlap and red or green ribbon to turn ordinary white candles into Christmas candles. Materials: Medium or large sized round candles (not in a jar) Burlap A medium-width ribbon Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 21 HOLIDAY GUIDE Gifts for the geek in your life (Written by a geek for a geek) Tobin Shields Unless you have the money to upgrade their expensive hardware, buying a gift for the beloved geek in your life can be difficult. Fear not! Below is the perfect holiday buying guide for pleasing their inner nerd. You must remember though, not all geeks “geek out” over the same things. If you blindly get them something you think they are interested in, it could either be insulting or a waste of money. Before you go buying, ask yourself the following questions: 1) What is their favorite TV show? 2) Do they play video games? If so, how? (Online, console, etc.) 3) What kind of phone do they have? 4) Do they believe that they are in a fandom? (i.e. Trekkie, Brony, Whovian, etc.) Etsy.com For those who have never heard of the website, Etsy is an online marketplace where people buy and sell handmade goods. It has become the central hub for some of the most interesting and unique gifts out there. Many of the items for sale have to do with some kind of fandom—whether it’s Adventure Time pins or The Legend of Zelda leather wallets, you will most likely find something that special fanboy or girl will absolutely love. Start by typing in their favorite show, video game or fandom, 22 then just take a look around! Get them something that you might enjoy. They will have everything from clothing and accessories to posters and music. Prices can vary depending on what you get them. However, a reasonable spending cap of about $15 can result in one or two very worthwhile gifts. Invoke your inner geek! Didn’t see something on Etsy you liked? Make your own gift! Pinterest has hundreds of craft ideas, and many are movie, game or fandom inspired! No good at making things on your own? Go to a custom T-shirt website. Many also offer services to put images or text on more than just shirts: you can customize bags, umbrellas, Frisbees, magnets and even phone cases! Does the My Little Pony lover in your life have a soft spot for Pinky Pie? Then why not order a tree ornament with her face on it? I can’t tell you how excited I would be if I received that gift. These custom printing sites can be a little pricey, but worth it for a truly unique gift. Support their addiction Alright, let’s face it, not all geeks are necessarily public about it. But we all have that friend who has spent just a little too much time playing Farmville or has tried sending you over a dozen requests for lives in Candy Crush Saga. Many of these games prompt players to spend their own money to play the game, or else they have to wait hours before they can continue playing. It’s tough to justify spending that money though, because it’s just for a silly game. However, the gift of virtual Facebook cash or a gift card for one of the mobile marketplaces (like Google Play or the Apple Marketplace) can make those long MAX or bus rides far more enjoyable. Usually $10 will get them a stockpile of the rare commodity in their game, and thus hours of entertainment. It can be the perfect stocking stuffer or small gift. Did their World of Warcraft subscription dry up, and they’re too broke to renew it? Gift them a few extra months of play time. Many paid online games offer easy-to-use gifting systems and even offer holiday deals or specials. Did they just finish over 100 hours in Skyrim? Then why not offer to get them their choice of extra downloadable content (DLC)? Usually extra additions to games don’t cost any more than $10 to $15 and can be far less expensive than going out and spending $60 on a brand new game. Remember: Not all geeks are alike, and asking them for ideas or about things they are interested in will result in a much more worthwhile gift. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com ©ETSY USER BESTCASE ©ETSY USER ATHENASWINK HOLIDAY GUIDE This ain’t your momma’s Christmas movie list Turner Lobey God knows how many hours I’ve spent stuck on the couch watching A Christmas Story, Planes, Trains and Automobiles and How the Grinch Stole Christmas with my family throughout the years. I would always try to escape to the farthest corners of my bedroom, but the snarky cackle of Scut Farkus always found a way to force itself through the cracks around my door and into my head. It was my own hell. Now, I’m older and free from the tyranny of the classic Christmas movie. This is a new list—a list opposed to everything we grew up watching. This is a list for every innocent soul who finds themselves stuck in their hundredth rewatch of It’s a Wonderful Life between two mouth-breathing aunts. This is for you, you poor, poor thing. May you find some comfort in these films. Good luck. The Star Wars Holiday Special After the explosive success of Star Wars, some genius had the brilliant idea to make a spinoff that added the one crucial aspect missing from the summer blockbuster: Christmas. Created without much input from creator and director George Lucas, the Holiday Special is the dark stain on the permanent record of Star Wars. Its legacy endures as the most painful face palm moment in franchise history. Lucas even went so far as to once say, “If I had the time and a sledgehammer, I would track down every copy of that show and smash it.” In a variety-show format, the story follows Han Solo and Chewbacca to Kashyyk, the Wookie home world, for the annual Life Day celebration. We get introduced to Chewy’s family, Itchy, Malla and Lumpy, as well as fan favorite Boba Fett in his own animated segment. The highlight of this Christmas spectacle is when Princess Leia sings the Star Wars theme song. With words. To be honest, it’s all pretty awful. Think Star Wars The Ewok Adventure bad. It’s campy, the acting is terrible and the writing is even worse, but as atrocious as it is, there’s just something to love about it. Batman Returns Before the dark ages of Batsuit nipples, Tim Burton helmed two fantastic movies about the Caped Crusader. Michael Keaton stars in his second and final adventure as the Dark Knight in Batman Returns, which pits him against a grotesque and mutated Oswald Copperpot, a.k.a. the Penguin, who rises up from Gotham City’s sewers with an army of the adorable arctic critters he takes his name from. Batman has to stop the bad guys and save Christmas (or to save the city’s firstborns from drowning in a pool of toxic waste—however you want to look at it). If you’re looking to escape the grit of Christopher Nolan’s trilogy for something a little more whimsical, then this is the place to turn. It blends everything we loved about the Golden Age of Detective Comics with classic Burton charm, and the end product is simply joyous. BRUCE WILLIS crawls through the ventilation ducts of Nakatomi Plaza to save his wife and other hostages in the greatest Christmas movie of all time, ‘Die Hard.’ Gremlins Randall Peltzer gives his son Billy a little furry Mogwai named Gizmo for Christmas under three conditions: never expose it to sunlight, never get it wet, and, most importantly of all: NEVER FEED IT AFTER MIDNIGHT. Of course, the first thing Billy does is spill water on poor Gizmo, making it multiply into more devious fur balls. The tricksters con Billy into feeding them after midnight, which turns them into evil reptilian monsters. When the little devils get loose, it’s up to Billy and Gizmo to set things right and save the town. Gremlins is easily the cutest and most light-hearted movie you’ll find on this list. If you want to break away from the monotony of the yearly ABC Family movie marathon with the family, but still want all the classic Christmas charm, this is probably the one for you. Besides, Gizmo is so dang adorable. ©20TH CENTURY FOX Die Hard Yipee-ki-yay! What? Were you expecting something different? All New York cop John McClane wanted was to patch things up with his estranged wife at her work’s Christmas party at Nakatomi Tower. Instead of fixing the relationship over holiday shots and party crackers, twelve terrorists take over the building and McClane has to run and gun his way through fire, glass, explosions and bad guys to save his wife. Not only is it the best Christmas movie around, it’s everything we love about cheesy, shoot-em up ‘80s action films. While Arnold may be known for some great one-liners, Bruce Willis is king cheese in this one. And there is something to be said about a Bruce Willis with hair… Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 23 ALAN HERNANDEZ-AGUILAR/PSU VANGUARD Hardcore football fans Thanksgiving survival guide Joel Gunderson as we settle comfortably into the 21st century, it’s becoming apparent that traditions are becoming a thing of the past. Good, bad—it doesn’t seem to matter. It’s a fast-paced world, and certain things are being left in the dust. It has to stop. And the first thing you can do to stop it is watch some football on Thursday. Some traditions are worth holding onto, they make us who we are. Mom and apple pie can’t just be thrown away to accomodate our fast-paced lifestyles. I know, it’s common knowledge that most of the country will have the TV on at some point during Thanksgiving, even if the Lions noise is just humming in the background. But what if we took it a step further and really watched the games? Impossible, you say? Aunt Betty would never allow it; everyone needs to pitch in and help cook, right? Here’s how you’re going to get your football on Thanksgiving. Not only will you be serving your own needs, but, let’s be honest, you’ll be saving traditions in America! 24 THE PROBLEM: You’re needed in the kitchen. Ok, this is acceptable. After all, its 2013. If you’re going to be eating, it’s only conceivable that you can help pitch in a little. But this doesn’t have to be a buzz-kill situation. The key, my friend, is communication. Step one: Locate the person in charge. You’ll know them—they don’t hide on days like Thanksgiving. The key is that you must do this locating on Wednesday. Find a quiet space, sit them down and tell them you want to help with the feast. Chances are that they’ll be so shocked to hear this that the next three minutes will be a blur. This is where you pounce. Explain that Thanksgiving is providing a plethora of entertaining games that the whole family can enjoy, and therefore it would behoove the family to do most of the prep work the night before. This way, not only does the person in charge get the help they desire, it will make their Thanksgiving more enjoyable as well! Everybody wins, as far as I’m concerned. A Wednesday night spent peeling potatoes is a good trade off for guilt free game time. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com THE PROBLEM: Your significant other is giving you “The Look.” The temperature just dropped a few degrees. We all know “The Look,” gentlemen, and quite frankly, it scares the hell out of us. The Look can take on new meaning when the holidays roll around. To avoid this and stay on the good side of life, it’s important to, again, communicate. Are there kids in the picture? Perfect. Using your kids as leverage is one of the great advantages of having little ones. About three to four days before Thanksgiving, begin telling the lovely lady in your life how excited you are for her feast, as Thanksgiving is just another opportunity to eat her amazingly delicious food! When the big day arrives, point out that the kids are being “extra noisy” this morning and volunteer to take them away to give her some peace and quiet. Not only does she get her alone time, but you get bonus points for pitching in. When the game comes on? Have the kids sit on your lap, watch the game in peace, then give them 20 bucks apiece for being quiet. Again, everyone wins. THE PROBLEM: You’ve survived through the first game, but people are catching on. This is the classic struggle, man’s all-day needs vs. reality. Watching one football game in a day is great, but there’s an empty feeling left over, especially now that the NFL has added a third game to the lineup. You’re beginning to get a little cocky, thinking you have made it through the day sans helping. Then, a shrill sound emanates from the kitchen… Dishes! Oh, crap. Just when you thought it was safe to unzip and relax, that dreaded activity strikes again. OK, don’t panic. Chances are you have some things that will help. DVR. Dishwasher. Kids that are old enough to do dishes. However, if none of these will suffice, there’s only one other option. Pour a glass of wine, draw her a bath, tell her to relax for a bit….then do the dishes in a frenetic, mad-dash attempt. If you stay focused, they can be done in five minutes, no matter the amount. They may not be clean, but hey, by the time they’re discovered tomorrow, who cares? You got through three games of football nearly uninterrupted, and that’s a successful Thanksgiving. HOLIDAY GUIDE Surviving your family during the holidays Escape routes and cocktail pairings Caroline McGowan You love your sister but you’re not sure if her husband has any concept of spatial boundaries, your uncle brought home his new “lady friend” with her augmented “personality,” your mom was guilted into inviting her co-worker Debbie Downer, and all of a sudden the decked halls of your living room have become the chamber walls to the dungeon of family festivity. Ahh, the holidays! A time to love and cherish those with whom you share DNA and forcefully tolerate their plus-ones. Fear not, victim of sibling matrimony; this year is going to be different. With a little planning and enough spiked eggnog, there is a way you can find solace in the doldrums of holidays with the in-laws. First you must ask yourself, on a scale of one to 10, how intolerable is the situation at hand? 1–3: Extreme Holiday Redecoration The premise: You are now a stealth Ty Pennington, and ©HUNGRY COUPLE you are about to recreate your mother’s winter wonderland in the style that fits your holiday cheer. The object of the game is to move all of the trinkets, table ornaments and other “decorative” items so that the dungeon of family festivity is entirely rearranged by the time the sun sets. The stakes: For every time you are asked about why you are moving an object, you must either a) take a drink of your beverage or b) ask to hear a story you’ve already heard. If granted the luxury of one tolerable and equally mischievous cousin or sibling, consider inviting them to join and increase the competition. Please note: Items are not limited by size, nor are they considered “moved” if they are less than a foot from their original placement. This game is best for those with high tolerance levels, because necessary mobility will undoubtedly result in conversations with all guests. Cocktail pairing: Spiked eggnog. You’ll be doing a lot of socializing, so consider a slow-sipper. Ingredients: 4 ounce eggnog 1/2 ounce cognac 1/2 ounce bourbon Garnish: dash of nutmeg 4–6: The Sym-PHONE-y Strategy What you will need: A smart phone The phone numbers of guests Keen knowledge of conversation timing Prior to the event, acquire the phone numbers of guests attending. Be the first to arrive so that you can greet them as they arrive and take their jackets. With your gracious gesture, lightly suggest where they should go in the room (e.g. “Make yourself at home on the couch. I can’t wait to catch up!”). Once all of the guests are in place, excuse yourself to the restroom. On your smartphone, quickly input their phone numbers in a sequential order to “Phonemyphone. com,” a website that will schedule electronic phone calls at selected times. Factor in uneven intervals of less than 5 minutes per conversation, and just as they begin to ask how your love life is going, their phone will ring. At this moment you will say, “Oh shoot! I’ll let you get that. We have all afternoon to chat,” before moving on to the next conversation or sneaking off to the kitchen for a delicious diversion. Cocktail pairing: Spanish coffee. This one takes some effort, so you will have more tending bar to concentrate on and less conversation. Ingredients and tools: 3/4 ounce 151-proof rum 1/2 ounce triple sec 2 ounce Kahlua 3 ounce freshly brewed coffee Orange slice Sugar for rim Whipped cream Dash of cinnamon and nutmeg Lighter or matches Using your orange slice, coat the rim in fruit juice and place glass face down in sugar so as to use the rim of juice as sugar adhesive. Add the rum and the triple sec to the sugar-rimmed glass and light it on fire. Add Kahlua (which should put out the flame) and top with hot coffee. Garnish with whipped cream and a dash of cinnamon and nutmeg. 7–10: Stop, Drop and Role Play What you’ll need: A paid actor or hunky friend A fireman’s suit (for added effect) Ideally, a room with only one major exit After you have made it through all of the important activities—presents, feasting and possibly acquiring a light buzz—you will have completed your holiday mission. You may feel trapped in the house, so you will need some air. Open a window within earshot of an external hiding place and give a cue such as, “What a beautiful day!” Listen for a pre-planned birdcall, then resume your place near the front door. All of a sudden everyone will hear a strong rapping at the door, and you will be there to answer it, bewildered and frightened to see a fireman in full garb. You will let him in and he will announce he is the local fire marshal. He will say that in order to prevent holiday accidents, the fire department is making its way through the neighborhood in a fire safety campaign. After all, the holidays are one of the most dangerous times when it comes to accidents. It is with a heavy heart that he must request a couple of you to evacuate the premises at once due to overcapacity. You will put your hand on your heart, profusely thank the “marshal” for saving your lives and quickly volunteer to take one for the team by leaving. After all, the holidays are a great time for new blockbuster movies. Cha-ching! Cocktail pairing: Peppermint patty shot. Better booze up quickly, because you won’t be hanging around long. Ingredients : 1 ounce peppermint schnapps 1 ounce chocolate milk 1 squirt of chocolate syrup Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 25 HOLIDAY GUIDE A retail employee’s holiday survival guide RaChelle Schmidt With the holidays quickly approaching, many students find themselves working in a variety of retail jobs in order to earn extra money. Extended store hours and increased business means that there are a lot of opportunities for work. Although it is a great way for students to earn money, retail work can be physically and mentally demanding. When not handled properly, it can actually deplete your enjoyment of the season. Here are some tips to help you make it through the season as a retail worker. 1. Eat right, exercise and get plenty of sleep. This may sound like an annoying soundbite from your mother, but it’s true. When you are dealing with long hours on your feet, huge crowds and the overall assault on your senses that comes with the holidays, it is important to take good care of yourself or you will find your energy reserves quickly depleted. Try to avoid mall food and find a healthier option, exercise regularly to reduce built-up tension, and while no one is saying that you have to skip the many holiday parties that are on your social calendar, it is a good idea to make it an early night on evenings when you have to work the next day in order to be well-rested for the day ahead. 4. Avoid engaging in debates with customers. This is an offshoot of the prior tip, but it is worth noting, because at some point a customer is going to come to you with a ludicrous claim that, in their opinion, is worthy of a full federal investigation of your store and perhaps even of you personally. Usually the offensive act is something to the effect of a regular price sweater having been moved to a table with fishing poles that are marked at 80 percent off, and now the customer is demanding the fishing pole discount for the sweater. It can be tempting to engage with the angry customer in order to get them to see the error in their claims, but don’t do it. It is actually better for your sanity and blood pressure to sell a sweater at a fishing pole price and have a satisfied customer than to “win” the argument and have your customer leave unhappy. 5. Bond with your co-workers. When it comes to working in retail over the holidays, no one can fully understand what you are going through quite like other people who are going through the same thing. Although it will probably happen organically, take the time to get to know the people working around you. It’s a great opportunity to give and receive much-needed moral support. 6. Never lose your sense of humor. A good sense of humor is the one thing that will get you through the craziness that comes with being a retail employee during the holidays. Although you may find the crowds, noise and stress hard to deal with at the time, all of these things make for great stories later over eggnog or hot toddies with loved ones. If you are a retail employee, it is important to remember that there is very little that can be done to change the circumstances of the average work day. There will always be crowds; there will always be a fair amount of angry or upset customers. The key to surviving the holidays in retail is to take care of yourself and prepare yourself for each day. Remember, it is only a few weeks out of the year. What seems stressful today will fade into a memory very quickly if you have the right attitude. 2. Wear sensible shoes. If you are working in retail, you are guaranteed to spend all of your working hours on your feet. Unfortunately, if you wear those fabulous stiletto boots you just bought, as gorgeous as the boots are, your feet will not make it past your first break. Invest in some cute flats or at least low-heeled shoes for work, and save the stilettos for the holiday parties. 3. Don’t take anything personally. If you work in retail, especially over the holidays, you can expect to get yelled at at some point. It’s that simple. The stated point of the customer’s anger may be real, imagined, justified or nonsensical. The key is to remember that “the customer is always right,” which, of course, can be pretty hard when the customer is actually dead wrong but yelling anyway. Just remember that its more than likely they are yelling at the situation, not you. Let them vent, try to help them, and if you can’t help them, get a manager and move on. 26 Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com BRITTNEY MUIR/PSU VANGUARD HOLIDAY GUIDE Three helpings of football on turkey day A casual fan’s guide to getting through this year’s games. Ryan Spilsbury The big day is approaching. Turkeys are being plumped and prepped while plans are being put together for family and friends to spend all day with each other, whether they want to or not. Thanksgiving is one of the most beloved and important holidays in our country. Laced with historical context and overtones of goodwill and fellowship, it is an opportunity for us all to be thankful for what we have in life. However, for all the fuss over food and awkward family gatherings, there is another element to Thanksgiving Day that can have a polarizing effect on families…ARE YOU READY FOR SOME FOOTBALL? The age-old tradition of large feasts and family first met its match nearly 100 years ago. The National Football League seized the opportunity to provide a source of entertainment (or distraction) for families who gather on Thanksgiving by scheduling games on the big day. Traditionally, the Detroit Lions and Dallas Cowboys are hosts, while a third game was added to MILES SANGUINETTI/PSU VANGUARD the schedule in 2006. These games have produced many thrilling contests over the years, and at this late stage of the season, they often help shape division outcomes and playoff pictures. This year’s games feature three teams still in contention for the playoffs and three others whose seasons are floundering, but who still can shake up the outcome of their divisions. First, we have the morning game at 9:30 a.m. between the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers. These NFC North division rivals are two of the oldest franchises in the NFL, and both are still fighting for a chance to get to the playoffs. Detroit currently leads the division at 6–5 while Green Bay is only one and a half game back at 5–5–1. This is obviously a big opportunity for both teams to set themselves up for a playoff run in what is becoming one of the fiercest divisional battles in the NFL, especially since the Chicago Bears are also 6–4 and in the NFC North. Prediction: Detroit wins at home and takes control of the division; final score: Detroit 28, Green Bay 24. The next game takes place at 1:30 p.m. and will be played by the Dallas Cowboys and Oakland Raiders. Oakland is essentially out of the running for the playoffs at 4–7 with division leaders Kansas City and Denver both at 9–2, but Dallas still has a chance, holding on to a 6–5 record in a very weak NFC East division. Oakland has proven to be a dangerous team at times, and Dallas has proven to be vulnerable to such teams all season long. However, this is Dallas’ tradition and they boast a winning record on Thanksgiving Day. Prediction: Dallas takes a step forward toward the playoffs; final score: Dallas 31, Oakland 17. The final game kicks off at 5:30 p.m. This is the one that always causes problems. Whoever has been cooking all day is usually just about finished by now and is ready to feed their guests. But for some, football is just as good as turkey, stuffing, mashed potatoes, cranberries, green beans, croissants and gravy. There may be a struggle to distract the sports fans from the television and get them into the dining room for quality conversation and endless eats. Thankfully, this year’s evening game features two teams that aren’t doing so well. The Baltimore Ravens, last year’s Superbowl winners, host the Pittsburgh Steelers. This is another pair of division rivals who have had many heated battles in the past, but this year just hasn’t gone their way. Both teams have underachieved so far at 5–6, and are all but eliminated from the playoffs. This is good news for those who wish to shut off the TV for the night and enjoy the company of their families and friends, because it will probably be easy to do so. After a day filled with football, the fans in your house will feel slightly underwhelmed at the prospect of watching these two teams, and most will certainly be eager to strap on the feedbag. However, there is always the chance that football still reigns supreme to some. This is a notion that must be accepted as a part of Thanksgiving Day festivities, especially if you are hosting anyone who is a fan of either team. The game will be broadcast nationally no matter what, and there will be people interested in all areas of the country. Prediction: Baltimore shows some of its mettle from last year’s championship effort and thwarts Pittsburgh; Baltimore 34, Pittsburgh 13. Whether you like it or not, football has become part of the Thanksgiving tradition. That being said, there is always room for everyone at the table, and let’s not forget what the holidays are all about. So here’s to a Thanksgiving full of great food, good company and, yes, a few games of football. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 27 HOLIDAY GUIDE A dorm room Thanksgiving feast Put minimal effort into your holiday meal Emily Herrera Celebrating Thanksgiving away from your family in a dorm room or an apartment can turn into either an excuse to order a five-course meal of Chinese takeout or a chance to prove to everyone that you’re capable of making a meal for yourself. As a college student, you have a free pass to put minimal effort into cooking. Even with this mentality, you can create a passable Thanksgiving meal for yourself. The main goal is to have an entree other than popcorn and buttered toast a la Charlie Brown. This means canned fruit, marshmallows and other things that “real” cooks look down on. For those without ovens, microwaves are capable of more than you’d think. The recipes below are low-effort and can be made with very little culinary skill. You’ll just need some basic kitchen gear, like measuring cups (or one graduated measuring cup) and a pan. It can even be one of the cheap aluminum ones that cost a few dollars at the grocery store. Mashed potatoes Mashed potatoes are arguably the most important part of a Thanksgiving meal, aside from the turkey or other meat items. They’re also very easy to make. With this recipe, depending on the amount of effort you want to put in, you could have some nice baked potatoes to bathe in gravy or, if you’re willing to pull out a fork and mash some peeled potatoes, you could have an authentic, creamy mashed potato experience. Ingredients: 41/2potatoes cup milk 1 tablespoon of butter Salt and pepper Peel and chop the potatoes, then microwave them for 10 minutes on high power. After this, they should be soft. Next heat the milk and butter in a saucepan until the butter has melted evenly into the milk. Pour the mixture into the potatoes and mash until they reach an even consistency, or until they reach the level of chunkiness that appeals to you most. Add salt and pepper liberally. 28 Pumpkin cake As a citizen of the 21st century, it’s your right to use boxed cake mix, and it’s a right you should exercise. Pies are difficult to make, but cake is internationally celebrated for being very easy to cook. Pumpkin cake can be a festive, less traditional alternative to pie. Ingredients: spice cake mix Boxed 16 ounce can of pumpkin 1/2 cup oil 1 cup water Optional: 3 eggs, cinnamon, nutmeg, pumpkin pie spice Oven instructions: Follow the instructions on the box for making the cake. The oil, eggs and water should all go in a bowl with the cake mix. If you don’t have eggs, it’s not an issue; pumpkin is often used as an egg replacement. Otherwise, it’s fine to use both. Add any extra spices you might want to add. Extra cinnamon and pumpkin pie spice go well with this and make it taste extra seasonal. After this, add the can of pumpkin to the mix. Pour the mix into a pan and bake for about 30 minutes at 350 degrees. Exercise superhuman self-control by letting it cool before eating. Microwave instructions: Skip the eggs. This is a cup-sized recipe. Take 3 tablespoons of cake mix and mix in a mug or small bowl with 1 tablespoon of pumpkin and two tablespoons of water. Microwave for 1 minute and 30 seconds. Let sit for about 10minutes. Repeat until you’ve finished the box or you’re sick of pumpkin cake. Candied yams This sugary pseudo-casserole is the easiest thing to bring to a family dinner if you aren’t domestically inclined. It’s even aesthetically pleasing, with crisped marshmallows on top. Most grocery stores sell canned yams in light syrup. The syrup is important, giving your yams a sweet, dessert-like flavor. Cinnamon and cloves are encouraged, but not necessary. The Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com JOSE-DAVID JACOBO/PSU VANGUARD marshmallows are instrumental in turning it into something classifiable as a dessert. Ingredients: can yams in light syrup 11 large package mini marshmallows (can be used later for hot chocolate or other holiday foods) 1/3 cup brown sugar Optional but highly recommended: cinnamon, cloves, and/or nutmeg Drain most of the syrup from the can—you can leave a little for flavor and moisture. Pour the yams in the pan. Mix some spices in to taste. Sprinkle some brown sugar over the yams and arrange the marshmallows on top. Make sure the yam layer is entirely obscured by the marshmallows. Bake for 25 minutes at 350 degrees, or microwave on high for 7 minutes. If your microwave has especially low wattage, you may want to add a few minutes to the time. The marshmallows should be melted. The microwave won’t crisp the marshmallows as well as an oven will, but your food will be cooked. HOLIDAY GUIDE Affordable holiday cocktails Christmas cheer comes in warm mugs Jesse Tomaino The year-end holidays are a wonderful time when we have the opportunity to celebrate the things and people that are important in our lives. It’s one of the only times of the year that most people make the effort to spend time with their families, and that means one thing: Serious drinking. Whether you are looking for a way to enjoy holiday time with or in spite of your family, here are a few festive and affordable cocktail recipes that will put a rosy glow in your cheeks for the season. Candy Cane Rimmed Chocolate Martini Ingredients vodka—any kind 2willounces do; all you are going to taste is chocolate and peppermint 2 ounces Irish cream liqueur, such as Baileys or Carolans 1 ounce chocolate syrup Margaritas with salt on the rim are familiar to just about everyone, but there are tons of things you can crush and put on the edge of a glass to add an additional component to a fancy beverage. Chop the candy cane as fine as you can and use a stripe of chocolate syrup on the outside rim of the glass to hold the resultant delicious pink powder in place. For extra credit—and chocolate—spiral some chocolate syrup around the inside of the glass as well. Once you have the glasses prepared, chill the ingredients in a cocktail shaker and strain into your beautiful glass. It may be a cold drink, but one or two will warm you right up. ©SARAH KAISER Christmas Coffee Ingredients 6 ounces coffee 1 1/2 ounces Irish whiskey, such as Jameson, Bushmills or Tullamore Dew 1 ounce Irish cream liqueur, such as Baileys or Carolans This is one of the few times of year that daytime drinking is less frowned upon—relatives everywhere, remember? To get your morning started off with plenty of yuletide spirit, try one of these special coffees. They’ll get you through a morning of watching spoiled children open presents with your good mood intact. Prepare the whipped cream ahead of time by mixing a little peppermint extract with whipped cream, or shell out a few dollars for the pre-made variety. Microwave an empty mug for 30 seconds to warm it, then add the coffee and alcohol and top with whipped cream. Hot Buttered Rum Snuggie This recipe requires you to spend a few dollars to make a batch of the mixture, but it keeps indefinitely in the freezer so you can drink these all winter long. Hot Buttered Base: vanilla bean gelato 11 pint pound butter 1 pound brown sugar 1 tablespoon allspice 1 tablespoon Cinnamon 1 tablespoon nutmeg 1 teaspoon cloves all ingredients until it Mix becomes creamy deliciousness. When you are ready to settle onto the couch with your snuggie, make a batch in a saucepan, heat it up and get ready to be incredibly comfortable. hot buttered base 22 ounces ounces rum 5 ounces water ** Don’t boil the mixture or leave it on the heat. There’s no need to cook any of the alcohol content out of it. Heat your mug up as instructed in the last recipe, and you’ll warm yourself up inside and outside. Thanks to Seth Waddell of the Crowbar in Corvallis, Ore., for his recipe. If visiting family in Corvallis is on your holiday itinerary, stop by and see if your snuggie measures up to the original. Wherever you go for the holidays and whomever you plan to spend them with, if you come armed with the ability to make a couple of these cocktails you will definitely be the one spreading festive, nondenominational holiday cheer. ©EDWARD BLAKE Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com JOSE-DAVID JACOBO/PSU VANGUARD HOLIDAY GUIDE Holiday hoopla without the heft MILES SANGUINETTI/PSU VANGUARD Drea Vick ‘Tis the season! Classes are almost over, so that means Thanksgiving feasting and Christmas gorging is just around the corner. Pumpkin treats and Christmas cookies abound, big hefty meals and delicious eggnog are sure to leave you in a stupor for days and your waistline is sure to expand a bit. The average person gains seven to 10 pounds over the holidays, but you can prevent that holiday spread by taking a couple of precautions. By no means is the Vanguard telling you not to indulge; we simply want to encourage you to be smart in what indulgences you partake in. It’s so easy to fill up on delicious food every day for the next month, and it’s super important to limit your caloric overload to one day a week at most. It ultimately comes down to making a plan and sticking to 30 it. For one, make sure that you eat fairly healthily at every meal except for the indulgent ones. If you are planning on attending a holiday lunch, eat a healthy breakfast and a light dinner, or a healthy breakfast and lunch with a lot of fruit and vegetables before a holiday dinner. In general, you want to follow the 40–40–20 rule: 40 percent of calories should be from lean protein, 40 percent from complex carbohydrates and 20 percent from fat. This is the optimal combination to keep your metabolism going strong. Make sure you drink a lot of water as well. This will ultimately reduce the amount of water your body retains during high-sodium binge-fests. If you are preparing your big dinner or baking some delicious sweets, it is wise to chew gum while cooking. This will limit how much cookie dough “accidentally” falls into your mouth. If you have some time to kill (Note: Even a small turkey takes approximately 3 hours to cook), it’s not a bad idea to go for a walk with the family, take Fido for a run or go on a chilly bike ride. If you work out for at least an hour, you can significantly offset the consumption. If you can’t (or won’t) do an hour, even 30 minutes of exercise before eating helps. With all that said, it is not a bad idea to lightly graze throughout the day (the key operative word here is lightly). There’s this funny little hormone called leptin that is produced in your fat tissue. This hormone signals to your brain that you are full and satiated. Eating slowly gives your body more time to produce enough leptin to signal your fullness. This will regulate your hunger signals, and you won’t feel the need to binge like no tomorrow when dinner finally rolls around. When everyone is seated for dinner, don’t let others set the pace. This is a marathon, not a sprint. Control your portions. Eat more turkey and sweet potatoes (without the marshmallows), but limit fluffy carbs like dinner rolls and stuffing, which just pack on the calories without really filling you up. The real struggle comes after dinner in the form of sugary desserts. Be choosy about what you eat. Eat one piece of pie or a small amount of cookies. However, don’t beat Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com yourself up if you eat more sweets than is “appropriate;” it’s only one meal, and one meal won’t make you gain weight. It’s the constant binging all month long that will make you take up more real estate. If you eat healthily during other meals, you’ll more than make up for your lack of oversight. It’s worth noting for the over-21 crowd that choosing your alcohol wisely will go a long way. Spirits have an average of 64 calories per 1.5-ounce shot, which doesn’t include the sugar and empty calories in the mixer (eggnog, anyone? Yum!). A 12-ounce beer is easily a couple hundred calories; a 5-ounce serving of wine is anywhere from 110 to 300 calories. All this adds up incredibly fast. It adds insult to injury that you’ll eat way more while under the influence than sober. You’ll just pile calories on top of the calories. Before you know it, your drunken munching has added up to 1,000 extra calories. You can combat this caloric landslide by never going to a party hungry. Snack on some fruit and vegetables or lean protein before going, and you won’t eat as much junk. It’s not too difficult to avoid gaining weight over the holidays. It just takes some classic planning and execution maneuvers. However, if you do pack on a few pounds, there’s always your New Year’s resolution to pick up the ball you dropped, because you’re totally going to stick with it this year. Totally. HOLIDAY GUIDE Get your shop on Breana Harris Books Microcosm Publishing 636 S.E. 11th Ave. 503-232‑6666 http://microcosmpublishing.com/ Bonnet 1129 N.W. Flanders St. 503-954‑2271 http://bonnetboutique.com/ Presents of Mind 3363 S.E. Hawthorne Blvd. 503-230‑7740 http://www.presentsofmind.tv/ Annie Bloom’s Books 7834 S.W. Capitol Hwy. 503-246‑0053 http://www.annieblooms.com/ Mabel and Zora 748 N.W. 11th Ave. 503-241‑5696 http://www.mabelandzora.com/ Stella’s on 21st 1108 N.W. 21st Ave. 503-295‑5930 http://www.stellason21st.com/ Wallace Books 7241 S.E. Milwaukie Ave. 503-235‑7350 https://www.facebook.com/pages/ Wallace-Books/64110272649 Physical Element 416 N.W. 12th Ave. 503-224‑5425 http://www.physicalelement.com/ Suits Me Fine 1405 S.E. Tacoma St. 503-984‑0167 http://www.suitsmefine.org/ Shop Adorn 4120 N.E. Fremont St. 503-505‑7424 http://shopadorn.com/ Bloomsbury 1210 S.E. Grand Ave. 503-841‑6093 http://bloomsburypdx.com/ Green Hand Bookshop 661 Congress St. 207-253‑6808 http://www.greenhandbooks.blogspot.com/ It’s a wrap! Gwen Shaw Wrapping presents is a big part of the holidays, whether people like it or not. For college students, it’s not usually the highest priority in our three week break, but you can still put a little effort into it. It doesn’t even have to be that difficult. My aunts and uncles sometimes give me a couple of bucks under the table to go to my grandma’s basement and wrap some of their presents. Here are some tips and tricks to have the best-looking presents under the tree. Let’s start with a little secret: Plain brown butcher paper is your best friend. It may sound boring, but it can be easily decorated to make a one-of-a-kind gift that anyone will appreciate opening. The simplest idea is to wrap the present, put a ribbon around it and write the recipient’s name on it. This can be done with sharpies, stamps, stickers—anything you can think of. Butcher paper is also good for decorating with some other fancier papers. Put one strip of nicer holiday wrapping around the box and you’ve got a creative, beautiful present. You can also cut shapes out of the wrapping and put them on the paper, or snag some paint chips from your local store and cut shapes to decorate the present with. Even just buying one roll of nice ribbon can spruce up a number of presents and make a big impact, as can wrapping different colored yarns around the box. Remember, any color goes with brown, and you can pick the favorite color of the person who’s getting the gift. It’s all about having fun and keeping in the spirit of the holidays. Aside from butcher paper, there’s an infinite number of other things to wrap presents in: newspaper, comics, magazines, maps, calendars, sheet music—you name it! This is where you can really personalize presents. Is someone in your family traveling later in the year? You can wrap their box in a map of the place they’re going and maybe circle some possible stops they should make. Finally, wrapping presents in other knick-knacks is a really easy way to make a gift special. You can go to Goodwill or another thrift store and find a box or container that your gift will fit in. Using jars, empty oatmeal or Pringles containers and even cereal boxes can be a cheap container for gifts. For those of you who may not be the best at wrapping, there’s something you should keep in mind. The thinner the paper, the more easily it tears and the harder it is to wrap. Butcher paper is a good fix for this, but even just spending a couple of extra dollars and avoiding the cheap Dollar Tree wrapping will really make your life easier while wrapping presents. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 31 HOLIDAY GUIDE Advent Conspiracy Spending less, giving more, loving all Eva-Jeanette Rawlins Every year you think, “I’m not going to get stressed out about Christmas and buying gifts,” but then the 20th of December hits, and suddenly it’s panic city. Your coworker got you a gift and you didn’t get her anything. Now you feel horrible, but you can’t get just her one and not everyone else in the office. Then your mom calls to say she’s decided the family’s doing a secret Santa at the last minute, and now you have to get something under $50 that won’t look like you only had a few days to think about it. Before you know it, your blood pressure and budget are out of control. You think to yourself, “Okay, next year will be different.” 32 Regardless of whether or not you celebrate Christmas, it bombards you from every angle, or at least all the musthaves that go along with it do. If you didn’t feel like you needed to get to the closest mall already, you will after that umpteenth commercial showing how everyone else is, or when those unbeatable prices pop up on the side of your screen and promise they’ll never be back. It starts with Black Friday, and then it’s downhill from there. What if you went into the season with none of that? No expectations, no one to disappoint and no anxiety over credit card limits. You’d have more time, for one thing, more energy, and I’d hazard to say more fun. What if we ©IMAGO DEI COMMUNITY, ©THE CROSSING conspired to make Christmas more about what it’s really supposed to be? Love, hope, joy and peace. Well, someone beat us to it. There’s already a growing movement of Christmas infidels. In two words, it’s an Advent Conspiracy. A group of church pastors got together a few years ago Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com to see about “restoring the scandal of Christmas by substituting compassion for consumption.” Religious or not, this is a line most of us can pause, sigh and nod our heads to. It just sounds right. It’s also a reminder that indeed, Christmas has become a scandal. The simple story of a stable and shepherds is a far cry from the bling and more bling of this most expensive season. Last year, Americans spent $400 billion just during the month of December. The average household shelled out $750. Recession, what? The goal of Advent Conspiracy is to change that. To take all that consuming, turn it on its head and “spend less, give more, love all.” Spend less: Some of my favorite times during the holidays are spent at doit-yourself fairs and craft get-togethers I have with friends. We spend an evening together where we bring our crafts and make our friends and family gifts—gifts that mean the world to them. Not a crafty person? Neither am I. That’s why Pinterest has become my little friend. There are a plethora of ideas for DIY projects that will help you knock people’s socks off with your Martha Stewart self. Okay, maybe she’s not the best example. But you get the picture. Give more: But not things. I love the idea that “the most powerful, memorable gift you can give to someone else is yourself.” It’s about time. Take your nieces and nephews out for a play date on the weekend, walk your elderly neighbor’s dog or go for a hike with your best friend instead of shopping, where you might only get a word in edgewise through the dressing room door. Giving ourselves away is about quality, not quantity. Love all: By spending less on things no one really needs, we can give our resources in ways that will literally change people’s lives. Advent Conspiracy started with three churches, but today thousands have joined in and are raising millions of dollars toward, for example, drilling wells in countries where there is no access to clean drinking water. What better way to say merry Christmas than to offer someone the gift of health and a future for their children? The cool thing is that we can all do this, no matter our beliefs. Spending less, giving more and loving all is the way we change the world, and not just during the holiday season. It’s a conspiracy we can all truly believe in. ARTS & CULTURE ‘I NEED TO RETURN SOME VIDEOTAPES’ FLASHBACK TO THE '80S WITH 'AMERICAN PSYCHO' AT 5TH AVENUE CINEMA HANNAH GRIFFITH Coke, elegance and slaughter are just the beginning of this psychological horror black comedy. Originally written by Bret Easton Ellis in 1991, the heinous and mesmerizing novel was transformed into film by director Mary Harron (I Shot Andy Warhol) in 2000 and is being screened at 5th Avenue Cinema beginning Nov. 29. First off, I recommend not going if you are unable to handle blood, drugs, psychological warfare or dark comedy. However, if you are a fan of these things, then like me you will be constantly chuckling throughout the entire film. American Psycho stars Christian Bale as Patrick Bateman, the sexy psychopathic Wall Street clone who is obsessed with greed, status and domination. As soon as we are introduced to Bateman, we cannot help but sympathize with him purely based on his attractiveness (well, at least for me anyway). Never mind his uncontrollable rage or intense statements that no one seems to hear—“I want to stab you to death, and then play around with your blood”—he’s dreamy! Throughout the film, we are constantly forced to decipher if what is happening is reality or illusion. You would think people would react to (spoiler alert) a naked man running around with a chainsaw, but honestly, with the environment we witness, it is not hard to assume that the characters are just that dense. The story is set in the late ‘80s, when cocaine, materialism and just plain raunchiness seemed to be at their peak. Bateman’s co-bondsmen seem to be just as self-absorbed and obsessed with climbing up the social ladder as he is, minus the 40-plus murders (or so we think). Nothing about this film is easy to comprehend. The beauty of it is that every person is able to create their own ending. Is he a serial killer? Was it all in his head? Or is he just your average late-20s male trapped in society’s evil grasp? All of these could be right, or they could all be wrong. It’s frustrating yet liberating to let your mind roam free. There are also so many mixed feelings about our anti-hero that the audience is unable to decipher whether they love or hate him. He is an egotistical maniac who is literally consumed by vanity and power—but let’s be real, who isn’t in this world? Every character in this story represents the disgusting traits of our futile existence. The pointless chit-chat, the importance of knowing the most hip restaurant to go to and discussing who has the best ass in town. All of these are useless in our lives, yet they grip us by the necks and choke the life out of us. I think the most frightening thing about the film is not Bateman himself, but what he represents—us. American Psycho is a revolutionary film that will wrap its arms around your brain and refuse to let go. It’s sexy, horrendous and hysterical. This is a mustsee American classic, and I urge everyone to go. However, if you for some reason decide to opt-out, please read the book. The book is always better, right? 5th Avenue Cinema is free for Portland State students, $3 for other students and $4 general admission. Visit 5thavenuecinema.org for more information. ©LIONSGATE FILMS Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 33 PSU JSS CELEBRATES JAPANESE CULTURE JEREMY KING On the evening of Nov. 22, Portland State’s Japanese Student Society paid homage to all things Japanese with a series of performances and a variety of events catered toward honoring the customs, traditions and culture of Japan. As the long line of guests that was crammed into the third floor of the Smith Memorial Student Union slowly filed into the ballroom, those in attendance were urged to try the selection of Japanese cuisine made available, from takoyaki to rice crackers and much more. The event kicked off with a slew of activities; from a table dedicated to Japanese calligraphy to a booth geared toward providing information regarding Japanese culture and traditional games to pass the time, a heavy atmosphere of tradition and heritage filled the ballroom. “I think that in American culture, we have a tendency to do away with tradition. Considering how relatively young the U.S. is historically, we often miss out on traditional art forms, for example. One great thing about Japan Night is the chance to experience such a wide variety of traditional performance arts,” said Zac Bradberry, former co-vice president of the JSS. The passion, effort and discipline poured into each and every performance was clear. The opening musical performance by Portland Taiko rippled through the air with visceral acuity, the intense bass rumbling of the heavy traditional Japanese drums drawing inspiration from a rich and vibrant cultural heritage. Up next, PSU Aikido demonstrated the noncompetitive martial art of Aikido, 34 geared toward self-defense, in a presentation that emphasized the importance of fluidity over brawn. Mitsuki Dazai was next to appear onstage, bringing the audience back hundreds of years in a masterful demonstration of the koto, a traditional Japanese stringed instrument with a distinct, exotic sound. “…I found Miss Mitsuki Dazai’s koto performance very impressive. It was one of the more traditional performances of the night, but it was amazing to hear such great applause from an audience of so many young people. That must mean something,” Bradberry said. The next few performances brought the crowd roaring back to the present, from high-energy J-pop tunes and accompanying dances to heartfelt vocal performances of modern Japanese ballads and one seriously awesome display of breakdancing prowess. The audience was given a brief respite in the form of a Manzai demonstration, a genre of Japanese comedy akin to slapstick, before the night’s festivities drew to a close with an excellent performance from the JSS Soranbushi team. Soranbushi, traditional Japanese music with heavy sea-faring roots, depicts the movement of ocean waves as Japanese fishermen go about their work through dance. On that note, Japan Night came to a triumphant finish, leaving some guests with an appetite for more. “…Throughout our lives, we’re always kind of just told what to be aware of in regards to other cultures and people, rather than experiencing a sense of their history for ourselves,” said Ben Himes, a student of Warner Pacific College who attended Japan Night. “Tonight, there was a real, honest air of Japanese culture throughout and I thought that was awesome. We weren’t being forced to digest all this information…it was a much more honest and raw glimpse into the traditions and heritage of a truly unique culture, and I’d like to see more of that.” The earnest desire to impart some understanding of Japanese culture was very much a conscious motivator on behalf of the JSS leading up to the event. “I hope they can get at least a glimmer of what Japanese culture is really all about”, said Heather Aplington, a Japanese major at PSU and leader of the JSS Soranbushi team. “There’s so much more that could be shown, but we just don’t have the time for that.” The JSS staunchly promotes intercultural awareness, and that heartfelt sentiment could be felt with resounding clarity in each and every performance of the night. In this regard, it was a celebration of not only Japanese culture, but also an optimistic plea to embrace cultures and people from all corners of the world. “Though you can draw various cultural commonalities between Japan and the United States, it usually seems that the two nations have so many differences, as well,” Bradber ry said. “One thing I love about experiencing other cultures is that you gain so many opportunities to learn and consider new perspectives! I hope for other people to have this same feeling.” Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com THE VANGUARD NEEDS YOU NOW HIRING Arts & Culture Writers Apply @ psuvanguard.com ETC FEATURED EVENT Tree Lighting Ceremony 5:30 p.m. Friday, Nov. 29 Pioneer Courthouse Square 701 S.W. 6th Ave., Portland, OR 97204 The official start of the holiday season is not complete in Portland until the traditional tree lighting at Pioneer Square. Gather with fellow Portland residents and guests to celebrate by singing along with carols and enjoying a performance by Pink Martini and other musical guests before the lighting of the 75-foot Douglas fir that will be at home in the square through the holidays. FREE ©McMENAMINS EVENT CALENDAR Tuesday, Nov. 26 Open Mic Tuesdays 7 p.m. Smith Memorial Student Union, Parkway North 1825 S.W. Broadway, Portland, OR 97201 Every Tuesday night at the Smith Memorial Student Union, you are invited to participate in an open mic night. Bring your own instruments and let Portland State Professional Sound take care of the rest while you share your sound with the student body. FREE Philip Roth Goes to the Movies 7 p.m. College of Urban and Public Affairs, foyer 506 S.W. Mill St., Portland, OR 97201 The Harold Schnitzer Family Progam in Judaic studies at Portland State will host an evening with professors Michael Weingrad of PSU and Marat Grinberg of Reed College for an open discussion of film adaptations of the novels of Philip Roth. The discussion will pose the question, “Is Nemesis filmable?” The Portland Jewish Book Club event will also include movie clips from Goodbye, Columbus, Portnoy’s Complaint, Decon- structing Harry, The Human Stain and Elegy. FREE Wednesday, Nov. 27 Wednesday Night Swing 7:30 p.m. Bossanova Ballroom 722 E. Burnside St., Portland, OR 97214 Every Wednesday at the Bossanova Ballroom, local nonprofit Portland Lindy Society hosts a night of swing dancing. Each evening starts with a beginning dance lesson that is covered by the price of admission and taught by local swing dance instructors, followed by open dance for all. Admission is $7 per person. 21+ Thursday, Nov. 28 PROPER’s Annual Free Thanksgiving Day Feast-ival Noon–4 p.m. Celebration Tabernacle 8131 N. Denver Ave., Portland 97217 North Portland community enhancement organization PROPER, nonprofit soul food cafe Po’Shines and the Kenton community team up to bring together the 13th annual free Thanksgiving dinner. The goal of this dinner is not only to fa- cilitate a sense of community, but also to make sure anyone and everyone has a Thanksgiving meal. The event will also include activities, music and storytelling put together by local artists and provides a fantastic multicultural environment. FREE BeerQuest Haunted Pub Crawl and Ghost Tour 8 p.m. Old Town Thanksgiving weekend is your last chance this year to join fellow ghost and beer enthusiasts on BeerQuest’s Haunted Pub Crawl. Explore Old Town and the infamous Shanghai Tunnels to learn about Portland’s sordid history while you enjoy the current reality of some fine craft brews. Admission is $25 per person, but this includes transportation, beer and a tour you will not soon forget. For more information and to find out where to meet, visit www. beerquestpdx.com. 21+ Friday, Nov. 29 2013 Macy’s Holiday Parade 9–10:30 a.m. Downtown Portland Each year Macy’s kicks off the holiday season with a parade that runs through downtown Portland and features everything from colorful floats to marching bands. And of course, the Macy’s parade would not be complete without the appearance of Santa Claus on his sleigh! The parade begins on the corner of NW Park and Davis. The parade will travel east on Davis to Broadway, south on Broadway to SW Alder, east on SW Alder (past Macy’s) to SW Fourth, north on SW Fourth to NW Flanders, west on SW Flanders to NW Park Avenue. FREE The Enchanted Toyshop with Firebird 4 p.m. and 7 p.m. Lincoln Hall 1620 S.W. Park Ave., Portland, OR 97201 The Portland Ballet and Portland State Symphony Orchestra invite you to a show that is just in time for the season. Enjoy a performance that is sure to create a magnificent atmosphere through the expert performance of classical music and the finest of dance. Tickets are $5 for the 4 p.m. preview. Prices range from $5 to $35 for other shows. For more information visit www.theportlandballet.com Saturday, Nov. 30 Student and Alumni Holiday Sale 10 a.m.–5 p.m. Oregon College of Art and Craft 8245 S.W. Barnes Rd., Portland, OR 97225 Get some holiday shopping out of the way with the Oregon College of Art and Craft’s student and alumni sale. Over 60 artists and craft makers will be on site to showcase and sell their work, and anyone is welcome to attend and make purchases. A portion of each sale goes to benefit the OCAC scholarship fund for current and future students. For more information, visit www.ocac.edu. FREE Mississippi Holiday Tree Lighting 4:30 p.m.–6 p.m. Mississippi Commons 3721-3727 N. Mississippi Ave., Portland, OR 97227 The Historical Mississippi Avenue Business Association and Mississippi Pizza Pub present the Annual Holiday Tree Lighting at Mississippi Commons. Featuring notable local performer Mr. Ben and debut performance of the Portland Youth Ukulele Orchestra and Mo Phillips, the event is sure to have something for the entire family. Stash Teas will be serving free tea at the event to keep guests warm. FREE Pearl District Tree Lighting 5–7 p.m. Jamison Square 810 N.W. 11th Ave., Portland, OR 97209 Come to the Pearl District for holiday caroling and live music that will start the time of year off right. There will be hot chocolate and treats from local restaurants available to make sure you stay warm and well-fed, and toy donations will be taken for Live Love Christmas, a charitable campaign sponsored by City Bible Church to provide gifts to those in the community experiencing difficulty. Local businesses will also be open late to offer a head start to shoppers. FREE FREE PSU FREE OPEN TO PUBLIC 21 & OVER Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 35 Somethingâ€™s telling me you should play it safe on this one. Scorpio Oct. 23â€“Nov. 21 When things donâ€™t seem to be going your way, itâ€™s easy to get wrapped up in your worry. Try to remember that a state of worry is never a productive mindset. Youâ€™ve got this, Scorpio, you just have to believe that. Pisces Feb. 19â€“Mar. 20 Resist the urge to fall into old patterns of thought. Youâ€™ve come a long way in shifting your perspective for the better, dear Pisces, and it would be a shame to see your hard work unraveled with the rooting of one dark thought. Stay in the light, my friend; things are brighter that way. Capricorn Dec. 22â€“Jan. 19 You can only tap a well so many times before it runs dryâ€”does that resonate with you, dear Capricorn? Youâ€™ve been putting a lot of yourself into your obligations lately, so be sure to put something into yourself as well. Sagittarius Nov. 22â€“Dec. 21 Have you been tempted with something in recent days, dear Sagittarius? Are you have a hard time deciphering the Universeâ€™s intention in sending you this temptation? Enter with caution, my adventurous friend. Sudoku 2 5 6 2 7 1 4 1 7 5 9 3 9 1 2 7 3 6 4 7 8 8 2 8 5 â€œPortland State Vanguardâ€?. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com ÂŠ Puzzles provided by sudokusolver.com 2 Gemini May 21â€“Jun. 20 Leo Jul. 23â€“Aug. 22 ACROSS ACROSS 1 Now, in Acapulco 1 Creator of 6 Like a college Fearless Fosdick course labeled 7â€œ101â€? â€œThis is badâ€? 11551, Wordonce part: Abbr. 11 14One Kindusing of pork on a 14 Yelp Chinese menu or TripAdvisor, 15perhaps Whatâ€™s to eat 15 16Prefix Cedar with Rapids biology college 16 with planet 17Suffix Blow away singer or fact Johnny? 17 Overcome an 19 National Dog Day unpleasant mo. misunderstanding 20 Navigational aid 19 Fall mo. 21Bit Name on some 20 of crew euros equipment 22___ Mountain goatâ€™s 21 tai perch 22 Actor Milo 23 Boars? 24 Left-brain activity 27 â€œIn the end the 29 â€œAnderson pressure got to Cooper meâ€? 360Â°â€? channel 30 Blufferâ€™s words 30 Asimov and 31Newton What may precede one 31 March honoree, 32for â€œYou wish!â€? short 33â€œAnd Sounds relief 34 ___ofbedâ€? C Crossword rossword 36 â€œThe Wonder 35 Yearsâ€? 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Open your heart to all of your blessings and enjoy them for what they are. You deserve it. Youâ€™re one of the more reserved signs, dear Virgo, and while there are certainly times this makes you feel disadvantaged, right now is not one of those times. Use this time for reflection wisely and youâ€™ll come out swinging when it counts. Recent events have Normally the phrase brought you more secuâ€œnothing lasts foreverâ€? Libra Sept. 23â€“Oct. 22 rity, but try not to get too carries a negative connoThis may be hard to comfortable or you just tation, but for you, this is hear, Libra, but itâ€™s may lose the push you actually a very good thing time to abandon your need to propel yourself right now. Keep in mind perfectionist tendeninto something bigger. that the overwhelming cies. If you spend your Keep your eyes and ears stress you feel is not pertime worrying over evopen for opportunity, manent. Like the winds ery last detail, you simGemini; itâ€™s time. and rains of a great storm, ply wonâ€™t be able to get The New York Times Syndication Sales Corporation this too shall come to pass. through everything. The New York Times Syndication Sales 620 Eighth Avenue, New York, N.Y.Corporation 10018 620For Eighth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10018 Accept that sometimes Information Call: 1-800-972-3550 Information Call: November 1-800-972-3550 good is good enough. ForFor Release Tuesday, 26, 2013 For Release Wednesday, November 20, 2013 Oh, Aries, I wish there was something I could say to make you believe that the chaos will all soon come to an end; right now, though, itâ€™s the only thing you see. If you wonâ€™t take my word for it, just take your obligations one step at a time. Before you know it, your task list will see completion. While youâ€™re definitely riding the highs of your latest accomplishments, youâ€™re also wondering what else is in store. Take a moment to enjoy where you are, Aquarius; I promise youâ€™ll be happy with where youâ€™ll be once you finally arrive. Cancer Jun. 21â€“Jul. 22 Home stretch! Home stretch! I know you would love nothing more than to throw your hands up in the air and stomp out in dramatic fashion, but you just canâ€™t. Keep your eyes on the prize, Taurus; you are closer than you think. Aries Mar. 21â€“Apr. 19 Aquarius Jan. 20â€“Feb. 18 Taurus Apr. 20â€“May 20 A K AI GT LA E T Y DE EA CH L A R E DI RN YF O FR M A I M L E CS H M O KE EA RD RL AE A J AS KE N EO EK LI U G EL N N EA SI E D UT H N N C O R U A S N A U P C OL AE TI V A R I C O H U A S S Q U S A K F FE W S EJ O R S Y H U S A T U E D N T S E T R A I N T E D R E N S P CI A S R E S A T L F R E F U S S E H P O A G X O S TI GI L C O K O A N TE E W D P EE EE D N C A L N UT MI P R OE BA I D E S K H O A K M O E H E O V M EE L D E R M EP DT O Y 68 Oracles 65 J.F.K.â€™s W.W. 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VIKING FOOTBALL FINISHES SEASON WITH A LOSS EASTERN WASHINGTON ENDS THE SEASON WITH PERFECT BIG SKY RECORD SCORES Top Performers: LaMarcus Aldridge, 30 points, 21 rebounds 113 PORTLAND @ PHOENIX 101 WED. 11/27 6:00 p.m. \| COMCAST SPORTS WHL PORTLAND @ SPOKANE FRI. 11/29 7:05 p.m. \| KPAM 860 AM WHL PORTLAND SEATTLE Top Performers: Taylor Leier and Brandon Leipsic, 1 goal each 4 PSU MEN’S BASKETBALL 5 PSU @ BOISE STATE FRI. 11/29 5:00 p.m. PSU WOMEN’S BASKETBALL PSU FOOTBALL PSU 41 EASTERN WASHINGTON 42 PRINCETON vs. PSU SAT. 11/30 12:00 p.m. \| STOTT CENTER Top Performers: Kasey Closs, 191 yards, 3 TDs PSU VOLLEYBALL FRI. 11/29 7:00 p.m. \| STOTT CENTER UC DAVIS PSU Top Performers: DaShaun Wiggins, 21 points JAY PENGELLY In a scenario eerily similar to the previous week, Portland State lost 41–42 with their opponent scoring in the final minute. They finished the season with two disappointing losses following a three-game win streak. Going into Saturday’s football matchup against the powerhouse Eastern Washington Eagles, who were unbeaten in Big Sky Conference play, the PSU Vikings were already ensured a better season than last year. In 2012 PSU was 3–8. Entering Cheney, Wash., this year, they had a 6–5 record. Eastern Washington began its season with a shocking upset over Oregon State University. The Eagles (9–2, 7–0) feature a dominant quarterback in sophomore dynamo Vernon Adams, who has averaged 327 yards per game while throwing 41 touchdowns this year. PSU and EWU are the two leading offenses in the Big Sky. The Vikings used three different players under center in the game: Collin Ramirez, Kieron McDonagh and Thomas Carter. Ramirez had 13 completions on 25 attempts for 236 yards with two touchdowns and one interception. McDonagh went 9 for 16, also with two touchdowns and an interception, and unfortunately was sacked four times. Carter SPORTS BIG SKY TOURNAMENT 63 79 PSU WOMEN’S BASKETBALL had three passes in the game, completing two for 59 yards. Running back DJ Adams had his usual strong performance, carrying the ball 28 times for 144 yards and a touchdown. He finished the year with 1600 yards and 19 touchdowns. Saturday was Adams’ ninth hundred-plusyard game of the season. The Eagles were the first on the scoreboard when Vernon Adams threw a 3-yard pass to Quincy Forte midway through the first quarter. The Vikings responded late in the first when McDonagh ran the ball for 2 yards into the end zone, tying the game. McDonagh and the Viking offense continued to click in the second. They scored twice more on throws to Kasey Closs, who had one of his best games, catching 11 passes for 191 yards and three touchdowns. PSU was up 21–7 entering the second half of play, but the third quarter belonged to Eastern Washington. Forte ran for a touchdown early on, and Adams threw another one later to Ashton Clark. The game was tied at 21, all with one quarter still to play. And what a quarter the fourth was. There were six touchdowns between the two teams, four coming in the final six minutes. They exchanged scores back and forth, and at SEATTLE PSU Top Performers: Sylvia Shepard, 25 points 80 68 Top Performers: Leigh-Ann Haataja, 6 blocks 3 2 KASEY CLOSS had his biggest game of the season, catching three touchdown passes. JOSE-DAVID JACOBO/PSU VANGUARD one point Ramirez went to a read-option offense, something we haven’t seen from the Vikings since early in the year. The fateful moment came with one minute left in regulation, when Ramirez found Victor Dean for a 29-yard touchdown, putting the Vikings ahead 41–35. Marcus Kinsella missed the kick for an extra point, his third missed extra point this season. The kicking game has been a weakness for PSU all year, as they had three makes in 16 field goal attempts. The Eagles had a minute to score, but Adams only needed half that time. He found Cooper Kupp for a 15-yard touchdown with 31 seconds on the clock. Kevin Miller made the extra point to put the Eagles up by one. PSU managed to get off five plays in the final half minute but only made it to EW’s 26-yard line with no time left to attempt a field goal. The Viking defense was led by Xavier Coleman, who had a great game with nine tackles, one interception and a forced fumble. This game was part of the Dam Cup, a rivalry between the two schools where points are accumulated from a variety of sports. Before the game, PSU was leading 7–0. A football win would have given them 11 points and won them the trophy. PSU won the first two Dam Cup Championships and EW won last year. It will be up to the basketball teams and a new fan participation aspect (found at www. Damcup.com, it’s worth two points so check it out, PSU students!) to decide the ultimate victor between PSU and their closest Big Sky rival. THE AMOUNT BY WHICH PSU LOST TO EASTERN WASHINGTON. THE MISSED EXTRA POINT WOULD HAVE SENT THE GAME TO OVERTIME. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 37 SPORTS TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN Dear Blazers fans, Should we be excited? The Blazers started off the season winning twelve of their first 14 games, they have won road games and they are the only team to beat perennial Western Conference power San Antonio Spurs. But let’s return to Earth a little bit, Blazers fans. Don’t get me wrong, I am proud of this team. 12–2. Wow, that is a great record. And it is something that should create excitement in this team, but let’s not get too crazy. The Blazers have had good starts before, only to fall down the stretch. We are all hoping that won’t happen this year, but there is reason to believe that this start isn’t how the rest of the season will go. The number one thing is the Blazers offense. They shoot a lot of threes—and I mean a lot. Granted, they have been hot to start the season. Wesley Matthews has been out of this world when shooting the ball and the Blazers are playing to their strengths, which happen to be outside shooting right now. Unfortunately for Portland, this won’t last forever. The NBA season is long, and streaks come and go. So what will happen to the Blazers when their shooting averages out? What will happen if they need to score in the paint to win games when other teams take away their outside shooting? Yeah I am nitpicking here, especially after this incredible start, but all of these concerns are legitimate down the road. This season is very young, and unfortunately winning percentage after the first 14 games in the NBA does not mean as much as the NFL or college football. That in itself is a critique not of the Blazers, but of how some see a record after 20 or so percent of a season is completed. The NBA season is long, and it changes constantly. Teams go hot, teams go cold. That is the number-one reason why we, as Blazers fans, should not freak about this start. Creating huge expectations about this team is not going to make this season any more exciting. Instead, we should enjoy this start and critique the season as it is played, not on potential based purely on the record in November. With all that said, man, is it hard not to jump for joy after this start. I am excited. Not out of this world, but the Blazers are winning the games they are supposed to, and isn’t that something you want to see early on? This is not a boring team either. They are exciting to watch. The starters produce an exciting brand of basketball, and the bench comes in and continues it. There are stars on this team, but the Blazers have much more of a team feel than most NBA teams seem to recently, where they are a bunch of stars put together on a roster. Don’t hype this season. Especially now. Let’s enjoy this as Blazers fans. Out of any fan base in professional sports, we deserve it. But redemption doesn’t come in the regular season, or in November. Redemption comes later, when the NBA really gets going. Portland hasn’t won a playoff series in a long time, and no one will remember this hot start if we don’t live up to the expectations of this fan base—not of this season specifically, but of this franchise in general. Get a win in a playoff series. Sincerely, Alex Moore Vanguard Sports Desk CALLING ALL SPORTS ENTHUSIASTS THE VANGUARD IS LOOKING FOR Sports Writers Apply @ psuvanguard.com 38 Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com VOLLEYBALL TEAM RELOADS WITH NEW TALENT FOR NEXT YEAR CURRENT TEAM SET TO HOST BIG SKY TOURNAMENT TOBIN SHIELDS Over the past two weeks, the Portland State volleyball team has announced the signing of three letters of intent for the upcoming 2014 season. Head coach Michael Seemann has personally made statements about each of the three young players and is excited to see how they are going to help him continue with the excellent standard his team has set. Lauren Nicholson In her hometown of Upland, Calif., Nicholson averaged 6.3 kills per set during her senior year while hitting .437 overall. Measuring in at 5 feet 9 inches tall, she was named MaxPreps player of the week, listed on her high school’s honor roll twice and played privately most of her high school career. Nicholson is excited to begin her college career at PSU and has high hopes of helping her new team to the conference tournament each year. “We could not be more excited to have Lauren join our program in 2014,” Seemann said. “Lauren brings a high level of skill and intelligence to the outside position. We see her as a very strong six rotation player that will have an impact on our program immediately. She can bring it from the end line with two different tough serves, a skill we value here at Portland State. I was impressed with Lauren’s ability to attack the ball anywhere she wants with accurate placement and power.” Roni LaPierre “Roni is an exciting player to watch,” Seemann stated. “She has a live arm and can bring heat to the outside hitting position. We love the competitive attitude she carries on the court. Roni has incredible vision and feel as an attacker and can score from anywhere.” At her high school in Glendora, Calif., she leads in kills. Her team looks to be on their way to their sixth consecutive league championship. Although this year’s awards have yet to be announced, LaPierre was named the Most Valuable Offensive Player in the league her junior year. “She is extremely effective as an attacker out of the back row as well,” Seemann said. “We have seen Roni go on serving runs of three and five points frequently, and that fits well into our philosophy of valuing that skill. She has a high volleyball IQ and has the ability to make big plays. We could not be more proud of her joining our program in 2014.” LaPierre decided to play for PSU because she felt at home in the city. She immediately bonded with the other women on the team and believes she can bring something positive to the program. Erin Clark Hailing from Ruben S. Ayala High School in Chino Hills, Calif., Seemann believes that “Erin will make an immediate impact in our gym at the setting position…along with being an outstanding setter, she brings all of the intangi- bles in that position. She is a leader, she is extremely competitive and has the ability to score and disrupt from the service line.” Clark has garnered a number of accolades throughout her high school career, including being named to the 2013 Under Armour High School All-American watch list before her senior season. She totaled 513 assists, 136 kills, 36 aces and 18 total blocks this season. Clark earned All-Conference first team honors her sophomore and junior years while being named conference MVP as a junior. She was team captain as a senior and earned the Ayala Distinguished Student-Athlete with Character Award. “We have seen Erin take over matches entirely, and every time she touches the ball, she puts her teammates in quality situations. We are proud and thrilled to have her don a Vikings uniform in 2014,” Seemann said. Clark has had the dream of playing college volleyball since she was 9 years old, and says she fell in love with PSU the first time she set foot on campus. The athletic department can’t wait for Clark, Nicholson and LaPierre to join what is already a dominant program. The current Viking team is the No. 1 seed at the Big Sky Conference Tournament this weekend. PSU is hosting the tournament, with games beginning at Stott Center Friday, Nov. 29 at 10 a.m. As the top seed, the Vikings’ first game will be at 7 p.m., against the lowest remaining seed after the first round of games. SPORTS GETTING PAID NOT TO PLAY Dead money in sports pays players who aren’t even on their team, or even playing at all Bobby Bonilla 2000 New York Mets $42.25 million (by 2035) St. Louis Spirits 1976 $19 million $20 million Jason Bay 2012 New York Mets $18.125 million $15 million TOBIN SHIELDS What is dead money? When a player signs on with a team in any major league sport, they are often guaranteed a certain salary depending on the length of the contract. However, in some situations, if a player is released or traded to another team, the remaining portion of that contract is still paid out. For example, if a player signs a five-year contract with a $5 million signing bonus, $1 million of his signing bonus counts toward the team’s salary cap for each year of his five-year contract. If he is released after the second year of his contract, he receives the remaining $3 million of his signing bonus that year and the team takes the hit for that amount. That leaves the team with $2 million less to spend on players who actually play. This existence of dead money in major league sports has worked its way into becoming standard practice in the economics of the game. Between player unions, old contract language and the industry’s inability to change something that is so heavily intertwined into the system, many believe that it is impossible to operate without the existence of dead money. But how feasible is it for a club to pay players who aren’t on their team or even playing the sport at all? Although the cost of dead money is fairly high, it has sim- ply become one more expected expense teams have to pay. $10 million Getting paid not to play There are a number of players in almost all major sports who are getting paid to either not play at all or to oppose the very team that is paying them. There are currently three NFL teams with more than $25 million in dead money. The Indianapolis Colts have an allowance of $130 million to spend on their player’s salaries. However, almost $40 million of that money goes toward paying players who aren’t even on their team—almost 30 percent of their payroll. The Dallas Cowboys and Oakland Raiders have about the same allowance and pay close to 30 percent in dead money as well. Peyton Manning, formerly of the NFL’s Colts, has $16 million worth of dead money that is contractually owed to him due to his release in 2012. Eleven other players have at least $5 million and will continue to have that money disbursed to them until their contract has ended. Steve Young, however, might have gone down in history as one of the most famous cases of dead money. Before Young became a member of the San Francisco 49ers, he played in the United States Football League, a short-lived league that competed with the NFL during the 1980s. Although Chone Figgins 2012 Seattle Mariners $8.5 million Bobby Bonilla 1996 Baltimore Orioles $0.5 million Laurent Robinson 2013 Jacksonville Jaguars $8.5 million $5 million $1 million SEAN BUCKNAM/PSU VANGUARD the NFL was enticing for Young, the USFL offered him an outrageous contract that he couldn’t refuse: $36 million spread out over a total of 43 years. That means that Young would continue to get paid out until the year 2027. Even though the league collapsed and went bankrupt soon after it began, Young struck a deal with J. William Oldenburg of the Los Angeles Express that would have guaranteed his pay throughout the contract’s full duration—except Young never funded the annuity. He could’ve gone down as the holder of the biggest dead money contract of all time. As it is, he’ll have to get by with just his ESPN salary. Dead money in NBA advertising Although dead money through player contracts con- tributes to a large portion of a sport league’s costs, it also exists with coach’s contracts, executive’s salaries and, in one case, with someone who never even worked for a league. In what many consider the greatest sports business deal of all time, Ozzie and Daniel Silna have made over $300 million from the NBA since 1974. The two are the former owners of an American Basketball Association team called the Spirits of St. Louis. After the ABA was absorbed by the NBA in 1976, the two agreed to disband their team in exchange for what seemed like nothing at the time: one-seventh of the future NBA broadcast revenues. No one could have ever imagined how much money the NBA would make from their broadcast rights. However, in the mid 1980s, the brothers were given almost $500,000 in royalties, and in 1997, when the NBA received their first mega-contract, they were forced to pay almost $17.5 million dollars to the Silnas. Since that time, the two have been receiving about that same amount each year, which has totaled over $300 million since the contract’s inception. Vanguard \| NOVEMBER 26, 2013 \| psuvanguard.com 39	i don't know
A dosimeter measures human absorption of?	Dosimeter - 必应 Sign in Dosimeter A radiation dosimeter is a device that measures exposure to ionizing radiation. It has two main uses: for human radiation protection and for measurement of dose in both medical and industrial processes. Dosimeter Personal dosimeters The personal ionising radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and radiation health physics and is primarily used to estimate the radiation dose deposited in an individual wearing the device. Ionising radiation damage to the human body is cumulative, and is related to the total dose received, for which the SI unit is the sievert. Workers exposed to radiation, such as radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, those in laboratories using radionuclides, and HAZMAT teams are required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. Such devices are known as "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes. Dosimeters can be worn to obtain a whole body dose and there are also specialist types that can be worn on the fingers or clipped to headgear, to measure the localised body irradiation for specific activities. Common types of personal dosimeters for ionizing radiation include: Electronic personal dosimeter (EPD)[edit] Main article: Electronic Personal Dosimeter The electronic personal dosimeter (EPD) is an electronic device that has a number of sophisticated functions, such as continual monitoring which allows alarm warnings at preset levels and live readout of dose accumulated. These are especially useful in high dose areas where residence time of the wearer is limited due to dose constraints. The dosimeter can be reset, usually after taking a reading for record purposes, and thereby re-used multiple times. MOSFET dosimeter[edit] MOSFET dosimeters are now used as clinical dosimeters for radiotherapy radiation beams. The main advantages of MOSFET devices are: 1. The MOSFET dosimeter is direct reading with a very thin active area (less than 2 μm). 2. The physical size of the MOSFET when packaged is less than 4 mm. 3. The post radiation signal is permanently stored and is dose rate independent. Gate oxide of MOSFET which is conventionally silicon dioxide is an active sensing material in MOSFET dosimeters. Radiation creates defects (acts like electron-hole pairs) in oxide, which in turn affects the threshold voltage of the MOSFET. This change in threshold voltage is proportional to radiation dose. Alternate high-k gate dielectrics like Hafnium dioxide and Aluminum oxides are also proposed as a radiation dosimeters. Film badge dosimeter[edit] Main article: Film badge dosimeter Film badge dosimeters are for one-time use only. The level of radiation absorption is indicated by a change to the film emulsion, which is shown when the film is developed. Quartz fiber dosimeter[edit] Main article: Quartz fiber dosimeter Quartz fiber dosimeters are charged to a high voltage. As the gas in the dosimeter chamber becomes ionized by radiation the charge leaks away, causing the fiber indicator to change against a graduated scale. Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)[edit] Main article: Thermoluminescent dosimeter A thermoluminescent dosimeter measures ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the intensity of visible light emitted from a crystal in the detector when heated. The intensity of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation exposure. Both the quartz fiber and film badge types are being superseded by the TLD and the EPD. ^ Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry in http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/R183 ^ Polymer gel dosimetry review in http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/55/5/R01 ^ phd1 ^ http://www.mosfet.ca/global/pdf/technotes/te_4.pdf ^ V. S. Senthil Srinivasan and Arun Pandya, ″Dosimetry aspects of hafnium oxide metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) capacitor″, Thin Solid Films Volume 520, Issue 1, 31 October 2011, Pages 574–577 ^ Frame, Paul (2007-07-25). "Pocket Chambers and Pocket Dosimeters". Health physics historical instrument museum collection. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. Retrieved 2008-11-08. ^ ICRP publication 103, paragraph 112 ^ ICRP publication 103, paragraph B50 ^ "In 1991, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommended a revised system of dose limitation, including specification of primary limiting quantities for radiation protection purposes. These protection quantities are essentially unmeasurable" - IAEA Safety report 16 ^ ICRP publication 103, paragraph B64 ^ ICRP publication 103, paragraph B146 ^ ICRP publication 103, paragraph B147 ^ ICRP pub 103 glossary	Ionizing radiation
The Coca-Cola corporation launched its Sprite drink in 1961 to compete with which similarly famous earlier product?	USDA \| OHSEC \| Radiation Safety Division \| Dosimetry Dosimetry DEFINITION Dosimetry is the study, measurement, method of measurement, or instrument of measurement of radiation dose. Dosimetry often refers to the status of wearing a personnel badge that measures and monitors dose. It may also refer to dose history and the records where dose history is maintained. More specifically, radiation dosimetry is the calculation of the absorbed dose in tissue resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation. Dose is reported in units of gray (Gy) for mass, and dose equivalent is reported in units of sieverts (Sv) for biological tissue, where 1 Gy or 1 Sv is equal to 1 joule per kilogram. Traditional units are still prevalent as well, where dose is often reported in rads and dose equivalent in rems. By definition, 1 Gy = 100 rads and 1 Sv = 100 rems. Workers who may be exposed to radiation carry personal dosimeters. These dosimeters measure dose, based on a variety of measuring systems. The average background dose for a human being is about 350 milli-rems per year, resulting mostly from cosmic radiation and natural isotopes in the earth. Radiation dose refers to the amount of energy deposited in matter and its biological effect on living tissue, and should not be confused with activity, measured in units of curie or becquerel. Exposure to a radioactive source will give a dose which is dependent on the activity, time of exposure, energy of the radiation emitted, distance from the source and shielding. The dose equivalent is then dependent upon the additional assignment of weighting factors describing biological effects for different kinds of radiation on different organs. DOSIMETRY Development of Standards Radiation safety standards and policies are set by a consensus among national and international scientific organizations, such as the Health Physics Society, the National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP), and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The risks associated with low-level radiation exposure are conservatively calculated to be proportional to those observed with high-level exposure. These calculated risks are compared to other known occupational and environmental hazards, and standards are established to control and limit potential harmful radiation effects. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission sets regulatory dose limits for the public and occupationally exposed workers. Personnel Dosimetry Radiation monitoring is required when an individual's radiation exposure is likely to exceed 10% of the dose limit, when a new activity is being initiated, or when there is no other method that can adequately determine a dose in an accident situation. Personnel monitoring for radiation exposure is not required as part of the USDA broad scope radioactive materials license, but is a requirement for all irradiator operators. RSD also requires personnel monitoring for nuclear gauge users, and area monitoring for x-ray producing equipment. Through years of monitoring, the USDA has determined that no individual working with unsealed radioactive materials is likely to receive in excess of 10% of the annual dose limits. Adding or Changing Dosimetry Complete the “Radiation Safety Program Dosimetry Request RSD-70” and send, fax, or email it to the Radiation Safety Division. Proper Use of Dosimeters Always wear your dosimeter when working with radioactive material. It should be worn on the shirt front, or on the waste at the pant or skirt belt or loop, with the front or name side of the dosimeter facing outward. Do not take your dosimeter home. Do not store or leave your dosimeter near radioactive material. Do not loan your dosimeter to a coworker or visitor. Do not wear your dosimeter during a medical procedure, where you might have an x-ray taken, for example, at the dentist’s office. (Notify RSD if this happens by mistake). Do not disassemble or otherwise tamper with your dosimeter. Do not continuing wearing the old dosimeter once you receive the new one. RADIATION DOSE LIMITS The yearly occupational dose limit for a radiation worker is: 5.0 rems for whole body 15.0 rems for lens of the eye 50.0 rems for skin or an extremity Minor, in an Occupational Setting The yearly dose limits for a minor working in a restricted area are 10% of the doses for an adult radiation worker. This is 0.5 rems (or 500 milli-rems) for a whole body dose. Occupational Dose for an Embryo or Fetus The dose to an embryo or fetus, resulting from the mother’s occupational exposure, shall not exceed 0.5 rems (or 500 milli-rems) during the 9-month period of pregnancy. A woman who works in an area that is restricted for purposes of controlling radiation exposure may declare her pregnancy, in writing, to her supervisor, and request that the dose limits for the embryo or fetus apply to her for the duration of her pregnancy. When this occurs, the supervisor must contact the LRPO and RSD to obtain proper guidance and assistance in implementing this request, and maintain records of actions taken to meet the dose limit of 0.5 rems (or 500 mill-rems). Internal Radiation Dose Limits The radiation dose from the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive materials must also be considered in the USDA Radiation Safety Program. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission places limits on the amount of radioactive materials that a radiation worker can take into their body over the course of a working year. This is called the Annual Limit on Intake (ALI). These values have been calculated for several radioisotopes and are listed in 10 CFR 20 Appendix B Tables , Table 1 ALI values for occupational dose … If a radiation worker receives one ALI, the calculated radiation dose from that intake will be 5 rems. Currently, only the thyroid dose is actively monitored by the Radiation Safety Division. Using standard tables, the whole body effective dose equivalent can be estimated. Regulations require that the total external and internal radiation dose to a worker not exceed 5 rems in one year. Dose Limits for Members of the Public NRC or agreement state licensees shall conduct operations so that the dose to individual members of the public from the licensed operation does not exceed 0.1 rem (or 100 milli-rems) in a year.	i don't know
The medical term sclerosis refers to the abnormal (what?) of body tissue?	Medical Terminology Exam 1 - Medical Terminology with Vera at Northern Virginia Community College - StudyBlue Good to have you back! If you've signed in to StudyBlue with Facebook in the past, please do that again. Medical Terminology Exam 1 To change a term ending in us to a plural form, you? change the us to i True or False? The combining vowel “o” is used to combine various word elements. True True or False? Suffixes add a description to a word root. True To translate a medical term, start with the ______ first. Suffix If septum is singular, then _______ is plural. Septa The combining vowel is usually ______. O True or False? The suffix is a word element that comes at the beginning of a word. False If bronchus is singular, then _______ is plural. Bronchi The word element _______ means cell. cyte The term _______ refers to the aged or elderly individual. ger/o Which suffix indicates the term is an adjective? all of the above The term _______ means inflammation of the skin. dermatitis True or False? The prefix is a word element that comes at the beginning of a word. True The correct term for an adjective referring to the stomach is ______. gastric The correct term for joint inflammation is _______. arthritis True or False? Gastr is an example of a combining form. False True or False? All medical terms are based on Greek and Latin words. False Expansion is indicated by the suffix _______. ectasis The word element _______ refers to unchanging. stasis The word element _______ is used to indicate to move away from. ab An instrument used for cutting is a(n) _______. tome Bradycardia indicates a _______ heart rate. slow The suffix _______ indicates a blockage. stenosis The prefix _______ indicates inside or below. infra The word element _______ indicates a stone. lith True or False? The suffixes –ician and –ist can both mean a medical specialist. true True or False? The suffix –malacia means softening. True ________ refers to the internal organs. viscera The term _______ indicates toward the front of the body. anterior The term _______ indicates toward the back. posterior The appendix is found in the _______ quadrant. RLQ The vertebral column is divided into ______ sections. 5 The _______ region is located below the cartilage of the ribs. hypochondriac The _______ system filters the blood. urinary The _______ system transmits messages throughout the body. nervous The _______ system helps regulate body temperature. intengumentary The _______ plane divides the body into right and left sides. sagittal The adjective referring to the chest area is _______. thoracic The belly button is found in the ______ region. umbilicus The _______ separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. diaphragm True or False? Connective tissues support internal structures. True True or False? The endocrine system produces hormones. True The hair sac is referred to as a _______. follicle Decubitus ulcers are better known as _______. bedsores The technique that uses extreme cold to destroy abnormal tissue is referred to as ________. cryosurgery _______ are used to treat thrush, diaper rash and athlete's foot. antifungal Impetigo is caused by a _______. bacteria True or False? Myc/o means muscle. False _______ is an abnormal redness of the skin. erythema Corium is another term for _______. dermis True or False? Sudor/i means oily. false _______ is the removal of dead burnt skin debridement A scabicide is used to kill ________. mites A chronic disease characterized by hardening of the skin is _______. scleroderma A blackhead is also known as a(n) ________. comedo True or False? Blood vessels are located in the epidermis. False True or False? Cutane/o means skin. true Nails contain a protein known as _______. keratin A raised fluid-filled blister greater than 1 cm is referred to as a _______. bulla True or False? Ichthy/o means horn-like. false True or False? The term pruritic refers to a scab false True or False? –kinesia means stationery. false Pain in a joint is referred to as _______. arthrodynia True or False? -desis means pain. false The term dactyl/o refers to _______. fingers Injury to a ligament is known as _______. sprain True or False? Carp/o means wrist. wrist True or False? Kyphosis is a lateral curvature of the spine. false The periosteum is located _______ a bone. covering _______ is a highly malignant tumor of bone. osteosarcoma True or False? The appendicular skeleton refers to the skull and vertebral column. false _______ is also referred to as humpback. kyphosis The _______ girdle is also known as the shoulder girdle. pectoral _______ is turning the palm upward. supination The surgical procedure to remove fluid from a joint is _______. arthrocentesis Moving the arm out straight to the side of the body is _______. abduction The _______ bones are located on the side of the head above the ears. temporal General wear and tear on joints may result in _______. osteoarthritis True or False? A synarthrotic joint is also referred to as a synovial joint false _______ is the surgical repair of bone osteoplasty The specialist who works with heat and exercises to help the patient improve muscle strength is _______. physical therapist True or False? The antagonist muscle is the one responsible for contraction and movement of a body part. false Lou Gehrig disease is also known as _______. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis True or False? There are four types of muscle tissue. false A common treatment for muscular injuries is _______. RICE Muscles are enclosed in a fibrous sheath of _______. fascia A genetic disorder that causes muscle weakness is _______. muscular dystrophy True or False? The word element sthen/o means movement. false True or False? Fasci/o is a fibrous membrane. true The structure that connects muscle to bone is _______. tendon The function of the skeletal muscles include(s): all of the above A chronic disorder characterized by widespread aching and muscle stiffness is _______. fibromyalgia Muscular systems disorders can result from _______. all of the above Slight paralysis on one side of the body is _______. hemiparesis Paralysis of all four extremities is referred to as _______. quadriplegia Incision into a tendon is _______. tenotomy True or False? Carpal tunnel syndrome is the result of fractures of the wrists. false A hamstring injury involves the _______ muscles. thigh Involuntary contraction of a muscle is a _________. myospasm	Hardening
From ancient Greek 'all gods' what word refers to (a temple for) the collective dieties of a religion, and metaphorically to the leaders of a field?	Arteriosclerosis \| definition of arteriosclerosis by Medical dictionary Arteriosclerosis \| definition of arteriosclerosis by Medical dictionary http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/arteriosclerosis arteriosclerosis [ahr-te″re-o-sklĕ-ro´sis] any of a group of diseases characterized by thickening and loss of elasticity of the arterial walls; popularly called “hardening of the arteries.” Symptoms depend on the organ system involved. adj., adj arteriosclerot´ic. There are three main forms of arteriosclerosis: (1) atherosclerosis , the most common type, in which plaques of fatty deposits form in the inner layer ( tunica intima ) of the arteries; (2) Mönckeberg's arteriosclerosis, called also medial calcific sclerosis because of involvement of the middle layer ( tunica media ) of the arteries, where there is destruction of muscle and elastic fibers and formation of calcium deposits; and (3) arteriolar sclerosis or arteriolosclerosis , which is marked by thickening of the walls of arterioles. All three forms may be present in the same patient, but in different blood vessels. When reference is made to hardening of the arteries, this usually refers to atherosclerosis; the terms arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis are often used interchangeably. It is the responsibility of the health care provider to help individuals modify or eliminate from their lives risk factors for the development of arteriosclerosis. These include cigarette smoking, obesity, elevated cholesterol levels, and sedentary life style. Mönckeberg's arteriosclerosis see arteriosclerosis . arteriosclerosis obli´terans arteriosclerosis in which proliferation of the intima has caused complete obliteration of the lumen of the artery. Cf. endarteritis obliterans . ar·te·ri·o·scle·ro·sis (ar-tēr'ē-ō-skler-ō'sis), [arterio- + G. sklērōsis, hardness] arteriosclerosis /ar·te·rio·scle·ro·sis/ (-sklĕ-ro´sis) a group of diseases characterized by thickening and loss of elasticity of the arterial walls, occurring in three forms: atherosclerosis , Mönckeberg's arteriosclerosis , and arteriolosclerosis .arteriosclerot´ic Mönckeberg's arteriosclerosis arteriosclerosis with extensive deposits of calcium in the middle coat of the artery. arteriosclerosis obli´terans that in which proliferation of the intima of the small vessels has caused complete obliteration of the lumen of the artery. peripheral arteriosclerosis arteriosclerosis of the limbs. arteriosclerosis (är-tîr′ē-ō-sklə-rō′sĭs) n. Any of several chronic diseases, such as atherosclerosis, that are characterized by thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of the arteries and that lead to impaired blood circulation. ar·te′ri·o·scle·rot′ic (-rŏt′ĭk) adj. arteriosclerosis [ärtir′ē·ō′sklərō′sis] Etymology: Gk, arteria + sklerosis, hardening a common disorder characterized by thickening, loss of elasticity, and calcification of arterial walls. It results in a decreased blood supply, especially to the cerebrum and lower extremities. The condition often develops with aging and in hypertension, nephrosclerosis, scleroderma, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia. Typical signs and symptoms include intermittent claudication, changes in skin temperature and color, altered peripheral pulses, bruits over an involved artery, headache, dizziness, and memory defects. Vasodilators and exercise may relieve symptoms, but there is no specific treatment. Preventive measures include therapy for predisposing diseases, adequate rest and exercise, avoidance of stress, and discontinuation of tobacco use. Kinds of arteriosclerosis include atherosclerosis and Mönckeberg's arteriosclerosis . Also called arterial sclerosis, hardening of the arteries . arteriosclerotic, adj. arteriosclerosis A group of diseases, more commonly affecting men over age 50, characterised by thickening and hardening of arterial walls due to accumulation of lipids, calcium and fibrosis, as well as loss of elasticity and narrowing of arterial lumina. ASHD’s early effects are in the lower extremities, with subtotal occlusion and decreased exercise tolerance. Forms ▪ Arteriolosclerosis: – Benign—associated with hyaline arteriolosclerosis; – Malignant—associated with myofibroblast hyperplasia, “onion-skinning” of endothelial basement membrane, and deposit of fibrinoid material in vascular wall. ▪ Atherosclerosis—Formed by cholesterol and cholesterol esters, covered by a fibrous plaque which with time becomes calcified, ulcerated and causes thromboembolism in coronary artery disease (strokes, MIs, leg ischaemia, ischaemia of large intestine). ▪ Mönckeberg sclerosis—Idiopathic and often asymptomatic annular calcified bands occurring in the muscular media of medium to small blood vessels of the extremities. Risk factors Personal or family history of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease; diabetes; hypertension; kidney disease involving haemodialysis; smoking; obesity. arteriosclerosis ASHD, hardening of the arteries Cardiology ASHD's early effects are in the lower extremities, with subtotal occlusion and decreased ability to withstand exercise without frequent rest periods; atherosclerosis is a generic term for arterial 'hardening'–calcium deposition, sclerosis, and thickening by fibrous tissue with loss of elasticity forms of arteriosclerosis including atherosclerosis–in which there is lipid deposition, Mönckeberg sclerosis, arteriolosclerosis; it is a common disorder usually affecting > age 50 and refers to any of a group of diseases characterized by thickening and hardening of the artery wall and in the narrowing of its lumen Risk factors Personal or family history of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease, DM, HTN, kidney disease involving hemodialysis, smoking, or obesity. See Atherosclerosis , Hyaline arteriosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis Arteriolosclerosis Benign–associated with hyaline arteriolosclerosis Malignant–associated with myofibroblast hyperplasia, 'onion-skinning' of endothelial basement membrane and deposit of fibrinoid material in vascular wall Atherosclerosis Formed by cholesterol and cholesterol esters, covered by a fibrous plaque which, with time becomes calcified, ulcerated and causes thromboembolism in coronary artery disease–strokes, MIs, leg ischemia-especially in DM, ischemia of large intestine Mönckeberg sclerosis Idiopathic and often asymptomatic annular calcified bands occurring in the muscular media of medium to small blood vessels of the extremities that have been fancifully likened to a goose's neck . [L. arteria, + G. sklērōsis, hardness] arteriosclerosis Hardening of the arteries. The term, once ubiquitous, has become imprecise and has virtually fallen out of use because pure arteriosclerosis is rare. It has been replaced by the term ATHEROSCLEROSIS , which more accurately describes the common degenerative disease of arteries. Pure arteriosclerosis may occur as a result of calcium deposition in the middle coat (media) of arteries, reducing their elasticity. arteriosclerosis a pathological condition or any of a group of diseases in which there is an increase in the thickness of the arterial walls, a reduction in elasticity of the vessel, and a constriction of diameter which affects the blood flow; the classic ‘hardening of the arteries’ of the elderly. See ATHEROMA . Arteriosclerosis A chronic condition characterized by thickening and hardening of the arteries and the build-up of plaque on the arterial walls. Arteriosclerosis can slow or impair blood circulation. Mentioned in: Aneurysmectomy , Angiography , Atherosclerosis , Dizziness , Gangrene , Hypertension , Hypotension arteriosclerosis the 'hardening of the arteries' that occurs to a variable extent with ageing. The main cause is atherosclerosis, when deposits known as atheromatous plaques are formed, mainly of cholesterol , in the walls of arteries and cause narrowing of the lumen, e.g. in the coronary arteries (leading to angina or thrombosis), in the cerebral arteries (leading to stroke or senile dementia) or in arteries in the legs (causing ischaemic pain when walking). See also claudication . arteriosclerosis age-related artery changes characterized by hardening and stiffening of the wall and loss of arterial pulsatility; exacerbated by hypertension and diabetes; larger arteries (>1 mm diameter) show initial compensatory medial-layer muscular hypertrophy, then later fibrosis of walls and dilatation of the lumen; smaller arteries (<1 mm diameter) and arterioles show medial-layer hypertrophy and thickening of the intimal layer, leading to arteriostenosis and reduction of distal flow arteriosclerosis Thickening and hardening of the walls of arteries which results in an obstruction of the blood flow. It is most frequently the result of hypertension but in the elderly it can develop in the absence of hypertension. In the retina, the branches of the central retinal artery may become straightened at first, later they become lengthened and tortuous, the arteriovenous (A-V) crossings are abnormal. Arteries resemble 'copper wire' as they become infiltrated with lipid deposits and eventually as 'silver wire' as the deposits increase and the whole thickness of the artery appears as a bright white reflex. Some retinal oedema may be present and as the disease progresses there are retinal haemorrhages and small sharp-edged exudates without surrounding oedema. This retinal condition is called arteriosclerotic retinopathy. See atherosclerosis ; anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy ; hypertensive retinopathy ; sphygmomanometer . ar·te·ri·o·scle·ro·sis (ahr-tēr'ē-ō-skler-ō'sis)	i don't know
Originating in India, paneer (or panir/chhena/chhana) is a type of?	What is Paneer? \| Paneer Definition << Benefits Find out what is Paneer? What will be the first thought, when you come across a question like "What is Paneer?". Many of us might not have an answer to this, owing to a large number of dairy products, of which many of them are not so famous. For these people, you will find out what is Paneer?, here. In simple terms, Paneer, a kind of cheese, a South Asian cuisine, is an unaged cheese made by churning milk with vinegar, lemon juice or other acids. This product is a Types of Cheese , that originated in Afghanistan, India, Iran, South asian countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Tajikistan. It is a White colored dairy product. Paneer has Milky flavor with a Fresh and Milky aroma. Similarly, get to know about Paneer Calories , how Paneer Benefits your body and all the other interesting facts related to Paneer, right here. Also learn about Paneer Nutrition to get an overview of the vitamins and minerals present in it. So go ahead and find out for yourself "What is Paneer". Paneer in different languages Do you know what is Paneer in different languages called? If not then just imagine, tomorrow you wake up in a foreign country and wish to have your favorite dish with Paneer? How would you ask for it in the foreign language? If you don't know what is Paneer called in different languages, you would be left craving for your favorite dish. Just so that this does not happen, here you will get to know what is Paneer called in Spanish, French, Italian, German. The names of Paneer in different languages are quite interesting. Origin of Paneer Dairy products have their roots originated from some land, where its locals poured in their hearts and created these dairy products that reflect their cultures, traditions and love for food. Paneer has its origin in Afghanistan, India, Iran, South asian countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Tajikistan. Its taste, appetizing aroma, textures all depict the efforts of the native people of Afghanistan, India, Iran, South asian countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Tajikistan. And of course, while in Rome be the Romans, you must cook and relish Paneer in the same way as that of the people of Afghanistan, India, Iran, South asian countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Tajikistan. So go ahead and trace back the origin of Paneer and that of other Types of Cheese in the soil of www.mydairydiet.com . Milk and Dairy products » More	Cheese
What plant provides the raw material for linen?	Tava - The Indian Restaurant Mashed potatoes mixed with fresh fenugreek and spices The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Aloo Paratha Mashed potatoes seasoned with fresh herbs and spices The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Chicken Paratha Minced chicken mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Daal Paratha Lentils (daal) mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Keema Paratha The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Methi Paratha Fresh fenugreek mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Mixveg Paratha A bit of eveything mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Mooli Paratha Grated radish seasoned with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Muttar Paneer Paratha The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Paneer Paratha Cottage cheese mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Pyaaz Pudina Finely chopped onions mixed with mint and spices The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Spinach Paratha Fresh spinach mixed with spices and herbs Tandoori Kulchas A type of leavened bread eaten in India and Pakistan made from maida (wheat flour) Aloo Kulcha Leavened gram flour flatbread infused with onions and mint made in tandoor Naans and Roti Leavened flatbread made in tandoor Naans and Roti Layered flat bread seasoned with fresh mint Naans and Roti Leavened whole wheat flatbread made in tandoor Kebebs Fish marinated and seasoned with special Indian spices and roasted in tandoor Kebebs Rustic grill kebab, marinated in red spices and yogurt Kebebs Chicken Seekh Kebab Minced chicken marinated with garlic, ginger, green chillies, cilantro & our special spice powder, wrapped around skewers and roasted in tandoor Kebebs Nizam's Galouti Kebab Finely ground meat marinated with unripe papaya and a mix of exotic spices, shaped into patties and shallow fried on tava (iron gridle) Kebebs Chicken marinated in green sauce with coriander, mint and yogurt, skewered and cooked in tandoor Kebebs Mix Grill Platter A sizzling platter of 3 pieces each of malai tikka, chicken tikka, hariyali kebab, seekh kebab, fish tikka + 2 NAAN Kebebs Boneless chicken pieces marinated in spices and cream, skewered and cooked in tandoor Kebebs Kebebs Mutton Seekh Kebabs Minced lamb marinated with onions, garlic, ginger, green chillies, cilantro & our special spice powder, wrapped over skewers and roasted in tandoor Kebebs Whole chicken marinated in roasted Indian spices and yogurt, skewered and cooked in tandoor Curries VEG Chickpeas cooked in special hand-ground spice Curries NON VEG A delicious rich, creamy buttery sauce with chicken tikka pieces Curries VEG Chicken cooked with capsicum, onionss and aromatic dry roasted coriander masala Curries VEG A speciality from Punjab - Black lentils and kidney beans slow cooked with cream and butter Curries NON VEG Tandoor cooked chicken tikka in onions and tomato curry Curries VEG Mix vegetables cooked with onionss, tomatos and roasted dry coriander masala The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Achari Paratha Flavoured with pickles & mixed with spices and herbs ( spicy) The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Hara Bara Paratha Spinach fenugreek ( methi) Mint leaves, spring Onions The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Besan paratha Besan paratha The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Jaipuri Plain Paratha Salted caraway seeds and pepper mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Mutton Paratha Minced mutton mixed with spices and herbs The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Special Chicken Tikka Paratha The Parathas Whole wheat stuffed Indian bread, mixed with our own secret spices and fresh herbs, and baked in Tandoor (clay oven) or pan fried. Special Egg Paratha A type of leavened bread eaten in India and Pakistan made from maida (wheat flour) Pyaaz Pudina Kulcha A kathi roll is a street-food dish originating from Kolkata, India. Chicken Tikka Roll Chapattis spread with yogurt-green chutney, stuffed with a spicy chicken tandoori tikka and rolled. Nizams's Kathi Rolls (sandwiches) A kathi roll is a street-food dish originating from Kolkata, India. Chicken Malai Tikka Roll Chapattis spread with yogurt-green chutney, stuffed with a malai tikka and rolled. Nizams's Kathi Rolls (sandwiches) A kathi roll is a street-food dish originating from Kolkata, India. Mutton Seekh Kebab Roll Chapattis spread with yogurt-green chutney, stuffed with a spicy mutton seekh and rolled. Nizams's Kathi Rolls (sandwiches) A kathi roll is a street-food dish originating from Kolkata, India. Paneer Roll Chapattis spread with yogurt-green chutney, stuffed with a spicy paneer sabzi and rolled. Rice	i don't know
Who retained a weakness where held and dipped by his mother into the river Styx to make him immortal?	10: Achilles' Heel - 10 Expressions That Came From the Ancient World \| HowStuffWorks 10 Expressions That Came From the Ancient World 10 Achilles' Heel Thetis (Achilles' mother) dipped Achilles into the river Styx to make him immortal. Unfortunately, she missed one heel. DEA/A. DAGLI ORT/Getty Images When something is your "Achilles' heel," it's a fault or weakness you have, despite overall strength, that can potentially cause failure. The weakness may be physical: "He is a star quarterback, but his injury-prone throwing arm is his Achilles' heel."Or it might be emotional or mental: "She was a good writer, but her Achilles' heel was that she was a terrible speller." This expression comes from Greek mythology, specifically a guy named Achilles. Achilles' mother dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, an act that bestowed upon him extreme strength and immortality. He became a great champion — the best Greek fighter during the Trojan War — until the fateful day when Trojan prince Paris took aim and speared him in the heel with an arrow, causing him to bleed to death. But wasn't he immortal? Make that almost. When his mother dipped him in the river as a baby, she held him by one heel, which thus wasn't bathed in the river's magical waters and became the only part of his body that was unprotected [sources: Mythagora ]. Oops!	Achilles
Pele is which nation's goddess of volcanoes?	A Word A Day -- Achilles' Heel \| The Spokesman-Review A Word A Day -- Achilles' Heel WEDNESDAY, MAY 19, 2010, 9:24 P.M. A Word A Day — Achilles’ Heel Dying Achilles, a sculpture in the Greek island of Corfu, 1884 Sculptor: Ernst Herter (1846-1917) A.Word.A.Day with Anu Garg Picture Credit: Dying Achilles, a sculpture in the Greek island of Corfu, 1884 Sculptor: Ernst Herter (1846-1917) Achilles' heel noun: A seemingly small but critical weakness in an otherwise position of strength. ETYMOLOGY: After Achilles, a hero in the Greek mythology. When Achilles was a baby, his mother Thetis dipped him into the magical river Styx to make him immortal. She held him by the heel which remained untouched by the water and became his weak point. He was killed when the Trojan king Paris shot an arrow that pierced his one vulnerable spot: his heel. After him, the tendon in the lower back of the ankle is also known as the Achilles tendon. USAGE: "Economics, once the Coalition's strength, is in danger of becoming its achilles heel." Laurie Oakes; Coalition Weak on Economics; Herald Sun (Melbourne City, Australia); Apr 3, 2010. Explore " Achilles' heel " in the Visual Thesaurus. A THOUGHT FOR TODAY: Though I have been trained as a soldier, and participated in many battles, there never was a time when, in my opinion, some way could not be found to prevent the drawing of the sword. I look forward to an epoch when a court, recognized by all nations, will settle international differences. -Ulysses S. Grant, military commander, 18th US President (1822-1885) Posted May 19, 2010, 9:24 p.m.	i don't know
Into which body of water does the river Nile empty?	Into what body of water does the Nile River empty? a. Mediterranean Sea c. Suez Canal b. Red Sea d. Atlantic Ocean You have new items in your feed. Click to view. Question and answer Into what body of water does the Nile River empty? a. Mediterranean Sea c. Suez Canal b. Red Sea d. Atlantic Ocean The Nile River empties into the: A. Mediterranean Sea. Expert answered\| andrewpallarca \|Points 22800\|	Mediterranean Sea
Which colour/color is generally considered between violet and green in the optical spectrum?	river - National Geographic Society river The Jinsha is nicknamed "the River of Golden Sands." Photograph by Xi Luo, MyShot Germ-Killing Ganges Hindus have always believed that the water of the Ganges River has purifying powers. Although millions of people bathe in the river regularly, it does not usually spread cholera, typhoid, or other water-borne diseases. Scientists have found that unique bacteriophagesviruses that destroy bacteriakill germs in the water of the Ganges. In addition, the Ganges holds up to 25 times more dissolved oxygen than any other river in the world. The oxygen helps prevent putrefaction (rotting) of organic matter in the river. Scientists do not know why the river retains so much oxygen. Mythical Rivers The ancient Greeks believed that five rivers encircled Hades, the underworld. These rivers are Styx (hate), Phlegethon (fire), Acheron (sorrow), Cocytus (lamentation or sadness), and Lethe (forgetting). The Greeks believed that dead souls had to cross the River Acheron, a branch of the Styx, to reach the underworld. They crossed on a ferry piloted by Charon, the ferryman of Hades. Flip-Flopping Flow The Amazon River used to flow in the opposite direction. Today, the river flows from the mountains of Peru in the west to the Atlantic Ocean in the east. But millions of years ago, it actually flowed from east to west, emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The flow flipped when the Andes mountains started growing at the end of the Cretaceous period (around 65 million years ago). A river is a large, natural stream of flowing water. Rivers are found on every continent and on nearly every kind of land. Some flow all year round. Others flow seasonally or during wet years. A river may be only kilometers long, or it may span much of a continent. The longest rivers in the world are the Nile in Africa and the Amazon in South America. Both rivers flow through many countries. For centuries, scientists have debated which river is longer. Measuring a river is difficult because it is hard to pinpoint its exact beginning and end. Also, the length of rivers can change as they meander , are dam med, or their deltas grow and recede . The Amazon is estimated to be between 6,259 kilometers (3,903 miles) and 6,800 kilometers (4,225 miles) long. The Nile is estimated to be between 5,499 kilometers (3,437 miles) and 6,690 kilometers (4,180 miles) long. There is no debate, however, that the Amazon carries more water than any other river on Earth. Approximately one-fifth of all the freshwater entering the oceans comes from the Amazon. Rivers are important for many reasons. One of the most important things they do is carry large quantities of water from the land to the ocean. There, seawater constantly evaporate s. The resulting water vapor forms clouds. Cloud s carry moisture over land and release it as precipitation. This freshwater feeds rivers and smaller streams. The movement of water between land, ocean, and air is called the water cycle . The water cycle constantly replenish es Earth’s supply of freshwater, which is essential for almost all living things. Anatomy of a River No two rivers are exactly alike. Yet all rivers have certain features in common and go through similar stages as they age. The beginning of a river is called its source or headwater s. The source may be a melting glacier , such as the Gangotri Glacier, the source of the Ganges River in Asia. The source could be melting snow, such as the snows of the Andes, which feed the Amazon River. A river’s source could be a lake with an outflowing stream, such as Lake Itasca in the U.S. state of Minnesota, the source of the Mississippi River. A spring bubbling out of the ground can also be the headwaters of a river. The source of the Danube River is a spring in the Black Forest of Germany. From its source, a river flows downhill as a small stream. Precipitation and groundwater add to the river’s flow. It is also fed by other streams, called tributaries. For instance, the Amazon River receives water from more than 1,000 tributaries. Together, a river and its tributaries make up a river system . A river system is also called a drainage basin or watershed. A river’s watershed includes the river, all its tributaries, and any groundwater resources in the area. The end of a river is its mouth . Here, the river empties into another body of water—a larger river, a lake, or the ocean. Many of the largest rivers empty into the ocean. The flowing water of a river has great power to carve and shape the landscape. Many landforms, like the Grand Canyon in the U.S. state of Arizona, were sculpted by rivers over time. This process is called weathering or erosion . The energy of flowing river water comes from the force of gravity, which pulls the water downward. The steeper the slope of a river, the faster the river moves and the more energy it has. The movement of water in a river is called a current . The current is usually strongest near the river’s source. Storms can also increase the current. A swift current can move even large boulder s. These break apart, and the pieces that are carried in the moving water scrape and dig into the river bottom, or bed. Little by little, a river tears away rocks and soil along its bed, and carries them downstream. The river carves a narrow, V-shaped valley. Rapids and waterfall s are common to rivers, particularly near their sources. Eventually, the river flows to lower land. As the slope of its course flattens, the river cuts less deeply into its bed. Instead, it begins to wind from side to side in looping bends called meanders. This action widens the river valley. At the same time, the river begins to leave behind some of the rocks, sand, and other solid material it collected upstream . This material is called sediment . Once the sediment is deposited, it is called alluvium . Alluvium may contain a great deal of eroded topsoil from upstream and from the banks of its meanders. Because of this, a river deposits very fertile soil on its flood plain . A flood plain is the area next to the river that is subject to flooding. The deepest part of a river bed is called a channel . The channel is usually located in the middle of a river. Here, the current is often strong. In large rivers, ships travel in channels. Engineers may dredge , or dig, deeper channels so more water can flow through the river or the river can transport larger ships. Near the end of its journey, the river slows and may appear to move sluggishly . It has less energy to cut into the land, and it can no longer carry a heavy load of sediment. Where the river meets the ocean or a lake, it may deposit so much sediment that new land, a delta , is formed. Not all rivers have deltas. The Amazon does not have a true delta, for instance. The strength of the tide s and currents of the Atlantic Ocean prevent the build-up of sediment. Deltas almost always have fertile soil. The Nile Delta and the Ganges Delta are the chief agricultural areas for Egypt and Bangladesh, for instance. Rivers Through History Rivers have always been important to people. In prehistoric times, people settled along the banks of rivers, where they found fish to eat and water for drinking, cooking, and bathing. Later, people learned that the fertile soil along rivers is good for growing crop s. The world’s first great civilization s arose in the fertile flood plains of the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in southern Asia, the Tigris and the Euphrates in the Middle East, and the Huang (Yellow) in China. Centuries later, rivers provided routes for trade , exploration , and settlement. The Volga River in Eastern Europe allowed Scandinavia n and Russian cultures, near the source of the river, to trade goods and ideas with Persia n cultures, near the mouth of the Volga in southern Europe. The Hudson River in the U.S. state of New York is named after English explorer Henry Hudson , who used the river to explore what was then the New World . When towns and industries developed, the rushing water of rivers supplied power to operate machinery . Hundreds of factories operated mill s powered by the Thames in England, the Mississippi in the United States, and the Ruhr in Germany. Rivers remain important today. If you look at a world map, you will see that many well-known cities are on rivers. Great river cities include New York City, New York; Buenos Aires, Argentina; London, England; Cairo, Egypt; Kolkata, India; and Shanghai, China. In fact, rivers are usually the oldest parts of cities. Paris, France, for instance, was named after the Iron Age people known as the Parisii , who lived on the islands and banks of the Seine River, which flows through the city. Rivers continue to provide transportation route s, water for drinking and for irrigating farmland, and power for homes and industries. Rivers of Europe The longest river in Europe is the Volga. It flows approximately 3,685 kilometers (2,290 miles) across Russia and empties into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has been used for centuries to transport timber from northern forests, grain from farms along its valley, and manufactured goods. The river is also known for its sturgeon , a type of large fish whose eggs are used to make a famous delicacy —Russian caviar. The Thames, in England, is one of Europe’s most historic rivers. Along its banks stands the city of London, a bustling urban area for more than a thousand years. By 100 CE, London had already become an important Roman settlement and trading post . Because of its location on the river and near the seacoast, London became England’s principal city and trade center. Europe’s busiest river is the Rhine, which runs from the Alps in Switzerland, through Germany and the Netherlands, and empties into the North Sea. It flows through many industrial and farming regions and carries barge s laden with farm products, coal , iron ore , and a variety of manufactured goods. Rivers of Asia Asia’s longest and most important river is the Yangtze, in China. It flows from the Dangla Mountains, between Tibet and China’s Qinghai province. It empties in the East China Sea 6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles) later. The Yangtze is a highway for trade through the world’s most populous country. The Yangtze is also an agricultural river. Its valley is a major rice-growing region, and its water is used to irrigate fields. Many Chinese live on the river in houseboat s or sailboat s called junk s. The Yangtze River is the home of the world’s most powerful hydroelectric power plant, the Three Gorges Dam . Eventually, the plant will be able to constantly produce 22,500 megawatts of power. China’s rural population will have access to affordable electricity for homes, businesses, schools, and hospitals. Creating the Three Gorges Dam was one of the largest engineering feat s in history. Engineers dammed the Yangtze, creating a 39.3-cubic-kilometer (31.9 million acre-foot) reservoir , or artificial lake. The Ganges is the greatest river on Asia's Indian subcontinent . It is sacred to the millions of followers of the Hindu religion. For thousands of years, Hindus have worshipped the river as a goddess, Ganga Ma (Mother Ganges). Hindus believe the river’s water purifies the soul and heals the body. Millions of people use the Ganges every day for bathing, drinking, and industry. The historic Tigris and Euphrates river system flows from Turkey through Syria and Iraq and into the Persian Gulf. The rivers lie in an area called the Fertile Crescent . The region between the two rivers, known as Mesopotamia , is the so-called “cradle of civilization.” The earliest evidence of civilization and agriculture —farming and domestication of animals—appears in the Fertile Crescent. Rivers of North America In North America, rivers served as highways for native tribes and, later, for European explorers. French explorers began traveling the St. Lawrence and other rivers of Canada in the 1500s. They found an abundance of fish and other wildlife, and they encountered Native American tribes who hunted beaver. The explorers took beaver pelt s back to Europe, where they were used to make fashionable hats. Soon, hunters explored and traveled networks of rivers in North America in search of beaver pelts. The establishment of trading posts along the rivers later opened the way for permanent European settlers. The St. Lawrence River is still a major waterway . The river, which empties into the Atlantic, is linked to the Great Lakes by the St. Lawrence Seaway —a series of canal s, lock s, dams, and lakes. The St. Lawrence Seaway allows oceangoing ships to enter the interior of the continent. The Mississippi is the chief river of North America. It flows approximately 3,766 kilometers (2,340 miles) through the heart of the United States, from its source in Minnesota to its delta in Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. Spanish and French explorers first traveled the Mississippi in the 1500s and 1600s. In 1803, the United States bought almost the entire Mississippi River Valley from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase . After that, the Mississippi was widely traveled by traders and settlers on rafts, boats, and barges. With the introduction of the steamboat , a new, industrial, era began on the Mississippi. Paddle wheeler s carried trade goods up and down the river. Soon, workboats were joined by cruise ship s and other luxurious passenger vessels. Writer Mark Twain , who was once a steamboat pilot on the river, described this era in his book Life on the Mississippi. Over time, the Mississippi increased in importance as a trade route. Today, it carries cargo ships and barges in lines that may extend for more than a kilometer. Large quantities of petroleum , coal, and other bulky goods are conveyed on the river by massive barges pushed by powerful towboat s. North America’s Colorado River is famous for forming the Grand Canyon in Arizona. For millions of years, the river has cut its way through layers of rock to carve the canyon. Long ago, the river flowed through a flat plain. Then the Earth’s crust began to rise, lifting the land. The river began cutting into the land. The Grand Canyon is now about one and a half kilometers (one mile) deep at its deepest point, and 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide at its widest. Rivers of South America The strength of the Amazon River in South America dwarf s all other rivers on the planet. The amount of water flowing through the Amazon is greater than the amount carried by the Mississippi, the Yangtze, and the Nile combined. The Amazon begins as an icy stream high in the Andes mountains of Peru. It flows through Brazil and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon and its tributaries drain a basin that covers an area equal to three-fourths of the contiguous United States. The first Europeans to see the Amazon were Spanish explorers, who traveled it in the 1500s. They encountered a group of natives who all appeared to be women, or so the story goes. The explorers called the people Amazon s, after female warriors described in Greek myth ology. The name Amazon was later given to the river. For much of its course, the Amazon flows through the world’s largest tropical rain forest . The region has abundant and unusual wildlife, including flesh-eating fish called piranha s; huge fish called pirarucu , which can weigh more than 125 kilograms (275 pounds); and giant snakes called anaconda s. Some Amazon tribes remain independent of Western culture. The Tagaeri people, for instance, continue to live a nomad ic life based around the Amazon and its tributaries in the rain forest of Ecuador. Because of the demand for timber from the rain forest, the land of the indigenous people of the Amazon is shrinking. Today, there are fewer than 100 Tagaeri living in the rain forest. Rivers provide energy to many South American communities. The Itaipú Dam crosses the Paraná River on the Brazil-Paraguay border. Construction of the dam required the labor of thousands of workers and cost more than $12 billion. The dam’s power plant can regularly produce some 12,600 megawatts of electricity. The huge reservoir formed by the dam supplies water for drinking and for irrigation. Rivers of Africa Africa’s two largest rivers are the Nile and the Congo. One tributary of the Nile, the White Nile , flows from tiny streams in the mountains of Burundi through Lake Victoria, Africa’s largest lake. The other tributary, the Blue Nile , begins in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. The two join at Khartoum, Sudan. The Nile then flows through the Sahara Desert in Sudan and Egypt, and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Because the area where the tributaries meet is close to the two sources of the Nile, the area is called the Upper Nile , even though it is farther south geographically. The Lower Nile runs through Egypt. One of the earliest civilizations in the world developed along the Lower Nile. Ancient Egyptian civilization arose about 5,000 years ago. It was directly related to the Nile and its annual flooding. Each year, the river overflowed, spreading rich sediment across its broad flood plain. This made the land extremely fertile. Egyptian farmers were able to grow plentiful crops. In fact, ancient Egyptians called their land Kemet, which means “Black Land,” because of the rich, black soil deposited by the river. Egyptians also used the Nile as a major transportation route to both the Mediterranean and the African interior. The Pschent , or double crown worn by Egyptian monarch s, combined symbolism from both the Upper Nile and Lower Nile. A tall, white crown shaped like a bowling pin represented the lands of the Upper Nile. This crown was combined with a pointy red crown that had a curly wire protruding from the front. The red color symbolized the red soils of Lower Egypt, while the curly wire represented a honeybee . When putting on the Pschent, an Egyptian ruler assumed leadership for the entire Nile. The Nile provided enterprising Egyptians with material to form a powerful civilization. From papyrus , a tall reed that grew in the river, Egyptians made a sort of paper, as well as rope, cloth, and baskets. Egyptians also built great cities, temples, and monuments along the river, including tombs for their monarchs, or pharaoh s. Many of these ancient monuments are still standing. The Congo River flows across the middle of Africa, through a huge equatorial rain forest, before emptying in the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is second only to the Amazon in terms of water flow. It is the deepest river in the world, with measured depths of more than 230 meters (750 feet). Huge urban areas, including the capital cities of Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, and Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, sit on the banks of the river. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the river is the principal highway for transporting goods such as cotton, coffee, and sugar. Boats traveling the river range from dugout canoe s to large freighter s. The river also supplies an abundance of fish to central Africa. Fishermen use baskets and nets hung from high poles across rushing falls and rapids to catch fish. They also use more traditional nets operated from either onshore or on boats. Rivers of Australia Much of Australia is arid , but rivers still run through it. Australia’s principal rivers are the Murray and the Darling, both in the southeastern part of the continent. The Murray flows some 2,590 kilometers (1,610 miles) from the Snowy Mountains to a lagoon on the Indian Ocean. Near the town of Wentworth, the Murray is joined by the Darling, a 2,739-kilometer (1,702-mile) river that flows from the highlands of the eastern coast. Indigenous Australians placed great importance on the Murray River. The Murray valley had the greatest population density on the continent before the arrival of Europeans in the 1600s. By the mid-1800s, European farmers had settled along both rivers and some of their tributaries. Most Australian farmers raised sheep and cattle. Riverboats began plying the waters, and towns grew up along the banks. Much of Australia’s farmland still lies within the Murray-Darling basin, where river water irrigates some 1.2 million hectares (3 million acres). The region is the chief supplier of the country’s agricultural export s—wool, beef, wheat, and oranges. Polluted Rivers For centuries, people have depended on rivers for many things. Rivers have provided waterways for shipping, convenient construction sites for cities, and fertile land for farming. Such extensive use of rivers has contributed to their pollution . River pollution has come from directly dumping garbage and sewage , disposal of toxic waste s from factories, and agricultural runoff containing fertilizer s and pesticide s. By the 1960s, many of the world’s rivers were so polluted that fish and other wildlife could no longer survive in them. Their waters became unsafe for drinking, swimming, and other uses. One of the most famous examples of a polluted river was the Cuyahoga. The Cuyahoga is a busy river in the U.S. state of Ohio that empties into Lake Erie. It is a major highway for goods and services from the Midwest to the Great Lakes. In 1969, the oily pollution in the Cuyahoga was so great that the river actually caught fire—something it had done more than a dozen times in the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the 1969 fire, stricter laws have helped clean up polluted rivers. The laws have restrict ed the substances factories can dump into rivers, limited the amount of agricultural runoff, banned toxic pesticides such as DDT , and required treatment of sewage. Although the situation in some parts of the world has improved, serious problems remain. The Citarum River in Indonesia, for instance, is often cited as the most polluted river in the world. Textile factories near the Citarum dump toxic wastes into the river. The garbage floating on top of the river is so thick that water is invisible. Even after communities have limited river pollution, toxic chemicals may remain. Many pollutants take years to dissolve. The pollutants also build up in the river’s wildlife. Toxic chemicals may cling to algae , which are eaten by insects or fish, which are then eaten by larger fish or people. At each stage of the river’s food web , the amount of the toxic chemical increases. In parts of North America and Europe, there is also the severe problem of acid rain . Acid rain develops when emission s from factories and vehicles mix with moisture in the air. The acid that forms can be toxic for many living things. Acid rain falls as rain and snow. It builds up in glaciers, streams, and lakes, polluting water and killing wildlife. Environmentalists, governments, and communities are trying to understand and solve these pollution problems. To provide safe drinking water and habitats where fish and other wildlife can thrive, rivers must be kept clean. Dams A dam is a barrier that stops or diverts the flow of water along a river. Humans have built dams for thousands of years. Dams are built for many purposes. Some dams prevent flooding or allow people to develop or “reclaim” land previously submerge d by a river. Other dams are used to change a river’s course for the benefit of development or agriculture. Still others provide water supplies for nearby rural or urban areas. Many dams are used to provide electricity to local communities. In 1882, the world’s first hydroelectric power plant was built on the Fox River in the U.S. city of Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, thousands of hydroelectric plants have been built on rivers all over the world. These plants harness the energy of flowing water to produce electricity. About 7 percent of all power in the United States, and 19 percent of power in the world, comes from hydroelectric plants. China is the world’s largest producer of hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power is renewable because water is constantly replenished through precipitation. Because hydroelectric plants do not burn fossil fuel s, they do not emit pollution or greenhouse gas es. However, hydroelectric power does have some negative effects on the environment. Dams and hydroelectric plants change the flow and temperature of rivers. These changes to the ecosystem can harm fish and other wildlife that live in or near the river. And although hydroelectric plants do not release greenhouse gases, rotting vegetation trapped in the dams’ reservoirs can produce them. Decay ing plant material emits carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. Dams also have an effect on people living near the rivers. For example, more than 1.3 million people had to move from their homes to make way for China’s Three Gorges Dam and its reservoir. Human rights organizations claim that many of these people did not receive the compensation they were promised in return for being displaced. In addition, dams can affect fish populations and the fertility of flood plains. Fish may not be able to migrate and spawn. Farmers that depended on the fertile flooding may be cut off from the river by a dam. This can harm the livelihood of fishermen and farmers who live along the river, as well as consumers who must pay higher prices for food. Dams with very large reservoirs may also trigger earthquake s. Earthquakes happen when two or more of the tectonic plate s that make up Earth’s crust slide against each other. The weight of the water in the reservoirs can cause existing cracks, or fault s, in these plates to slip and create an earthquake. River Management River management is the process of balancing the needs of many stakeholder s, or communities that depend on rivers. Rivers provide natural habitats for fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also provide recreation areas and sporting opportunities such as fishing and kayaking. Industries also depend on rivers. Rivers transport goods and people across continents. They provide affordable power for millions of homes and businesses. Farmers and agribusiness es often rely on rivers for transportation. Rivers also supply water for irrigation. River managers must consider the needs of all the current and future stakeholders. Term acid rain Noun precipitation with high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. Acid rain can be manmade or occur naturally. agribusiness the strategy of applying profit-making practices to the operation of farms and ranches. agriculture Noun (singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms, the largest of which are seaweeds. alluvium gravel, sand, and smaller materials deposited by flowing water. Amazon in ancient Greek mythology, a woman belonging to a tribe of all-female warriors. anaconda very large snake native to South America. annual (singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on Earth. bacteriophage large, flat-bottomed boat used to transport cargo. Blue Nile Noun tributary of the Nile River flowing from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and meeting the White Nile at Khartoum, Sudan, to form the Nile River. boulder chemical element with the symbol C, which forms the basis of all known life. cargo goods carried by a ship, plane, or other vehicle. caviar delicacy made from the eggs of sturgeon or other fish. channel deepest part of a shallow body of water, often a passageway for ships. Charon Noun in ancient Greek mythology, the ferryman who transported the souls of the dead across the river Styx and to the underworld, Hades. cholera infectious, sometimes fatal disease that harms the intestines. civilization dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the earth. compensation fee or money paid for goods, services, debt, loss, injury, or suffering. consumer Noun organism on the food chain that depends on autotrophs (producers) or other consumers for food, nutrition, and energy. contiguous land, space, or features that are in direct contact. continent headgear worn by a monarch or other ruler. cruise ship vessel transporting tourists on a trip. current to block a flow of water. DDT Noun (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) toxic chemical used as an insecticide but illegal for most uses in the U.S. since 1972. decay food or dish notable for its rarity or cost. delta Noun the flat, low-lying plain that sometimes forms at the mouth of a river from deposits of sediments. construction or preparation of land for housing, industry, or agriculture. dissolved oxygen measure of the amount of oxygen in a substance, usually water. domestication drainage basin Noun an entire river system or an area drained by a river and its tributaries. Also called a watershed. dredge to remove sand, silt, or other material from the bottom of a body of water. dugout canoe small boat made by hollowing out a log or tree trunk. dwarf to make something appear small by having it appear next to something much larger. earthquake Noun the sudden shaking of Earth's crust caused by the release of energy along fault lines or from volcanic activity. ecosystem set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. emission the art and science of building, maintaining, moving, and demolishing structures. equatorial having to do with the equator or the area around the equator. erosion to change from a liquid to a gas or vapor. exploration study and investigation of unknown places, concepts, or issues. export good or service traded to another area. extensive one or more buildings used for the manufacture of a product. farm land cultivated for crops, livestock, or both. fault a crack in the Earth's crust where there has been movement. feat boat or ship that transports people, cargo, and goods across a waterway. fertile able to produce crops or sustain agriculture. Fertile Crescent region extending from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Southwest Asia to the Persian Gulf. fertilizer nutrient-rich chemical substance (natural or manmade) applied to soil to encourage plant growth. flood plain fossil fuel Noun coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. freighter large ship used for carrying heavy cargo, or freight. freshwater water that is not salty. garbage physical force by which objects attract, or pull toward, each other. Great Lakes Noun largest freshwater bodies in the world, located in the United States and Canada. Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior make up the Great Lakes. greenhouse gas Noun gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone, that absorbs solar heat reflected by the surface of the Earth, warming the atmosphere. groundwater unit of measure equal to 2.47 acres, or 10,000 square meters. Henry Hudson (died 1611) English explorer and navigator. Hindu Noun religion of the Indian subcontinent with many different sub-types, most based around the idea of "daily morality." honeybee insect that, in a hive with other honeybees, produces honey. houseboat large, flat-bottomed boat used for residence but not suitable for open water. human rights Noun basic freedoms belonging to every individual, including the rights to social and political expression, spirituality, and opportunity. hydroelectric power usable energy generated by moving water converted to electricity. indigenous characteristic to or of a specific place. iron chemical element with the symbol Fe. Iron Age Noun last of the prehistoric "three ages," following the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, marked by the use of iron for industry. irrigate sailboat with square sails and, usually, a flat bottom, used mostly in and around China. labor lagoon Noun shallow body of water that may have an opening to a larger body of water, but is also protected from it by a sandbar or coral reef. lock Noun structure on a waterway where gates at each end allow the water level to raise and lower as they are opened and closed. Louisiana Purchase Noun (1803) land bought by the United States from France, extending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, and Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. Lower Nile northern section of the Nile River. luxurious mechanical appliances or tools used in manufacturing. Mark Twain (1835-1910, born Samuel Langhorne Clemens) American writer. meander large curve in a lake or stream. meander area between the Tigris and Euphrates River in Iraq. Midwest Noun area of the United States consisting of the following states: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. migrate to move from one place or activity to another. mill machine used for grinding or crushing various materials. monarch mouth Noun place where a river empties its water. Usually rivers enter another body of water at their mouths. the Western Hemisphere, made up of the Americas and their islands. nomad person who moves from place to place, without a fixed home. ore paddle wheeler Noun steamboat used mostly on rivers propelled by one or more large wheels outfitted with paddles or scoops. papyrus aquatic plant native to the Mediterranean Sea. Parisii Iron Age people and culture native to the banks of the Seine River. pelt Persia Noun empire that dominated Mesopotamia from about 550 to 330 BCE. Most of the ancient Persian empire is in modern-day Iran. pesticide Noun natural or manufactured substance used to kill organisms that threaten agriculture or are undesirable. Pesticides can be fungicides (which kill harmful fungi), insecticides (which kill harmful insects), herbicides (which kill harmful plants), or rodenticides (which kill harmful rodents.) petroleum fossil fuel formed from the remains of ancient organisms. Also called crude oil. pharaoh carnivorous, freshwater fish native to South America. Also called caribe. pirarucu large freshwater fish native to the Amazon. Also called arapaima. plentiful period of time that occurred before the invention of written records. protruding double crown worn by Egyptian pharaohs, symbolizing Upper and Lower Egypt. purify process of rotting or decaying. rain forest to go backward or withdraw. recreational having to do with activities done for enjoyment. replenish material at the bottom of a river. river management the art and science of controlling the flow, path, and power of rivers. river system tributaries, mouth, source, delta, and flood plain of a river. rot aquatic vessel that uses wind to maneuver and move. Scandinavia region and name for some countries in Northern Europe: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. seawater salty water from an ocean or sea. sediment liquid and solid waste material from homes and businesses. sluggishly top layer of the Earth's surface where plants can grow. source small flow of water flowing naturally from an underground water source. stakeholder person or organization that has an interest or investment in a place, situation or company. steamboat boat powered by steam, used mostly on rivers. Also called a steamer. St. Lawrence Seaway Noun series of canals, locks, and channels, including the St. Lawrence River, that allows ships to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. stream type of marine or freshwater large, long, bony fish. subcontinent large section of a continent. submerge people and culture native to the Amazon River basin in Ecuador. tectonic plate Noun massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Also called lithospheric plate. temperature cloth or other woven fabric. Three Gorges Dam electrical power plant along the Yangtze River in China. tide Noun rise and fall of the ocean's waters, caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. wood in an unfinished form, either trees or logs. topsoil the most valuable, upper layer of soil, where most nutrients are found. towboat powerful boat used mostly on rivers to tow a line of barges roped behind it. toxic waste chemical compound dangerous to humans and their environment. trade buying, selling, or exchanging of goods and services. trading post place established in a remote or unsettled region, where goods may be bought and sold. tribe community made of one or several family groups sharing a common culture. tributary tropical Adjective existing in the tropics, the latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer in the north and the Tropic of Capricorn in the south. typhoid infectious, sometimes fatal disease that harms the intestines. Also called typhoid fever. Upper Nile southern section of the Nile River. upstream Adjective toward an elevated part of a flow of fluid, or place where the fluid passed earlier. urban area depression in the Earth between hills. vapor visible liquid suspended in the air, such as fog. vegetation all the plant life of a specific place. virus tiny organism that lives and multiplies in a living cell. water-borne transported or carried by water. water cycle	i don't know
Which organ of the human body comprises the dermis and epidermis?	The Skin (Human Anatomy): Picture, Definition, Function, and Skin Conditions The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, provides a waterproof barrier and creates our skin tone. The dermis, beneath the epidermis, contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands. The deeper subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is made of fat and connective tissue. The skin’s color is created by special cells called melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin. Melanocytes are located in the epidermis. Skin Conditions Rash : Nearly any change in the skin’s appearance can be called a rash. Most rashes are from simple skin irritation; others result from medical conditions. Dermatitis : A general term for inflammation of the skin. Atopic dermatitis (a type of eczema) is the most common form. Eczema : Skin inflammation (dermatitis) causing an itchy rash. Most often, it’s due to an overactive immune system. Psoriasis : An autoimmune condition that can cause a variety of skin rashes. Silver, scaly plaques on the skin are the most common form. Dandruff : A scaly condition of the scalp may be caused by seborrheic dermatitis, psoriasis, or eczema. Acne : The most common skin condition, acne affects over 85% of people at some time in life. Cellulitis : Inflammation of the dermis and subcutaneous tissues, usually due to an infection. A red, warm, often painful skin rash generally results. Skin abscess (boil or furuncle): A localized skin infection creates a collection of pus under the skin. Some abscesses must be opened and drained by a doctor in order to be cured. Rosacea : A chronic skin condition causing a red rash on the face. Rosacea may look like acne, and is poorly understood. Warts : A virus infects the skin and causes the skin to grow excessively, creating a wart. Warts may be treated at home with chemicals, duct tape, or freezing, or removed by a physician. Melanoma : The most dangerous type of skin cancer, melanoma results from sun damage and other causes. A skin biopsy can identify melanoma. Basal cell carcinoma : The most common type of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma is less dangerous than melanoma because it grows and spreads more slowly. Seborrheic keratosis : A benign, often itchy growth that appears like a “stuck-on” wart. Seborrheic keratoses may be removed by a physician, if bothersome. Actinic keratosis : A crusty or scaly bump that forms on sun-exposed skin. Actinic keratoses can sometimes progress to cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma : A common form of skin cancer, squamous cell carcinoma may begin as an ulcer that won’t heal, or an abnormal growth. It usually develops in sun-exposed areas. Herpes : The herpes viruses HSV-1 and HSV-2 can cause periodic blisters or skin irritation around the lips or the genitals. Hives : Raised, red, itchy patches on the skin that arise suddenly. Hives usually result from an allergic reaction. Tinea versicolor : A benign fungal skin infection creates pale areas of low pigmentation on the skin. Viral exantham : Many viral infections can cause a red rash affecting large areas of the skin. This is especially common in children. Shingles (herpes zoster): Caused by the chickenpox virus, shingles is a painful rash on one side of the body. A new adult vaccine can prevent shingles in most people. Scabies : Tiny mites that burrow into the skin cause scabies. An intensely itchy rash in the webs of fingers, wrists, elbows, and buttocks is typical of scabies. Ringworm : A fungal skin infection (also called tinea). The characteristic rings it creates are not due to worms. Continued Skin Tests Skin biopsy : A piece of skin is removed and examined under a microscope to identify a skin condition. Skin testing (allergy testing): Extracts of common substances (such as pollen) are applied to the skin, and any allergic reactions are observed. Tuberculosis skin test (purified protein derivative or PPD): Proteins from the tuberculosis (TB) bacteria are injected under the skin. In someone who’s had TB, the skin becomes firm. Skin Treatments Corticosteroids (steroids): Medicines that reduce immune system activity may improve dermatitis. Topical steroids are most often used. Antibiotics : Medicines that can kill the bacteria causing cellulitis and other skin infections. Antiviral drugs : Medicines can suppress the activity of the herpes virus, reducing symptoms. Antifungal drugs : Topical creams can cure most fungal skin infections. Occasionally, oral medicines may be needed. Antihistamines : Oral or topical medicines can block histamine, a substance that causes itching. Skin surgery : Most skin cancers must be removed by surgery. Immune modulators : Various drugs can modify the activity of the immune system, improving psoriasis or other forms of dermatitis. Skin moisturizers (emollients): Dry skin is more likely to become irritated and itchy. Moisturizers can reduce symptoms of many skin conditions. WebMD Image Collection Reviewed by Varnada Karriem-Norwood, MD on November 16, 2014 Sources	Skin
In 2013 which nation became the first in Europe to recognize indeterminate gender (neither male nor female) in official registration/records?	Exercise 7: The Integumentary System Flashcards \| Easy Notecards _____________ granules extruded from the keratinocytes prevent water loss by diffusion through the epidermis laminated fibers in the dermis are produced by ______________. fibroblasts glands that respond to rising androgen levels are the ____________________ glands. sebaceous and apocrine glands phagocytic cells that occupy the epidermis are called _____________________________. epidermal dendritic or langerhans cells 20 a unique touch receptor formed from a stratum basale cell and a nerve fiber is a __________________. tactile or Merkel disc What layer is present in the thick skin but not in thin skin? stratum lucidum What cell-to-cell structure holds the cells of the stratum spinosum tightly together? desmosomes 23 What substance is manufactured in the skin that plays a role in calcium absorption elsewhere in the body? vitamin D3 24 List the sensory receptors found in the dermis of the skin: free nerve endings for pain, temperature, messiners corpuscles for touch in the hairless skin, pacinian corpuscles for pressure 25 A nurse tells a doctor that a patient is cyanotic. Define cyanotic. A blue cast to the skin 26 What does cyanotic presence imply? Inadequate oxygenation of the blood 27 What is a bedsore (decubitus ulcer)? localized area of tissue necrosis and death 28 Why do ulcers occur? pressure areas point of increased pressure over bony areas restrict the blood supply to the area 29 Produces an accumulation of oily material that is known as a blackhead sebaceous glands Tiny muscles, attached to hair folicles, that pull the hair upright during fright or cold arrector pili Perspiration glands with a role in temperature control sweat gland---eccrine Sheath formed of both epithelial and connective tissues hair follicle Less numerous type of perspiration-prouducing gland; found mainly in the pubic and axillary regions sweat gland--apocrine Found everywhere on the body except the palms of hands and soles of the feet sebaceous glands With what substance in the bond paper does the iodine painted on the skin react? The starch Based on class data, which skin area--the forearm or palm of hand--has more sweat glands? Palm 43 Which other body areas would if tested prove to have a high density of sweat glands? Face and Axillae What organ system controls the activity of the eccrine sweat glands? Nervous system 45 Why can fignerprints be used to identify individuals? The pattern of your epidermal ridges is unique and does not change during your lifetime. Everyones fingerprint was made different, therefore this is a useful way for people to identify one another. 46 Name the three common fingerprint patterns: Loops, Arches and Whorls	i don't know
Developed in 1941, the Nickel-Strunz classification scheme categorizes?	Sabine Grunwald Soil Classification Classification of natural phenomena like soils is typically done for the following purposes: Organize knowledge about the subject to enable investigation and communication to be both logical and comprehensive (structure/organization for scientific/technical development). Provide a framework for establishing relationships among soils and their environment that leads to advancement of theoretical and experimental aspects of soil and related science (academic focus). Establish groupings of soils for which useful and reliable interpretations can be made (utilitarian focus). For example: optimal use(s), hazard/limitation/remediation assessment, potential productivity, framework for technology transfer/information dissemination. There are two different classification approaches, i.e., technical vs. natural classification. Technical classifications are designed for specific applied purposes (e.g., soil engineering classifications, based largely on physical properties), whereas natural classifications attempt to organize the divisions of soils from a more holistic appraisal of soil attributes. The general principles of natural soil classification systems are: A natural system of classification should express general or universal relationships that exist in nature. One should be able to understand, remember, generalize, or predict from information obtained. The scheme should be based on characteristics or attributes of things classified as related to their genesis. It should place similar things together on the basis of their properties. It is technically impossible to use all of the properties of soils to classify them. Judgment based on existing knowledge must be used to determine which properties are most important. Historical Perspective One of the earliest land evaluation systems that incorporated a soil classification was established during the Vao dynasty (2357-2261 B.C.) in China. Soils were graded into nine classes, based on their productivity. It has been suggested that property taxes were based on the size of the individual land holding and soil productivity. In former times (< 1600 A.C.), soil was solely considered as a medium for plant growth. Knowledge of soil behavior and crop growth was passed from generation to generation gained by observation. For example, in the Middle Ages it was well know that manure applied to soils improved crop growth. For instance, the 'Plaggen cultivation' was practiced for a long time in Europe, which left 'Plaggen soils': The top of grassland was peeled off and used as litter in the stables. This material mixed with manure was applied to arable land to improve crop production. In 1840, the German chemist Justus von Liebig initiated a revolution in soil science and agriculture. He proved that plants assimilate mineral nutrients from the soil and proposed the use of mineral fertilizers to fortify deficient soils. Crop production was increased tremendously using mineral fertilizers. Another effect was the shift from extensive to intensive techniques in agriculture, which influenced soils. Thaer (1853) published a classification that combined texture as a primary subdivision with further subdivisions based on agricultural suitability and productivity. Several classifications based largely on geologic origin of soil material were also proposed in the 19th century (Fallou, 1862; Richtofen, 1886). From the 1660s onwards, various members of The Royal Society of London proposed schemes of soil classification that incorporated elements of a natural or scientific approach in their criteria. From this period on, the disciplines of agricultural chemistry (with a strong focus on soil fertility), geography, and geology provided a broad but somewhat fragmented background from which pedology emerged as a separate discipline in the late 19th century more or less independently in Russia (Dokuchaev and colleagues) and in the United States (Hilgard and colleagues). In 1883, Dokuchaev carried out a comprehensive field study in Russia, where he described the occurrence of different soils thoroughly using soil morphologic features. Due to his observations in the field he hypothesized that different environmental conditions result in the development of different soils. He defined soil as an independent natural evolutionary body formed under the influence of five factors , of which he considered vegetation and climate the most important. Dokuchaev is generally credited with formalizing the concept of the 'five soil forming factors', which provides a scheme for study of soils as natural phenomena. The soil classification developed by Dokuchaev and his colleagues (Glinka, Neustruyev) was based on the soil forming factors -> soil forming processes -> and diagnostic horizons / soil properties. The focus in his soil classification approach was on soil genesis, therefore the classification system is called 'genetic'. In the United States, Hilgard (1892) emphasized the relationship between soils and climate, which is known as the climatic zone concept. Coffey (1912), produced the first soil classification system for the United States based on the soil genesis principles of Dokuchaev and Glinka. Marbut (1951) introduced the concepts of Coffey into soil survey programs in the U.S. carried out by the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). Between 1912 and the 1960 the soil classification in the U.S. used a genetic approach. Jenny (1941) put together a detailed description of the five soil forming factors responsible for the development of different soils. In 1959, Simonson stressed that many genetic processes are simultaneously and / or sequentially active in any soil. Hence, a soil classification based on principles of soil genesis would not be favorable. Other soil scientists in the U.S., like Smith (director of Soil Survey Investigations for the USDA Soil Conservation Service) agreed, that soil genesis is very important for soil classification, but that genesis itself cannot be used as a basis for soil classification because the genetic processes can rarely be quantified or actually observed in the field. References Coffey G.N., 1912. A Study of the Soils of the United States. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Bur., Soils Bull. 85. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington D.C. Dokuchaev V.V., 1883. Russian Chernozems (Russkii Chernozems). Israel Prog. Sci. Trans., Jerusalem, 1967. Transl. from Russian by N. Kaner. Available form U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, VA. Fallou F.A., 1862. Pedologie oder allgemeine und besondere Bodenkunde, Dresden, Germany. Hilgard E.W., 1892. A Report on the Relations of Soil to Climate. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Weather Bull. 3: 1-59. Jenny H., 1941. Factors of Soil Formation. McGraw-Hill, New York. Liebig J. von, 1840. Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiologie. Playfaeir, Taylor and Waton, London. Marbut C.F., 1951. Soils: Their Genesis and Classification. A Memorial Volume of Lectures given in the Graduate School of the United States Dept. of Agriculture in 1928. Publ. 1951 by Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Madison, WI. Richtofen F.F. von, 1886. Fuehrer fuer Forschungsreisende. Berlin. Simonson R.W., 1959. Outline of a Generalized Theory of Soil Genesis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 23: 152-156. Present Perspective in the U.S. The soil classification based on external environmental factors and an assumed genesis as differentiating characteristics led to dissatisfaction among U.S. soil scientists in the 1950's and 1960's. It was stressed that there is a lot of uncertainty involved dealing with soil forming factors and changing environmental conditions in a landscape. Many processes go on in any soil, often offsetting one another. Hence, it is often difficult to identify the processes in soils because most soils are polygenetic. Furthermore, it is difficult to assess the relative importance of each soil forming factor contributing to the development of a distinct soil class. There was much concern of not being able to classify certain soils with adequate agreement because of uncertainties or disagreement concerning their genesis. The knowledge about processes was and still is limited, because we do not completely understand soil processes. It became obvious that a more 'objective' soil classification scheme should be developed to replace the 'subjective' one. As a consequence, a completely new system of soil classification was developed: The U.S. Soil Taxonomy . It is termed a 'natural' soil classification system, which attempts to organize the division of soils from a more holistic appraisal of soil attributes. The pedon is used as the sampling unit for soil classification and mapping in schemes employing the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Diagnostic horizons are used to define different soil taxa. Since that time, the Keys to Soil Taxonomy have undergone six published revisions. The principles of Soil Taxonomy are: Classify soils on basis of properties Soil properties should be readily observable and / or measurable Soil properties should either affect soil genesis or result from soil genesis Soil processes are not refused in the Soil Taxonomy but the focus is on soil properties rather than on processes. The rationale behind this is that processes are important to produce soil properties and that those are used for classification, i.e., genesis 'lies behind' the soil taxa. Soil processes provide a framework for understanding the Soil Taxonomy. For example, the soil forming process of decomposition and humification forms an A horizons. The soil properties recognizable in the field are a dark color of the A horizon with a granular soil structure. The soil properties selected should be observable or measurable, though instruments may be required for observation or measurement. Properties that can be measured quantitatively are to be preferred to those that can be determined only qualitatively. Other Perspectives There are many diverse approaches to soil classification in different countries. Most schemes have in common a hierarchical structure, i.e. a structure in which individuals are collected in small groups, the small groups belonging to larger groups, a.s.o. The criteria to be used in establishing the different categories are: The inferred genesis of the soil, on the assumption that the soil is in equilibrium with its environment and reflects the influence of prevailing soil forming factors, or: The soil properties being the outward expression of the processes which shaped the soil. No matter how divergent current soil classifications are in principle, language and format, two main levels of generalization stand out: A lower level encompassing the surveyor's series, which are narrow classes in harmony with the landscape. A higher level of broad classes (conceptual classes) with somewhat overlapping boundaries, each of which embodies a central, usually pedogenetic concept. Examples for modern soil classifications used in different countries:	Mineral
The flower buds of the Flinders rose (Capparis spinosa), pickled for culinary seasoning/garnish, are more commonly called what?	32.91 · Budapest University of Technology and Economics Abstract The most widespread classification system for pebble shapes in geology is the Zingg system which relies on several length measurements. Here we propose a completely different classification system which involves counting static equilibria. We show that our system is practically applicable: simple hand experiments are suitable and easy to use to determine equilibrium classes. We also propose a simplified classification scheme called E-classification which is considerably faster in practice than the classical Zingg method. Based on statistical results of 1000 pebbles from several different geologic locations we show that E-classes are closely related to the geometric shape of pebbles. We compared E-classes to the Zingg classes, and we found that all the information contained in Zingg classification can be extracted from equilibrium classification. However, the new method is more sophisticated: it may help to identify shape attributes not discovered so far and it is able to store information on special geometries, e.g. on crystal shapes. Discover the world's research The most widespread classification system for pebble shapes in geology is the Zingg system which relies on several length measurements. Here we propose a completely different classification system which involves counting static equilibria. We show that our system is practically applicable: simple hand experiments are suitable and easy to use to determine equilibrium classes. We also propose a simplified classification scheme called E-classification which is considerably faster in practice than the classical Zingg method. Based on statistical results of 1000 pebbles from several different geologic locations we show that E-classes are closely related to the geometric shape of pebbles. We compared E-classes to the Zingg classes, and we found that all the information contained in Zingg classification can be extracted from equilibrium classification. However, the new method is more sophisticated: it may help to identify shape attributes not discovered so far and it is able to store information on special geometries, e.g. on crystal shapes. Key words: pebble, shape indices, Zingg classes, static equilibria, crystal Introduction The shape of sedimentary particles is an important physical property that facilitates facies differentiation, provides information about the history of the sediment and helps to characterize depositional environments (Graham and Midgley 2000). Analysis of the shape is also a key element in understanding bedload transport and sorting of sedimentary particles, since shape has an influence on the hydrodynamic behavior of particles in the transporting medium (Oakey et al. 2005). However, shape identification may also help in other fields, Addresses: T. Szabó, G. Domokos: H-1111 Budapest, Mûegyetem rkp. 3, K242, Hungary e-mails: [email protected], [email protected] Received: May 28, 2010; accepted: October 10, 2010 1788-2281/$ 20.00 © 2010 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest Central European Geology, Vol. 53/1, pp. 1–19 (2010) DOI: 10.1556/CEuGeol.53.2010.1.1 A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points Tímea Szabó, Gábor Domokos Department of Mechanics, Materials and Structures Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest as particle shape is a complex function of lithology, particle size, the way and duration of transport, the energy of the transporting medium, the nature and extent of post-depositional weathering, and the history of sediment transport and deposition. Although shape is a basic attribute of all objects, including pebbles, complete characterization of such three-dimensional shapes poses formidable difficulties. Sedimentologists have developed a number of standardized shape indices to roughly estimate and classify pebble shapes; these shape indices are derived from measurements of the length, breadth and thickness of a pebble. We will briefly review these classical pebble shape categories in the next section. In this paper we propose a completely different classification scheme which does not rely on length measurements and shape indices; rather, it involves counting static equilibria. Static equilibria are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest when placed on a horizontal, frictionless support surface. While our previous study (Domokos et al. 2010) provided a theoretical basis for equilibrium classification, here we concentrate on applicability in field measurements as well as geologic verification. We demonstrate that the new system is faster than traditional length measurements, that it is readily applicable in field work, and we give practical instructions for simple hand experiments. We also show how equilibrium classification can be naturally applied for crystal shapes; the new system is a clear indicator of crystal geometry. One of our central objectives is to show that the number and type of static equilibria is closely related to the geometric shape of a pebble, i.e. the equilibrium class is a natural property which describes pebble geometry well. We present detailed statistical data of 1000 pebbles from different depositional environments, abrasion processes and pebble lithology. Different statistical results of different geologic locations suggest that the latter could be distinguished based on equilibrium classification, e.g. the new system is characteristic for a given geologic location. We compared the new equilibrium classification system to a well-known classical scheme (Zingg classes) and we found that equilibrium classification contains all the information contained in the classical method. However, the new system provides more detailed data and it may shed light on special shape features not discovered so far. Shape indices One of the important tasks of sedimentology is to sort the infinite number of conceivable particle shapes into a finite number of classes, because well-chosen classes can carry important information on the history of the sediment. Despite the extensive literature on the topic, there is little agreement on the best classification method for pebble shape analysis. A variety of shape indices and diagrammatical presentations of grain shape have been proposed in the past 2T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 (Wentworth 1922; Zingg 1935; Krumbein 1941; Sneed and Folk 1958; Aschenbrenner 1956; Smalley 1967; Dobkins and Folk 1970). These methods for quantitative characterization of pebble shapes have been the subject of lively discussions recent years (e.g. Illenberger 1991, 1992a, 1992b; Benn and Ballantyne 1992; Woronow 1992; Graham and Midgley 2000; Oakey et al. 2005). These classification systems require the measurement of the three orthogonal axis lengths L > I > S of the approximating three-axial ellipsoid, where L is the longest, I the intermediate and S the shortest axis of the pebble. Based on these axis lengths a number of shape indices have been used, some of them to predict the hydraulic behavior of sediment grains. A thorough summary of shape indices is given by Blott and Pye (2008) and Illenberger (1991); see also Table 1. A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 3 Central European Geology 53, 2010 Table 1 The most frequently used and most widespread shape indices The first-order ratios of the three orthogonal axes are the easiest shape indices to conceptualize. Allowing reciprocal functions, second-order indices are products of two first-order indices. Most of the proposed shape indices can be related to these first- and second-order indices and two independent shape indices are required to produce a particle-form diagram. Most researchers use either the Zingg (1935) or the Sneed and Folk (1958) methods to graphically represent and classify pebble shapes. Zingg proposed a Cartesian coordinate system with S/I and I/L as indices for the shape diagram, where S/I is a measure of flatness and I/L is a measure of elongation (Fig. 1a). The Zingg diagram is a simple and clear classification system; however, Sneed and Folk (1958) concluded that the Zingg classification is an inadequate tool, as it only contains four classes. They suggested that pebble shapes should be plotted on a triangular diagram, where S/L is plotted against the Disc-rod index (Fig. 1b, see also Table 1), and they divided the diagram into 10 shape classes. Several authors have argued whether the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system is the most suitable classification scheme; Blott and Pye (2008) concluded that the Zingg diagram provides a more even distribution of the shape continuum than the triangular Folk diagram. Zingg classification is probably the easiest and most logical way to estimate pebble shapes; therefore in this paper we will use Zingg classes as a basis for comparison to our new classification system. However, connection with other classification methods could also be demonstrated. 4T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Fig. 1 a) Zingg diagram with 4 classes: Disc (I), Sphere (II), Blade (III), Rod (IV) b) Triangular shape classification diagram by Sneed and Folk; the classes are: Compact (C), Compact- platy (CP), Compact-bladed (CB), Compact-elongated (CE), Platy (P), Bladed (B), Elongated (E), Very platy (VP), Very bladed (VB), Very elongated (VE) The above-mentioned classical pebble categories rely on length measurements, which inevitably cause inaccuracies in the classification method because it is often uncertain as how to L, I and S should be defined and also because measurements involve a degree of error and they might be quite tedious. Most researchers have agreed that L, I and S should be perpendicular to each other, but they do not need to intersect at a common point. However, as shown by Blott and Pye (2008), the exact directions of the three axes are uncertain even in the case of a simple cube. If we define the L dimension as the maximum 'caliper' dimension (as most authors do), then the longest dimension is the body diagonal of the cube and the two axes perpendicular to this are not of equal length. Blott and Pye proposes that the L, I and S dimensions should be defined as the side lengths of the smallest imaginary box which can contain the particle. This definition leads to an accurate calculation in the case of cube; the three axis lengths are equal to each other (and to the side lengths of the cube). However, this method is rather complicated to achieve: the examiner must orientate the particle by eye so that S and I prescribe the smallest projected area. It is also apparent that classical pebble-shape categories involve arbitrarily chosen constants to separate shape classes from each other. The Zingg system uses an axis ratio value of 2/3 to discriminate the four classes. The classical Zingg system can be unified if an internal parameter 0≤p≤1 is introduced. In the classical Zingg system of p=2/3, the generalized Zingg classes can be given as Zp(I): Disc I/L ≥p and S/I ≤p (1) Zp(II): Sphere I/L ≥p and S/I ≥p (2) Zp(III): Blade I/L ≤p and S/I ≤p (3) Zp(IV): Rod I/L ≤p and S/I ≥p (4) Although this not was explicitly defined, Zingg assumed that the p=2/3 value is universally optimal; however, later we will show that the optimal choice of p depends on the investigated sample. The value of p has a great influence on the result of the classification, i.e. classification schemes derived from length measurements are also ambiguous in that sense. In this paper we propose an alternative classification system which does not suffer from these ambiguities (while inevitably, it includes others!). Our approach is very speedy and does not contain any arbitrarily introduced constants or directions. Our system relies on the (integer) number and type of static equilibria which we outline below. In this section we summarize in a nutshell the results of previous studies, focusing on the practical side of equilibrium classification system. For a detailed mathematical background, see Várkonyi and Domokos (2006); also Domokos et al. (2010). A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 5 Central European Geology 53, 2010 Static equilibria are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. When placed on a horizontal surface, a homogeneous, convex, rigid body will come to rest at a stable point of equilibrium and it will return there after a small perturbation. For example, a cube will have 6 stable equilibria on the 6 faces. Unstable points of equilibria appear still as balance points when placed on a horizontal surface; however, the body will not return there after small perturbations. There are two generic versions of unstable equilibrium points: unstable maxima and saddles. For example, the cube has 8 unstable points (maxima) on the 8 vertices and 12 saddle type equilibria on the 12 edges. A typical convex body may have three types of equilibria: stable, unstable and saddle type equilibria and our approach relies on counting these equilibrium points. If equilibrium points are well isolated, i.e. they are sufficiently apart, they can be easily identified by hand experiments. In such experiments small perturbations, realized by slightly tossing the object in one direction or the other, play a key role. Typical points of a surface are non-equilibrium points. When placed on such a point on a horizontal surface, the body will roll away, always in the same direction, even if we toss it slightly in a different way. Stable points are most easily identified in a hand experiment, as stable points behave as attractors (Fig. 2a), i.e. the body will always roll back to a stable point from a nearby location, no matter in which direction it is tossed away. Unstable points act as repellors, i.e. the body will always roll away from an unstable point; 6T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Fig. 2 Counting equilibrium points of a flat pebble in a hand experiment. Arrows show if pebble rolls away from the equilibrium point or rolls back to the equilibrium point if we toss it slightly away in that direction. a) when placed on a horizontal surface, the pebble will come to rest at a stable point of equilibrium and it will return there after small perturbation b) constrained in the principal plane, vertical position, one of the maxima along the edge still appears as unstable equilibrium: pebble is stable laterally (constrained by hand, see b2 side view); however, unstable in the longitudinal direction (b1 frontal view) c) constrained in the principal plane, vertical position, one of the pebble's saddle points along the edge appears as a stable equilibrium: pebble is stable both laterally (constrained by hand, c2 side view) and longitudinally (c1 frontal view) however, unlike the case of non-equilibrium points, the direction of the roll is ambiguous; it depends entirely on the direction in which it is tossed. Differentiation between unstable points and saddle points requires more attention from the examiner. In hand experiments saddle points behave similarly to repellors; nevertheless, in the case of flat, disc-like objects they can be much more easily identified. In such cases saddles and unstable maxima are placed along the large perimeter of the flat object. By constraining the object vertically in the plane of the large perimeter, as the object rolls around the perimeter, saddles appear as attractors in this constrained problem, while unstable points remain repellors (Fig. 2b, c). Since most pebbles tend to be flat, this is probably the easiest way to count unstable and saddle-type equilibria. Static equilibrium points can be counted in such simple hand experiments. Let us denote the number of stable equilibrium points by S, the number of unstable equilibria by U and the number of saddle type equilibria by H. The Poincaré-Hopf Theorem (Arnold 1998) establishes the relationship S+U–H=2. Based on this result, we can define a unique classification for convex, rigid bodies based on the number and type of their equilibria (Várkonyi and Domokos 2006): class {S,U} contains all convex, rigid bodies with S stable and U unstable equilibria. Thus, only two types of equilibria need to be counted in a hand experiment; the third type can be either computed or used to verify the experiment. For example, a cube is in class {6,8} with S=6 stable and U=8 unstable equilibria. Although in Várkonyi and Domokos (2006) it was shown that all classes are non-empty, most classes are not easy to visualize. Figure 3 illustrates some equilibrium classes by characteristic shapes. (The illustrations do not represent all characteristic shapes of the given class.) The Gömböc (Várkonyi and Domokos 2006) is in class {1,1}; a characteristic example for class {2,2} is a tri-axial ellipsoid. Observe that polyhedral shapes appear in the lower right corner of the table in the shaded wedge-shaped segment. Probably the most obvious examples for polyhedral shapes in geology are crystals. This indicates that equilibrium classification is not only a natural tool for classifying pebbles (as we later show), but it also can be applied to describe crystal shapes. Crystal shapes Crystal shapes are traditionally classified into the following 7 crystal systems: the triclinic, monoclinic, orthorombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and the cubic system. Although there is a detailed and abundant literature on crystal shapes and various methods – including the Zingg method (Mock and Jerram 2005) – are used to describe the geometry and symmetry of crystals (Hahn 2002), equilibrium classification may provide new information on these special shapes. Although equilibrium classification method based on hand experiments can only work on a relatively large single crystal, in fact in most cases the shape of a single crystal is so characteristic that we do not even need to take the crystal into A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 7 Central European Geology 53, 2010 our hand, the equilibrium class can be determined just by visual inspection. The shape of a single crystal is usually a minimal polyhedron, i.e. each face of the polyhedron contains a stable equilibrium point, each vertex is an unstable equilibrium point and each edge contains a saddle type equilibrium. Let us denote the number of faces, vertices and edges by F, V and E, respectively. For minimal polyhedra Euler's formula F+V–E=2 is equivalent to the Poincare-Hopf 8T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Fig. 3 Equilibrium classes for 3D bodies: examples for some characteristic shapes. Rows (S) denote number of stable equilibria, columns (U) denote number of unstable equilibria. Várkonyi and Domokos (2006) established the existence of {1,1} and created an object belonging to this class: it is called the Gömböc. The tri-axial ellipsoid (which is used to approximate pebble shape in the Zingg system) is in {2,2}. Observe that shapes in row 2 (class E(I)) are rather flat whereas shapes in column 2 (class E(IV)) are rather thin. Also, observe that polyhedral (crystal) shapes emerge toward the lower right corner of the table (shaded wedge-shaped segment). Some typical crystal shapes in the table: pyramids with n- sided base, S=U=n+1: tetrahedron {4,4}, tetragonal pyramid {5,5}, hexagonal pyramid {7,7}, dihexagonal pyramid {13,13}; dipyramids with n-sided base, S=2n, U=n+2: trigonal dipyramid {6,5}, octahedron {8,6}, hexagonal dipyramid {12,8}; n-sided prisms with S=n+2, U=2n: trigonal prism {5,6}, cube {6,8}, hexagonal prism {8,12}; other crystal shapes: cuboctahedron {14,12}, rhombic dodecahedron {12,14} relationship S+U–H=2 because S=F, U=V and H=E. Therefore, to identify E- classes, the only task is to count the faces (F) and the vertices (V) of the polyhedron, determining the equilibrium class {F,V} of the crystal. Minimal polyhedra are positioned in the shaded wedge-shaped segment of the table in Fig. 3, i.e. outside the wedge no minimal polyhedra exist. This statement can be proven along the following line: as each face is bounded by at least three edges, we have 3F≤2E. From Euler's formula (F+V–E=2) we have 2E=2F+2V–4. The previous two imply 3F≤2F+2V–4 from which F≤2V-4 and, finally, S≤2U–4 follows. Similarly, at least three edges start at each vertex, so we have 3V≤2E which leads to U≤2S–4. Relationships S≤2U–4 and U≤2S–4 determine the shaded wedge-shaped segment of the S–U table. Table 2 illustrates equilibrium classification of crystals with some examples. Equilibrium class is very easy to determine; nevertheless it is a clear indicator of crystal geometry, although it uses only two integer numbers. A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 9 Central European Geology 53, 2010 Table 2 Examples for equilibrium classes of single crystals. Crystal shapes are minimal polyhedra which are positioned in the shaded wedge-shaped segment of the table in Figure 3 E-classification and geometric shapes Equilibrium classification is not only an adequate tool for classifying crystal shapes; it also describes the shape of pebbles well, as we will show it in this section. Our main goal is to show how shape information can be extracted from the new equilibrium classification system and to demonstrate the connection between equilibrium classification and the classical Zingg system. For easier comparison with the Zingg system we introduce the simplified E- classification. The latter is based on equilibrium classes; however, it is radically simplified (see Fig. 3) as follows: E(I): E-classes {2,U}, U > 2 E(II): E-classes {S,U}, S, U >2 E(III): E-class {2,2} E(IV): E-classes {S,2}, S > 2 Pebbles with S,U=1 are extremely rare (Várkonyi and Domokos 2006), so these classes do not appear in the above simplified scheme. E-classification has the additional advantage that it is very easy to apply in hand experiments: the examiner has only to decide whether the pebble has two or more than two (stable and unstable) equilibrium points. This simplified scheme is a very speedy process; in the case of most pebbles it can be done in seconds. Our goal is to show how E-class is related to the geometric shape of the pebble. Although E-class does not exactly determine the geometric shape, in some cases the shape of the pebble is so characteristic that the E-class can be determined even without counting, just by brief visual inspection. Figure 4 illustrates E- classes with 4 characteristic pebbles: flat objects will typically belong to the simplified E-class E(I); elongated objects will typically belong to the simplified E-class E(IV); flat and elongated objects belong to E(III). Objects neither flat nor elongated typically belong to E(II) (cf. Fig. 3). This indicates that simplified E-classes E(i) are closely related to the generalized Zingg classes Zp(i) as the axis ratio S/I is a measure of flatness and I/L is a measure of elongation. As mentioned before, in the case of E-classification the examiner must make two binary choices by de- termining whether the number of stable points (S) and the number of 10 T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Fig. 4 Four characteristic examples for E-classes. Typically, flat pebbles belong to E(I), elongate pebbles belong to E(IV), flat and elongate pebbles belong to E(III). Pebbles neither flat nor elongate belong to E(II). E-classes E(i) are closely related to the generalized Zingg classes Zp(i). Zp-classes of the 4 characteristic pebbles are shown in brackets (cf. Fig. 1a) unstable points (U) is greater or equal to 2. Whether S is greater or equal to 2 can be often be decided without even taking the pebble in hand; as pointed out above, flat pebbles typically have S=2. Similarly, very elongated pebbles typically have U=2. If a pebble is neither very elongated nor very flat then the examiner must begin counting S and U. If any of these numbers exceed 2, counting may cease: from the viewpoint of E-classes no further information is required. However, if we are interested in the exact number of stable and unstable equilibria, it sometimes helps – especially in case of complicated shapes – to mark the identified equilibrium points on the surface (thus avoiding counting them twice). Figure 4 suggest that simplified E-classes E(i) are closely related to the generalized Zingg classes Zp(i). We will validate this statement with quantitative, statistical data in the next section. Statistical comparison of E-classes and Z-classes We examined the agreement between E-classes and Zp-classes on 20 collected pebble samples (each of them consisting of 50 pebbles). The samples are from A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 11 Central European Geology 53, 2010 Fig. 5 Place of origin of the 20 pebble samples. Each sample consists of 50 pebbles. Geologic locations are rather different: abrasion processes (pebbles on the seashore and river-bank) and rock types differ from each other (see also Table 4) several different geologic locations (Fig. 5), representing different depositional environments, abrasion processes and pebble lithology. We determined the E-class of all pebbles as well as their axis ratios S/I and I/L. Based on the latter, the Zp-class can be determined if the parameter p is given (in the classical Zingg case p=2/3 is assumed). Table 3 shows a sample of our table in which all required data can be recorded. Instead of assuming a single value for p we let p vary between 0 and 1 and for each value we determined the Zp-class. Also, for each value of p we determined the agreement a(p) between Zp- and E-classification: this value is between 0 and 1 and expresses the ratio of pebbles where Zp- and E-classes agreed, i.e. if the pebble was classified in E(i) it was simultaneously classified into Zp(i). The function a(p), drawn in the unit square, we call the Z/E agreement diagram. Figure 6 presents such a Z/E agreement diagram. The diagram has one definite 12 T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Table 3 A simple table for statistical comparison between E-classes and Zp-classes (Sample data refer to the case p=0.84). If time allows it is worth using the "full" counting process, and record the exact number of S and U. If time plays an important role, from the point of E-classification it is enough to record whether S (or U) is greater or equal to 2 Fig. 6 Some typical pebbles and Z/E aggreement diagram for pebble sample V1. Horizontal axis: parameter p of the generalized Zingg classification (cf. equations (1)–(4)). Vertical axis: agreement a(p) between Zp- and E-classification. The diagram has one definite peak at popt. The value a (popt) is the best match between Zp- and E-classes peak, the p-value associated with this peak we denote by popt . The value a(popt) is the best match between Zp- and E-classes. Table 4 summarizes our experimental results of the 20 samples. We found that for all locations and all samples the Z/E diagram has one (and only one) characteristic peak, in the range 0.55 < popt < 0.89. The values popt are listed in a separate column of Table 4. The value a(popt), i.e. the best match between Zp- and E-classes, varies between 0.56–0.96 and is also listed separately, as well as the percentages in all classes at p=popt. The definite, single peak in the Z/E curves suggests that there exists an optimal Zingg parameter for each sample at which Z-classification works most efficiently. For well-rounded, worn stones the optimal Zingg parameter is higher (~0.8), for more rugged stones it is smaller (~0.6). This shows that the optimal Zingg parameter is not universal; however, Zingg's original guess of p=0.67 was a very good one. It also shows that one can estimate the value of popt pretty accurately based on the pebble's shape. The shape of the Z/E agreement diagrams is very characteristic for the sample. In the case of well-rounded, worn stones (samples 1–11) the curve starts low and has a long monotonic slope to the peak. In case of rugged shapes (samples 12–20) the curve starts high and has only a minor slope before the peak. Based on the values a(popt), we can see that data on Z-classes can be extracted from E-classification with fair (~10–20%) accuracy. In our experiments we only used simplified E-classes since our goal was to compare E- and Zp-classes. Simplified E-classification contains the same information as the Zingg classes; however, the 'full' equilibrium classification admits more subtle distinction of shapes which cannot be captured by Z-classification. As an example we mention that the Zingg system cannot distinguish between tetrahedral and cubic shapes, while equilibrium classes {4,4} and {6,8} give clear descriptions of this shapes. Statistical results also show that there is a significant difference between different geologic locations; this implies that different locations can be distinguished based on equilibrium classification. The distribution of pebbles in the different E-classes can indicate a special abrasion process, depositional environment and/or pebble lithology. For example, collecting pebble samples of identical rock types can help to distinguish between the abrasion of wave-current on a beach, where pebbles are dominantly sliding on each other, and the abrasion in a riverbed, where the case of rolling is more frequent. Analysis of pebble shape can also characterize the environment, as it can separate sandy beaches from gravelly beaches, high-wave energy beaches form low-wave energy ones (Dobkins and Folk 1970). Finally, equilibrium classification also can indicate a special pebble lithology (e.g. schist pebbles are dominantly flat because of the lamellar strucure of this rock type; see samples 1–3). In this paper we presented pebble samples from various geologic locations to show the applicability of our new system; however, our future project is a A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 13 Central European Geology 53, 2010 14 T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Table 4 Comparison between E-classes and Z-classes. Except for sample size, all data is given in percentages. Z/E diagrams are plotted as agreement 0<a<1 between Z and E classes versus Zingg parameter 0<p<1. Peak of Z/E curve corresponds to best agreement; values are listed in separate columns. Observe that Z/E curves are characteristic of stone shapes: samples 1–11 show similar, smooth shapes and similar Z/E curves, the rest 12–20 show rugged shapes and the Z/E curves are also similar in this group 0.79 purposeful application of the new system, based on geologically interesting pebble samples. In our paper we proposed a new classification scheme for pebble shapes, based on the number and type of static equilibrium points. Although our system is more elaborate in the sense that it includes – in theory – infinitely many classes, in practice only half a dozen play an important role. We introduced a simplified version with just four E-classes which is a rapid and adequate tool in most cases. The new system appears to be a natural choice in the sense that the integer number of static equilibria is encoded in the pebble's shape. There is no need to involve any arbitrary constants or directions in the classification system; the only task is to count static equilibrium points of the surface. We observed that flat shapes always belong to class E(I), elongated shapes to E(IV) and by similar argument flat and elongated shapes with small axis ratios b/a, c/b always fall into class E(III). This indicates that the number and type of equilibria constrains important shape informations although it does not completely determine the geometric shape. We compared Zingg classification to E-classification. We found that, depending on the choice of the Zingg-parameter p a 80–90% agreement exists, i.e. all the information contained in Zingg classification can be extracted from the simplified equilibrium classification. However, if the "full" counting process is applied, the new system is more sophisticated and is capable of storing information on special (e.g. polyhedral) shapes which cannot be extracted from the Zingg system. In particular, in the case of crystal shapes the new system promises to be useful: equilibrium class is a clear indicator of crystal habit. Our approach appears to be a natural one and possibly in combination with other methods may help to identify statistical shape features not discovered so far, which may add new information about the wear process and the depositional environment of pebbles. The authors are grateful to the staff of the Department of Mineralogy, Eötvös Loránd University, for providing access to their collection of minerals. We are most indebted to Ákos Török for his kind help, in particular with identifying rock types. The support of OTKA grant 72146 is appreciated. References Arnold, V.I. 1998: Ordinary differential equations. – 10th printing, MIT Press, Cambridge. Aschenbrenner, B.C. 1956: A new method of expressing particle sphericity. – Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 26, pp. 15–31. 18 T. Szabó, G. Domokos Central European Geology 53, 2010 Benn, D.I., C.K. Ballantyne 1992: Pebble shape (and size!) – discussion. – Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62, pp. 1147–1150. Blott, S.J., K. Pye 2008: Particle shape: a review and new methods of characterization and classification. – Sedimentology, 55, pp. 31–63. Corey, A.T. 1949: Influence of shape on fall velocity of sand grains. – unpublished MSc Thesis, Colorado A&M College. Dobkins, J.E., R.L. Folk 1970: Shape development on Tahiti-Nui. – Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 40, pp. 1167–1203. Domokos, G., A. Sipos, T. Szabó, P. 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Woronow, A. 1992: Pebble shape (and size!) – discussion. – Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62, pp. 536–537. Zingg, T. 1935: Beitrag zur Schotteranalyse. – Schweizeriscke Mineralogische und Petrologische Mitteilungen, 15, pp. 39–140. A new classification system for pebble and crystal shapes based on static equilibrium points 19 Central European Geology 53, 2010 CitationsCitations2	i don't know
In Spanish-speaking nations a hacienda is a big what?	The Hacienda - definition of The Hacienda by The Free Dictionary The Hacienda - definition of The Hacienda by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/The+Hacienda Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . ha·ci·en·da (hä′sē-ĕn′də, ä′sē-) n. 1. A large estate in a Spanish-speaking region. 2. The house of the owner of such an estate. [Spanish, from Latin facienda, things to be done, from neuter pl. gerundive of facere, to do; see dhē- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] hacienda (in Spain or Spanish-speaking countries) n 1. (Agriculture) a. a ranch or large estate b. any substantial stock-raising, mining, or manufacturing establishment in the country 2. (Architecture) the main house on such a ranch or plantation [C18: from Spanish, from Latin facienda things to be done, from facere to do] ha•ci•en•da	Estate
Which symbol is derived from Greek meaning 'small star'?	Haciendas - definition of Haciendas by The Free Dictionary Haciendas - definition of Haciendas by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Haciendas Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . ha·ci·en·da (hä′sē-ĕn′də, ä′sē-) n. 1. A large estate in a Spanish-speaking region. 2. The house of the owner of such an estate. [Spanish, from Latin facienda, things to be done, from neuter pl. gerundive of facere, to do; see dhē- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] hacienda (in Spain or Spanish-speaking countries) n 1. (Agriculture) a. a ranch or large estate b. any substantial stock-raising, mining, or manufacturing establishment in the country 2. (Architecture) the main house on such a ranch or plantation [C18: from Spanish, from Latin facienda things to be done, from facere to do] ha•ci•en•da n., pl. -das. (in Spanish America) 1. a large landed estate, esp. one used for farming or ranching. 2. the main house on such an estate. [1710–20; < Sp] A Spanish word for a large ranch or ranch-house. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: hacienda - a large estate in Spanish-speaking countries hacienda - the main house on a ranch or large estate acres , demesne , landed estate , estate , land - extensive landed property (especially in the country) retained by the owner for his own use; "the family owned a large estate on Long Island" 2. hacienda - the main house on a ranch or large estate house - a dwelling that serves as living quarters for one or more families; "he has a house on Cape Cod"; "she felt she had to get out of the house" hacienda - a large estate in Spanish-speaking countries Translations [ˌhæsɪˈendə] N (US) → hacienda f hacienda Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: internal References in classic literature ? I own many haciendas, and ten thousand Indians are my slaves, though the law says they are free men who work by freedom of contract. He has large haciendas at Ambato and Latacunga, and down the coast is he interested in oil-wells. View in context After dark we reached the Hacienda of Quintero, the estate which formerly belonged to Lord Cochrane. We crossed over to the Hacienda de San Isidro, situated at the very foot of the Bell Mountain. The mayor-domo of the Hacienda was good enough to give me a guide and fresh horses; and in the morning we set out to ascend the Campana, or Bell Mountain, which is Having slept at the same hacienda as before, we rode during the two succeeding days up the valley, and passed through Quillota, which is more like a collection of nursery-gardens than a town.	i don't know
What common three-letter word prefixes the following to make six different words?	A List of 35 Common Prefixes in English A List of 35 Common Prefixes in English A List of 35 Common Prefixes in English Vocabulary Building: Common Prefixes With Definitions and Examples The prefix uni- means "one," as in unicorn (literally "one horn"), unison ("one sound"), and uniform ("one shape"). (PraxisPhotography/Getty Images) If you were a prefix, you could change the same word in different ways. You could make a cycle a unicycle, a bicycle, or a tricycle. (Marcie Aboff and Sara Gray, If You Were a Prefix. Picture Window Books, 2008) A prefix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a word (or word root ) that partly indicates its meaning . For example, the word prefix itself begins with the prefix pre-, which generally means "before" or "in front of." Many of today's English words contain prefixes from Greek or Latin. Understanding the meanings of the most common prefixes can help us deduce the meanings of new words that we run across in our reading. Still, we do need to be careful: the same prefix may be spelled in more than one way (pre- and pro-, for instance), and some prefixes (such as in-) have more than one meaning (in this case, "not" and "into"). Even so, being able to recognize prefixes can help us build our vocabularies . The following table (in some browsers, just below the ads) defines and illustrates 35 common prefixes. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance Common Prefixes	For
The (International Standards Organization) ISO 4217, within which TRY refers to Turkey, provides designations for international?	26 Common Suffixes in English (With Examples) By Richard Nordquist Updated August 26, 2016. A suffix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a new word or to change the grammatical function (or part of speech ) of the original word. For example, the verb read is made into the noun reader by adding the suffix -er. Similarly, read is made into the adjective readable by adding the suffix -able. Understanding the meanings of the common suffixes can help you figure out the meanings of new words you encounter. But as you work on building your vocabulary , you should keep a few points in mind: In some cases, the spelling of a root or base word changes when a suffix is added. For example, in words ending in y preceded by a consonant (such as the noun beauty and the adjective ugly), the y may change to an i when a suffix is added (as in the adjective beautiful and the noun ugliness). Also, in words ending in silent -e (such as use and adore), the final -e may be dropped before a suffix that begins with a vowel (as in usable and adorable). As with all spelling rules , there are exceptions of course. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States Not all suffixes can be added to all roots. For example, the adjective beautiful is formed by adding the suffix -ful to the noun beauty, and the noun ugliness is formed by adding the suffix -ness to the adjective ugly. But you won't find *ugliful in your dictionary—or in standard English . (Throughout this website, an asterisk in front of a construction shows that it's considered nonstandard or ungrammatical .) A suffix may have more than one meaning. With adjectives and adverbs, for instance, the -er suffix usually conveys the comparative meaning of "more" (as in the adjectives kinder and longer). But in some cases the -er ending can also refer to someone who performs a particular action (such as a dancer or builder) or to someone who lives in a particular place (such as a New Yorker or a Dubliner). Don't be put off by these variations, qualifications, and exceptions. Just think of these common suffixes as clues to the meanings of words. As in a detective story, sometimes the clues are clear and fairly obvious. Other times they can be puzzling or misleading. In any case, keep in mind that the meanings of words are best determined by studying the contexts in which they are used as well as the parts of the words themselves. The table below defines and illustrates 26 common suffixes. Common Suffixes in English	i don't know
The drinks Sprite and 7 Up traditionally comprise which two-fruit combination?	Fruit Punch Recipe : Paula Deen : Food Network Cherry 4.3 50 it's tasty and feels fresh.. but..it's too sweet. you see how many concentrate juice? 4 cans! and add another 3 cups of sugar. it's just too much... i have to add more..more water. or cut back the juice concentrate into 1 can each and no more sugar. santosom 2011-10-31T15:51:04Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I served this punch at an anniversary party. I did however replace the simple syrup with Diet Sprite. Everyone loved it! I will definitely serve it again. Guest 2011-10-26T19:20:12Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I really like the punch! Only thing I changed was the amount of simple syrup. I cut it in half. I thought the other things had enough sweetness. I guess it depends on your own sweet tooth! MelRagazzi 2011-03-10T09:32:16Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This is a great recipe! It is not too sweet and for those who said its too sweet should not be drinking punch. I have made this punch for large banquets for hundreds of people and it is always a big hit. I am always asked how I made it by those that drink it. This is a great punch for any occasion, simple to make with a great refreshing taste. Guest 2010-12-08T20:46:27Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This punch was so sweet that we couldn't even drink it. We tried to add more water and club soda to try and make it drinkable. No one at our party liked it!! tbussing 2010-11-21T13:46:41Z item not reviewed by moderator and published We made this in my foods class today. It was AWESOME!! We used all of the simple syrup called for and I didn't find it too sweet at all. Meh, personal tastes differ, I guess. It was still great punch. Casey F. 2010-09-03T22:41:24Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I have made this punch for years, but with a couple of changes. I don't put simple syrup in, use diet 7-up or sprite, and then put orange or pineapple sherbet instead of the frozen strawberries. It's always a huge success and the sherbet gives it a festive taste. Using the diet soda helps cut the sweetness a bit. hannahmollie 2010-05-06T12:24:23Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this for a shower this weekend. I found it in my Paula Dean cookbook. Reading the recipe, I thought it was going to be too sweet, but it seemed easy and quick so I tried it anyway. But I used unsweetened sparkling water instead of the Sprite. It was still very sweet, but tolerable. I decided to check the Internet today to see if there was a misprint in the cookbook, but it was the same. If I have the occasion the make it again, I will use less sugar. Linda M. 2010-03-01T20:34:22Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This Punch is very sweet I had to add lots of water to it and still it was to sweet not a very good punch it don't need the 3 cups of sugar was not very good Mary L. 2009-12-05T18:45:49Z item not reviewed by moderator and published We made this as our non-alcoholic drink for a Hawaiian wedding party that we hosted for 80 of our friends. We rented a large glass decorative dispenser with a spout. This punch was a huge hit. We purchased enought for 3 batches as we had no idea how many people were planning on drinking alcohol. We made ice cubes with extra pinapple juice and strawberries also a few with orange juice. It looked AMAZING in the dipenser and people LOVED it. We went through two solid batches and in the end added an extra bottle of Sprite to thin it out a little. We preferred extra fizz and also halved the simple syrup. So this evening we were invited to a house warming backyard BBQ for a new neighbor. We still had lots of premade icecubes in a large bowl in the freezer. The sliced strawberries still looked awesome so we made a full batch of this for the party and divided it into two pitchers. Again halved the simple syrup with extra Sprite. I probably should have made more since by the end of the party this was the new mixed drink with shots of vodka for drinkers and just plain for non-drinkers. This recipe is going into the official recipe box. Tiffany G. 2009-08-30T01:07:38Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this punch memorial day weekend for a party that we had for our premature daughter. Everyone loved it. I only made one batch and it wasn't nearly enough. I should have made 2 or 3 batches. When I made the receipe I cut the sugar down, but I think next time that I make it I will leave the sugar out all together. Over all this punch was very refreshing and wonderful. It's a recipe that I will use again. YUM!!! Sarah N. 2009-05-29T17:09:12Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I even omitted the sugar syrup and still found this too be too sweet and "heavy". Not a good punch at all. My husband likes anything sweet and he thought this had a "funky" flavor. I think the pineapple juice just doesn't mix well with all the citrus. I don't know, it just wasn't good and I followed the recipe to the tee, with the exception of the extra sugar. I can't imagine how sweet that would've made it! Yuck! Sorry Paula, I usually enjoy your recipes! Rebecca F. 2009-04-12T18:04:03Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I used this punch recipe for a bridal shower and everyone RAVED about how delicious it was. Everyone wanted to know who made it and if they could get the recipe! Great choice for a party! dana c. 2009-02-06T20:54:00Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This is wonderful punch. The kids really enjoyed it. I suggest using at any kind of party! bob b. 2008-07-22T12:35:48Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this for a bridal shower, guests drank it all. I made it w/ only 2 cups of sugar it was plenty sweet. Very fresh taste. connie b. 2008-04-28T14:22:00Z item not reviewed by moderator and published your the bomb and the fruit punch was awsome Tristan l. 2008-04-24T14:44:13Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I'm not a huge fan of sweet drinks. I'm not a fan of punch at all. I made this punch for a brunch baby shower and everyone loved it. Even those who don't care for punch enjoyed the flavor. It wasn't too sweet and was beautiful with the floating strawberries. It looked like I spent hours preparing it but it really was simple! What a great recipe! Lorraine C. 2008-03-30T15:47:14Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this punch for my daughters prom and all the guests enjoyed this punch with and without the italian meal I had cooked. Also made punch for her graduation and all the guests that were non drinkers loved the punch and could not believe how simple of recipe this was. We are invited for Christmas eve to a family gathering and the kids are asking me to bring this punch. It has become a hit in our family. L S. 2007-12-08T00:26:23Z item not reviewed by moderator and published i think this is a great recipe veradale r. 2007-08-14T08:41:53Z item not reviewed by moderator and published very good and easy Denise H. 2007-07-16T23:22:42Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This punch was incredibly easy to make and was the hit of the drinks at the party. Thank you Paula! Kevin N. 2007-07-06T15:32:58Z item not reviewed by moderator and published n/a reny h. 2007-06-01T15:14:27Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Everyone liked this and many asked for the recipe. Hammerman052 2007-05-28T18:18:54Z item not reviewed by moderator and published We did a test taste of this punch for my daughters graduation party and it was great.The flavors are wonderful and the color is a perfect match to the schools colors! Mary F. 2007-05-26T07:59:17Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I served this punch at my son's graduation reception and everyone seemed to like it except for one comment repeated over and over again. It's too sweet. I will try this recipe again but I will cut the sugar by at least 1/2. I did not like the idea of whole strawberries because the strawberries I had on hand were enormous. So, I quartered the strawberries and blended 1/2 of the quartered strawberries into the the fruit punch that I used to pour over the strawberries that I had placed in the mold. It worked very well. Beth F. 2007-05-13T09:07:08Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Combination of juices sounded great but the sweetness was more than I could handle. Judy F. 2007-05-02T13:21:35Z item not reviewed by moderator and published It's really good, but a bit on the sweet side. Angela N. 2007-05-01T01:45:48Z item not reviewed by moderator and published After reading the other reviews I decided to omit the sugar syrup. I just used the juice, strawberries and Sprite. It was plenty sweet enough. I can not imagine it any sweeter. Everyone loved it. I think this will be my new punch recipe for my parties. Thanks Paula!!!! Michele M. 2007-03-18T19:47:03Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This punch was really good!! It was a little too sweet for me so next time I might just make half of the syrup, but my husband who usually does not like very sweet things LOVED it and didn't think it was too sweet. I will definately be making this punch again, I think it is my new favorite!!! amberuna 2007-03-11T19:22:01Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This is so refreshing and tasty! It has been a HUGE hit at every party. Dana D. 2007-02-02T22:25:36Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Very refreshing! Great non-alcoholic punch for Christmas 2006! DONNA H. 2007-02-02T14:00:30Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This punch is very good. I didnt use all of the simple syrup as others have suggested and the sweetness was just right. I also substituted raspberries for strawberries which turned out great. The both kids and adults loved it. Delicious! Nicole V. 2006-12-29T14:08:27Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this for my daughter's christening party and it was delicious. I was tired of the sherbet punch we have at parties. This was a huge hit with the whole crowd. Deborah H. 2006-10-19T15:48:46Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Decided to use this fruit punch recipe for the beverage at my aunt's 100th birthday party. The flavor is good, but with the pineapple juice and simple syrup, it is way over the top on the sweet scale. I'll use it again, but omit the simple syrup. I have a good bit of the juice mixture already prepared that I will freeze for a holiday party and I'll just use club soda instead of lemon-lime soda just to cut the sugar. Denise F. 2006-10-18T10:58:06Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I love it & most importantly, the crowds love it :-)) I'll definitely make it again in the future. This is a keeper. Super easy & tasty. sunny y. 2006-10-05T18:37:47Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I had this at a baby shower and then made it myself for a brunch we were hosting. Everyone raved on how fresh and delicious it was... and the presentation with the ice ring of strawberries was beautiful. CINDY S. 2006-09-02T10:01:52Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Made it for a baby shower...guests loved it! Make sure you plan ahead enough to get the center frozen. It takes longer than 4 hours! Lisa H. 2006-08-02T09:24:21Z item not reviewed by moderator and published It was the talk of my party this weekend. I had to make 2 batches. The strawbery ring add a nice touch and I had a lot of requests for the recipe. judith c. 2006-06-05T21:26:06Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this for a baby shower I hosted, and it was a big hit! Everyone asked for the recipe. I was also able to modify it, using Splenda instead of regular sugar, and you couldn't tell the difference. Excellent recipe! Jabaria J. 2006-05-27T12:42:39Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I served this at a baby shower and everyone just loved it. Kathleen H. 2006-03-20T17:16:51Z item not reviewed by moderator and published After reading some reviews of this recipe, I decided to make the syrup with half the sugar that the recipe called for. I served 4 batches of it for a large event, and it was extremely popular--I could barely keep the punch bowl filled! I am not a big fan of most punch recipes because they are often super sweet, but this one had the perfect balance of sweetness and tanginess. Caroline N. 2006-02-26T19:32:37Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I made this punch for a bridal shower and it was a huge hit. So delicious. Several people asked for the recipe. MusicClassMama 2006-02-22T21:20:24Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This one was a favorite at my party. Everyone loved it. I had two versions of your fruit punch. The regular one that you have here and the other I added hard liquor to it. They were both a hit. Thank you Paula Deen Litara S. 2006-02-04T22:58:26Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I recently held my book club's Holiday meeting and we had our kids present. They loved this punch. I put it in a self serve dispensing pitcher and they were back and forth. I didnt have time to do the strawberry ring so I put a few strawberries in the freezer and that worked fine. They kids faught over who was going to get the last little bit with the strawberries in it! I love Paula Dean, she is one of my favorite cooks me and my daughters watch her show often. They always get hungry after watching her show! Danielle B. 2006-01-03T19:39:14Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This is a great all around punch. Everybody loves it. You can use champagne instead of Sprite if you wnat it spiked. 1 cup of sugar is PLENTY, though. stephanieyax 2006-01-01T23:44:09Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Havent tried it yet but i know is going to be good cuz everything Paula makes is DELICOUS!! Thanks Paula! McKenzie L. 2006-01-01T18:12:50Z item not reviewed by moderator and published I've used this recipe for 3 bridal showers and each time it was a bit hit. Janine H. 2005-12-03T19:25:55Z item not reviewed by moderator and published It had just the right amount of sweetness,and tartness to make an excellent punch..... The strawberry ring just set it off. Peggy R. 2005-10-12T11:10:06Z item not reviewed by moderator and published Love this recipe. I make it when we have get togethers at our house. We just add Jack Daniels or Makers Mark, which ever is on hand, and it is really a hit! KATHY S. 2005-07-12T21:22:36Z item not reviewed by moderator and published This is sooo pretty (and delicious!) Love the frozen strawberries in the middle franky489-4802 2005-07-09T11:45:41Z item not reviewed by moderator and published On TV	Lemon-lime drink
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) is considered to be the inventor of the electric?	Homemade Fruit Punch \| eHow Homemade Fruit Punch  Email Save Homemade fruit punch is an excellent drink for parties because it's easy to dress up and change around and it's relatively inexpensive to make. There are thousands of different ways to make fruit punch and serve the final product, including using ice molds, fresh fruit or frozen sherbet. With a little effort, you can make a homemade fruit punch that will be a hit for your next party. Traditional Fruit Punch The traditional recipe for homemade fruit punch involves juice from concentrate, which is available from your local grocery store. You simply add 2-3 cans of frozen juice concentrate, mix with the amount of water specified on the packaging and you're all set. For example you can mix one can of orange juice, one can of lemonade and ten cups of water. However there are endless possibilities to this recipe. Instead of using water, try adding ginger ale, pineapple juice, apple juice or a combination of juice and water. Another option is to replace the water with lemon-lime soda such as 7-Up or Sprite. This is best when working with tropical-flavored fruit punches. Fresh Juice Punch The recipe for fresh juice punch is similar to traditional fruit punch, but uses fresh juice in place of the frozen. If you don't have access to fresh juice, using a canned or bottled juice works well. Start with a base of orange juice and add in other juices that you like. Two cups of orange juice with one cup of pineapple juice and one cup of cranberry juice is a good choice, or you can substitute pomegranate juice for the cranberry juice. Additionally you can tone down the fruit flavor and add bubbles by using equal parts of lemon-lime soda or soda water. Decorations and Serving A unique way of serving homemade fruit punch is by using an ice ring, mold or block. Make an extra serving of your fruit punch and pour it into a mold, either a ring or another form. Then freeze the mold overnight, drop it in the punchbowl and top with the unfrozen fruit punch. You can also use regular ice cube trays or shaped ice cube trays and freeze your extra punch in those overnight. This prevents your fruit punch from getting watered down and losing its flavor when ice cubes made from water melt in the bowl. Adding small pieces of fruit to the ice cube trays is a cute way of decorating the punch. You can also make skewers of fruit and serve one in each cup, or float pieces of fruit in the punchbowl.	i don't know
What is the most heavily populated river basin in the world?	Geography of the Ganges River By Amanda Briney Updated August 03, 2015. The Ganges River, also called Ganga, is a river located in northern India that flows toward the border with Bangladesh ( map ). It is the longest river in India and flows for around 1,569 miles (2,525 km) from the Himalayan Mountains to the Bay of Bengal. The river has the second greatest water discharge in the world and its basin is the most heavily populated in the world with over 400 million people living in the basin. The Ganges River is extremely important to the people of India as most of the people living on its banks use it for daily needs such as bathing and fishing. It is also significant to Hindus as they consider it their most sacred river. Course of the Ganges River The headwaters of the Ganges River begin high in the Himalayan Mountains where the Bhagirathi River flows out of the Gangotri Glacier in India's Uttarakhand state. The glacier sits at an elevation of 12,769 feet (3,892 m). The Ganges River proper begins farther downstream where the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers join. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance As the Ganges flows out of the Himalayas it creates a narrow, rugged canyon. The Ganges River emerges from the Himalayas at the town of Rishikesh where it begins to flow onto the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This area, also called the North Indian River Plain, is a very large, relatively flat, fertile plain that makes up most of the northern and eastern parts of India as well as parts of Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh . In addition to entering the Indo-Gangetic Plain at this area, part of the Ganges River is also diverted toward the Ganges Canal for irrigation in the Uttar Pradesh state. As the Ganges River then flows farther downstream it changes its direction several times and is joined by many other tributary rivers such as the Ramganga, Tamsa and Gandaki rivers to name a few. There are also several cities and towns that the Ganges River passes through on its way downstream. Some of these include Chunar, Kolkata, Mirzapur, and Varanasi. Many Hindus visit the Ganges River in Varanasi as that city is considered the holiest of cities. As such, the city's culture is also closely tied into the river as it is the most sacred river in Hinduism. Once the Ganges River flows out of India and into Bangladesh its main branch is known as the Padma River. The Padma River is joined downstream by large rivers like the Jamuna and Meghna rivers. After joining the Meghna it takes on that name before flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Prior to entering the Bay of Bengal however, the river creates the world's largest delta, Ganges Delta. This region is a highly fertile sediment laden area that covers 23,000 square miles (59,000 sq km). It should be noted that the course of the Ganges River described in the above paragraphs is a general description of the river's route from its source where the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers join to its outlet at the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges has a very complicated hydrology and there are several different descriptions of its overall length and the size of its drainage basin based on what tributary rivers are included. The most widely accepted length of the Ganges River is 1,569 miles (2,525 km) and its drainage basin is estimated to be about 416,990 square miles (1,080,000 sq km). Population of the Ganges River The Ganges River basin has been inhabited by humans since ancient times. The first people in the region were of the Harappan civilization. They moved into the Ganges River basin from the Indus River basin around the 2nd millennium B.C.E. Later the Gangetic Plain became the center of the Maurya Empire and then the Mughal Empire. The first European to discuss the Ganges River was Megasthenes in his work Indica. In modern times the Ganges River has become a source of life for the nearly 400 million people living in its basin. They rely on the river for their daily needs such as drinking water supplies and food and for irrigation and manufacturing. Today the Ganges River basin is the most populated river basin in the world. It has a population density of about 1,000 people per square mile (390 per sq km). Significance of the Ganges River Aside from providing drinking water and irrigating fields, the Ganges River is extremely important to India's Hindu population for religious reasons as well. The Ganges River is considered their most sacred river and it is worshiped as the goddess Ganga Ma or "Mother Ganges" ( About.com ). According to the Myth of the Ganges the goddess Ganga descended from heaven to dwell in the waters of the Ganges River to protect, purify and bring to heaven those who touch it. Devout Hindus visit the river daily to offer flowers and food to Ganga. They also drink the water and bathe in the river to cleanse and purify their sins. In addition, Hindus believe that upon death the waters of the Ganges River are needed to reach the World of the Ancestors, Pitriloka. As a result, Hindus bring their dead to the river for cremation along its banks and afterward their ashes are spread in the river. In some cases corpses are also thrown into the river. The city of Varanasi is the holiest of cities along the Ganges River and many Hindus travel there place ashes of their dead in the river. Along with daily baths in the Ganges River and offerings to the goddess Ganga there are large religious festivals that occur in the river throughout the year where millions of people travel to the river to bathe so that they can be purified of their sins. Pollution of the Ganges River Despite the religious significance and daily importance of the Ganges River for the people of India, it is one of the most polluted rivers in the world. Pollution of the Ganges is caused by both human and industrial waste due to India's rapid growth as well as religious events. India currently has a population of over one billion people and 400 million of them live in the Ganges River basin. As a result much of their waste, including raw sewage is dumped into the river. In addition, many people bathe and use the river to clean their laundry. Fecal coliform bacteria levels near Varanasi are at least 3,000 times higher than the what is established by the World Health Organization as safe ( Hammer, 2007 ). Industrial practices in India also have little regulation and as the population grows these industries do as well. There are many tanneries, chemical plants, textile mills, distilleries and slaughterhouses along the river and many of them dump their untreated and often toxic waste into the river. The water of the Ganges has been tested to contain high levels of things like chromium sulfate, arsenic, cadmium, mercury and sulfuric acid (Hammer, 2007). In addition to human and industrial waste some religious activities also increase the pollution of the Ganges. For example, Hindus believe that they must take offerings of food and other items to Ganga and as a result these items are thrown into the river on a regular basis and more so during religious events. Human remains are also often placed into the river. In the late 1980s India's prime minister, Rajiv Gandhi began the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in an effort to clean up the Ganges River. The plan shut down many highly polluting industrial plants along the river and allotted funding for the construction of wastewater treatment facilities but its efforts have fallen short as the plants are not large enough to handle the waste coming from such a large population (Hammer, 2007). Many of the polluting industrial plants are also still continuing to dump their hazardous waste into the river. Despite this pollution however, the Ganges River remains important to the Indian people as well as different species of plants and animals such as the Ganges River dolphin, a very rare species of freshwater dolphin that is native only to that area. To learn more about the Ganges River, read " A Prayer for the Ganges " from Smithsonian.com.	Ganges
What sort of alcoholic drink is made from the blue agave plant?	LinkedIn Posted: 2012-02-28 GWP India is supporting the Society for the Promotion of Waste Lands Development who, with key partners the Sach-Sach Society and Shramik Bharti, is undertaking a dialogue with community-based organisations across the Ganga River on the need to engage meaningfully with the National Ganga River Basin Authority and the Indian Institute of Technology consortium. The Ganges was ranked among the top five most polluted rivers of the world in 2007 with pollution threatening not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. The Ganges is a trans-boundary river of India and Bangladesh with the basin being one of the most heavily populated in the world. It has over 400 million people and a population density of about 1,000 inhabitants per square mile (390 /km2) and millions of Indians depend on it for daily needs. The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a failure due to corruption and lack of technical expertise, lack of good environmental planning and lack of support from various authorities. As part of GWP India’s support, a consultation was held in Kanpur City on 17th January 2012 for the facilitation of an independent civil society forum. The following issues were discussed: There is practically no Himalayan Ganges water river reaching Ganges in Kanpur – all the water is diverted into upper Ganga canal system and this is the biggest challenge for Kanpur. In the 1990s, the Ganga River was flowing 2-3 km away from Kanpur Ghats. A barrage project was planned to divert the Ganges so that it should flow along the ghats. This was completed in 1995. However, despite this project, the Ganga is still flowing at the same place. What flows along the ghats are the sewer water and effluents from the newly constructed housing settlements along the ghats. The diversion of sewerage for irrigation has led to destruction of agriculture land in more than 15 villages. People are suffering from serious diseases and ailments with no respite. There is an impression that all the underground water in Kanpur is polluted and that it does not have any potable quality. Formal discussions and meetings among key stakeholders are proposed to take place between March and June 2012 to discuss the following: The need to develop an active stakeholders’ forum at the ward level to facilitate a dialogue with stakeholders on issues affecting them to activate water governance issues with local bodies. To understand issues related to the centralization of sewage treatment and how to actively facilitate a decentralized sewage treatment processes. To provide a science interface between the scientific body of knowledge on the one side and local communities on the other.	i don't know
The word 'Aloha', a friendly greeting, is originally from what Island's language?	Popular Hawaiian Words & Phrases Sweet Sixteen: Momona 'Umi Kumaono Please join us: Ho'olu komo la kaua Come celebrate: Hele mei hoohiwahiwa Come celebrate Taylor's first birthday: Hele me hoohiwahiwa Taylors mua loa la hanau Come celebrate Joes 30th birthday: Hele me hoohiwahiwa Joes 30th la hanau Come celebrate the wedding of Bob & Sue : Hele mei hoohiwahiwa Bob a me Sues la maleana Come celebrate our wedding day: Hele mei hoohiwahiwa ko maua la male 'ana Come celebrate Jack & Jill's 25th Anniversary: Hele me hoohiwahiwa Jack & Jill's 25th la ho'omana'o Come celebrate George's retirement: Hele me hoohiwahiwa George's ho'omaha loa Come celebrate Sharilyn's promotion: Hele me hoohiwahiwa Sharilyn's ho'opi'i Come to Tiffany's baby shower luau: Hale mai Tiffany's pepe kuaua luau Thank you for celebrating with us: Mahalo nui loa na ho'olaule'a me la kaua Holidays Hawaiian Style Happy Thanksgiving ~ Hauoli La Hoomakikai (pronounced how-oh-lay la ho-o-ma-key-kah-ee) Happy Holidays ~ Hauoli Lanui (pronounced how-oh-lay la-new-ee) Merry Christmas ~ Mele Kalikimaka (pronounced may-lay ka-lee-key-ma-ka) Happy Hanukkah ~ Hauoli Hanukaha (pronounced how-oh-lay ha-new-ka-ha) Happy Kwanzaa ~ Hauoli Kawanaka (pronounced how-oh-lay ka-wa-na-ka) Happy New Year ~ Hauoli Makahiki Hou (pronounced how-oh-lay ma-ka-hee-key ho) Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year ~ Mele Kalikimaka me ka Hau'oli Makahiki Hou Happy Hanukkah and New Year ~ Hau'oli Hanukaha me ka Makahiki Hou Happy Birthday ~ Hau`oli la Hanau (pronounced how-oh-lay la ha-now) Happy Anniversary ~ Hau`oli la Ho'omana'o (pronounced how-oh-lay la ho-o-ma-na-o) Happy Retirement ~ Hau`oli la Hoomaha loa (pronounced how-oh-lay la ho-o-ma-ha low-a) Happy Sweet 16 ~ Hau`oli Momona 'Umi Kumaono (pronounced how-oh-lay mo-mo-na oo-me ku-ma-o-no) Popular Hawaiian Phrases A hui hou kakou Until we meet again Aloha kakahiaka Good morning	Hawaii
Established in 1802 the 'Legion of Honour' (UK-English translation) is the highest civil or military award given in which nation?	Hawaii Words and Phrases - ALL ABOUT MAUI Travel Tips What To Do on Maui Local Hawaii Words and Phrases The State of Hawaii has two official languages: Hawaiian and English. English is the primary everyday language that is spoken in the islands, but when you visit Maui you will undoubtedly hear Hawaiian words, phrases, and songs. You might overhear some local people conversing in the beautiful, flowing Hawaiian language. And you will probably see various signs, menus, or brochures that incorporate Hawaiian terminology. You might also hear bits and pieces of Hawaiian Pidgin, a multi-cultural slang that developed during Hawaii’s plantation era. Pidgin is not an official language–although it certainly can sound foreign at times! Pidgin phrases are commonly spoken among locals and are an interesting part of Maui’s culture. Here are just a few common Hawaiian and Pidgin words and phrases you might hear (or see in written form) while visiting Maui: HAWAIIAN WORDS AND PHRASES aloha (uh-LOW-hah): a term most commonly used for “hello” and “goodbye”; also used to extend love, affection, sympathy, compassion. The single word “aloha” actually conveys a very beautiful and complex concept. You will probably hear references on Maui to “the aloha spirit.” Or you might see bumper stickers or slogans saying something like “Live Aloha” or “Spread Aloha.” In this sense, “aloha” is a reference to a spirit of kindness, hospitality, generosity, and acceptance. My mother-in-law, a lovely and gracious Hawaiian woman, summed it up beautifully this way: “The state of Aloha can be created in an instant. It is a decision to behave with kindness, with generosity, wanting to give joy to another.” – Irmgard Farden Aluli a hui hou (ah hoo-ey hoh): until we meet again; a polite way to say “goodbye and see you later” kane (KAH-nay): male (you might see this sign on restroom doors) kapu (kah-poo): forbidden, sacred, prohibited, no trespassing (most often seen on a sign) keiki (kay-EE-kee): child or children (keiki can be singular or plural) kokua (koh-KOO-uh): help, cooperate; for instance, you might see a “no littering” sign by a trash can that says “Please Kokua” If you hear some locals speaking what sounds like an abbreviated form of English, it is probably Pidgin. Full sentences are usually shortened in Pidgin into the briefest and most basic phrases. For instance: “Would you like to eat dinner now?” would become “You like eat?” Some Pidgin terminology requires a great deal of explanation, because there is often no literal translation for the words or phrases. With Pidgin, it’s all about how the term or phrase is used. Here are a few common Pidgin phrases: Pidgin for “We Are Closed” auntie, uncle – respectful terms when referring to someone of the older generation. Whether or not they are an actual blood relative is beside the point. Similar terms, used in a friendly greeting, could be “cousin,” “cuz,” or “brah” broke da mouth – No, this doesn’t refer to a broken jaw; it describes extremely delicious food or drink (similar to the Hawaiian word “ono” above) chicken skin – goose bumps; not in reference to being cold, but something scary or unexplainable or emotional that makes your skin prickle and your hair stand up on the back of your neck Da kine beach da kine – this is the catchall Pidgin term for just about anything. Similar to “what-cha-ma-call-it” in English, but far more versatile–and a lot shorter, which is fundamental in Pidgin! “Da kine” is like a verbal shorthand that can mean nothing or everything, depending on the context in which it is used. It can refer to a person, place, or thing, such as “Bring da kine” or “Let’s find da kine.” It can be a noun, verb, adverb, or adjective (“da kine house” or “da kine boyfriend”). It can be used to indicate something good or great: “Ey, dis is da kine, yeah?” Or it can be used to indicate something disappointing or awful: “Ey, dis is da kine, yeah?” See what I mean? “Da kine” is intentionally vague, and its meaning is derived solely from how it is spoken and in what circumstances. Good luck with this one. Ono grinds! Broke da mouth! howzit – short for “How’s it going?” or “How are you?” kau kau – a general term for food no need – A stand-alone phrase that is a polite way of saying “That’s not necessary,” “No, thank you,” or “There’s no need for that.” Example: the waitress asks if I would like more water. The answer? “No need. Mahalo.” stink eye – to give someone a dirty look out of irritation or annoyance. Hopefully you won’t get any stink eye while you’re visiting Maui. But just to make sure, check out my “Practical Do’s and Don’ts for Maui Visitors.” talk story – friendly chatting; just hanging around “talkin’ story” SHOULD YOU TRY TO SPEAK PIDGIN? NOPE! Pidgin is an art best left to those who were born and raised in the islands. Even for a longtime resident like me (over 30 years), Pidgin is difficult to master. . . but really easy to butcher! There is a natural flow to it that is hard to learn. So, the general unspoken rule of thumb in Hawaii is, if you weren’t raised with Pidgin, don’t try to speak it–you will only SOUND like someone who wasn’t raised with it but is awkwardly trying to speak it. Leave it to the “born and raised” locals. I don’t try to speak Pidgin, other than a few very simple words (like my “no need” example above). I would sound ridiculous trying to do so. However, my husband, born and raised in the islands, can speak like a proper English professor then slip into local Pidgin as naturally as a second skin when he wishes to. So my recommendation is…listen to it, enjoy it, be confused and amused by it, but “no need try talk da kine story” in Pidgin with the locals! Remember, if you’re looking for places to stay on Maui, you’ll save by BOOKING DIRECTLY through our site with the owners/managers of these great accommodations . Don’t miss my next blog! To receive notice of future ALL ABOUT MAUI blog posts and the latest deals from our advertisers, sign up here . Questions? Comments? Other Maui topics you’d like me to blog about? Drop me a line at [email protected] Candy Aluli, Publisher ©Copyright 2015-2017 Maui Accommodations Guide. Unauthorized use and/or duplication of any materials on this site (either text or photos) without express and written permission from the publisher is strictly prohibited. If you wish to share our information, excerpts may be used provided that full and clear credit is given to us with specific referral and links to our original content on MauiAccommodations.com. For permission to use content, please contact the publisher . Mahalo! SHARE:	i don't know
A butterfly has how many legs?	How many legs does a butterfly have? \| Reference.com How many legs does a butterfly have? A: Quick Answer A butterfly has three pairs of legs, giving it a total of six legs. Classified as an insect, a butterfly has a triple segmented body, jointed legs in pairs of three, antennae and wings. Full Answer A butterfly's legs are very important for its survival. A butterfly uses its feet as taste buds. When it lands on a flower or plant, it uses its feet to taste the plant and determine if it wants to eat. The painted lady butterfly is sometimes thought to have only four legs. These butterflies do have six legs, but the front two legs are very small.	six
Amygdaloid refers to the shape of what nut?	Butterflies, Caterpillars & Chrysalis Frequently Asked Questions : Gardens With Wings Caterpillar Frequently Asked Questions What do caterpillars feed on? Caterpillars feed on specific plants that we refer to as their host plants. Each species of butterflies have their own particular host plants. For example, Monarch caterpillars feed only on Milkweeds. Most caterpillars feed on leaves, but some will also eat the flowers and seeds. The Harverster butterfly caterpillar actually feeds on aphids; it is thought to be the only carnivorous butterfly larva. Chrysalis Frequently Asked Questions Can butterflies move while they are in the chrysalis stage? Yes, although they are not mobile. They do have the ability to wiggle and some also make noise as a defense mechanism to frighten away possible predators. Butterfly Frequently Asked Questions How long do butterflies live? It depends on the species. Many butterflies live only a few weeks but some migratory butterflies can live many months. Monarchs can live approximately 10 months. Mourning Cloaks, which hibernate during the summer and winter, can live almost a year. What do butterflies feed on? Many butterflies drink nectar from flowers, but many butterflies also feed on pollen, rotting fruit, animal dung, carcasses, or tree sap. How do butterflies eat? Butterflies have a proboscis, similar to a long tube, that uncoils and coils. In the center of the proboscis there is a food tube through which the nectar is siphoned. Can butterflies really taste with their feet? Yes, there are chemorecepters, cells that can detect particular chemicals, on their feet. Female butterflies will actually scratch leaves to verify they are on the correct host plant to lay her eggs. Why do some butterflies appear to have 4 legs instead of 6? These are called brush-footed butterflies. The first pair of legs is greatly reduced in size and only the back four legs are used as functional legs. Can a butterfly fly after its wings have been touched? Butterfly wings are covered with tiny scales. Touching their wings cause them to lose scales but they can fly. If too many scales are lost, it will inhibit their flying ability which can make it difficult for them to reach a food source. Can a butterfly feel pain, for example, if it breaks a wing? Butterflies have a nervous system but it is different from people. Butterflies lack the special cells that allow people to know they are feeling pain. Butterflies will have a sensation that something is different, but they will not feel pain like a person experiences. An example is if you hold the leg of a butterfly, it will struggle. If you break the leg off, it will stop struggling and fly away. If the butterfly was feeling pain, it would react differently. Do butterflies have emotions or can they feel a certain way? No, butterflies do not have emotions. Butterflies react to instinct, a genetic programming that stimulates a physical sensation, these include thirst, hunger, sleep, and sexual reproduction. Where do butterflies go at night or in the winter if they do not migrate? Butterflies find small crevices to squeeze into, such as under tree bark, rock crevices, etc. They usually go to "sleep" during that time. Where do butterflies go when it rains? Butterflies will hide underneath leaves and plant material or find small crevices to squeeze into, such as under tree bark, rock crevices, etc. What is the smallest butterfly? The Western Pygmy Blue, in Africa, has a wingspan of 1/2 inch. The smallest butterfly in the US is the Eastern Pygmy Blue, located in the southern region of the US. Their wingspan is approximately 5/8 inch. What is the largest butterfly? The largest butterflies are Birdwings; some of their wingspans can reach up to 12 inches. These butterflies are usually found in New Guinea, Australia, and Asia. The largest butterfly in the US is the Giant Swallowtail; its wingspan can reach up to 6 inches. Are there more butterflies or moths in the world? Moths, they outnumber butterflies 16:1. How many different species of butterflies are there? In the world there are approximately 28,000 different species. A little more than 725 species in North America north of Mexico. In Ohio, around 135 different species have been recorded. What is the difference between butterflies and moths? Antennae, butterfly antennae are thicker or clubbed on the tips. Moth antennae are either slender with no thickened areas or plumbed. ( view butterfly and moth antennae ) Do all Monarch butterflies migrate? No, there are earlier broods in the year that only live for about 3 weeks. It is the fall brood of Monarchs that migrate and return the following spring. There are also Monarchs in Florida that are thought to never migrate. Do all Monarch butterflies migrate to Mexico? No, Monarchs west of the Rockies migrate to California. Monarchs east of the Rockies migrate to Mexico. They have recently found that Monarchs in Arizona have been found to go to California or Mexico. There are also Monarchs in Florida that are thought to never migrate. Enter your zip code:	i don't know
How many full years elapsed between the start of the year 17BC, and the start of the year 17AD?	11.29 · Banca d'Italia Abstract The labour market status of many nonworking persons is at the boundary between unemployment and inactivity. Like the unemployed, they seek and are available for work; unlike them, their last search action was not recent enough to meet the International Labour Office definition of unemployment. In this paper we examine by nonparametric tests how the transition probabilities of these out-of-the-labour-force job seekers differ from those of the unemployed as well as the other nonparticipants. First, using data from the European Community Household Panel, we show that in most EU countries these job seekers constitute a distinct labour market state. Second, we rely on information available only in the Italian Labour Force Survey to derive a measure of search intensity that we use to break down the out-of-the-labour-force job seekers. On the basis of their transition probabilities, the most active are indistinguishable from the unemployed. (JEL: J64, J22, R23) Copyright (c) 2006 by the European Economic Association. Discover the world's research Does the ILO Deﬁnition Capture All Unemployment? ∗ Andrea Brandolini†Piero Cipollone‡Eliana Viviano§ October 2004 The labour market status of many non-working persons is at the boundary between unem- ployment and inactivity. Like the unemployed, they seek and are available for work; unlike them, their last search action was not recent enough to meet the ILO deﬁnition of unemploy- ment. In this paper we examine by non-parametric tests how the transition probabilities of these out-of-the-labour-force job seekers diﬀer from those of the unemployed as well as the other non-participants. First, using data from the European Community Household Panel, we show that in most EU countries these job seekers constitute a distinct labour market state. Second, we rely on information only available in the Italian Labour Force Survey to derive a measure of search intensity which we use to break down the out-of-the-labour-force job seekers. On the ba- sis of their transition probabilities, the most active are indistinguishable from the unemployed. JEL classiﬁcation: J64, J22, R23. Keywords: unemployment, ILO classiﬁcations, transition probabilities. ∗We are very grateful for their most helpful comments on earlier versions of the paper to Lorenzo Forni, Pietro Gennari, Marco Magnani, Franco Peracchi, Alfonso Rosolia and participants in the seminar on “Dynamics and inertia in the Italian labour market” (Venice, April 2004) and the 16th Annual Conference of the European Association of Labour Economists (Lisbon, September 2004). We thank Ana Franco of Eurostat for supplying the questionnaires of the labour force surveys in EU countries, Olaf Juergens of the EuroPanel Users Network (EPUNet) for helping us to understand the nature of the Swedish data in the ECHP, and Sharon Cohany of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics for documenting the origin of the four-week requirement in the deﬁnition of unemployment in the United States. In revising the paper we have beneﬁted considerably from the suggestions of the Editor, Alan Krueger, and two anonymous referees. Christine Stone provided valuable editorial assistance. Some estimates presented in this paper are based on a matched longitudinal ﬁle of the Italian labour force survey, made available for a joint research project with Istat. The views expressed are ours and do not necessarily reﬂect those of the Bank of Italy. †Bank of Italy, Economic Research Department. E-mail: [email protected] ‡Bank of Italy, Economic Research Department. E-mail: [email protected] §Bank of Italy, Milan Branch. E-mail: [email protected]. 1Introduction The concept of unemployment is something everyone seems to understand. Yet its measurement is not straightforward and rests on a number of arbitrary choices. The labour force statistics divide the adult population into three, mutually exclusive groups: the employed, the unemployed and the inactive, i.e. people out of the labour force. The employed comprise all persons who during a reference period were in paid employment (including family workers). The unemployed comprise those persons who were without work and immediately available to start work during the same period and who had actively looked for a job at some time during the preceding four weeks. People neither employed nor unemployed are considered inactive and are excluded from the labour force. People out of the labour force are thus a composite group formed by persons who do not want a job, persons who are not searching but might take a job if oﬀered, and persons who are searching for a job but took their last step more than four weeks before the interview. We calculate that, on average, in European countries about a ﬁfth of all people who declared they were seeking work in the1990swereleftoutofthelabourforceonthebasis of the four-week requirement. The sheer size of this group–henceforth labelled “potential labour force”, or simply “potentials”–calls for a scrutiny of the four-week criterion. Interestingly, while it is recognised that this requirement may signiﬁcantly aﬀect the level of measured unemployment,1there are no cogent reasons to choose four weeks as opposed to any other period.2 1For instance, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1987, p. 130) reports that increasing the job-search period from one to four weeks raised the measured unemployment rate by about a tenth both in Australia in 1975 and in the United Kingdom in 1984-86. 2The International Labour Oﬃce (ILO) guidelines of 1982, which set the criteria followed by national statistical agencies to compile labour force statistics, did not specify the length of the search period so that each country could adapt it to its own institutions and characteristics (see International Labour Oﬃce, 1990). In 1983 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Working Party on Employment and Unemployment Statistics “... speciﬁcally mentioned the suitability of a four-week period, especially for purposes of international comparisons between OECD countries” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1987, p. 130). Sorrentino (2000, p. 17, fn. 7) reports that “at that time, countries were using reference periods varying from 1 week to 60 days”. The four-week standard was soon adopted by Eurostat and most OECD countries. It had been in use in the United States since 1967, together with the requirement of using an active job search method, following the recommendations of the President’s Committee to Appraise Employment and Unemployment Statistics (the Gordon Committee) in 1962. Prior to 1967 the time period for job seeking was ambiguous since it was not speciﬁed in the questionnaire. According to the “article of record” on the 1967 revisions, “the use of a 4-week period for the measurement of job seeking activity is the shortest of the various alternatives suggested by the Gordon Committee. Thiswasdonetominimizetheinclusionofpersonswithverylooseattachmentstothelaborforceandtokeepthe time reference for job seeking from getting too far out of line with that of jobholding. ... A time period for job seeking which extends beyond the survey week itself was selected, since, by its very nature, job-hunting does not necessarily involve speciﬁcidentiﬁable activity every week. The more typical pattern of behavior probably involves periods of activity (i.e., checking with employers) followed by periods of waiting. Some forms of looking are continuous, i.e., registration with public employment agencies, but others are not” (Stein, 1967, as quoted in a personal communication by Sharon Cohany). In 1979 the National Commission on Employment and Unemployment (the Levitan Commission) In this paper we investigate the role of the four-week criterion by addressing two related ques- tions. Are the potentials really diﬀerent from the unemployed? Conversely, are they similar to the other inactive members of the population? A standard way to evaluate labour market classiﬁca- tions is to compare transition probabilities between diﬀerent states (e.g. Flinn and Heckman, 1983; Jones and Riddell, 1999). If transition probabilities from two states towards all others are statis- tically similar, then the two states cannot be regarded as truly distinct. We follow this approach with two innovations: we impose less structure on the data by constructing a non-parametric test instead of resorting to logit or probit models; we perform a comparative analysis, which allows us to highlight important features in common among European labour markets. We carry out two diﬀerent exercises. First, we test whether transition probabilities diﬀer between the unemployed, the potentials and the other inactive persons in European countries. Data are drawn from the European Community Household Panel, a harmonised annual longitudinal survey conducted by national statistical oﬃces from 1994 to 2001 under Eurostat co-ordination. Our results suggest that the (annual) transi- tion probabilities of potentials are always diﬀerent from those observed for other non-participants, while in some cases they can be considered similar to those of the unemployed. On this basis, the European labour markets would be better described by four distinct states (employed, unem- ployed, potentials and other inactive population) than by the three-way characterisation of the ILO guidelines, conﬁrming the conclusion reached by Jones and Riddell (1999) for Canada. Second, we identify the search intensity that separates the unemployed from the potentials by looking at the data. We proxy search intensity by the “number of months since the last search action” using data from the Italian labour force survey, the only EU survey where this information is available. We ﬁrst compare the (quarterly) transition probabilities of the unemployed with those of the group of the most intensive job seekers among the potentials. Then we repeat the test by enlarging the latter group in steps, adding job seekers whose last action is the further back in time. The potentials turn out to be behaviourally indistinguishable from the unemployed when their last search action occurred “not long before” the ILO four weeks (up to 11 months for certain groups in the population). Letting the boundary between unemployment and potential labour force be determined by the data, rather than by the arbitrary four-week criterion, would raise the Italian unemployment rate in 2000 from 11 to 13 per cent. reconsidered the labour force deﬁnitions adopted in the United States. Stein (1980, p. 18) reports that the “most controversial deﬁnitional issue” was that of discouraged workers; the proposal to classify them as unemployed by extending the job search period to six months was eventually rejected by a vote of 5 to 4 (see Finegan, 1981, p. 88, fn. 1). 2 Note that the correct identiﬁcation of labour market states is not just a matter of classiﬁcation or an exercise in measurement. On the one hand, the level of unemployment is a highly sensitive issue in the public debate. On the other hand, the framing of economic and monetary policies requires the assessment of labour market conditions. While tightness has traditionally been measured by the number of unemployed, theory tells us that it is also aﬀected by the number of “less intensive” job seekers. The recent literature on the matching process, for instance, recognises that hiring rates depend not only on the unemployed but also on people out of the labour force, possibly with a lower probability of success with respect to the unemployed (e.g. Broesma and Van Ours, 1999; Mumford and Smith, 1999). The paper is organised as follows. Section 2 discusses the importance of the potential labour force and tests whether it is a distinct state from unemployment and inactivity in European labour markets. The non-parametric test is presented in subsection 2.2. Section 3 compares the behaviour of potentials with diﬀerent levels of search intensity with that of the unemployed in Italy. Section 4 summarises the main results and draws the main lessons. 2 ParticipationandinactivityinEuropeanlabourmarkets In European countries the unemployment rate is computed, like many other labour market statistics, from data collected in national labour force surveys (LFS) co-ordinated by Eurostat. People aged 15 and over are classiﬁed as unemployed if they meet all the following requirements: (1) they are without work; (2) they state that they are seeking employment; (3) they are available to start work within the following two weeks; (4) they sought employment at some time during the previous four weeks (see Eurostat, 1996). Thus, non-working individuals are not only asked whether they were searching for work, but also how intensively: somebody who did not take at least one search step during the preceding four weeks is excluded from the unemployed, and from the labour force, even if conditions (1) to (3) are met. It follows that the population out of the labour force is a composite aggregate, which can be further subdivided in relation to the degree of labour market attachment. At least three subgroups can be identiﬁed: 1. Job seekers whose last search action occurred more than four weeks before the interview. These persons and the unemployed diﬀer only as to the time passed after the last action. We call them “potential labour force” or “potentials” to emphasise their similarity to the unemployed. 3 2. Individuals who are not searching for a job, but who would be willing to start one if oﬀered. They are typically called “discouraged workers”.3 3. People neither searching nor willing to work. This group of inactive population is referred to as “unattached” to the labour market. The ILO four-week requirement is a crude way to separate individuals who are really searching for a job from those who are not. It sets a minimum level of search intensity that job seekers have to show in order to be classiﬁed as unemployed: at least one search action (such as sending an application to a potential employer, visiting an employment agency or, in Europe, simply looking at newspaper advertisements) must be undertaken in a four-week period.4However, this condition may be exceedingly rigid. From the theoretical standpoint, the total eﬀort put into a job search depends on individual resources, search costs and expected returns and it is endogenously determined, given the labour market conditions. As a consequence, we may wonder whether this arbitrarily set minimum level of search intensity is a good criterion to distinguish between active and less active job seekers and, at the same time, whether it is correct to assimilate less intensive job seekers to other inactive people. On the other hand, the time elapsed since the last search action is not the only characteristic that serves to separate out the unemployed from other job seekers. The “type” of search action also helps to qualify a person as unemployed. The ILO resolution of 1982 lists a number of these activities,5 but allows each country to re-deﬁne and complete the list taking into account its characteristics and institutions. The main issue outstanding is how to deal with “passive job seekers”. For instance, persons whose only search method is looking at newspaper advertisements are classed as unemployed in European countries, but not in the United States.6In the same vein, countries diﬀer in the way they classify people whose only search action is to register with an employment oﬃce. A recent European regulation has excluded them from the unemployed, but only a few countries 3Here we draw a distinction between potentials and discouraged workers depending on whether a search action was taken sometimes in the past. In common usage potentials are counted as discouraged workers (e.g. Finegan, 1981). 4Alternatively, search intensity may be identiﬁed with the probability of applying for a job during a given period or with the number of applications sent per unit of time (e.g. Petrongolo and Pissarides, 2001). 5“The speciﬁc step may include registration at a public or private employment exchange; application to employers; checking at worksites, farms, factory gates, market or other assembly places; placing or answering newspapers adver- tisements; seeking assistance of friends or relatives; looking for land, building, machinery or equipment to establish own enterprise; arranging for ﬁnancial resources; applying for permits and licenses, etc.” (cited by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1987, p. 140). 6Sorrentino (2000, pp. 11-3) shows that adopting the U.S. standard and excluding these job seekers from the count of the unemployed would reduce the stock of unemployed in spring 1998 by 2.2 per cent in the European Union, and as much as 5.4 per cent in Italy. 4 have so far adopted this more restrictive criterion (for a critical discussion, with reference to the Spanish case, see Garrido and Toharia, 2004). The diﬀerences across EU member states show up in the number of search methods listed in LFS questionnaires: 17 in Italy, 14 in Spain, 11 in France, and so forth. In this paper we focus on how the length of the search period impinges on the measurement of unemployment regardless of the search method. This is mainly because the four-week criterion is almost universally adopted, whereas search methods are less harmonised across countries. Assess- ing the impact of alternative admissible methods would require a painstaking country-by-country analysis, while adding little to the main thrust of the paper. However, we should bear in mind that search methods, too, contribute to distinguish the more active job seekers from the less active ones. In the remainder of this section we weigh potentials against the unemployed and the rest of the inactive population. Since we have no access to detailed LFS data for EU countries and they do not contain all the information we need for our tests, we rely on the comparative data of the European Community Household Panel (ECHP). The ECHP is a fully harmonised annual longitudinal survey conducted by national statistical oﬃces from 1994 to 2001 under Eurostat co-ordination (see Per- acchi, 2002, for a description and an assessment). The survey focuses on households’ income and standard of living, but it also collects information on demographic characteristics and job search behaviour. Importantly for our purposes, the format of questions concerning labour market status and behaviour closely resembles that available in LFSs.7 We use the database released in 2003 containing the ﬁrst seven waves (1994-2000). The data for Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are available for the whole period, while those for Austria and Finland cover a shorter period as these countries joined in 1995 and 1996, respectively. For Germany, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom we consider only data for the period 1994-1996, because in these countries the ECHP was discontinued in 1996 and replaced by existing national panel surveys that do not contain the information needed to apply ILO deﬁnitions. Lastly, we exclude Sweden because the data available in the ECHP database, which are derived from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions, are only cross-sectional. (See EuroPanel Users Network, 2004, for an introduction to the ECHP database.) In Table 1 we compare, for the selected EU countries, the ECHP evidence on the composition 7More precisely, we make use of six diﬀerent variables of the ECHP public-use ﬁle: “main activity status at the time of interview” (PE001); “looking for a job” (PS001); “main reason not looking for a job” (PS001A); “in the past four weeks, have you taken active steps to ﬁndajob”(PS004andPS005),“ifasuitablejobwasavailablenow,would you be able to start within the next two weeks?” (PS008). These variables are suﬃcient to deﬁne the four labour market states examined in this paper. 5 of the working-age population by labour market status with the corresponding evidence from the LFSs. The periods for the LFS ﬁgures are matched to those of the respective ECHP data (1994- 2000 in general, but 1995-2000 for Austria, and so forth).8The evidence from the ECHP is not fully comparable with that from the LFSs because of diﬀerences in the time of the survey interview (spring for the LFSs, autumn for the ECHP) and in the deﬁnition of working-age population (persons aged 15 to 64 in the LFS and 16 to 64 in the ECHP). Nonetheless, the two sources provide basically the same description of the composition of the working-age population. This suggests that our main conclusions are not driven by the use of the ECHP data. By far the largest group of non-working persons is that of the unattached individuals, followed by the unemployed. Potentials and discouraged workers account for a much smaller, but not negligible, share. Their importance is better understood by looking at their size as a fraction of the number unemployed. This proportion varies widely across countries: it ranges from 12 per cent in Greece to 69 per cent in Denmark. Discouraged workers are less numerous, totalling, on average, around 6 per cent of unemployment. In brief, 1 in 5 job seekers (i.e. the sum of the unemployed and the potentials) is not considered among the unemployed because of the four-week ILO requirement. The ILO criterion is crucial in determining the size of European unemployment. 2.1 How many labour market states in Europe? The investigation of labour market transitions is a well established method of assessing the distinc- tion between unemployment and inactivity. Clark and Summers (1979), for example, found this distinction to be weak in the United States in view of the large ﬂows into employment directly from outside the labour force (and vice versa). They observed that persistence in unemployment may appear to be lower than it actually is. When an unemployed worker withdraws from the labour force and then re-enters within a short period, it is implausible that these events correspond to a “substantive change in job-seeking intentions” (p. 31). Nevertheless, oﬃcial statistics record two relatively brief spells of unemployment, whereas a single lengthy spell would be a more appropriate description. Flinn and Heckman (1983) countered these ﬁndings by comparing the hazard rates of a sample of young white men with a high school diploma obtained in 1969, selected from the U.S. National Longitudinal Survey of Young Men. They concluded that the unemployed and the inac- tive population cannot be considered one and the same. This result ought to be generalised with caution. As noted by Jones and Riddell (1999), the labour market attachment of the whole inactive 8ECHP observations are weighted by cross-sectional weights. 6 population–which includes students, housewives and retired workers along with discouraged job seekers–is too heterogeneous to be compared with that of the unemployed. Studying a special longitudinal dataset derived from the Canadian LFS for the years 1979-1992, Jones and Riddell showed that people who desire but are not searching for work constitute a distinct group from both the unemployed and the other non-participants. Moreover, a subgroup of these discouraged workers displays behaviour close to that of the unemployed: their inclusion among the latter would have increased Canadian unemployment rates by about one percentage point.9 Table 2 reports the annual probabilities of transition into employment of unemployed, poten- tials and other non-participants (i.e. discouraged and unattached) for the 14 EU countries of our sample, computed on the ECHP data. The ﬁgures are averages over all available pairs of year-apart consecutive waves. Six pairs of consecutive years are considered for Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain (1994-1995, ..., 1999-2000), ﬁve pairs for Austria (1995-1996, ..., 1999-2000), four pairs for Finland (1996-1997, ..., 1999-2000), and two pairs for Germany, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom (1994-1995 and 1995-1996). Data are weighted by longitudinal weights. (The number of observations available for each country is reported in the Appendix.) The transition probabilities to employment of the potentials are much greater than those of the other inactive population and are generally closer to those of the unemployed. There is virtually no diﬀerence between unemployed and potentials in Germany, Ireland and the Nether- lands: in the other countries the chances of potentials are in general lower by 10 to 16 percentage points. By contrast, dissimilarities between potentials and other inactives are greater, over 15 per- centage points in all countries except Denmark, Finland, Italy, Greece and Spain. The impression that potentials are more similar to the unemployed than to non-participants is reinforced by break- ing down the population by age (two age groups: 16-34 and 35-64) and sex. For example, among young males in Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom, the potentials show higher probability of transition to employment than the unemployed; the same holds for young females in Germany 9Data from the U.S. National Longitudinal Survey of Young Men for high school graduates who received their diplomas in 1979 were also analysed by Gönül (1992). She found that unemployment and out-of-the-labour-force are diﬀerent states for young females, but not for young males. Tano (1991) used monthly transitions over the period 1967-1989 from the Gross Change Data, a sub-sample of the U.S. Current Population Survey. Unemployment and out-of-the-labour-force were found to be two distinct states for the young (aged 16 to 24), but not for adults (aged 25 to 44). Applying Flinn and Heckman’s model to data from the longitudinal version of the LFS, Schweitzer (2003) found that in the United Kingdom in the 1990s the transition probabilities to employment of several categories of non- participating persons were insigniﬁcantly diﬀerent from or even signiﬁcantly greater than those of the unemployed. Using longitudinal data from the LFSs, the transitions to employment were also found to be signiﬁcantly diﬀerent across groups of non-employed in Canada in the period 1997-2000 by Jones and Riddell (2002) and in Spain in the period 2001-2003 by Garrido and Toharia (2004). 7 and Ireland, and adult males in the Netherlands and Austria; in general, diﬀerences are sharper for older people (Figure 1). By contrast, the chances of getting a job are deﬁnitely higher for the potentials than for other inactive people, regardless of age and sex (Figure 2). This evidence suggests that the ILO measure of search intensity correctly distinguishes between unemployed and less intensive job seekers, but it fails to divide the potential labour force from the remaining inactive population. This conclusion drawn from simply looking at the ﬁguresisformally tested in the next two sections. 2.2 A non-parametric test to compare transition probabilities Consider a model with I=4states in the labour market: employed (E), unemployed (U), potentials (P), and other inactive population, i.e. discouraged and unattached (N). The labour market dynamics can be summarised by a 4×4transition matrix Π,whereπij corresponds to the probability of moving from state iat time tto state jat time t+1,i, j =E, U,P,N: Π= In this general framework, two labour market states iand kcannot be considered truly distinct if people classiﬁed in either state move with similar probabilities to all other states, i.e. if πij =πkj (2) for each j6=i, k.10 If πPE =πNE and πPU =πNU the potentials and the other non-participants are in equivalent states. In this case the traditional ILO three states are a realistic characterisation of the labour market. Alternatively, if πUE =πPE and πUN =πPN potential labour force and unemployment are the same state. There are still only three independent states, but now the ILO- unemployed and the potentials are not truly distinct and the ILO search intensity measure does not help to discriminate between diﬀerent labour market conditions. Lastly, if transition probabilities indicate that the potentials diﬀer from both the unemployed and the other non-participants, then the labour market would be better described by a classiﬁcation based on four states. In order to check conditions like (2) we need to estimate the empirical counterparts of πij and πkj andtoverifyiftheyareequal.Unlikeprevious works in this area we do not assume a speciﬁc 10By ignoring comparisons between πij and πkj for j=i, k we are implicitly assuming that the classiﬁcation in i or kat time t+1 is randomly determined. Therefore, the destination states iand kcan be collapsed into a unique state and we need to check the equality with respect to 3 ﬁnal t+1 states. 8 functional form to estimate the probability πij.11 Rather, we construct a non-parametric test of the equality (2), both in the asymptotic and bootstrap version. This strategy should help to reduce the possibility of spuriously accepting or rejecting the equality (2) because of model misspeciﬁcation. The empirical counterpart of πij corresponds to the ratio between the number of people leaving state iat time tfor state jat time t+1,Nij, and the total number of people in state iat time t,Ni. (i.e. bπij =Nij Ni. ). Unfortunately, this estimator cannot be calculated in the presence of attrition–a phenomenon common to longitudinal surveys that arises when it is not possible“.... to obtain data from a sample unit at any wave after it has been selected into the survey” (Jiménez-Martín and Peracchi, 2002, p. 83)–because Nij is not observable. Hence, we deﬁne the following estimator for πij: Ni. =αij bπij ,(3) where αij is the share of individuals moving from state ito state jwho are still observed at time t+1. In what follows we assume that attrition does not depend on the labour market state at time t, i.e. αij =α.j for all i=1,...,I. Under this assumption, if we show that bpij =α.j bπij =bpkj =α.j bπkj , we can conclude that πij =πkj. Let πzbe the vector composed by all transition probabilities from zto any other possible labour market state j, i.e. the vector of πzj’s, with j=1,...,I;letbpzbe its estimator (deﬁned as in (3)). From the central limit theorem we know that bpzis asymptotically distributed as a normal. Suppose that we want to compare transition probabilities from states iand k.Deﬁne the vector d=πi−πkand its estimator b d=bpi−bpk(dis simply a distance in the univariate case). The statistics √qΣ−1/2 d−d)is asymptotically distributed as a standardised normal, where Σdisthevarianceof b dand qis a function of Niand Nk.12 Consider a standardised version of d, the Mahalanobis norm, D=√q[( b d(b d−d)]1/2.(4) Under the null that transition probabilities out of iand kare equal, the distance Dmust be small. Thus, under H0,d=0and equation (4) reduces to D=√q[b dTΣ−1b d]1/2,(5) 11For example, Flinn and Heckman (1983) and Gönül (1992) adopt an exponential functional form to model hazard rates from diﬀerent labour market states. Jones and Riddel (1999) use a multinomial logit model to estimate transition probabilities. 12Given the independence of classiﬁcation in state ior k,q−1Σd=1 Ni asymptotic variance-covariance matrices of bpiand bpk, respectively. 9 where Σis the variance-covariance matrix of bpi=bpk=bpand q=NiNk Ni+Nk.13 Equation (5) provides a non-parametric test for the equality of states iand k. Under the random attrition hypothesis, the null hypothesis H0and regularity conditions, D2→χ2 I,whereIis equal to the number of destination states (in our case, I=3).14 When the sample size is too small for asymptotic results to apply, a distribution for D2can be derived by the bootstrap method. Consider the empirical counterpart of D2,b D2, calculated on the observed sample, and deﬁne the achieved signiﬁcance level (p-value) of the test as the probability of observing a value at least as large as b D2when the null is true: C=Prnb D∗2is a random variable having the distribution of the observed b D2under the null. Small values for Care evidence against H0. By adapting the permutation test (see Efron and Tibshirani, 1993), a bootstrap test can be deﬁned to recover a distribution for b D∗2. Let the observed sample be made of nindividuals, of whom Ni. are classiﬁed in state iat time tand Nk. =n−Ni. in state k. Under H0the observed sample is just one realisation of all possible combinations µn Ni. ¶of nidentical individuals partitioned in two mutually exclusive groups. When H0is true the distance between state iand state ktransition probabilities should be negligible. The distribution for b D∗2is obtained by the following algorithm. •Consider the set of n=Ni. +Nk. individuals a unique set of job seekers at time t. •Select randomly and without replacement Ni. individuals for state iand attribute the remain- ing Nk. =n−Ni. to state k.Thissampleisreferredtoassampleb,b=1,2,.... •Calculate the transition probabilities out of states iand kin sample b,b=1,2,... and derive the vector b d(b)=bpi(b)−bpk(b)and Σ(b)for each bootstrap sample b. •Calculate b D∗2(b)for sample b,b=1,2,... . 13 Under H0,Σi=Σk=Σ,q−1Σd=Ni+Nk NiNk Σand, hence, q=NiNk Ni+Nk. Note also that under H0individual classiﬁed in state ior kcan be considered to belong to the same state. Let then bpbe the vector of the estimated transition probabilities from this unique state towards all possible t+1 destination states bpj,j=1, ..., I.Σis then the variance-covariance matrix of the multinomial process described by bp. It is easy to show that the main diagonal element of NΣ−1is equal to 1 cpj+1 jcpj. The out of diagonal element is instead equal to 1 1−ΣI 14Because of the positive attrition probability PI j=1 bpij <1, so that exit from the sample constitutes in practice a I+1 destination state (the fourth state in our case). 10 This algorithm provides an estimate of the distribution for b D∗2under H0. The achieved signif- icance level (p-value) can be approximated by the estimated probability that b D∗2(b)is higher than D∗2(b)>b D2o/B. (7) where Ψis an indicator function which returns the value 1 if the condition in brackets holds and 0 otherwise. 2.3 Unemployed, potentials and other non-participants The test deﬁned in the previous section allows us to evaluate whether the potentials constitute a separate group from both the unemployed and the inactive in European labour markets. We again make use of our ECHP sample, excluding only Luxembourg because of the small sample size. Before discussing the results, four problems are worth mentioning. First, transition probabilities refer to changes occurring at a distance of one year. As some people move frequently from employment to non-employment, it would have been preferable to examine transitions over a shorter period of time (e.g. a quarter). Second, sample size is much smaller in the ECHP surveys than in the national LFSs, forcing us to restrict our attention to only four demographic groups (young and adult males and females). To increase the number of observations, we have pooled all available waves. In countries where we have all seven waves, this should also minimise the possibility that our results depend on particular cyclical conditions. Note, however, that while the job-ﬁnding probabilities of the unemployed and the potentials vary over the cycle, the diﬀerence between the two does not seem to vary. This result was found for Canada by Jones and Riddel (1999) and is conﬁrmed by our estimates for Italy.15 Third, persons living in households originally included in the ECHP had in principle to be followed in all subsequent waves and tracked if they moved within the EU. As put by Eurostat (2002, p. 8), the ECHP was designed “... to provide representative cross-sectional pictures over time by constant renewal of the sample through appropriate follow-up rules”, but its full representativeness was impeded by the “losses due to sample attrition”. The depletion of the ECHP sample due to explicit refusal to respond, failure to follow up the unit, or break-up of the household was far from negligible in most of the countries participating in the ECHP (see Lehmann and Wirtz, 2003, pp. 2-3, and Peracchi, 2002, on non-response and attrition in the ﬁrst 15Using data from the Italian LFS, we computed the yearly labour market transitions from 1993 to 2002, a period which includes a recession and an expansion, and we did not detect any cyclical pattern. 11 three waves). The extent of attrition varies considerably across countries: attrition rates between the ﬁrst and second wave, for instance, range from 6 per cent or less in Italy and Portugal to as much as 24 per cent in the United Kingdom (Peracchi, 2002, p. 78). We tested the assumption of random attrition which underlies statistic D2by gender and age group (ages 16-34 and 35-64) and we found that it is not contradicted by the data.16 Fourth, the ECHP surveys are generally basedonstratiﬁed sampling frames (Peracchi, 2002, p. 66). As the statistic D2is derived under the hypothesis of simple random sampling, the results presented below are an approximation. We ﬁrst focus on the comparison between potentials and other inactive persons. P-values are reported in the upper part of Table 3, separately by sex and two age groups (ages 16-34 and 35- 64). For all sub-samples and all EU countries considered here, p-values are nil or very close to nil, suggesting that the null hypothesis d=0is strongly rejected. This evidence is generally robust because available observations are often around or over 1,000. In cases where the sample size is small, as in Austria or Finland, the bootstrap p-values in the bottom part of Table 3 conﬁrm the asymptotic results.17 We therefore conclude that, in European countries, the labour market attachment of potentials is signiﬁcantly diﬀerent from other non-participating persons. The fact that the potentials diﬀer from the other non-participants does not necessarily imply, however, that they are one and the same as the unemployed. If we consider a standard test at the 5 per cent level, the p-values reported in Table 4 indicate that unemployment and potential labour force are not equivalent labour market states in the majority of cases, but many exceptions exist, as already shown in Figures 1 and 2: all groups in Ireland and in the Netherlands, men of both age groups in Germany, younger men in Denmark and France, younger men and all women in the United Kingdom, older men in Belgium and Greece, older job seekers in Portugal, all men andolderwomeninAustria. Inbrief,in22 out of 52 cases the test suggests that unemployment and potential labour force may not be distinct states. In conclusion, potential labour force may be considered an intermediate state between unem- ployment and non-participation–a state which is, however, close to unemployment for many groups of workers. 16We carried out a non-parametric test similar to that used by Jiménez-Martín and Peracchi (2002) for the Spanish LFS data. Results are available upon request. 17 b Cis estimated with B=1,000 bootstrap replicates for each of the EU countries considered. 12 3 Search intensity and the boundary between potentials and un- employed In the previous section we found that in Europe potential labour force is in general a distinct state from both unemployment and inactivity. By and large, the ILO four-week requirement helps to divide job seekers into two groups whose search intensity is actually diﬀerent. On the other hand, potentials are a heterogeneous group. They include people whose last search action occurred not longbeforetheILOfourweeksaswellaspeoplewho have not been taking any concrete search step for several months. The evidence that potential labour force and unemployment are distinct states may well be consistent with some subgroup of potentials behaving much like the unemployed. In other words, the test of section 2 does not tell us whether “four weeks” is the more appropriate time interval to sort “more” from “less” intensive job seekers. In this section we delve into this issue by exploiting the information on individual search intensity which is speciﬁcally available in the Italian LFS. Until the early 1990s, the Italian Statistical Agency (Istat) used a broader notion of unemploy- ment than the ILO deﬁnition, and all job seekers–including those labelled here “potentials”–were considered unemployed. The standardised ILO deﬁnition has been adopted, in accordance with Eurostat guidelines, since October 1992. However, Istat has continued to ask all job seekers how many months have passed since their last search action. Figure 3 shows the frequency distribution of this variable: the vast majority of potentials report that their last search step was taken less than 12 months before the interview.18 The collection of such information is a unique characteristic of the Italian LFS; to our knowledge, it is not gathered in any other EU country, in Canada or in the U.S. Current Population Survey. Most LFSs report information on the time since the last contact with public employment oﬃces, a poor proxy of the last search step–especially where public employment oﬃces play a minor role in job matching. Therefore, the Italian LFS provides a unique chance to examine the composition of job seekers out of the labour force. The Italian LFS has a longitudinal dimension based on a rotating scheme of the type 2-2-2, i.e. respondents are interviewed for two consecutive quarters, are then out 18As shown by the spikes in Figure 3, this variable is subject to rounding eﬀects caused by the tendency of respondents to approximate the exact number of months to the quarter or the year. Reporting errors are likely to be less important, however, when the action was taken during the last year. The variable is top-coded at 99. 13 of the sample for the next two quarters, and are ﬁnally re-interviewed for two further quarters.19 The LFS, however, is not designed as a panel and households moving to other municipalities are not followed but substituted by households with similar characteristics. Istat (2002) estimates that each year an average of only 2 per cent of the total population changes place of residence. Moreover, the linkage of individual records is made problematic by the lack of a unique personal identiﬁer and by the errors in the household identiﬁer. As a consequence, Istat has constructed algorithms which match individuals on the basis of time invariant personal characteristics (e.g. sex, date of birth, etc.) and information that can vary only in one direction, such as educational attainment (Ceccarelli et al., 2002; see also Paggiaro and Torelli, 1999). The longitudinal dataset currently released by Istat contains, however, only observations matched across waves one-year apart. Here we use observations matched on a quarterly basis across the four waves of 2000, made available to us as part of a joint research project with Istat. Attrition and reporting errors preclude complete matching. However, the loss of information is limited, around 6 per cent for the quarterly matched ﬁles (against 10 per cent for the yearly ones).20 Pooling data for all four quarters of 2000 makes up a total of more than 320,000 observations. 3.2 A test of search intensity and “grey areas” in the Italian labour market The number mof months since last search step is interpreted here as an inverse measure of search intensity: the larger m, the lower is the frequency of search actions and the less intensively a person is seeking job.21 As a consequence, we should expect that the probability of a transition into employment is inversely related to m. At the same time, the higher m, the less attached are people to the labour market and the more likely are they to stop searching in the next period. This intuition is conﬁrmed by Figure 4, where we plot the transition probabilities of the job seekers towards employment and non-participation as a function of m. (Theunemployedcorrespondto m=1.) These simple relationships are the basis for a test of the ILO four-week requirement by investigating whether the transition probabilities of the unemployed and of the more actively 19Thus, in each quarter the sample consists of four rotation groups, in any two consecutive quarters there are two overlapping rotation groups and, for any rotation group, the second pair of interviews occurs one year later in the same quarters as the ﬁrst pair. 20We do not test here whether attrition reduces sample representativeness over time. However, see the conclusion reached by Jiménez-Martín and Peracchi (2002, p. 100) in their study of the Spanish LFS: “... similar to what has been found for other surveys, we ﬁnd little evidence that attrition causes important biases in quarterly transition probabilities estimated from the matched data. The main exceptions are transitions of young people from inactivity to employment and transitions of those aged 50+ from employment to out of the labour force”. 21Moreprecisely,sinceweobserveonlythetimepassed from the last search action to the interview, mis a truncated measure of search intensity. 14 searching among the potentials are diﬀerent. We preliminarily verify that the LFS evidence is consistent with that from the ECHP by repli- cating the test discussed in section 2. Observations are subdivided not only by sex and age,22 but also by residence area, in order to take into account the relevant diﬀerences between the Centre- North and the South of Italy.23 Because of the very large number of observations available (see the Appendix), we only compute the p-values of the statistic D2. The results, reported in Table 5, sug- gest that the equality P=Ucannot be rejected only for older women living in the South and they conﬁrm the adequacy of at least a four-state representation of the Italian labour market, because the equality P=Nis unambiguously rejected.24 Let P(m)denote the group of potentials whose last search step was taken no more than mmonths before the interview. The transitions of group P(m)are compared with those of the unemployed Uand of the other inactive Nfor diﬀerent values of m. Notice that, the higher m, the more diluted is labour market attachment, since the group of potentials P(m)is expanded by including people who are less intensive job seekers. The results are reported in Table 6 for m=2,4,6,12,24. Two points can be made. First, the uniformly nil p-values for all values of mindicate that potentials are always distinct from other non-participants, even when their last search step occurred long before the ILO interview. Second, at the 5 per cent level, the boundary between unemployment and potential labour supply appears to be blurred for certain categories: older men whose last search step was taken no more than 6months before the interview in the Centre-North; older women whose last search step was taken no more than 4 months before the interview in the Centre-North; older men whose last search step was taken no more than 12 months before the interview in the South; young females who last sought work up to two months before the interview in the South; older women living in the South. Especially in southern regions, where job seekers are typically more numerous and job opportunities fewer than in the rest of the country, four weeks may be too short a time interval to identify diﬀerent types of job seekers. To appreciate the implications of our results for the unemployment rate, we report in Table 7 the ILO rates and the rates obtained by including among the unemployed all groups of potentials for which the hypothesis U=P(m)is not rejected at the 5per cent signiﬁcance level. The comparison 22In the Italian LFS working-age population includes people aged 15-64, rather than 16-64 as in the ECHP. 23The Centre-North includes Valle d’Aosta, Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentino Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Liguria, Emilia Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria, Marche, Lazio; the South includes Abruzzi, Molise, Campania, Basilicata, Puglia, Calabria, Sicily, Sardinia. 24We replicated the test not only on quarterly data but also on annual transitions, separately for each year from 1993 to 2002. The results are fully consistent with those based on ECHP data. Results are available upon request. 15 in Table 7 shows signiﬁcant “hidden” unemployment in 2000, especially in the weakest segments of the labour force. The unemployment rate could have been up to 9 percentage points higher than it was on the basis of the ILO deﬁnition among older women in the South. While the unemployment rate would have increased only marginally in the North and Centre, in the South it would have been revised from 21 to 25 per cent. The overall national unemployment rate would have gone from 11 to 13 per cent. 4Conclusions Over sixty years ago Long remarked that: “It is not often fully understood that conceptual limits of unemployment are not deﬁnite boundaries, but rather wide battleﬁelds over which economic and social philosophies are still ﬁghting” (1942, p. 2). The point was reiterated half a century later in the report of a Working Party on the Measurement of Unemployment in the UK established by the Royal Statistical Society: “We must emphasize again that the decision as to what is to counted as ‘unemployment’ in any particular context is a political, and not a statistical, question. The statistician’s role is to spell out the implications of such a decision and to determine how an appropriate measure can be constructed” (Bartholomew et al., 1995, p. 2). However, the diﬃculty to agree on a single deﬁnition of unemployment reﬂects not only its multiple meanings but also the heterogeneity of the group of persons seeking work. The problem is ultimately to balance the eﬀort to account for this heterogeneity with the need for ﬁxed standards to ensure comparability of labour market indicators over time and across countries. In this paper we have investigated the impact of the ILO standards on the measurement of European and Italian unemployment. Using the ﬁrst seven waves of the ECHP for 1994-2000 and four quarterly waves of the Italian LFS for 2000, we have identiﬁed a subset of job seekers whose behaviour is at the boundary between unemployment and inactivity. Like the unemployed, these persons report that they seek and are available for work; but since they last sought work more than four weeks before the interview, they fail one of the conditions speciﬁed by the ILO to be considered unemployed. This “grey area” of the labour market is labelled “potential labour force”. We have shown, ﬁrst, that the potentials are in general a distinct group from the ILO unem- ployed, on one side, and the other non-participants, on the other. This evidence conﬁrms for EU countries the results obtained by Jones and Riddell (1999) for Canada. Second, using the richer information available in the Italian LFS, we have found that the potential labour force is itself a heterogeneous group, where the persons searching more intensively for work exhibit the same tran- 16 sition probabilities as the unemployed. The search intensity–as measured by the time passed from the last search action to the interview–that separates these people from the rest of the potentials varies across socio-demographic groups. For instance, for men aged 35 to 64 the demarcation line is 6 months in the Centre-North as opposed to 12 months in the South. Taken at face value, this evidence implies that four weeks may be too shortaperiodtoidentifytheunemployedinsome population subgroups. While the results presented in this paper highlight the arbitrariness of the four-week criterion set by the ILO, it would be wrong to conclude that the problem is simply one of identifying the “right” time interval. Our analysis of the Italian data shows that there is a continuum of job-search intensities which leads any alternative time interval to appear as arbitrary as the four-week period. So, what lessons can be drawn from our exercise? First, the existence of large diﬀerences not only among countries, but also among socio-demographic groups within the same country, calls for a study of the characteristics of job-searching behaviour. There is need for a closer scrutiny of the four-week criterion as well as of the admissible search methods and of other requirements. For instance, the treatment of “passive job search”, which is dealt with diﬀerently in the United States and in Europe, is an issue worth further investigation. Second, forcing a sharp distinction between those “really” wanting a job, the “unemployed”, and other people who would like a job but are searching less intensively or not at all, provides an unrealistic description of the labour market. In our view, statistical agencies should move from providing a single measure of unemployment to oﬀering a range of (standardised) measures of the pool of job seekers distinguished by the intensity of their search. The time elapsed since the last search action, available in the Italian LFS, is an example of the type of information which can be used to rank job seekers. But the attention could focus on other variables as well, such as the number of steps taken in a unit period or the type of method used. Enriching the set of information in this way is desirable whatever concept of unemployment we have in mind: from a “macroeconomic” perspective, it gives us a better measure of the amount of unused labour available in the economy; from a “social” viewpoint, it approximates the notion of joblessness as deprivation by broadening the unemployment pool to include “discouraged” workers. Third, the availability of estimates of the job-seeker pool broken down by search intensity would allow synthetic indices to be built, in which job seekers are weighted by the eﬀort they put into their job search (or some other indicator). The current unemployment measure is a special case of this approach, where job seekers are assigned weight 1 if they meet ILO requirements and 0 17 otherwise. However, while these more sophisticated indices may be useful for certain purposes (e.g. as summary indicators of labour market tightness)25, they still convey the idea that there is a single headline ﬁgure of unemployment and hide the complexity of search behaviour behind the aggregation process. The integration of statistics on unemployment as deﬁned by the ILO with internationally agreed statistics on the potential labour force–regardless of the method used to measure search intensity– seems a fruitful way of enhancing our understanding of labour market dynamics. 25For instance, the Bank of England’s Inﬂation Report of August 1999 utilises “an alternative measure of unemploy- ment, which weights together the number of people in each group [of unemployed and inactive] using the probabilities [of becoming employed in next three months] relative to the probability that someone unemployed for six months or less will ﬁnd a job” to conclude that “on this measure too, labour market conditions appear to be tight by recent historical standards” (Bank of England, 1999, p. 30). 18 Bank of England (1999), Inﬂation Report, August. Bartholomew, D., P. Moore, F. Smith and P. Allin (1995), “The Measurement of Unemployment in the UK”, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A, Vol. 158, pp. 363-417. Broersma, L., and J. C. Van Ours (1999), “Job Searchers, Job Matches and the Elasticity of Matching”, Labour Economics, Vol. 6, pp. 77-93. Ceccarelli, C., A. R. Discenza, A. Paggiaro, S. Rosati and N. Torelli (2002), “Le matrici di transizione della Rilevazione trimestrale sulle forze di lavoro. Nota metodologica”, Rome, Istat. Clark, K. B., and L. H. Summers (1979), “Labour Market Dynamics and Unemployment: A Reconsideration”, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1, pp. 13-72. Efron, B., and J. J. Tibshirani (1993), An Introduction to the Bootstrap, New York, Chapman and Hall. EuroPanel Users Network (2004), ECHP User Guide, University of Essex, Institute for Social and Economic Research, 7 July 2004. Available at: <http://epunet.essex.ac.uk/ECHP_USER_GUIDE_06- 07-2004b.pdf>. Eurostat (1996), The European Union Labour Force Survey: Methods and Deﬁnitions,Luxem- bourg, Oﬃce for Oﬃcial Publications of the European Communities. Eurostat (2002), European Social Statistics - Income, Poverty and Social Exclusion: 2nd Report. Data 1994-1997, Luxembourg, Oﬃce for Oﬃcial Publications of the European Communities. Finegan, T. A. (1981), “Discouraged Workers and Economic Fluctuations”, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 35, pp. 88-102. Flinn, C. J., and J. J. Heckman (1983), “Are Unemployment and out of the Labor Force Behav- iorally Distinct Labor Force States?”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 1, pp. 28-42. Garrido, L., and L. Toharia (2004), “What Does it Take to be (Counted As) Unemployed? The Case of Spain”, Labour Economics, Vol. 11, pp. 507-523. 19 Gönül, F., (1992), “New Evidence on Whether Unemployment and out of the Labor Force Are Distinct States”, Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 27, pp. 329-361. International Labour Oﬃce (1990), “Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment. An ILO Manual on Concepts and Methods”, Geneva, International Labour Oﬃce. Istat (2002), La mobilitá del mercato del lavoro: principali risultati. Aprile 1998-aprile 2002, Rome, Istat. Jiménez-Martín, S., and F. Peracchi (2002), “Sample Attrition and Labor Force Dynamics: Evi- dence from the Spanish Labor Force Survey”, Spanish Economic Review, Vol. 4, pp. 79-102. Jones, S. R. G., and W. C. Riddell (1999), “The Measurement of Unemployment: An Empirical Approach”, Econometrica, Vol. 67, pp. 147-162. Jones, S. R. G., and W. C. Riddell (2002), “Unemployment and Non-Employment: Heterogeneities in Labour Market States”, McMaster University, Department of Economics, Working Paper No. 2002-05. Lehmann, P., and C. Wirtz (2003), “The EC Household Panel ’Newsletter’ (01/02)”. Methods and Nomenclatures. Theme 3: Population and Social Conditions, Luxembourg, Oﬃce for Oﬃcial Publications of the European Communities. Long, C. D., (1942), “The Concept of Unemployment”, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 57, pp. 1-30. Mumford, K., and P. N. Smith (1999), “The Hiring Function Reconsidered: on Closing the Circle”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 61, pp. 343-364. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1987), “Who Are the Unemployed? Measurement Issues and Their Policy Implications”, in Employment Outlook, pp. 125-141, Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paggiaro, A., and N. Torelli (1999), “Una procedura per l’abbinamento di record nella Rilevazione trimestrale delle forze di lavoro”, Progetto di ricerca MURST “Lavoro e disoccupazione: questioni di misura e di analisi”, Working Paper No. 15. Peracchi, F., (2002), “The European Community Household Panel: A Review”, Empirical Eco- nomics, Vol. 27, pp. 63-90. 20 Petrongolo, B., and C. A. Pissarides (2001), “Looking into the Black Box: A Survey of the Matching Function”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 39, pp. 390-431. Schweitzer, M. E., (2003), “Ready, Willing and Able? Measuring Labour Availability in the UK”, Bank of England, Working Paper No. 186. Sorrentino, C., (2000), “International Unemployment Rates: How Comparable Are They?”, Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 123, No. 6, pp. 3-20. Stein, R. L., (1967), “New Deﬁnitions for Employment and Unemployment”, Employment and Earnings, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 3-27. Stein, R. L., (1980), “National Commission Recommends Changes in Labor Force Statistics”, Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 103, No. 4, pp. 11-21. Tano, D. K., (1991), “Are Unemployment and out of the Labor Force Behaviorally Distinct Labor Force States?”, Economics Letters, Vol. 36, pp. 113-117. 21 Figure 1: Annual transition probabilities to employment in the 1990s, by age and sex 0 .2 .4 .6 0 .2 .4 .6 Finland 1 3 6 9 12 No. of months since last search Transition to out-of-the-labour-force Source: authors' calculations based on Istat, LFS longitudinal data. 24 Table 1: Percentage composition of the working-age population by labour market status LFS ECHP empl. unempl. out l. f. empl. unempl. out of the labour force potentials discouraged unattached Germany 64.5 6.1 29.4 64.5 5.7 29.8 1.3 0.2 28.3 Denmark 74.8 4.8 20.4 74.1 4.9 21.0 3.4 0.4 17.2 Netherlands 67.7 3.8 28.5 67.8 3.9 28.3 1.1 0.1 27.1 Belgium 57.5 5.6 36.9 59.0 4.1 37.0 1.7 0.7 34.6 Luxembourg 59.3 2.0 38.8 61.2 2.7 36.1 0.8 0.0 35.3 France 60.0 8.2 31.8 60.6 7.0 32.4 1.7 0.1 30.6 United Kingdom 68.2 6.7 25.1 68.8 7.4 23.8 1.2 0.3 22.3 Ireland 57.8 6.1 36.1 58.1 6.5 35.4 1.2 1.3 32.9 Italy 51.5 6.8 41.6 51.8 8.6 39.7 2.8 0.5 36.4 Greece 55.0 6.4 38.6 54.5 6.7 38.9 0.8 0.5 37.6 Spain 50.0 12.3 37.7 48.3 12.4 39.4 1.7 0.3 37.4 Portugal 64.8 4.2 31.0 67.7 3.6 28.6 1.5 0.2 26.9 Austria 67.7 3.6 28.7 67.5 2.9 29.6 1.0 0.3 28.3 Finland 64.3 9.9 25.8 63.4 8.4 28.2 3.5 0.4 24.3 Source: authors’ calculations based on Eurostat and ECHP data. Averages over 1994-2000, except for Austria (1995-2000), Finland (1996-2000), and Germany, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom (1994-1996). Table 2: Annual transition probabilities to employment in the 1990s (per cent) Unemployed Potentials Other inactive Source: authors’ calculations based on ECHP data. Averages over six pairs of consecutive years (1994- 1995, ..., 1999-2000) except for Austria (ﬁve pairs: 1995-1996, ..., 1999-2000), Finland (four pairs: 1996-1997, ..., 1999-2000) and Germ any, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom (two pairs: 1994- 1995, 1995-1996). 25 Table 3: Test for the hypothesis P=N P-values age group age group age group age group 16-34 35-64 16-34 35-64 Germany 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Denmark 0.038 0.000 0.040 0.000 Netherlands 0.031 0.000 0.000 0.000 Belgium 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 France 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 United Kingdom 0.048 0.032 0.044 0.000 Ireland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Italy 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Greece 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Spain 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Portugal 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Austria 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Finland 0.000 0.000 0.035 0.000 Bootstrap p-values age group age group age group age group 16-34 35-64 16-34 35-64 Germany 0.005 0.000 0.000 0.000 Denmark 0.000 0.000 0.015 0.000 Netherlands 0.052 0.000 0.000 0.000 Belgium 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 France 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 United Kingdom 0.013 0.002 0.012 0.000 Ireland 0.003 0.000 0.000 0.000 Italy 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Greece 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Spain 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Portugal 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Austria 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Finland 0.016 0.000 0.008 0.000 Source: authors’ calculations based on E CHP data. 26 Table 4: Test for the hypothesis U=P P-values age group age group age group age group 16-34 35-64 16-34 35-64 Germany 0.060 0.074 0.000 0.000 Denmark 0.110 0.000 0.003 0.000 Netherlands 0.635 0.112 0.822 0.735 Belgium 0.005 0.502 0.000 0.035 France 0.601 0.000 0.000 0.000 United Kingdom 0.882 0.000 0.212 0.099 Ireland 0.101 0.099 0.512 0.665 Italy 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Greece 0.035 0.855 0.000 0.000 Spain 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Portugal 0.028 0.515 0.000 0.691 Austria 0.113 0.791 0.000 0.063 Finland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Bootstrap p-values age group age group age group age group 16-34 35-64 16-34 35-64 Germany 0.078 0.108 0.000 0.000 Denmark 0.074 0.000 0.004 0.000 Netherlands 0.526 0.142 0.790 0.794 Belgium 0.004 0.302 0.000 0.034 France 0.480 0.000 0.002 0.000 United Kingdom 0.860 0.000 0.212 0.110 Ireland 0.150 0.122 0.302 0.592 Italy 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Greece 0.016 0.868 0.002 0.002 Spain 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 Portugal 0.028 0.358 0.002 0.662 Austria 0.112 0.786 0.000 0.082 Finland 0.005 0.000 0.002 0.000 Source: authors’ calculations based on E CHP data. 27 Table 5: Test for the hypotheses P=Uand P=Nin Italy P-values age group age group age group age group 15-34 35-64 15-34 35-64 Centre-North 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 South 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.095 P=N Centre-North 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 South 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Source: authors’ calculations based on Istat, LFS longitudinal data. Table 6: Test for the hypotheses P=Uand P=Nby search intensity in Italy P-values age group age group age group age group 15-34 35-64 15-34 35-64 2months 0.001 0.653 0.025 0.410 4months 0.000 0.086 0.000 0.112 6months 0.000 0.081 0.000 0.005 12 months 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.001 24 months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 South 2months 0.001 0.184 0.050 0.575 4months 0.000 0.112 0.047 0.635 6months 0.001 0.178 0.002 0.588 12 months 0.000 0.107 0.005 0.212 24 months 0.000 0.025 0.005 0.195 P=N 2months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 6months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 12 months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 24 months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 South 2months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 4months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 6months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 12 months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 24 months 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Source: authors’ calculations based on Istat, LFS longitudinal data. 28 Table 7: ILO and re-estimated unemployment rates in Italy, April 2000 Men Wome n To t a l To t al age group age group age group age group age group age group 15-34 35-64 15-34 35-64 15-34 35-64 ILO rates Centre-North 7.5 2.2 13.0 5.6 10.0 3.5 6.7 South 30.0 7.8 47.6 16.4 36.6 10.4 21.0 Italy 18.8 5.0 30.3 11.0 23.3 7.0 10.8 re-estimated rates Centre-North 7.5 2.7 13.0 7.4 10.0 4.6 7.3 South 30.0 10.4 52.3 25.9 38.9 15.6 25.1 Italy 18.8 6.6 32.7 16.7 24.4 10.1 12.7 Source: authors’ calculations based on Istat, LFS longitudinal data. 29 Men Women Men Wom e n age age age age age age age age 16-34 35-64 16-34 35- 64 16-34 35-64 16-34 35-64 Germany Denmark Unemployed 187 239 297 415 273 274 351 311 Potentials 33 36 66 99 89 99 218 157 Other inactive pop. 699 1,150 959 2,570 479 774 902 1,453 Netherlands Belgium Unemployed 264 263 412 573 278 216 439 336 Potentials 84 42 137 161 73 74 136 153 Other inactive pop. 1,018 2,231 1,994 5,983 1,340 1,456 1,747 3,646 Luxembourg Fran c e Unemployed 31 20 43 29 1,183 674 1,550 1,035 Potentials 6515 9 190 136 360 336 Other inactive pop. 188 353 375 786 3,414 3,457 4,787 7,119 United Kingdom Ireland Unemployed 462 408 278 234 779 596 557 302 Potentials 36 44 66 66 87 84 85 74 Other inactive pop. 309 915 1,015 2,229 1,741 1,456 2,793 6,075 Italy Greece Unemployed 2,982 845 3,390 1,199 982 479 1,645 607 Potentials 521 146 935 542 68 29 171 106 Other inactive pop. 4,422 4,620 6,709 13,138 2,696 2,434 4,686 8,883 Spain Portugal Unemployed 2,542 1,601 3,351 1,708 518 326 732 388 Potentials 231 116 430 299 133 98 314 196 Other inactive pop. 4,386 3,342 6,503 11,558 2,511 2,155 3,846 6,922 Austria Finland Unemployed 203 131 236 207 455 478 461 573 Potentials 46 34 90 82 167 100 195 156 Other inactive pop. 1,082 1,746 1,663 3,886 1,335 1,306 1,743 1,527 Italian LFS Unemployed 1,578 762 2,289 1,334 3,897 4,003 1,781 1,727 Potentials 542 271 994 859 1,621 712 2,319 1,162 Other inactive pop. 8,365 11,856 10,923 26,357 7,430 4,803 11,896 17,693 Source: authors’ calculations based on ECHP and Istat, L FS longitudinal data. 30	33
German-British businessman Hans Snook founded which phone company in 1994?	KGS--Grant and Stanton Counties--Hydrology Hydrology Hydrologic Properties of Water-Bearing Materials The quantity of ground water that an aquifer will yield to wells depends upon the hydrologic properties of the aquifer. The ability of an aquifer to transmit water is measured by its coefficient of transmissibility. The coefficient of transmissibility (T) of an aquifer is defined as the number of gallons of water that will move in 1 day through a vertical strip of aquifer 1 foot wide and the full thickness of the aquifer, under a hydraulic gradient of 100 percent, or 1 foot per foot, at the prevailing temperature of the water. The coefficient of permeability (P) is expressed as the rate of flow of water, in gallons per day, through a cross-sectional area of 1 square foot under a hydraulic gradient of 1 foot per foot. The coefficient of permeability can be computed by dividing the coefficient of transmissibility by the thickness (m) of the aquifer. The coefficient of storage (S) of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water it releases or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in the component of head normal to that surface. Under water-table conditions the coefficient of storage is practically equal to the specific yield, which is defined as the ratio of the volume of water a saturated material will yield to gravity in proportion to its own volume. Purpose of Aquifer Tests The hydrologic properties described above are determined from aquifer tests. Hydrologic coefficients resulting from aquifer tests are used in conjunction with the water-level contour maps to estimate the quantity of ground water moving laterally through the water-bearing formations. They are used to estimate the quantity of water being removed or returned to storage and the amount of local recharge. These tests also give an indication of the type and areal extent of the water-bearing materials. Methods of Analyses and Test Results Aquifer tests were made at 26 sites in Grant and Stanton counties. The tests were analyzed by the nonequilibrium method (Theis, 1935) or by the modified nonequilibrium method (Cooper and Jacob, 1946). These methods of analyses are also shown in U.S.G.S. WSP1536-E. The results of these tests are summarized in Table 5. The basic data for one of these tests are plotted in Figure 6. The coefficients of transmissibility obtained from these tests are plotted on Plate 11B in parentheses to distinguish them from the estimated coefficients to be described later. Table 5--Results of aquifer tests, Grant and Stanton counties. Well number a. Npl, Pleistocene deposits; No, Ogallala Formation; Kd, Dakota Formation; Ke, Cheyenne Sandstone. b. Pumped well may be partially penetrating. c. See Figure 7. Figure 6--Drawdown of water level in observation wells during 30-38-30ac aquifer test, July 27-31, 1960. The values for T obtained from these tests were reduced to the field coefficients of permeability (P - T/m). The value used for m is not the total saturated thickness of the formations, but is the aggregate of effective thickness of the sand and gravel beds in the formation, based on the driller's and authors' interpretations of the well logs. Because tests were made using wells screened opposite more than one aquifer, a trial and error method was used to determine P for each aquifer. Trial values of P were assigned to the sand of each aquifer, then multiplied by the aggregate thickness to obtain T. A trial T for the complete saturated sand section was then obtained by adding the individual values for T for each aquifer. This value for T was then compared with that obtained from the aquifer test. The process was continued until a permeability (P) was assigned to each aquifer that when combined with the aggregate thickness of the aquifers at each test site resulted in coefficients of transmissibility that were approximately the same as the coefficients obtained from aquifer tests. Using this method, the average coefficient of permeability was 2,200 gpd/ft2 for the Pleistocene aquifer and 1,250 gpd/ft2 for the Pliocene aquifer. The coefficients (P) were then extended to other areas and used in conjunction with the drillers' logs to estimate the coefficients (T) as shown for well 27-35-4bbb. In this well there is a saturated section of 112 feet of sand and/or gravel in the Pleistocene deposits and 33 feet of Pliocene sand. Thus: (112 X 2,200) + (33 X 1,250) = 287,000 gpd/ft which is the coefficient (T) for the well site. The estimated transmissibilities obtained by this method are shown in brackets on Plate 11B . The thickness of the sand and gravel used in the above estimates is not the total thickness of sand and gravel in the well described by the drillers. In many of the logs, the drillers, on the basis of their experience, assigned a yield number to each sand and gravel section of the aquifer. If a 10-foot section of aquifer contained clean sand and gravel and the material drilled easily, the driller probably would assign it a thickness of 10 feet. However, if the 10-foot section contained thin layers of silt or fine sand, the driller might assign it a thickness of 5 feet. In other words, the numbers shown in parentheses on the drillers' logs are the drillers' estimates of the yield from the intervals logged. The drillers total these numbers for the well and multiply by a coefficient to obtain the estimated yield of a well in gallons per minute. Where these estimates were not included in the drillers' logs, the equivalent thicknesses were estimated by the authors. The estimates of the authors were not included in the published logs but are computed as part of the coefficients of transmissibility on Plate 11B . Because of the reasons discussed on page 49 of this report , the coefficients of storage obtained from the foregoing tests were not used in the quantitative computations. However, the coefficients did indicate that artesian conditions existed during the pumping tests. Water Levels History of Water Levels Very little is known about the water levels in the area prior to 1940. During the field work in the early 1940's, observation wells, were established in the area, and periodic measurements have been made since that time. As shown by the hydrographs (Fig. 7), the water levels remained approximately at the same level or trended slightly upward through the period 1940-52, then declined at a slow rate. After 1952, the effect of pumping for irrigation is reflected on the hydrographs and masks the effect of precipitation in the area. Figure 7--Hydrographs of wells in the Grant-Stanton area. Most of the water levels measured during and since 1957 have been in irrigation wells that obtain water from unconsolidated aquifers. These are gravel-walled wells which are perforated opposite all water-bearing materials penetrated in the well. Thus, these measurements are of the composite water levels for all the formations penetrated in each well ( Tables 16, 17, 18 ). Few wells in the area are perforated only in the sandstone aquifers. A few scattered wells were perforated both in the unconsolidated and the sandstone aquifers to the bottom of the Cheyenne Sandstone. The water levels in these wells, cased through the sandstone aquifers including the Cheyenne Sandstone, were compared with water levels in nearby wells screened only in the unconsolidated materials. The water levels in these two types of wells were at approximately the same level; hence, it was assumed that the 1960 water levels throughout the area were at approximately the same level in wells screened in both the unconsolidated and consolidated aquifers throughout the Cheyenne Sandstone. Little is known about the water levels in the Triassic sandstone, but they probably are comparable with those in the unconsolidated aquifers of the area. However, in northeastern Grant County, the flow in the Triassic sandstones is probably toward the east or northeast as compared with the southeasterly flow in the unconsolidated materials, and there may be some difference in water levels in this area. During most years, pumping for irrigation causes considerable decline of water levels during the summer months, but some recovery of water levels is noted during the late winter and early spring months. An example of this is shown by fluctuations in well 28-38-8bc. Water levels in this well were as follows: during the late summer of 1959, 180 feet reported; March 21, 1960, 79.7 feet; and January 22, 1963, 110 feet. Pumping for irrigation in 1959 was mostly during the summer months, but in 1962, pumping was continued through December in addition to the summer months. The above well was not measured in 1962, but fluctuations in well 28-38-27ca can be used as an example. Water levels in this well were: March 30, 1960, 81.7 feet; Sept. 6, 1962, 150.7 feet; Oct. 11, 1962, 138.5 feet; Nov. 1, 1962, 123.6 feet; and Jan. 22, 1963, 103.7 feet. Figure 8--Decline of water level in in the Grant-Stanton area. The change in water levels in much of Grant and Stanton counties from about 1940 to Jan. 22, 1963, is shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 was prepared from Plate 11A which shows the water level as of 1939-42 and from an unpublished map which shows the water level for Jan. 22, 1963. Plate 11A was superimposed over the 1963 map and contours drawn through points of equal change. A map showing the change from about 1939-42 to March-April 1960 was given by Broeker and Fishel (1962, p. 31). If Figure 9 is compared with the acreage irrigated ( Pl. 12 ), the close correlation between decline in water level and the areal distribution of pumping for irrigation may be noted. Figure 9 --Change of water level in Grant and Stanton counties from 1939-42 to January 22, 1963. A larger version of this figure is available. The areal decline of water level from 1939-42 to 1960 and from 1939-42 to 1963 is shown graphically in Figure 8. The water level declined (1939-42 to 1963) 70 feet or more in an area of less than 1 square mile, 60 feet or more in 10 square miles, 40 feet or more in 174 square miles, 20 feet or more in 420 square miles, and 10 feet or more in 662 square miles. Withdrawals of Ground Water by Carl E. Nuzman, Engineer, Division of Water Resources, Kansas State Board of Agriculture The Geological Surveys' open file well records first reported the use of wells for irrigation in this area in 1940. As of that date, there were 4 irrigation wells in Stanton County and 8 in Grant County. The publication, "United States Census of Irrigation--Kansas 1940," listed 319 acres irrigated in Stanton County but did not mention Grant County. A report to the Governor of Kansas in 1944 listed 330 acres irrigated in Stanton County and 1,178 acres in Grant County. A report for 1948 by the Extension Service of Kansas State University listed 7,520 acres irrigated in Stanton County and 12,500 acres irrigated in Grant County. The Kansas Water Resources Board furnished reports of water usage for the period 1950 through 1957. The withdrawals for 1958 through 1960 (Table 6, 7) are compilations of the data furnished directly to the Division of Water Resources. In 1960 an estimated 68,000 acres were irrigated in Stanton County and 81,000 acres were irrigated in Grant County. The information obtained from the above sources is summarized in Figure 10, which demonstrates the growth of irrigation in the area. An examination of the records indicates that in 1960 less than 4,000 acre-feet per year was pumped for municipal, rural, and industrial use. As this is less than 2 percent of the total use, or within the limit of error in estimation of irrigation use, only the irrigation use is shown in Figure 10 and Tables 6 and 7. Table 6--Reported pumpage from irrigation wells (acre-feet) in Grant County, 1958-1960 Well number 74,444 66,481 Figure 10--Irrigation growth and withdrawals of ground water in the Grant-Stanton area. (Prepared by Carl Nuzman.) In 1958, those water users in Grant County who reported used 72 percent of their authorized appropriation. Thus, if the total authorized for Grant County was 158,300 acre-feet, 72 percent of this value or 114,000 acre-feet was the estimated water pumped (Fig. 10). In 1959, 81 percent of the authorized amount of 167,000 acre-feet was reported, and 135,000 acre-feet was the estimated total used. In 1960 the estimated quantity used was 131,000 acre-feet. In Stanton County irrigators reported the use of 72 percent of their authorized quantity in 1958 and 80 percent in 1959. Thus, the estimated total used in Stanton County was 91,000 acre-feet in 1958 and 113,000 acre-feet in 1959. In 1960, the estimated quantity used was 128,000 acre-feet. The differences between Tables 6 and 7 and Figure 10 are due to the differences in reported pumpage and actual use. The acreage for which applications for water rights have been filed with the Division of Water Resources and the location of irrigation wells are shown on Plate 12 . Perched Zones of Saturation There are several perched zones of saturation in the area. The northwest quarter of Grant County and part of Stanton County contains a perched zone. The water level in wells screened in the perched zone is generally 50 to 65 feet below the land surface. The zone is intercepted by the Lakin Draw and several seeps discharge at the bottom of the draw during prolonged wet periods. Two perched zones are above the major aquifer in the Hickok area. Water levels in wells about 130 feet deep are 85 feet below the land surface. Another thin aquifer occurs between 150 and 200 feet below the surface in the Hickok area. The water level is not known but probably is near 130 feet. The principal aquifer is about 20 feet thick and is from 350 to 370 feet below the surface. The water level associated with this aquifer is near 182 feet. Another perched zone is present along the Cimarron River south of Ulysses. Little is known about the water levels in this area, but springs discharge along the river bottom during wet periods. Wagon Bed Springs is in this area but is dry most of the time. The water level in the small gravel-filled valley in the southwest corner of Stanton County stands slightly above that in wells screened in the underlying sandstone aquifers. Local well drillers are careful not to penetrate the thin clay layer separating the two aquifers when drilling shallow wells, as the water in the shallow aquifer will drain into the sandstone. Irrigation wells screened in the shallow aquifer are reported to yield as much as 3,000 gallons per minute. Water-Level Contour Maps and their Analysis Water-level contour maps were prepared for the water levels measured during the periods: 1939-42 ( Pl. 11A ); the winter of 1957-58 ( Pl. 11B ); the spring of 1959 ( Pl. 11C ); October 1959 ( Pl. 12 ); the spring of 1960 ( Pl. 11D ); and Jan. 22, 1963 (unpublished). Water levels were measured in about 270 wells. These maps show water levels in the aquifers tapped by nearly all the irrigation wells in Grant and Stanton counties, but excludes any of the perched zones discussed above. [The datum is mean sea level, and the contours join points of equal altitude on the piezometric surface (pressure head or water level) at the time of measurement.] Water-level contour maps indicate water levels with respect to a known datum, the direction of ground-water movement, areas of recharge and discharge, and the effects of pumping. They can be used with other hydrologic data to compute the rate of movement of water, and successive maps can be used to compute changes in ground-water storage. A practical use of the maps is in determine the depth to water below the land surface in any locality if the altitude of the land surface is known. For example, the depth to water below land surface, 163 feet, is the difference between the altitude of the land surface at Johnson (about 3,342 feet above sea level) and the altitude of the water surface (about 3,179 feet) shown on the 1939-42 map. Computation of Flow Ground water moves at right angles to the water-level contours or from areas of high to low head. The water-level contour maps indicate that the movement of water in the area is predominantly eastward. Most of the ground water enters Stanton County from the west through the unconsolidated and sandstone aquifers, then flows eastward through Stanton and Grant counties into southwestern Haskell County. Some water enters the two-county area from Morton, Stevens, Hamilton, and southwestern Kearny counties, and more enters northeastern Grant County from Kearny County. The quantity of flow eastward can be computed from the contour maps by application of the formula Q = TIL where: Q is the quantity of water flowing per unit of time, T is the transmissibility, as previously defined, I is the hydraulic gradient obtained from the contour map, and L is the length of the segment through which the water moves, measured normal to the direction of flow. The quantity of ground-water flow was computed for the 1939-42 water-level contour map ( Pl. 11A ) and summarized in Table 8. To make these computations, the following assumptions were made: The water level was static during the period, and no water was removed from or added to storage in the aquifers. Pumpage was negligible and did not influence the shape of the water-level contours at the segments used for computations. Sufficient data were collected on the hydrologic properties of the unconsolidated aquifers so that the calculations made are in the right order of magnitude. Any increase in quantity of flow between the contours used for the computation was from the sandstone aquifers that are in contact with the unconsolidated aquifers in the subsurface or from recharge by precipitation. The lateral boundaries, ADGJM and CFILN, are drawn perpendicular to the contour lines on Plate 11A , showing that no water flows across these boundaries. Using these assumptions, the northernmost segment of flow across the 3,240-foot contour in northwestern Stanton County was computed. As an example, the coefficient of transmissibility in that area is 90,000 gpd/ft, from Plate 11B . The hydraulic gradient (1) averages 10.7 feet per mile between the 3,230- and 3,250-foot contours on Plate 11A , normal to the direction of flow. Thus: Q = 90,000 X 10.7 X 1.58 = 1.54 mgd. The flow across the rest of the 3,240-foot contour was computed in this way, as was the flow across the 3,160-, 3,090-, 3,000-, and 2,830-foot contours. The results of these computations were tabulated in Table 8, along with an estimate of the flow through the underlying sandstones. Data available on the water levels and hydrologic properties of the sandstone aquifers were insufficient to make more than an estimate of the flow through the sandstones. Table 8--Summary of ground-water flow eastward across Grant and Stanton counties (in million gallons per day), 1939-42. (1. Segments A to M and C to N shown on Plate 11A ; Npl, Pleistocene deposits; No, Ogallala Formation; SS, sandstone in pre-Pliocene rocks.) Contour 86.3 Recharge from Precipitation As the water flowed eastward through the unconsolidated aquifers, the flow increased about 14 mgd between the 3,240- and the 2,830-foot contours and within the boundaries of ADGJM and CFILN ( Pl. 11A ). Some of this increase was from the sandstone aquifers that are in contact in the subsurface, and some was from precipitation within the area. The area DEKJ ( Pl. 11A ) was selected to make an estimate of the recharge from precipitation because the sandstones were not in contact in the subsurface and did not increase the eastward flow within this area. The inflow across the 3,160-foot contour and between points D and E was 13 mgd. The outflow across the 3,000-foot contour between the points J and K was 15 mgd. Assuming that this increase of 2.0 mgd is all from precipitation in the area of 160 square miles, the, recharge rate was about 0.013 mgd/sq. mi. or about 0.3 inch per year, which is about 2 percent of the annual precipitation. This recharge rate was applied to the rest of the area, and the recharge from precipitation was separated from the flow contributed to the unconsolidated aquifers by the sandstones. Small amounts of water seep from Bear Creek into the ground-water reservoir throughout the year in western Stanton County. During flood stages the stream is believed to contribute large amounts of its flow to ground water throughout its total reach. However, these floods occur only at about 10-year intervals, and the total area flooded is less than 10 percent of the combined areas of Grant and Stanton counties. Summary of Flow Plate 11A and Table 8 indicate that about 58 mgd was flowing eastward into the area from Colorado and southwestern Hamilton and northwestern Morton counties. About 24 mgd flows through the unconsolidated aquifers and 34 mgd flows through the sandstone aquifers. As this water moves eastward, some of the flow is transferred from the sandstone aquifers to the unconsolidated aquifers. If the amount of 0.013 mgd/sq. mi. as calculated for the recharge from precipitation is correct, then the total recharge from precipitation within the AMNC polygon (an area of 530 sq. mi.) was about 7 mgd. The remaining increase of 7 mgd in the unconsolidated aquifers and within the polygon was assumed to be contributed by the sandstone aquifers. There is some doubt that the recharge is uniformly distributed over the area as assumed above. The recharge may be confined to gravel or sand areas of the streams and their flood plains. If this is true, the recharge within the AMNC polygon would be less than 7 mgd and the increase from the sandstone aquifers would be between 7 and 14 mgd. The outflow of 86 mgd across the 2,830-foot contour and the eastern Grant County line north of the 2,830-foot contour in eastern Grant County includes 61 mgd flowing eastward in the unconsolidated aquifers and about 25 mgd flowing in the sandstone aquifers. About 58 mgd of this was continuous flow from the most westerly areas of Stanton County, 13 mgd possibly was recharge from precipitation within the area east of the 3,240 contour (977 square miles), 6 mgd was lateral inflow from the adjacent counties to the north and south, and 9 mgd was the flow southeastward from eastern Kearny County across the northeast corner of Grant County. The 9 mgd probably is inflow from the Arkansas River drainage. The foregoing analyses were made on the 1939-42 map because pumping in the area was negligible at that time and thus had very little effect on the shape of the water-level contours. Pumping in the area since that time has caused considerable decline of the water levels near the center of the area. However, the 1939-42 and 1960 maps indicate that there has been very little change in the hydraulic gradients across the 3,240- and 2,830-foot contours, and the water-level near these contours has not changed appreciably. Thus it may be assumed that T, I, and L have not changed appreciably, and the flow into and out of the area was approximately the same in 1960 as in 1939-42. As the saturated thickness (and consequently I) is reduced in the future and I changes, the flow into and out of the area will also change. On Jan. 22, 1963, the water-level contours in the outflow area had changed slightly, but the inflow was estimated to be about the same as in 1939-42. Pumping in the outflow area within a month of the time of measurements on Jan. 22, 1963, had changed the hydraulic gradients so that an outflow comparable to 1939-42 could not be computed. The saturated thickness had been reduced about 2 percent and thus the outflow was probably reduced also by at least 2 percent. Reduction in Storage of Ground Water Weighted-Average Water Level The withdrawal of ground-water throughout the years has caused a decline of water level in the area, and in some areas concentrated pumping has caused considerable decline. In order to determine the average decline for the period 1939-42 to 1960, a weighted-average water level was computed from all the water-level contour maps, except the 1957-58 maps (the 1957-58 map was incomplete for part of the area). To compute the weighted-average, the volume of the ground-water reservoir between the highest and lowest water-level contours was computed for each map by use of the trapezoidal formula as adapted from Fader (1957, p. 5): Vt = h [1/2 (A0 + An) + A1 + A2 + A3 + . . . + An-1] in which: Vt is the volume between the highest and lowest contour, h is the contour interval in feet, A0 is the area in square miles embraced by the initial or highest contour, A1, A2 . . . are the areas embraced by the next successive lower contours in square miles, An is the area embraced by the lowest contour in square miles (Fig. 11). A sketch showing the symbols used in the computation of the weighted-average water level is shown in Figure 11. Figure 11--Block diagram illustrating symbols used in computation of weighted-average water level. The areas for each contour were obtained by a planimeter and are given in Table 9 for the 1939-42 map as an example. Substituting the values in the above formula and simplifying: Vt = 10 [(977 / 2) + 24,858] = 253,480 square-miles-feet Dividing this figure by the total planimetered area of 977 square miles, the result is 259.4 feet, which is the weighted-average water level above the 2,780-foot contour. Thus, the altitude of the weighted-average water level computed by this method was: 1939-42 976.8 24,858.0 The areas considered in the above computations included all of both counties east of the 3,240-foot contour on Plate 11A . This 3,240-foot contour was plotted on subsequent maps so that the same area was compared each time. These boundaries were chosen because of their geographic convenience, because detailed water-level data were not collected outside these boundaries, and because water-level decline due to pumping was approximately zero in 1960 at these boundaries on all the maps. If these conditions were strictly true and the water levels could all be measured on the same day, the weighted-average water level should not have risen between the spring of 1959 and spring of 1960. The reason that the spring 1959 average was lower is that most of the later levels in the area of concentrated pumping in northwestern Grant County were measured in February, whereas the levels in the rest of the area were measured in late April and early May. Therefore, the water had time to move into the area of concentrated pumping, and the water levels outside the area of concentrated pumping consequently were lowered, resulting in a slightly low weighted-average. If weather and pumping conditions had allowed all the measurements to be made at one time, the spring 1959 weighted-average probably would have been about 0.5 foot above that for the spring 1960. Computation of Areal Drawdown Coefficient The highest coefficient of storage (S) obtained from the aquifer tests (Table 8) was 0.059. The value of S for the remainder of the tests was 0.01 or less. The longest test was for 2 weeks, and, hence, the silt, fine sand, and clay in the overlying aquicludes had a relatively short time to drain during the test compared with the 10 to 20 years since pumping started in the area. Therefore, an areal drawdown coefficient was computed for the period 1939-42 to 1960. The areal drawdown coefficient is here defined as the ratio of the quantity of water pumped in the area, in feet, to the decline of the weighted-averaged water level, in feet, during the period of removal. The areal drawdown coefficient might be called a "long term" coefficient of storage in places where the water is removed from within an area bounded by a zero drawdown contour (the lateral boundaries are at zero drawdown) and if corrected for recharge and discharge, should approach the specific yield of the materials being dewatered. Where part of the water is being removed from storage outside the area being considered, the areal drawdown coefficient will be larger than for the total area. From 1939 through 1959, the weighted-average water level declined 8 feet ( page 48 ). The quantity of water pumped during the 20-year period was estimated from Figure 10 to be about 1,620,000 acre-feet for the total area of Grant and Stanton counties. About 5 percent, or 87,000 acre-feet, of the pumping took place west of the area for which the decline of water level was computed. Therefore, the total pumpage was reduced to 1,540,000 acre-feet for the area considered. This withdrawal was then reduced to feet of water by dividing by the area, as follows: 1,540,000 acre-feet / (977 X 640 acres) = 2.47 feet. The areal drawdown coefficient then would be 2.47/8 or 0.31. The above areal drawdown coefficient can be further adjusted to approach the specific yield by correcting for recharge by precipitation over the 20-year period and for possible over-reporting of the pumpage. Assuming that the recharge rate of 0.013 mgd / sq. mi. ( page 46 ) is correct, the recharge over the 977 square miles should be 0.013 X 20 X 977 X 365 X 3.07 = 280,000 acre-feet. This recharge was subtracted from the total pumpage and compared with the weighted-average decline as follows: 1,260,000 acre-feet / (977 X 640 acres) = 2.01 feet. The areal drawdown coefficient adjusted for recharge from precipitation would be 2.01/8 or 0.25. State and Federal personnel working on water resources of southwestern Kansas are of the opinion that pumping rates reported by irrigators are maximum rates rather than the rate actually used. Although there are insufficient data at present to determine the amount of over-reporting, it is estimated to be as much as 20 percent which would reduce the areal drawdown coefficient to 0.20 (adjusted for recharge from precipitation and estimated over-reported pumpage). Future Water-Level Decline The areal drawdown coefficient was computed for the purpose of estimating future water-level decline. Because the rate of annual withdrawal is unpredictable, estimates of future declines were not attempted. The weighted-average water level for the area east of the 3,240-foot contour on Plate 11A declined 8 feet between 1955 and 1960 (see page 48) and 10 feet between 1960 and 1963. It can be assumed that the weighted-average will decline considerably in the future if the present high rate of withdrawal continues. Because the weighted-averaged water level is an average, 8 or 10 feet decline would not be expected in all areas and some areas of high withdrawals will have more decline than other areas of low withdrawals, as shown on Figure 9. Well owners may obtain past declines for their individual well sites from Figure 9 and estimate future declines for their own use. Availability of Ground Water Water in Storage The saturated water-bearing materials in the Neogene deposits in Grant and Stanton counties range in thickness from 0 to more than 400 feet (Fig. 12). The contour line in Figure 12, showing zero thickness, represents the line of contact where the water table passes from the Pliocene or Pleistocene deposits into the underlying Cretaceous rocks. Figure 12 --Saturated thickness of Neogene deposits, Grant and Stanton counties, 1939-1942. A larger version of this figure is available. In Grant and Stanton counties there are approximately 39 million acre-feet of water in storage between the water table and the base of the unconsolidated aquifers. There is probably another 16 million acre-feet in the sandstone below. These estimates are based on a coefficient of storage of 0.20, the total thickness of the saturated materials in the unconsolidated aquifers, and the thickness of the sandstone in the consolidated aquifers. The volume of the unconsolidated materials was measured by planimetering the spring 1960 water-level contour and the bedrock contour maps ( Pl. 2A and 11D ). The weighted-average altitude was computed for each map and the difference multiplied by the total area to obtain the volume of the unconsolidated material. The volume of water in the sandstones was estimated on the meager information available from electric and radioactivity logs of oil tests, a few geologic test holes, and six drillers' logs. Not all the water in the unconsolidated aquifers is available for irrigation. As the water table declines, the yields of the wells will decline, and a time will be reached when the yields are no longer adequate for irrigation, but the yields may continue to be adequate for stock, domestic, or other uses. Quantities Available Because the sand and gravel beds are thin or practically absent in small areas, water is not available in sufficient quantity for irrigation throughout the whole area. The figures in parentheses on Plate 11B can be used as a rough guide to the availability of water. These figures are coefficients of transmissibility in thousands of gallons a day per foot. An approximate yield of a well in gallons a minute can be obtained by dividing the transmissibility by 100. Plate 11B shows the coefficient of transmissibility divided by 1,000. The values shown on Plate 11B should be multiplied by 10 to obtain the approximate gallons per minute. Because these data are general over large areas, this method of estimating yields should be used with extreme caution. Also the local well drillers should be consulted and test holes should be drilled before installation of any irrigation well. Near Manter, in western Stanton County, the irrigation wells obtain their entire supply from the sandstone aquifers (see tables of well records ). Most of the domestic and stock wells in western Stanton County are screened in sandstone aquifers. In the northern half of both Stanton and Grant counties and as far east as Ulysses, several irrigation wells are perforated in both the unconsolidated and sandstone aquifers. The meager information available on the sandstone aquifers is given in Table 2 and plotted on Plate 11C . These figures are plotted on the map as a guide for future test drilling in the area. Chemical Quality of Water The chemical character of the water is indicated by 89 complete and 205 partial analyses of water collected from wells in the Grant-Stanton area. The analyses ( Table 11 and Table 12 ) were made by the Sanitary Engineering Laboratory of the Kansas State Department of Health. The analyses in Table 13 and Table 14 were made in the field by the authors. The results of the analyses are given in parts per million, and the factors for converting parts per million of mineral constituents to equivalents per million are given in Table 10. Table 10--Factors for converting parts per million of mineral constituents to equivalents per million. Cation F- .05264 The dissolved solids in water samples from the Grant-Stanton area ranged from 169 ppm in well 27-35-16dd in the sand-hill area of northeastern Grant County to 1,470 ppm in shallow well 29-38-27aa1 along the North Cimarron River, southwest of Ulysses. Both of these water samples are from Pleistocene deposits. The average dissolved-solids content of water from the Pleistocene deposits was 439 ppm. The total hardness of water from the Pleistocene deposits ranged from 142 ppm in well 28-42-32dd to 809 ppm in well 27-38-20ad. The dissolved solids in water from wells screened both in the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits ranged from 185 ppm in well 27-35-24ac in northeastern Grant County to 790 ppm in well 28-30-4cc in northwestern Grant County. The average for the multiple-screened wells is about 389 ppm. The total hardness ranged from 148 ppm in well 27-35-24ac to 460 ppm in well 27-38-4cc. The average total hardness was 238 ppm. The dissolved solids in water from wells screened in the Pliocene deposits ranged from 253 ppm in well 28-43-12bb in western Stanton County to 515 ppm in well 27-39-13bda in northeastern Stanton County. The average was 303 ppm. The total hardness ranged from 181 ppm in well 28-43-12bb to 246 ppm in well 27-39-13bda. The average was 198 ppm. Comparison of the hardness of water from Pliocene and Pleistocene aquifers indicates that water from Pliocene deposits generally is softer. In water from the sandstone aquifers the dissolved solids ranged from 232 ppm in well 27-40-1cd to 622 ppm in well 27-39-13ac. The average from the sandstones is 371 ppm. The total hardness ranges from 176 ppm in well 39-41-33db to 360 ppm in well 27-39-13ad. The average for the sandstone aquifers was 244 ppm. The water in the Pleistocene deposits of northeastern Grant County is somewhat softer and contains less dissolved solids than water from the rest of the area. This indicates recharge from precipitation in the sand hills of the area over a long period of years. The samples were not studied in detail for possible movement between aquifers. Chemical Constituents in Relation to Irrigation The suitability of water for irrigation can be determined by methods outlined in Agricultural Handbook 60 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954). Soil that was originally nonsaline and nonalkaline may become unproductive if excessive soluble salts or exchangeable sodium are allowed to accumulate because of improper irrigation and soil-management practices or inadequate drainage. If the amount of water applied to the soil is not in excess of the amount needed by plants, water will not percolate downward below the root zone, and mineral matter will accumulate at that depth. Likewise, impermeable soil zones near the surface can retard the downward movement of water and cause waterlogging of the soil and consequent deposition of salts. The characteristics of irrigation water that seem to be most important in determining its usability are the total concentration of soluble salts and the relative activity of sodium ions in exchange reactions. For diagnosis and classification, the total concentration of soluble salts can be expressed in terms of electrical conductivity, which is a measure of the ability of inorganic salts in solution to conduct an electrical current. The electrical conductivity can be determined accurately in the laboratory, or approximately, by multiplying the total equivalents per million of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium by 100, or by dividing the parts per million of total dissolved solids by 0.64 (U. S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954, p. 69). Water having an electrical conductivity of less than 750 micromhos per centimeter (μmho/cm) is generally satisfactory for irrigation insofar as the salt content is concerned, although salt-sensitive crops such as strawberries, green beans, and red clover may be adversely affected by water having a conductivity of more than 250 μmho/cm. Water having conductivity in the range of 750 to 2,250 is widely used, and satisfactory crop growth is obtained under good management and favorable drainage, but saline soil will develop if leaching and drainage are inadequate. Water having a conductivity of about 2,250 μmho/cm has seldom been used successfully. The sodium-adsorption ratio (SAR) of water, which relates to the adsorption of sodium by soil, may be determined by the formula in which the ionic concentrations are expressed in equivalents per million. The SAR may be determined also by use of the nomogram shown in Figure 13. In it, the concentration of sodium expressed in equivalents per million is plotted on the left-hand scale, A, and the concentration of calcium plus magnesium, expressed in equivalents per million, is plotted on the right-hand scale, B. The point at which a line connecting these two points intersects the SAR scale, C, determines the SAR of the water. When the SAR and the electrical conductivity of a water are known, the suitability of water for irrigation can be determined by plotting the values on the nomogram. Table 15 lists the SAR of the 8 water samples plotted on Figures 13 and 14. Figure 13--Nomogram for determining sodium-adsorption ratio of water. (See Table 15 for well numbers.) Figure 14--Classification of irrigation waters from representative wells in the Grant-Stanton area. (See Table 15 for well numbers.) Table 15--Index numbers of samples shown in Figures 13 and 14 and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Well number 1. Npl, Pleistocene; No, Ogallala Formation; Kd, Dakota Formation; Kc, Cheyenne Sandstone; TRd, Dockum Group. Low-sodium water (S1) (Fig. 14) can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of developing harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. Medium-sodium water (S2) can be used safely on coarse-textured or organic soils having good permeability, but it will present appreciable sodium hazard in certain fine-textured soils, especially those not leached thoroughly. High-sodium water (S3) may produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils and will require special soil management, such as good drainage, thorough leaching, and addition of organic matter. Very high sodium water (S4) is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation unless special action is taken, such as addition of gypsum to the soil. Low-salinity water (C1) can be used for irrigation of most crops on most soils with little likelihood that soil salinity will develop. Medium-salinity water (C2) can be used if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Crops of moderate salt tolerance, such as potatoes, corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa can be irrigated with C2 water without special practices. High-salinity water (C3) cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Very high salinity water (C4) can be used only on certain crops and then only if special practices are followed. The irrigation water being used in the area is a low-sodium water, (Fig. 14) but it is medium to high in salinity. Phreatophytes A plant that habitually obtains its water supply from the zone of saturation, either directly or through the capillary fringe, is termed a phreatophyte (Meinzer, 1923, p. 55). The Subcommittee on Phreatophytes (1958, p. 5,) states, "A phreatophyte in most cases is a mesophyte which grows in arid or semi-arid climates and which gets its water supply from ground water." The most abundant phreatophytes in this area are salt cedar (five-stamen tamarisk), willows, and cottonwoods. In some parts of the west these plants grow along valleys and flood plains and use considerable water. These plants, the tamarisk in particular, are of little or no economic value and grow thick enough in some areas to choke the stream channels, causing flooding. The tamarisk is difficult to control once growth has started, and care should be taken not to spread this plant deliberately. Tamarisks, willows, and cottonwoods grow in abundance along the Arkansas River as far east as Dodge City, Kansas. It is not known how far they extend down the Cimarron River, but a few grow near Wagon Bed Springs south of Ulysses. Figure 15 shows the areas where tamarisks are growing in the Grant-Stanton area. Figure 15 --Map showing occurrence of phreatophytes in the Grant-Stanton area. (Areas of phreatophytes shown in black and indicated by arrows.) A larger version of this figure is available.	i don't know
The hurdy gurdy is what sort of instrument?	joel peyton, luthier: my hurdy gurdy joel peyton, luthier i have been working as a luthier in Minneapolis for over 15 years, doing repair and set-ups at Leonard Shapiro Guitar Repair since 2000. on my own time i have built a variety of stringed instruments, including electric and acoustic guitars, banjos, a mandolin, ukuleles, dulcimers, hurdy gurdys, lap steels, a stroh violin, a harbinger fiddle and more. the plan is to post pictures of all my instruments here as well as other luthiery updates from the shop. Wednesday, June 18, 2014 my hurdy gurdy this is pretty much my main instrument and interest as of the last couple years. i even quit playing bass, which had been my main instrument since the beginning of my musical life at 17. now i just play hurdy gurdy and bouzouki mostly (although i've recently started playing electric guitar for the first time in a band, stay tuned!). it has six strings: 2 melody strings tuned in unison to D; an octave lower D drone and the G below that are on the keyboard side; a low A drone and the trompette tuned in unison to the melody strings are on the back side. i use a viola D string for my melody strings(or canters), a nylon guitar G string for my trompette(or dog), and wound classical nylon strings for the drones(or droners). the body comes from a salvaged sigma. it was bought only for the pickup and preamp, then donated to me. the top originally had a blue-black sunburst finish which was majorly chipped and peeling off in huge sheets. the bridge was coming off too. right about summer 2011 someone asked me if i could build them a hurdy gurdy out of a guitar body. i investigated online a little and found that a few people have used guitar bodies for hurdy gurdies so i knew i could too. i never heard from my prospective client again, but now the idea had been implanted, i had already started making sketches and i had the sigma to use. i began by pulling off the neck and cutting the bridge out (not off, out) of the top leaving a hole for the wheel. the laquer peeled off of the top easily but not the back or sides so i opted to leave them and get on with construction. i routed rosettes for the wheel cover anchors to match the section of original soundhole that is still visible. all of the added wood is either maple or ebony. alot of the maple is heavily spalted with black or blueish streaks. the ebony keys have some light streaks. i actually made the tailpiece back in red wing. when i decided to use it on the hurdy i think it looked sort of like tailfeathers so the bird theme evolved from there. the headstock is one piece of maple. it is dovetail(sorry!) joined to the body just like the neck had been. the eyes go all the way through, you can see light in the pic. he's modeled befittingly after a buzzard. the drone bridges are less distinct birds-of-prey. the trompette is the rhythm feature of hurdy gurdies. the string goes over a "buzzing bridge" which simulates a sort of snare drum sound. the rotation of the wheel pulls the string upward, while the strings own tension pulls it back down, striking the bridge foot against the soundboard. i made several bridges to experiment with. now a look inside the buzzards keybox we see the tangents. these are the pieces that contact the strings to play notes. each one is adjustable to be intonated accurately. the keys work by gravity so when released they just drop back down. the last key is a mute switch for the melody strings, two ramps lift the strings off the wheel. the strings slide up the ramps and stop in grooves cut at the top. to release the mute i just push down on the back of the key with my thumb. all of the drone strings have their own mute switch in a lower row of four keys close to the wheel. in the picture above the keys are all set in playing position, all of the the drone strings are touching the wheel. the strings are pushed away from the wheel by leather dampers mounted on each key. the picture on the right shows all of the drones but the top back A string being muted. another lower row of keys is meant to play a "second" melody on the A drone. this was a sort of unsuccessful experiment. the tangents press the string away from the wheel rather than back across the surface, into the rotation of the wheel so the notes just choke out. in these pictures that drone string is a plain nylon tuned up to a high G. i now use a wound nylon string tuned to the low A and the increased tension helps this function some. i can usually get to the C before losing the note. the crank is a french door handle. a bit of overkill but i like it. i turned the handle on the drill press. obviously that means i need to invest in a lathe. i finally had to make myself a backpack to bike around with. when anyone asks what kind of instrument i have, i reply: "no, this is a jet-pack." Posted by	stringed
What is the connection between the £ sterling sign and astrology?	joel peyton, luthier: my hurdy gurdy joel peyton, luthier i have been working as a luthier in Minneapolis for over 15 years, doing repair and set-ups at Leonard Shapiro Guitar Repair since 2000. on my own time i have built a variety of stringed instruments, including electric and acoustic guitars, banjos, a mandolin, ukuleles, dulcimers, hurdy gurdys, lap steels, a stroh violin, a harbinger fiddle and more. the plan is to post pictures of all my instruments here as well as other luthiery updates from the shop. Wednesday, June 18, 2014 my hurdy gurdy this is pretty much my main instrument and interest as of the last couple years. i even quit playing bass, which had been my main instrument since the beginning of my musical life at 17. now i just play hurdy gurdy and bouzouki mostly (although i've recently started playing electric guitar for the first time in a band, stay tuned!). it has six strings: 2 melody strings tuned in unison to D; an octave lower D drone and the G below that are on the keyboard side; a low A drone and the trompette tuned in unison to the melody strings are on the back side. i use a viola D string for my melody strings(or canters), a nylon guitar G string for my trompette(or dog), and wound classical nylon strings for the drones(or droners). the body comes from a salvaged sigma. it was bought only for the pickup and preamp, then donated to me. the top originally had a blue-black sunburst finish which was majorly chipped and peeling off in huge sheets. the bridge was coming off too. right about summer 2011 someone asked me if i could build them a hurdy gurdy out of a guitar body. i investigated online a little and found that a few people have used guitar bodies for hurdy gurdies so i knew i could too. i never heard from my prospective client again, but now the idea had been implanted, i had already started making sketches and i had the sigma to use. i began by pulling off the neck and cutting the bridge out (not off, out) of the top leaving a hole for the wheel. the laquer peeled off of the top easily but not the back or sides so i opted to leave them and get on with construction. i routed rosettes for the wheel cover anchors to match the section of original soundhole that is still visible. all of the added wood is either maple or ebony. alot of the maple is heavily spalted with black or blueish streaks. the ebony keys have some light streaks. i actually made the tailpiece back in red wing. when i decided to use it on the hurdy i think it looked sort of like tailfeathers so the bird theme evolved from there. the headstock is one piece of maple. it is dovetail(sorry!) joined to the body just like the neck had been. the eyes go all the way through, you can see light in the pic. he's modeled befittingly after a buzzard. the drone bridges are less distinct birds-of-prey. the trompette is the rhythm feature of hurdy gurdies. the string goes over a "buzzing bridge" which simulates a sort of snare drum sound. the rotation of the wheel pulls the string upward, while the strings own tension pulls it back down, striking the bridge foot against the soundboard. i made several bridges to experiment with. now a look inside the buzzards keybox we see the tangents. these are the pieces that contact the strings to play notes. each one is adjustable to be intonated accurately. the keys work by gravity so when released they just drop back down. the last key is a mute switch for the melody strings, two ramps lift the strings off the wheel. the strings slide up the ramps and stop in grooves cut at the top. to release the mute i just push down on the back of the key with my thumb. all of the drone strings have their own mute switch in a lower row of four keys close to the wheel. in the picture above the keys are all set in playing position, all of the the drone strings are touching the wheel. the strings are pushed away from the wheel by leather dampers mounted on each key. the picture on the right shows all of the drones but the top back A string being muted. another lower row of keys is meant to play a "second" melody on the A drone. this was a sort of unsuccessful experiment. the tangents press the string away from the wheel rather than back across the surface, into the rotation of the wheel so the notes just choke out. in these pictures that drone string is a plain nylon tuned up to a high G. i now use a wound nylon string tuned to the low A and the increased tension helps this function some. i can usually get to the C before losing the note. the crank is a french door handle. a bit of overkill but i like it. i turned the handle on the drill press. obviously that means i need to invest in a lathe. i finally had to make myself a backpack to bike around with. when anyone asks what kind of instrument i have, i reply: "no, this is a jet-pack." Posted by	i don't know
The Philippines comprises how many islands?	Facts about Philippines Facts about Philippines Click to view full Infographic What is the full name of the Philippines ? Republic of the Philippines (Republika ng Pilipinas) What is the capital of the Philippines ? Manila Where is the Philippines located ? Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean What countries border the Philippines ? The Philippines shares no land boundaries, but Taiwan, Vietnam, Borneo, Indonesia are all located across seas from the Philippines What is the area of the Philippines ? 300,000 square kilometers or 115,831 square miles What is the population of the Philippines ? Around 100,000,000 How many islands make up the Philippine archipelago ? 7,107 How is the Philippines divided ? There are three main geographic groups of islands: Luzon, Visayas, Mindano There are 17 Regions and 80 provinces in the Philippines Regions and Regional Centers Ilocos Region – San Fernando, La Union Cagayan Valley – Tuguegaro, Cagayan Central Luzon – San Fernando, Pampanga Calabarzon – Calamba, Laguna Northern Mindanao – Cagayan de Oro Davao Region – Davao City Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao – Cotabato City Cordillera Administrative Region – Baguio What is the currency of the Philippines ? Philippine Peso (PHP) When did the Philippines declare independence ? The Philippines have declared independence from both Spain and the United States. Independence from Spain was declared on June 12, 1898. The Philippines declared independence from the United States on July 4, 1946. When was the Philippines colonized by Spain ? The Spanish explorer, Ferdinand Magellan came across the Philippines in 1512. Spain began developing permanent settlements in the Philippines starting with Cebu in 1565 and moving up to Manila on Luzon Island by 1571. The Spanish colonists unified the archipelago politically and began to convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity. They also brought schools and infrastructure. By 1896, the Philippine Revolution began against Spain. With the help of the United States, the First Philippine Republic declared independence from Spain. Who were the major revolutionary figures of the Philippine Revolution ? A secessionist group called the Katipunan was led by Andrés Bonifacio, who organized an attack on the capital (which failed) and Bonifacio was later executed. Emilio Aguinaldo led a similar armed attacks soon after, eventually allying with the United States and declaring independence from Spain. Philippine independence was not recognized by Spain or the United States. Aguinaldo became the President of the First Philippine Republic in 1898. How did the Philippines fall under United States rule ? When the Philippines achieved independence from Spain in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the United States took control. At that point, Filipinos had seen the United States as an ally, because the United States was at war with Spain in the Spanish-American War. With the Battle of Manila in 1899, fought between the United States and the Philippines, Aguinaldo declared the United States an enemy and declared war against them. How long was the Philippine-American War ? The war between the United States and the Philippines lasted about 3 years, from June 2, 1899 to July 4, 1902. The Filipino military were not as well-equipped, so the Americans won soon after Aguinaldo, the Filipino leader, was captured in 1901. The war ended when the United States agreed to establish the Philippine Commission and to extend the U.S. Bill of Rights to Filipinos. The Philippines then became a commonwealth of the United States. When did the Japanese occupy the Philippines ? Japan took control of the Philippines during World War II, from 1941 to 1945. What is the official language of the Philippines ? There are 2 official languages in the Philippines : Filipino and English Recognized regional languages : Bikol, Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Ilokano, Pampango, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Waray Recognized auxiliary languages : Arabic, Spanish Are Filipino and Tagalog different languages ? Not really. Most linguists differentiate language from a dialect by whether the two are mutually intelligible and whether they share the same grammar structure. Filipino and Tagalog are mutually intelligible and share grammar. Filipino was meant to be the standardized version of Tagalog, and is the national language of the Philippines. Calling the language “Filipino” was intended to disassociate the language with the Tagalog ethnic group. Filipino was also supposed to incorporate other indigenous language in the Philippines, but currently does not. Colloquially, the language spoken in the Philippines is referred to as Tagalog. ACOD~20120924 Interesting facts about Philippines Fact 1 The Philippines has a population of more than 90 million people and an annual growth rate around 2%, making it one of the most populous and fastest growing countries on Earth. Fact 2 According to the customs and traditions in Philippines, it is not considered good manners to open gifts immediately when they are given. Fact 3 The original inhabitants, the Negrito, now number only about 30,000. Fact 4 The karaoke was invented in the Philippines and not Japan. Fact 5 The Philippines is made up of 7,107 islands, totaling about 300,000 sq. km. (117,187 sq. mi.) Fact 6 Philippines boasts of a coastline of 36,289 kilometers. However, it still ranks fifth in the world for having the longest coastline. Fact 7 Philippines is the only country in the world whose flag is hoisted upside down when the country is at war. Fact 8 On July 4, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines was established. The early governments struggled to repair the damage caused by World War II. Fact 9 The nation got its 'Philippines' name after King Philip II of Spain. Fact 10 Mount Apo, found on the island of Mindanao is the highest point in Philippines. The height of this mountain is 2,954 m. Fact 11 The yoyo was invented as a hunting weapon by the ancient Filipinos, probably in the Visayas. Fact 12 Philippines is known as the 'text capital of the world' because of the large number of texts sent to-and-fro by the people in one day. Fact 13 There are 175 individual languages in the Philippines, 171 of which are living languages while the 4 others no longer have any known speakers. Fact 14 The Philippines is home to the Rice Terraces in Northern Luzon, often called the 8th wonder of the world Fact 15 The Philippines has the highest rate of discovery of new animal species with 16 new species of mammals discovered just in the last 10 years. Fact 16 Of the top 10 largest shopping malls in the world, three are found in the Philippines: SM Megamall, SM North Edsa, and SM Mall of Asia. Fact 17 The Philippines is the world's largest exporter of coconuts and tropical fruits, such as papaya and mangosteen.r Fact 18 Christian names in the Philippines include Bing, Bong, Bambi, Bogie, Girlie, Peanut, and Bumbum Fact 19 Jellyfish Lake in the Philippines contains more than 13 million jellyfish Fact 20 The Philippines is the only majority Christian nation in Asia. Eighty percent of its population identifies as Roman Catholic. Fact 21 In many places of the Philippines rum is cheaper than juice. A bottle of beer costs less than a dollar. Fact 22 Philippine nurses are highly in demand due to their good medical education not only in the phils itself but through out the whole world, probably the most demanded nurses in the world. This fun fact also makes Philippines as a good retirement place. Fact 23 Filipinos are the 4th largest immigrant group in the U.S. After Mexican, China and India. Fact 24 Philippine females are called "Pinays" and the males are called "Pinoys" or Filipina and Filipino. Filipinas are considered to be the best wives in the world, due to their raising. Fact 25 Speaking of filipinas, two Filipino beauty contenders, Gloria Diaz and Margie Morgan won the title of Miss Universe in the beauty pageants in the years 1969 and 1973. Fact 26 SM Mega Mall in Mandalyuong (near Metro Manila) is the 3rd largest Mall in the World. In Quezon city is also the 4th largest mall in the world. (source) Fact 27 Do you remember the "yo-yo" toy? It was primarily made and used as a weapon for hunting by the traditional ancient filipinos. Interesting Facts for kids	7107
The 'Turing test' assesses whether a computer possesses what characteristic?	About the Philippines About the Philippines Real Estate Philippines Philipines Phillipines Phillipine Philipine Philippine Pilipinas For Property Buyers > New Properties Added The Philippines consists of 7,107 islands, of which only 2,000 are inhabited. Only about 500 of the islands are larger than a square kilometer and 2,500 of them are not even named. The total area of the Philippines is 299,404 square kilometers. The highest mountain is Mt. Apo, near Davao in Mindanao, at 2,953 metres. The islands of the Philippines can be conveniently divided into three groups. First, there is Luzon, the largest and northernmost island and the site of the capital, Manila. The nearby islands of Mindoro and Marinduque are generally included with Luzon. At the other end of the archipelago is the second largest island, Mindanao. Third, there is the tightly-packed island group known as the Visayas. There are seven major islands in this group - Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar and Masbate. Cebu is the central island of the group and Cebu City is a major tourist destination. There are over 30 volcanoes in the Philippines, 10 of which are classified as being active. The longest rivers are the Cagayan River, the Rio Grande de Pampanga and the Agno in Luzon; the Rio Grande de Mindanao and the Agusan River in Mindanao. Today, there are about 67 million Filipinos; approximately 8 million of whom live in Metro Manila. Filipinos are basically of Malay stock with Chinese and Spanish ancestries. Although an ever growing number of Filipinos are becoming urbanized, a great majority of Filipinos still till the land and live off it comfortably. Known for their hospitality, Filipinos are a warm and friendly people. Visitors are welcomed like members of the family and it is no surprise to find house guests being offered the best room in a Filipino home. Smiles are abundant in the islands. LAND TRANSPORTATION On the first 120 days upon arrival to the country, a non Philippine resident may operate a vehicle using a valid unexpired license issued by the any state of the U.S.A. or any foreign country who reciprocate the same requirements as in The Philippines. If you stay longer (more than 120 days) then you will be required to obtain a Philippine Drivers License. You can go to any local Land Transportation Commission office (LTC) to get a license. The applicant must be a least 16 years old. International Drivers License is also acceptable Driving in the Philippines is just driving in the United States. Drivers are on the Left hand side. All the road signs are in English just like in the U.S. Distances markers are in kilometers and are posted every kilometer. Gas are sold in liters. If you follow the U.S. driving rules and regulations you'll be okay. BANKING HOURS	i don't know
What major group of organisms possess bodily features called operculum, caudal peduncle, and photophores?	Fish Anatomy Fish Anatomy Outfitters & Guides External Fish Anatomy The following illustration of a largemouth bass shows some of the common external features that are used to describe the differences between fish that are explained in more detail below. Fish are animals that are cold-blooded, have fins and a backbone. Most fish have scales and breathe with gills. Approximately, 22,000 species of fish began evolving 480 million years ago. The largemouth bass illustrated above has the typical torpedo-like (fusiform) shape associated with many fishes. Fins are appendages used by the fish to maintain its position, move, steer and stop. They are either single fins along the centerline of the fish, such as the dorsal (back) fins, caudal (tail) fin and anal fin, or paired fins, which include the pectoral (chest) and pelvic (hip) fins. Fishes such as catfish have another fleshy lobe behind the dorsal fin, called an adipose (fat) fin that is not illustrated here. The dorsal and anal fins primarily help fish to not roll over onto their sides. The caudal fin is the main fin for propulsion to move the fish forward. The paired fins assist with steering, stopping and hovering. Scales in most bony fishes (most freshwater fishes other than gar that have ganoid scales, and catfish which have no scales) are either ctenoid or cycloid. Ctenoid scales have jagged edges and cycloid ones have smooth rounded edges. Bass and most other fish with spines have ctenoid scales composed of connective tissue covered with calcium. Most fishes also have a very important mucus layer covering the body that helps prevent infection. Anglers should be careful not to rub this "slime" off when handling a fish that is to be released. (See Scales for more). In many freshwater fishes the fins are supported by spines that are rigid and may be quite sharp thus playing a defensive role. Catfish have notably hard sharp fins, of which anglers should be wary. The soft dorsal and caudal fins are composed of rays, as are portions of other fins. Rays are less rigid and frequently branched. The gills are the breathing apparatus of fish and are highly vascularized giving them their bright red cover. An operculum (gill cover) that is a flexible bony plate that protects the sensitive gills. Water is "inhaled" through the mouth, passes over the gills and is "exhaled" from beneath the operculum. Fish can detect color. The eyes are rounder in fish than mammals because of the refractive index of water and focus is achieved by moving the lens in and out, not reshaping the lens as in mammals. Paired nostrils, or nares, in fish are used to detect odors in water and can be quite sensitive. Eels and catfish have particularly well developed senses of smell. The mouth's shape is a good clue to what fish eat. The larger it is, the bigger the prey it can consume. Fish have a sense of taste and may sample items to taste them before swallowing if they are not obvious prey items. Most freshwater fishes in Florida are omnivorous (eating both plant and animal matter). Some are primarily piscivorous (eating mostly other fish). The imported grass carp is one of the few large fishes that are primarily herbivorous (eating plants). Fish may or may not have teeth depending on the species. Fish like chain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-shaped teeth. Other fish have less obvious teeth, such as the cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a roughened area at the front of the mouth, or vomerine teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, for example, in the roof of a striped bass' mouth. Grass carp and other minnows have pharyngeal teeth modified from their gill arches for grinding that are located in the throat. The lateral line is a sensory organ consisting of fluid filled sacs with hair-like sensory apparatus that are open to the water through a series of pores (creating a line along the side of the fish). The lateral line primarily senses water currents and pressure, and movement in the water. The vent is the external opening to digestive urinary and reproductive tracts. In most fish, it is immediately in front of the anal fin. Internal Fish Anatomy The following illustration of a largemouth bass shows some of the common internal features that are used to describe the differences between fish that are explained in more detail below. As different as a man may be from a fish, both creatures share some fascinating similarities in basic structure and function. And the closer one looks, the more complex life becomes. The smallest units of life are microscopic cells, and some organisms--such as an ameba--are no larger than a single cell. In larger multicellular creatures, individual cells that are similar in structure and perform a specific function are grouped into tissues, and tissues may be grouped into even more complex and specialized structures called organs. These organs perform the basic bodily functions such as respiration, digestion, and sensory reception. Man and fish share such organs as the brain, stomach, liver, and kidneys. Other organs appear in different forms in different organisms; for example, the lungs in humans and the gills in fish are very different but both provide the same basic function of respiration. Finally, some organs (such as the fish's swim bladder) are simply not present in man. Below are descriptions of some of the organs identified on the above diagram, along with their functions. A number of other vital organs, such as the spleen and pancreas, may also be present but are smaller and more difficult to locate. A largemouth bass destined for the frying pan makes an excellent specimen because this species is large enough for easy examination. For anglers brave enough to do some investigating while filleting their next fish, a fascinating learning experience awaits! Don't forget to examine the stomach content, as this can give clues to what the fish was feeding on, where in the water column and what lures to present. For instance, small shad probably came from open water and a shad-imitating lure may be your best bet; crayfish would suggest working a soft plastic along the bottom. Spine: The primary structural framework upon which the fish's body is built; connects to the skull at the front of the fish and to the tail at the rear. The spine is made up of numerous vertebrae, which are hollow and house and protect the delicate spinal cord. Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the rest of the body and relays sensory information from the body to the brain, as well as instructions from the brain to the rest of the body. Brain: The control center of the fish, where both automatic functions (such as respiration) and higher behaviors ("Should I eat that critter with the spinning blades?") occur. All sensory information is processed here. Lateral Line: One of the fish's primary sense organs; detects underwater vibrations and is capable of determining the direction of their source. Swim (or Air) Bladder: A hollow, gas-filled balance organ that allows a fish to conserve energy by maintaining neutral buoyancy (suspending) in water. Fish caught from very deep water sometimes need to have air released from their swim bladder before they can be released and return to deep water, due to the difference in atmospheric pressure at the water's surface. (Most freshwater anglers in Florida need not concern themselves with this!) Species of fish that do not possess a swim bladder sink to the bottom if they stop swimming. Gills: Allow a fish to breathe underwater. These are very delicate structures and should not be touched if the fish is to be released! Kidney: Filters liquid waste materials from the blood; these wastes are then passed out of the body. The kidney is also extremely important in regulating water and salt concentrations within the fish's body, allowing certain fish species to exist in freshwater or saltwater, and in some cases (such as snook or tarpon) both. Stomach and Intestines: Break down (digest) food and absorb nutrients. Fish such as bass that are piscivorous (eat other fish) have fairly short intestines because such food is easy to chemically break down and digest. Fish such as tilapia that are herbivorous (eat plants) require longer intestines because plant matter is usually tough and fibrous and more difficult to break down into usable components. A great deal about fish feeding habits can be determined by examining stomach contents. Pyloric Caeca: This organ with fingerlike projections is located near the junction of the stomach and the intestines. Its function is not entirely understood, but it is known to secrete enzymes that aid in digestion, may function to absorb digested food, or do both. Vent: The site of waste elimination from the fish's body. It is also the entry to the genital tract where eggs or sperm are released. Liver: This important organ has a number of functions. It assists in digestion by secreting enzymes that break down fats, and also serves as a storage area for fats and carbohydrates. The liver also is important in the destruction of old blood cells and in maintaining proper blood chemistry, as well as playing a role in nitrogen (waste) excretion. Heart: Circulates blood throughout the body. Oxygen and digested nutrients are delivered to the cells of various organs through the blood, and the blood transports waste products from the cells to the kidneys and liver for elimination. Gonads (Reproductive Organs): In adult female bass, the bright orange mass of eggs is unmistakable during the spawning season, but is still usually identifiable at other times of the year. The male organs, which produce milt for fertilizing the eggs, are much smaller and white but found in the same general location. The eggs (or roe) of certain fish are considered a delicacy, as in the case of caviar from sturgeon. Muscles: Provide movement and locomotion. This is the part of the fish that is usually eaten, and composes the fillet of the fish. If you would like more information, Sea World has a nice site about bony fishes, their anatomy and physiology. The Florida Museum of Natural History also has an outstanding site.	Fish
Super, Magic, Brønsted and Lewis are prefixes for chemical substance?	Marine Technology: Cape Fear Community College Abiotic - non-living (physical or chemical component of the environment Aboral surface - the area of an animal located by the anus Abyssal gigantism - phenomena where animals attain a large size no found anywhere but in the deep sea Abyssal Plain - the nearly flat region of the sea floor Abyssopelagic - an area of the pelagic environment at an approximate depth of 4,000 m - 6,000 m. This area is aphotic Acipenseridae - taxonomic family which contains the sturgeons Acoelomate – animals lacking a true internal body cavity The region between the body wall and the gut is solid (occupied by mesoderm) Acontia - structures used as defense in many species of anthozoans. Usually loaded with nematocysts Acropomatidae - taxonomic family which contains the wreckfishes Actinopterygii - subclass of fishes which contains the ray-finned fishes Adductor muscle - found in bivalves and is responsible for closing the valves Adipose fin - fatty fin which lacks bony rayed supports, found in the salmonids and synodontids Aerobic respiration - respiration in the presence of oxygen Ahermatypic corals - corals which are non-reef building Ambergris - collected indigestible found in the digestive tract of sperm whales, often used in fine perfumes Ammocoete - larval stage of the sea lamprey which lives a secretive life filter feeding buried in the sediment Amoebozoa - phylum of protozoans (not covered in class) Ampullae of Lorenzini - gel filled pit in the rostrum of cartilaginous fishes used to sense weak electrical currents Anadromous - fishes which spend their adult life in water and migrate freshwater to spawn Anaerobic respiration - respiration in the absence of oxygen Anguilliformes - taxonomic order which contains 15 different families of true eels Animalia - multicellular, heterotrophs (kingdom) Antennariidae - taxonomic family which contains the frogfishes Anthozoa - class in the phylum Cnidaria which contains the corals and sea anemones Apex predators - top predators Aphotic - complete and total darkness Archeocytes - phagocytic cells found in sponges which aid in digestion, also give rise to sperm and eggs Asexual reproduction – replication of chromosomes and the splitting of the parent into two or more parts. Asexual reproduction occurs in some invertebrates and is the only method for a few Asymmetrical – have no ordered symmetry pattern to the organisms' gross morphology Atherinidae - taxonomic family which contains the Silversides Aulostomidae - taxonomic family which contains the Trumpetfishes Authigenic sediment - particles that are precipitated by chemical or biochemical reactions in seawater near the sea floor. (i.e. Manganese and phosphate nodules) Autotroph - an organism that manufactures its own organic matter by using energy from the sun or other sources Azoic theory - A theory first proposed by Edward Forbes which stated that no life existed on the sea bed below 300 fathoms (1,800 ft). This theory was later proved incorrect Return to the top of page B Back-island flats - barrier island features which are sand deposits shaped like pancakes or lobes. These areas are usually created by washover or overwash Baleen - material found in the upper jaw of baleen whales used for straining food during the feeding Balistidae - taxonomic family in the order Tetraodontiformes which contains the Filefish & Triggerfish Barrier islands - large deposits of sand that are separated from the mainland by bays, estuaries, or lagoons These bodies of water are regularly flushed through tidal inlets Bathypelagic - area of the pelagic environment at an approximate depth of 1,000 m - 4,000 m. This area is aphotic Batrachoididae - taxonomic family which contains the toadfishes Belonidae - taxonomic family which contains the Needlefishes Benthic (benthos) - sea bottom Berm - a prominent wave deposited feature of most beaches; accumulation of sand having a flat top and steep seaward slope. Beroida - order of ctenophores Bilateral symmetry – right and left sides that are mirror images of each other Binary fission – a type of asexual reproduction that results in two individuals Binomial nomenclature - a system of naming species using two names, the first of which refers to the genus Biogenic sediment - derived from the hard parts of organisms such as shells and skeletal debris (i.e. - calcium carbonate and silicon dioxide Bioluminescence - light which is produced by living organisms Biotic - a living component of the environment (i.e. predation, competition) Bivalvia – class of molluscs which contains clams, mussels, oysters, and shipworms Blenniidae - taxonomic family which contains the Blennies Bothidae - taxonomic family in the order Pleuronectiformes which contains the Left-eye flounders Bottomset beds - sediments of the prodelta which are composed of several layers of silts and clays Brackish - body of water where fresh and salt water mix, creating an area of varying salinity Breakwaters - man made structures built as barriers in front of harbors or shorelines. Usually built offshore parallel to the beach or harbor mouth and absorb the pounding of the sea Budding – portion of the parent breaks off and differentiates to form a new complete individual (a type of asexual reproduction) Byssal threads - filamentous structures which mussels secrete and use for attachment C Calcarea - class of sponges. Spicules are made strictly of calcium carbonate Cannibal viviparity - reproductive method favored by predatory sharks. Young in each oviduct consume unfertilized eggs or other siblings during development Capillary waves - smallest waves, have a period > 1/10 of a second Created on a flat day by a brief gust of wind Carangidae - taxonomic family which contains the Jacks Carapidae - taxonomic family which contains the pearlfishes Carnivora - taxonomic order which contains the Polar bears, sea otters, seals, sea lions, and walruses Carnivores - eat meat Carrying capacity - the largest population or community size that can be sustained by an ecosystem is called its Catadromous - reproductive strategy where fish live most of the lifecycle in freshwater and migrate to saltwater to spawn. I.e.: American eel Celerity - term used for the velocity of a wave form Cephalic lobe (beard) - The anterior portion of pogonophorans that contains thousands of ciliated tentacles and a gland that secretes a chitinous tube 2. Functional limbs on the head used for directing plankton Cephalochordata - subphylum which contains the lancelets or amphioxus Cephalofoil - term used when referring to the head of hammerheads Cephalspidomorphi - taxonomic class which contains the lampreys Cephalopoda – class of molluscs which contains squid, octopus, cuttlefish, and chambered nautilus Cerata - respiratory projections on the dorsal surface of sea slugs Cestoda - class of parasitic tapeworms in the phylum platyhelminthes Cetacea - taxonomic order which contains Whales, dolphins, and porpoises Chaetodontidae - taxonomic family which contains the Butterflyfishes Chemoautotrophs - organisms which use chemicals in the synthesis of nutrients Chinese liver fluke - parasite which is found in the bile duct. Originates from eating raw fish Chitin - complex carbohydrate that is the main component of the skeleton of many invertebrates Chondrichthyes - taxonomic class which contains the cartilaginous fishes Chop – locally generated waves, have a period of 1-10 seconds Chronometer - a time piece which was frequently used in the 1700's to determine the longitude of vessels at sea Choanocytes - flagellated cells that are responsible for creating currents in feeding sponges (synonym: collar cells) Chromatophore - specialized cell which are used to change the color of a given animal Ciguatera - condition caused by the ingestion of toxic fish flesh, found mainly in the tropics Symptoms include neurological dysfunction, exhaustion, visual disturbance, inversion of senses, paralysis, loss of reflexes, and death. Causative organism is a dinoflagellate called Gambierdiscus toxicus which can bloom in high numbers Ciliophora - phylum of protozoans that contains the ciliates (i.e. paramecium) Cladogram - a pictorial representation used to illuminate evolutionary relationships Classification - the system used in grouping organisms based on their structural and biochemical similarities Clitellum - pronounced cylindrical glandular region of the body that plays an important role in reproduction of oligochaetes Clupeidae - taxonomic family which contains herrings, shads, sardines, and menhaden Cnidaria - phylum which contains the true jellyfish, hydroids, sea anemones and corals Cnidoblast - cells that contains and creates nematocysts Cnidocil - trigger that projects form the tip of an undischarged nematocysts Coast - a large zone which is affected by the ocean processes. This boundary Includes marshes, sand dunes, cliffs inland of the shore and sand bars and troughs immediately offshore Coelomate - have a true coelom. Fluid-filled cavity lying between the outer body wall and the gut is lined with tissue derived from the mesoderm Coevolution - the predator evolving in response to adaptations of the prey, or vice versa Cold core rings - form to the east of the stream spin counterclockwise and have cores filled with sea water derived from outside the Sargasso sea Collar Cell - flagellated cells that are responsible for creating currents in feeding sponges (synonym: choanocytes) Colloblasts - sticky retractile tentacle used to catch prey Commensalism - relationship where one animal derives a benefit from a host without causing significant harm Community- several populations, which occur in an area Competition - refers to the interaction between organisms for a necessary and limiting resource Conjugation - sexual reproduction used by paramecium Constructive wave interference – crest and troughs coincide resulting in a building up of the crest and the deepening of the trough. This sometimes results in a rogue wave Continental Shelf - the shallow gently sloping section of the continental margin that extends from the shore to the point where the slope gets steeper Continental Slope - the steeper seaward section of the continental margin Contractile vacuole - removes excess water to keep osmotic balance in the paramecium and other protozoans Controlled Experiment - additional variables that might affect the experiment are under the control of the researcher Copepods - the primary herbivores in the sea; dominate plankton net collections. Belong to the phylum Arthropoda Coquina rock - naturally occurring rock in southeast North Carolina which is composed of compressed sandstone Corer - hollow metal tube pushed into the sediment. Upon retrieval the core is extracted intact and stored for future analysis Coryphaenidae - taxonomic family which contains the Dolphinfish Cosmogenous sediment - tiny grains that originate from outer space and tend to be mixed into terrigenous and biogenic sediment Countershading - method of camouflage used by fishes, the dorsal side is a dark blue, and the ventral surface is a pale white Countercurrent exchanger - network of closely associated capillaries found in their circulatory system, which permits some fishes to be slightly warm-blooded (Increased swimming efficiency) synonym (rete mirabile) Crainovertebral joint - joint between the cranium and vertebra which allows for an increased gape and larger prey items Crepuscular period - time of day with low light conditions, i.e: dawn and dusk Crystalline style - digestive rod found in some bivalves, used for digestion Ctenidia - comb-like molluscan gills which have cilia. Used for respiration and food collection Ctenophora - phylum containing the comb jellies Cubozoa - class of cnidarians which contains the box jellies Cydippid larvae - larvae of ctenophores Cynoglossidae - taxonomic family in the order Pleuronectiformes which contains the Tonguefish Cytoproct - a permanent site in the cell wall of paramecium where waste is eliminated Cytostome - associated with the oral groove in paramecium and helps in creating food vacuoles which digest food and distribute it in the cytoplasm Dactylozooids - polyps found in hydroid used for defense Declination - depending on the angle between the earth's axis and the moon Deep scattering layer - area of the water column where mesopelagic animals concentrate. This group of animals migrates vertically each night towards surface waters Deep-water waves – bottom interactions are absent since the wave base is above the sea floor Delta front - grades seaward from the delta plain and is essentially the shoreline Delta plain - flat lowland that lies above sea level and is drained by a network of tributaries. Usually composed of sequences of flat-lying beds of sand and mud. Collectively referred to as topset beds Demersal - concerning the bottom. Animals that are associated with the bottom but do not live on it. I.e. cods Demospongiae - class of sponges. Spicules are made of silicon dioxide Deposit feeders - an animal that feeds on organic material on or in the bottom (i.e. polychaete) Desiccation - drying out, or dealing with water loss Destructive wave interference – the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of another wave, if the two waves are of equal size it results in a cancellation Detritus - broken down organic material Deutrostomes - embryo development type which includes the bryozoans, echinoderms, and chordates Dextral coiling - gastropod shell that coils to the right Dextral - term used when referring to right-eyed flounders Diatom - unicellular phytoplankton that can form large colonial groups, test is made of silicon dioxide Diodontidae - taxonomic family in the order Tetraodontiformes which contains the Porcupinefish Dioecious - the parents are of 2 different sexes Diploblastic - organisms that have two distinct germ (cell) layers Dispersion (Wave) - waves begin to sorting themselves according to celerity, this process produces a regular swell Disphotic - marginal amounts of light, not enough for photosynthesis to occur Diurnal - tidal cycle which has 1 high tide and 1 low tide per day Dive Reflex - physiological responses that diving marine mammals undergo during deep dives Doldrums - rising air at the equator Dune field - barrier island feature with the regular or irregular formation of dunes due to sea breezes blowing wind landward Echeneididae - taxonomic family which contains the Sharksuckers and Remoras Echolocation - precise SONAR system used by marine mammals for locating prey and navigation Ecology - The science that treats the interrelationships existing between organisms and their environments and among other groups of organisms Ecosystem - a series of communities and the surrounding environment Ectoderm - outer layer or skin Ectoparasites - parasites which occur externally Ectothermic - organisms which have an internal body temperature that conforms to the environment (synonym: poikilotherm ) Ekman spiral - model of the effect on water of wind blowing over the ocean. Due to the Coriolis effect the net transport of water in the northern hemisphere is ninety degrees to the right El Nino - a southward-flowing nutrient poor current of warm water off the coast of western South America, caused by a breakdown of the trade wind circulation Elasmobranchii - subclass of Chondrichthyes which contains the sharks, skates and rays Elopidae - taxonomic family which contains tarpon and ladyfish Endoderm - inner layer of cells Endoparasites - parasites which occur internally Endothermic - organisms which regulate their internal body temperature regardless of the environment (synonym: homeotherm) ) Engraulidae - taxonomic family which contains the anchovies Ephippidae - taxonomic family which contains the Spadefish Epidermis - outer layer or skin Epifauna - animals that lives on the bottom Epipelagic - the pelagic environment from the surface to a depth of 100-200 meters Epitokes (epitoky) - individuals that are found in the annelids, theses organisms are given the task of reproduction. Some individuals bud epitokes from the body and remain in the habitat Equatorial low pressure - intense heating and high moisture content makes the air less dense. Rising air produces a convergence at the surface into which air flows and rises. Equilibrium (k-selected) - animals with long life spans, long development time to reach sexual maturity and few reproductions per year. Esca - modified lure which is used by frogfishes and goosefishes to entice prey. Usually attached to an illicium Eukaryote - cells which contain membrane bound organelles and a distinct nucleus Euryhaline - animals which can tolerate a wide range of salinities. Antonym: stenohaline Eversible proboscis - structure with jaws at the end that can extend out of the body Evolution - a change in the genetic makeup of a population; occurs when natural selection favors some individual characteristics over others Exocoetidae - taxonomic family which contains the Flyingfishes and Halfbeaks Experiment - an artificially created situation that is used to test a hypothesis Extant - living species Fecundity - term used when referring to a female's reproductive output Fetch - the area which wind blows, creating waves Filter feeder - an animal that feeds on suspended organic material by actively moving water through its tissue (i.e. sea squirt) Fistulariidae - taxonomic family which contains the Cornetfishes Flame bulbs - structures that are found in the protonephridia that are used to clean the blood Fluke - fin used to propel marine mammals through the water Foraminifera - phylum of protozoans which contains animals that dominate the benthos and have tests made of calcium carbonate Foresets - the delta front which is composed of thick sands and silts. The foresets grade into the prodelta Fugu - delicacy in Japan prepared by specially licensed chefs which originates from the meat of puffers Fundulidae - taxonomic family which contains the Killifishes Fungi - kingdom of multicellular organisms, no photosynthesis, nutrition by absorption (i.e. Mushrooms) Gadidae - taxonomic family which contains the cods and hakes Gametes - reproductive products (i.e. - sperm and eggs) Ganglia - several nerve cells that have fused together to form a primitive central processing area Gastrodermis - inner lining of the digestive system (synonym: endoderm) Gastropoda - class of molluscs which contains snails and slugs Gastrozooids - polyps found in hydroid used for feeding and digestion Gemmules - created by freshwater sponges and used as seeds to create new sponges after a period of dormancy Geostrophic flow - a current in balance between the Coriolis deflection and gravity or pressure gradient Germ layer - a group of cells that behave as a unit during embryonic development and give rise to distinctly different tissue/organ systems as an adult Gerreidae - taxonomic family which contains the Mojarras Glacial till - unsorted deposits of boulders, gravel, sand, and mud Gobiidae - taxonomic family which contains the Gobies Gonochoristic - the parents are of 2 different sexes (synonym: dioecious) Gonozooids - hydroid polyps used for reproduction Groins - man made structures built on barrier islands which are much smaller and cheaper than jetties. Perpendicularly positioned on eroding beaches to trap sand artificially and promote accretion H Habitat - the environment where an organism occurs; habitat can vary in temperature, salinity, tides, and currents Hadalpelagic - an area of the pelagic environment at an approximate depth of 6,000 m - 10,000 m. This area is aphotic Haemulidae - taxonomic family which contains the Grunts Halocline - an area in the water column of rapidly changing salinity Heliozoa - phylum of protozoans, strictly freshwater (not covered in class) Herbivores - eat strictly producers Hermaphrodites - an animal that has both male and female sex organs Hermatypic - corals which are reef building Hemichordata - subphylum which contains the acorn worms Heterocercal - caudal fin where one lobe is larger than the other. Many sharks use this arrangement for added lift Heterotroph - an organism that obtains energy from organic matter Hexactinellida - class of sponges. Spicules are six pointed and have a lattice-like structure (made of silicon dioxide) High pressure zone - is where air pressure is higher than in surrounding area because of cooling or lower moisture content Hirudin - chemical excreted by the salivary glands of leeches which prevents the blood from coagulating Hirudinea - class of annelids which contains the leeches Hjulstrom diagram - graph which shows the average current velocities for erosion, transportation and deposition Holdfast - structures which algae use for attachment to substrate Holocentridae - taxonomic family which contains the Squirrelfishes Holocephali - subclass of Chondrichthyes which contains the ratfishes or chimaeras Holoplankton - spend their entire life in the plankton. Includes: ctenophores, copepods, isopods, and amphipods Homeotherm - organisms which regulate their internal body temperature regardless of the environment (synonym: endothermic) Homocercal - caudal fin where both lobes are of equal size. Ideal for providing the maximum amount of thrust Horse latitudes - sinking air at 30° N and 30° S Hydrostatic skeleton - a fluid system permitting muscles to be stretched and return back to their original length following a contraction Hydroida - order in the class Hydrozoa in the phylum Cnidaria. Contains the hydroids Hydrothermal vents - communities found in areas of geological activity where cracks in the earth's crust release sulfides or methane. Communities with a reliance on chemosymbiotic bacteria colonize these deep sea habitats Hydrozoa - class of cnidarians which contains the hydroids I Ichthyology - the scientific study of fishes Illicium - a modified dorsal spine used in goosefishes and frogfishes. An esca is located on the tip and is use to entice prey Infauna - animals that live in the bottom Infralittoral - the lower intertidal, exposed to air twice a month during spring low tides Internal waves - occur in a stratified water column and travel a very slow speeds. Periods are measured in minutes, wavelengths in hundreds of meters and the waves can reach sizes of 330 feet Interspecific - in between two different species Intertidal - the area from the highest high tide to the lowest low tide (synonym: littoral) Intraspecific - within the same species Istiophoridae - taxonomic family which used to contain the Billfishes (currently listed as a sub-family) Return to the top of page J Jetties - man made structures built to prevent the deposition of sediment in harbor mouths, estuaries, or tidal inlets K Keystone species - a single species, which has a controlling effect on the community in which it lives. L La Nina - the intensification of normal Pacific atmospheric and oceanic circulation Labial palps - structures found in bivalves, which are responsible for sorting food material before it enters the mouth Labridae - taxonomic family which contains the Wrasses Labriform swimming - swimming method used by the labrids. Flapping of the pectoral fins Lamniformes - taxonomic order which contains the typical sharks. I.e.: Megamouth, white, blue, nurse, hammerhead, basking, etc. Langmuir circulation - a series of parallel , counter-rotating circulation cells with long axes aligned to the direction of wind flow Larvae - independent morphological stages that arise from fertilized eggs. Must undergo profound changes before becoming an adult Lateral line - rows of small tubes or pores which are sensitive to pressure changes (vibrations in the water) Lecithotrophic larvae - larvae that posses a yolk-sac and generally spend a shorter duration in the plankton. Also, produced in fewer numbers than planktotrophic larvae Leptocephalus larvae - Planktonic, thin and transparent larvae which is only used by the tarpon, ladyfish and Anguilliformes Limiting resources - the resources which are in short supply are called Littoral - the area from the highest high tide to the lowest low tide (synonym: intertidal) Lobata - order of ctenophores Longshore currents - currents that move parallel to the beach Lophiidae - taxonomic family which contains the goosefishes Lophiiformes - taxonomic order which contains the goosefishes and frogfishes Low pressure zone - air density is lower than in surrounding areas because the air is warmer or has a higher moisture content. Lutjanidae - taxonomic family which contains the Snappers M Mackerel Sharks - loose grouping of sharks which contains the Basking, Megamouth, White and Mako sharks Macronuclei - cell nucleus that contains many copies of the genome and is responsible for day to day activities (found in paramecium) Malacanthidae - taxonomic family which contains the Tilefishes Mantle - the body wall that enclose the body cavity in most Molluscs Meiofauna - animals that live in between sand grains Melanophore - pigment spots which are common on larval fishes Melon - fatty structure found on the head of echolocating marine mammals which focuses and directs sound waves Meroplankton - spend only part of their life in the plankton. Includes various larval stages Mesenteries - sheets of tissue which are used to partition the digestive cavity of cnidarians (synonym: septa) Mesoderm - occurs between the endoderm and ectoderm. Found in triploblastic animals Mesoglea - non living cell layer found in cnidarians, jelly consistency which can range from thick and fibrous, to almost absent Mesopelagic zone - the pelagic environment from a depth of approximately 200 m to 1,00 m. This area of the water column is disphotic Mesohyl - is non-living cell layer found in sponges and made of collagen. Contains living cells which are collectively referred to as mesenchyme cells Metamerism (metameric segmentation) - repeating of the same structures in each segment. Found in annelids Metamorphosis - abrupt morphological, physiological, and ecological change Metazoan - multicellular organisms Micronuclei - cell nucleus that has very little to do with the functions of the organism. Essential in sexual reproduction (found in paramecium) Midlittoral - the true intertidal, the area from average high tide to average low tide. Contains the greatest diversity of animals in the intertidal Mixed tides - two high and two low tides each day with different tidal ranges Molidae - taxonomic family in the order Tetraodontiformes which contains the Molas or Sunfishes Mollusca - phylum of invertebrates which contains a diverse assemblage, i.e. - clams, oysters, squid, limpets, whelks, and sea hares Monera - kingdom of single celled, prokaryote organisms (i.e. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)) Moronidae - taxonomic family which contains Striped Bass Mugilidae - taxonomic family which contains the Mullets Muller's larvae - larval stage of marine turbellarians (flatworms) Multiple fission - a type of asexual reproduction that result in several individuals Mustelidae - taxonomic family in the order Carnivora which contains the Sea otter Mutualism - relationship where both members of the association benefit Mysticeti - suborder in the taxonomic order Cetacea which contains the Baleen whales Myxinidae - taxonomic family which contains the hagfish N Natural selection - production of offspring by the best-adapted individuals in a population Naturalist - an individual who is concerned with the scientific study of nature. Commonly carried by ships in the 1700 and 1800's Neap tide - lower than average high tide and higher than average low tide. Occurs twice a month during the first and third quarter of the moon Nearshore current - currents that form due to wave-setup and move perpendicular to the beach Nekton – animals that have the ability to oppose currents Nematocysts - complex intracellular organelles (capable of stinging) of cnidarians that are used for feeding and defense Neoteny - larval stages which develop mature gonads and reproduce instead of undergoing a metamorphosis into an adult Nephridia - structure which are used to clean the blood and eliminate excretory waste (singular nephridium) Neritic zone (coastal zone) - the pelagic environment above the continental shelf Neuston - area of the water column or animals that live in the air/water interface Niche - the role a species plays in the community Nictitating membrane - structure found in predatory sharks that covers the eye for protection Noctiluca - flagellated protozoan which is bioluminescence Null hypothesis - the hypothesis which yields the default result. The hypothesis of no change Oceanic zone- the area of the pelagic environment beyond the shelf break Oceanic trenches - the deepest part of the world's oceans Ocelli - used as light receptors in the jellyfish. Ocellus - eye-like spots found on the caudal area of fishes used as a false eye to avoid head attacks by predators (plural: ocelli) Odobenidae - taxonomic family in the order Carnivora which contains the Walrus Odontoceti - suborder in the taxonomic order Cetacea which contains the Toothed whales Olfaction - an animals sense of smell Oligochaeta - class of annelids that is comprised of mainly earthworms Omnivores - generalists have a diverse diet Ontogeny - term used when discussing the different stages of an animals life history and different development stages Operculum - proteinaceous shield on the foot of gastropods used to seal the shell shut Ophidiidae - taxonomic family which contains the cusk-eels Opisthobranchia - subclass of gastropods in the phylum Mollusca contains the nudibranchs and sea hares Opisthosoma - the last body segment in the pogonophorans. Has many segments and septa like polychaetes, these anchor the animal in the tube Opportunistic (r-selected) - animals with short life spans, rapid development to sexual maturity and many reproductions per year Oral groove - found in paramecium and acts as the mouth of the organism Oral surface - area of an animal located near the mouth Oscules - (singular: osculum) large openings, which allow water to exit the sponge Osmoconformers - animals which have an internal ionic concentration identical to the surrounding water Osmoregulators - animals which have the ability to control the internal ionic concentration of their tissues Osphradium - structure used by some molluscs to determine both the chemical and sediment content of the water Ostia - (singular ostium) microscopic openings that allow water to enter the sponge Osteichthyes - taxonomic class which contains the bony fishes Ostraciidae - taxonomic family in the order Tetraodontiformes which contains the Boxfishes Ostracitoxin - toxin found in the boxfishes which originates in special club cells in lips & causes agglutination of red blood cells in other fishes Ostracoderms - the first group of fishes to appear on earth. Possessed large protective plates and lacked jaws Otarridae - taxonomic family in the order Carnivora which contains the Sea lions or eared seals Otolith - calcified structures found in bony fishes that are used for hearing. Fishery biologist can use these structures to determine age and growth rate Oviparity - method of reproduction in which the female deposits eggs after fertilization. I.e. skates Oxygen minimum layer - area of the water column with very little oxygen found between 500-1000 meters. This area is present due to animal respiration and lack of an interchange between water masses with oxygen rich water P Pallial line - area inside bivalve shells where the mantle attaches Parapodia - lateral wings used for swimming in sea hares. Also, fleshly lobes which are supported by chitinous rods in annelids. Important in locomotion and respiration (singular: parapod) Parasitism - the parasite benefits at a significant cost to the host Pardaxin - chemical secreted by the Moses sole from the Red Sea which possibly repels sharks Parenchyma - tissue that fills the space between the outer body wall and the endoderm of flatworms Parenchymella - ciliated mouthless larva found in sponges Parthenogenesis - eggs develop to adulthood in the absence of fertilization (some arthropods, and rotifers) Pedal laceration - type of asexual reproduction in sea anemones. The base of the animal is separated from the body, each regenerating new animals Pelagic - the area of the water column away from the ocean bottom Pelagosphera - Large larvae (several mm.) that is long lived and can be dispersed over long distances, found in the sipunculans Percichthyidae - taxonomic family which contains the striped basses and wreckfishes Peristaltic muscle contractions - muscle contractions that move objects in a linear fashion down a tube Petromyzontidae - taxonomic family which contains the lampreys Phagocytosis - method of engulfing food most often used by amoeboid protozoans Pharyngeal teeth - molarform teeth found in the throat of fishes used for grinding and creating sounds Phocidae - taxonomic family in the order Carnivora which contains the Seals Photophore - specialized organs which are responsible for producing light (see bioluminescence) Physoclistous swimbladder - swimbladder which has special structures associated with the circulatory system A network of capillaries and gas gland allow the inflation and deflation of the swimbladder Physostomous swimbladder - swimbladder which has a connection between the swimbladder and the gut. The swimbladder is inflated by gulping air at the surface and deflated by the relaxation of sphincter muscles causing a gas-spitting reflex. Usually found in ancestral soft-rayed fishes Phytoplankton - the photosynthetic component of plankton consisting primarily of single celled algae and bacteria Phylogenetic relationships - classification system based on evolutionary relationships Pinnipedia - suborder in the taxonomic order Carnivora which contains the sea lions, seals, and walrus Piscivore - eat strictly fish Placental viviparity - Nutrients are supplied to the embryo directly from the mother via a umbilical cord Placoderms - the first of group of fishes to possess well-developed jaws Plankton - organisms that lack the ability to oppose wind and currents Planktivorous - eat strictly plankton. I.e. herrings, anchovies, sardines, whale shark, and baleen whales Planktotrophic larvae - larvae that are poorly prepared for life in the plankton. Lack a yolk-sac, and spend prolonged periods drifting in the plankton. Generally have a low survival rate Plantae - multicellular, autotrophs (kingdom) Planula larvae - ciliated larval stage found in the phylum Cnidaria Plasmodium - protozoan that causes malaria Pleuronectidae - taxonomic family in the order Pleuronectiformes which contains the Right-eye Pleuronectiformes - taxonomic order which contains the Flatfishes Plunging breaker – the wave steepens, curls, and collapses releasing the energy instantaneously. Found on steeper bottoms Poikilotherm - organisms which have an internal body temperature that conforms to the environment (synonym: ectothermic) Pogonophora - class of annelids that contains deep sea hydrothermal vent worms Polar high pressure - cold, dry, dense air sinks to the surface and flows outward forming an area of divergence Polychaeta - class of annelids which comprises the marine worms Polygynous - sexual practice where males maintain a harem of several females for mating purposes Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - chemical reaction which makes copies of DNA that are created to examine changes in DNA Polymorphism -animals that have more than one body morphology in the life cycle. Also, used when discussing different morphologies in a colonial animal Polyplacophora - class of Molluscs which contains the chitons and limpets Pomacanthidae - taxonomic family which contains the Angelfish Pomacentridae - taxonomic family which contains the Damselfishes Pomatomidae - taxonomic family which contains the Bluefishes Population - all the species in a given area Porifera - phylum which contains the sponges Predation - is the act of one animal eating another Priacanthidae - taxonomic family which contains the Bigeyes Primary coasts - Rough and irregular coasts created by the scouring of glaciers, sediment deposits in the mouth of rivers, volcanic eruptions or the movement of the earth along faults Prodelta - delta feature which occurs further offshore at the base of the foreset and is characterized by a flattened area. Composed of several layers of silts and clays collectively referred to as bottomset beds Proglottid - the individual segment of a tapeworm, each containing both testes and ovaries Prokaryote - primitive cells which lack membrane bound organelles and a distinct nucleus Prosobranchia - subclass of gastropods in the phylum Mollusca which contains the shelled snails (i.e. - whelks, tulips) Protandric - sequential hermaphrodite which changes from male to female (i.e. Eastern oyster) Protogynous - sequential hermaphrodite which changes from female to male (i.e. Groupers) Protostome - embryo development type which includes the annelids, molluscs, and arthropods Protista - kingdom of single celled organisms, contains nucleus and internal subdivisions (i.e. dinoflagellates, foraminiferans radiolarians and protozoans) Protonephridia - primitive kidneys Pseudocoelomate - the region between the outer body wall and the endoderm is a fluid filled cavity Pseudopodia - false feet which are formed in amoebas. Used for movement and prey capture Pteraspidomorphi - taxonomic class which contains the hagfishes Ptychodiscus - genus of a dinoflagellate that causes red tides Pycnocline - an area in of the water column with a rapidly changing density Return to the top of page Q Qualitative sampling - sampling techniques used for examining the species composition of a given area. Trawls and dredges are commonly used for this sampling technique Quantitative sampling - sampling techniques used to examine densities and abundance. Grabs are a common sampling technique R Rachycentridae - taxonomic family which contains Cobia Radial symmetry – can be divided into 2 approximately equal halves by any cut that passes through the center of the organism Radiozoa - phylum of protozoans which contains the radiolarians. Tests are made of silicon dioxide Radula - firm ribbon composed of chitin and protein which has two rows of sharp chitinous teeth. By moving in a rasp like fashion material is gathered (found only in Molluscs) Rajiformes - taxonomic order which contains the skates, rays, guitarfish and manta rays Ram ventilation - respiratory method found in fast moving fishes. The act of swimming, forces water across the gills. These fish will die if they stop moving Refraction (Wave) - different celerity across one wave crest causes the wave to bend to the shape of the shoreline Requiem Sharks - loose grouping of sharks which contains the Bull, Whitetip, Reef, Tiger, and Blue sharks Rete mirabile - network of closely associated capillaries found in their circulatory system, which permits some fishes to be slightly warm-blooded (Increased swimming efficiency) synonym (countercurrent exchange system) Rhopalia - structures found around the margin of jellyfish, which contains the ocelli and statocyst River dominated delta - fed by strong flowing freshwater and continental sediments. These deltas form in protected seas and terminate in well defined tributaries a characteristic birds foot shape Rogue waves - abnormally large waves which are usually created through constructive wave interference Rostral ampullary organ - structure which is found in the nose region of sturgeon and are used to sense the weak electrical currents of prey Rotary wave - tidal phenomena discussed in the dynamic model of tides. High and low tide which circles around a central point S Salmonidae - taxonomic family which contains the salmons, trouts, graylings, and whitefish Salt marshes - low energy environments on the bayward side of the island where mud accumulates and salt marsh grasses grow Sarcodinids - amoeboid protozoans, contains the foraminiferans and the radiozoans Sarcopterygii - taxonomic subclass which contains the lobe-finned fishes (i.e.: Lungfish, coelacanth) Sargasso sea - Found between the Bahamas and Azores. This is considered the center of the north Atlantic gyre Saxitoxin - toxin released by dinoflagellates that cause red tides Scaphopoda - class of molluscs that contains the tooth and tusk shells Scaridae - taxonomic family which contains Parrotfishes Schistosomiasis - disease caused by a fluke Sciaenidae - taxonomic family which contains the Drums Scientific method - set of procedures by which scientists learn about the natural world Scolex - structure found in Cestodes that is studded with hooks or sucker to hold the animals position in the hosts gut Scombridae - taxonomic family which contains the Mackerels Scorpaenidae - taxonomic family which contains the Scorpionfishes, Pacific Rockfish and Ocean Perch Scutes - raised scales found in the region of the caudal peduncle that increases the hydrodynamic efficiency of the caudal fin. Found in fast swimming fishes Scyphozoa - class of cnidarians which contains the true jellyfish Seawalls - man made structures built on the shore to protect beaches, roads, and bluffs Secondary Coasts - are attacked and change by both processes from the land and the sea (i.e. barrier islands) Sedentary - an organism that can move, but does such infrequently (i.e. clam) Seiches – the back and forth sloshing of water in harbors, wave periods of tens of minutes to several hours (antonym: standing wave) Semidiurnal tides - tidal cycle where there are 2 high tides and 2 low tides every day Septa - sheets of tissue which are used to partition the digestive cavity of cnidarians. Also used to divide the body into segments in the annelids(synonym: mesenteries) Sequential hermaphrodite - an animal which undergoes a sex change at specific size, social conditions or environmental conditions Serranidae - taxonomic family which contains the Groupers and Sea Basses Sessile - an organism that lives attached to one spot and does not move Setae - structures found in the annelids associated with parapods. Can be sharp (protection), and aid in locomotion Sexually dimorphic - the ability to determine sex through external characters, i.e.: size, color, or other structures Shallow-water wave – bottom interactions are present since the bottom depth is less than ½ the wavelength Shore - where the ocean meets land (i.e sandy beach) Significant wave height – the average of the highest one third of all the waves present in an area Simultaneous hermaphrodite - an animal which contains functional ovaries and testes Sinistral coiling - gastropod shells that coil to the left Sinistral - term used when referring to left-eyed flounders Siphonophora - order in the class Hydrozoa and in the phylum Cnidaria. Contains the Portuguese man-of-war Sipuncula - phylum which contains the peanut worms Sirenia - taxonomic order which contains the Manatees and dugongs Sparidae - taxonomic family which contains the Porgies Species – a reproductively isolated population of interbreeding organisms which produce viable offspring Spermatophores - packets of sperm which are commonly used in invertebrates (i.e. squid, octopus) Sphyraenidae - taxonomic family which contains the Barracudas Spicules - hard skeleton structures of sponges, which can be made of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide Spilling breaker – the crest spills down the front of the wave continually breaking and losing energy across the surf zone. This is the most common type of breaker, which occur on sandy bottoms and a gentle sloping sea bottom Spiracles - Openings on the head that bring water into the gill cavity. Method favored by skates and rays Spiral valve - primitive adaptation which allows for increased digestive surface area in a compact digestive system Spongocoel - the empty space of the sponge (main cavity) Spring tide - higher than average high tide and lower than average low tide. Occurs twice a month during a new and full moon Squaliformes - taxonomic order which contains the cookie cutter shark, dogfish, and angelsharks Statocyst - found in the phylum Cnidaria. Used for orientation and as a pacemaker for bell contractions Statolith - structure found in ctenophores that when used in conjunction with balancers helps determine the orientation of the animal Stenohaline - animals which can only tolerate a narrow range of salinities. Antonym: Euryhaline Stokes drift - the small amount of forward movement water makes through a passing wave Stridulation - method used by fishes where pharyngeal teeth are used in creating grunt sounds, which are amplified by the swimbladder Strobilation - the type of asexual reproduction which produces medusa in the scyphozoan lifecycle Stromateidae - taxonomic family which contains the Butterfishes Submarine canyon - a narrow , deep depression in the continental shelf formed by the erosion of rivers or glaciers before the shelf was submerged Submarine ridge - underwater mountain range (i.e. Mid-Atlantic ridge) Subtidal - the area from the lowest low tide to the deepest parts of the ocean Succession - natural progression of communities Suction feeding - method of feeding where the rapid opening of a large mouth draws a prey item into the predator's mouth Supralittoral - upper intertidal (spray zone) covered with water twice a month during a spring tide Surging breaker – flat low waves that never become oversteepened or break. Found in areas of the steepest beaches and much of the wave is reflected back into the sea (sea walls and sea cliffs) Suspension feeder - an animal that passively feeds on particles suspended in the water column Sverdrup - unit of measure = 1,000,000 m3/sec Swash zone - the area of the sandy intertidal where the waves run up and down the beach Swell – wave period of approximately 10-30 seconds Swim Bladder - gas filled structure found in bony fishes used to counteract the density of their flesh. Allows control of buoyancy Symbiotic associations - an association between two organisms Syngnathidae - taxonomic family which contains the Sea Horses and Pipefishes Synodontidae - taxonomic family which contains the lizardfishes T Tapetum lucidum - reflective layer found in the eyes of nocturnal fishes, allows increased vision at night Terrigenous sediment - produced by the weathering and erosion of rocks on land; typically sand and mud. This is the most common sedimentary deposit Tests - protective exoskeleton made of varying substances Tetraodontidae - taxonomic family in the order Tetraodontiformes which contains the Puffers Tetraodontiformes - taxonomic order which contains the the ocean sunfish, triggerfishes, filefishes, puffers, burrfishes and boxfishes Thermocline - is an area in the water column of rapidly changing water temperature Thunniform swimming - swimming method used by Scombrids. Propulsion is accomplished by the caudal fin only Tidal bore - wall of surging water in narrow, confined areas Tidal period - the time needed for one high and low tide Tidal range - the vertical distance between high and low tide Tide dominated delta - The strong ebb and flood of tidal currents takes sediment and places it into a long linear submarine ridge and islands that fan out from the river mouth Topset beds - Flat lowland that lies above sea level and is drained by a network of tributaries Usually composed of sequences of flat-lying beds of sand and mud (i.e Delta plain) Torsion - the process of the visceral mass of gastropods spinning 90-180 degrees Trematoda - class of parasitic flukes in the phylum platyhelminthes Triglidae - taxonomic family which contains the Searobins Triploblastic - organisms that have three distinct cell layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm) Trochophore - early larval stage of molluscs. Also similar larvae found in the annelids and sipunculans Trophosome - structure that contains the major organs of pogonophorans. The trophosome of all species contains closely packed bacteria and play a crucial role in nutrition Tsunamis - wave periods from minutes to tens of minutes associated seismic activity Turbellaria - class of free-living flatworms in the phylum platyhelminthes Turbidites - sediments that are deposited in the deep sea by currents moving quickly down the continental slope. These sediments are usually terrigenous sediments Turbidity - the amount of solid particles suspended in the water column Two pump respiration - found in slow moving or sedentary, bottom orientated fish. Respiration is accomplished by expansion and contraction of the buccal and opercular cavities Veliger larvae - secondary larval stage of some molluscs Vertebrata - subphylum of animals which contains the vertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals Vestimentiferan - members of the class pogonophora, deep sea hydrothermal vent worms Volcanic islands - rise singularly out of ocean through volcanic action Volcanogenic sediment - particles that are ejected from volcanoes; ash is an example W Walker circulation cell - circulation cell between a western Pacific low pressure and eastern Pacific high pressure Warm core rings - form to the west of the stream, rings rotate clockwise and have a warm core of Sargasso sea water Wave amplitude - half of the wave height, the distance the trough or crest distorts the level water surface. Wave crest - highest point of a wave. Wave dispersion - waves begin to sorting themselves according to celerity, this process produces a regular swell Wave dominated deltas - These deltas have wave erosion and strong longshore currents that disperse the sediment away from the river mouth. This produces a relatively straight coast Wave height - vertical distance between the crest and trough Wave length - horizontal distance between two adjacent wave crests or wave troughs. Wave period - time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point. Wave refraction - different celerity across one wave crest causes the wave to bend to the shape of the shoreline Wave trough - lowest point of a wave Western boundary intensification - due to the Earth’s rotation water is pressed against the western boundary of ocean basins. This squeezes the western arm of the gyre current and intensifies the current	i don't know
Which capital city is located at 64°08'N 21°56'W?	Google Map of the City Reykjavik - Nations Online Project Searchable Map and Satellite View of Reykjavik using Google Earth Data Satellite view is showing Reykjavik, a seaport and the national capital of Iceland , the volcanic island between Greenland and Norway , north west of the UK . Reykjavik is the northernmost capital city of a sovereign nation in the world. City View of Reykjavík in winter, Iceland's capital with Hallgrímskirkja, the largest church in Iceland. Image: Ragnar Th. Sigurdsson Reykjavik is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay. The site of what is today Reykjavik was settled since the medieval times, but there was no urban development until the end of the 18th century. In the 1750s several buildings were constructed to house the local wool manufacturing, which was Reykjavik's most important employer for a few decades. Today the city's population in the capital area is about 200,000 people, about 60% of Iceland's total population of 300,000. Spoken language is Icelandic. The city is governed by the elected Reykjavik City Council. It is home to the University of Iceland , the Reykjavik University and the Iceland Academy of the Arts . Some attractions of the city are: Laugavegur, the main shopping street, the exhibition space of the Safnahúsið (Culture House), the National Museum of Iceland and the Blue Lagoon (Bláa lónið), a geothermal spa located near Reykjavik. Other points of interest: Central Reykjavík and harbor seen from Hallgrím’s church. Image: Dragan Maksimovic Places: Austurvöllur (popular city square), The Sun Voyager (dream boat sculpture), Reykjavík 871±2 (Reykjavik's history as a settlement), Icelandic Phallological Museum (beastly penis collection), Harpa (concert hall), Árbæjarsafn (open-air museum about social life in earlier times) Museums: Vikin Maritime Museum (historic ships and exhibits on local fishing industry), Reykjavik Art Museum (visual art), National Gallery of Iceland (collection of Icelandic art), The Living Art Museum (experimental contemporary art), Saga Museum (history comes alive with full scale and lifelike silicone figures), Gljúfrasteinn (museum and former home of Halldór Kiljan Laxness, winner of the 1955 Nobel Prize for Literature), Dining: Perlan (Futuristic fine dining restaurant with a cocktail bar and exhibition space in a landmark building) Churches: Hallgrímskirkja (Lutheran church with an Expressionist architecture, completed in 1986, time for completion 41 years), Landakotskirkja (cathedral of the Catholic Church in Iceland), Fríkirkjan í Reykjavík (Free Church in Reykjavík) Sports: Laugardalsvöllur (national stadium) The map shows a city map of Reykjavik with expressways, main roads and streets, and the location of Reykjavik Airport ( IATA code : RKV), zoom out to find Reykjavík-Keflavík Airport ( IATA code : KEF), Iceland’s international airport located about about 52 km (32 mi) by road (via Route 41) southwest of the city. To find a location use the form below. To find a location type: street or place, city, optional: state, country. Local Time Iceland:	Reykjavík
The highest paved road in the world, the 1,300km Karakoram Highway, connects which two nations?	Reykjavik, Iceland - The Full Wiki The Full Wiki More info on Reykjavik, Iceland Wikis Advertisements Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the town in Canada, see Reykjavik, Manitoba . City of Reykjavík Central Reykjavík seen from Hallgrímskirkja Flag Iceland Constituency Reykjavík North Reykjavík South Government - Mayor (Borgarstjóri) Hanna Birna Kristjánsdóttir Area - City 274.5 km2 (106 sq mi) - Metro 777 km2 (300 sq mi) Population (October 1, 2008) - City 120,165 - Density 436.5/km2 (1,130.5/sq mi) - Metro 201,847 - Metro Density 259.4/km2 (671.8/sq mi) Time zone GMT ( UTC+0 ) Website http://www.rvk.is/ Postal Codes: 101-155 Reykjavík ( listen ) ) is the capital and largest city of Iceland . Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's northernmost capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay. With a population of around 120,000 (and over 200,000 in the Greater Reykjavík Area ) it is the heart of Iceland's economic and governmental activity. Reykjavík is believed to be the location of the first permanent settlement in Iceland, which Ingólfur Arnarson is said to have established around 870. Until the 18th century , there was no urban development in the city location. The city was founded in 1786 as an official trading town and grew steadily over the next decades, as it transformed into a regional and later national centre of commerce , population and governmental activities. Today, Reykjavík is the centre of the Greater Reykjavík Area which, with a population of 202,000, is the only metropolitan area in Iceland. As a highly modernized capital of one of the most developed countries in the world, its inhabitants enjoy a first-class welfare system and city infrastructure . Its location, only slightly south of the Arctic Circle , receives only four hours of daylight on the shortest day in the depth of winter; during the summer the nights are almost as bright as the days. It has continued to see population growth in past years as well as growth in areas of commerce and industry . Reykjavík was ranked first on Grist Magazine's "15 Greenest Cities" list in 2008. [1] Contents 17 External links Geography Reykjavík is located in southwest Iceland . The Reykjavík area coastline is characterized by peninsulas, coves, straits, and islands. During the Ice Age (up to 10,000 years ago) a large glacier covered parts of the city area, reaching as far out as Álftanes . Other parts of the city area were covered by sea water. In the warm periods and at the end of the Ice Age, some hills like Öskjuhlíð were islands. The former sea level is indicated by sediments (with clams) reaching (at Öskjuhlíð, for example) as far as 43 m (141.08 ft ) above the current sea level. The hills of Öskjuhlíð and Skólavörðuholt appear to be the remains of former shield volcanoes which were active during the warm periods of the Ice Age. After the Ice Age, the land rose as the heavy load of the glaciers fell away, and began to look as it does today. But the capital city area continued to be shaped by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions , like the one 4500 years ago in the mountain range Bláfjöll, when the lava coming down the Elliðaá valley reached the sea at the bay of Elliðavogur. The largest river to run through Reykjavík is the Elliðaá River, which is non-navigable. It is one of the best salmon fishing rivers in the country. Mt. Esja , at 914 m (2,998.69 ft ), is the highest mountain in the vicinity of Reykjavík. The city of Reykjavík is mostly located on the Seltjarnarnes peninsula, but the suburbs reach far out to the south and east. Reykjavík is a spread-out city; most of its urban area is in the form of low-density suburbs, and houses are usually widely spaced. The outer residential neighbourhoods are also widely spaced from each other; in between them run the main traffic arteries and a lot of empty space. Panorama of Reykjavík seen from Perlan with the mountains Akrafjall (middle) and Esja (right) in the background Climate Main article: Climate of Iceland Despite its extreme north Atlantic location, Reykjavík is much warmer than most locations at a similar latitude. The average mid-winter temperatures are not significantly lower than those in New York City [2] . Temperatures very rarely drop below −10 °C (14 °F ) in the winter. This is because the Icelandic coastal weather in winter is moderated by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream . The climate is subpolar oceanic , and the city is on the northern edge of the temperate zone. The city's coastal location does make it prone to wind, however, and gales are common in winter. Summers are cool, with temperature fluctuating between 10 to 15 °C (50 to 59 °F ), sometimes exceeding 20 °C (68 °F ). Reykjavík is not a particularly wet city, but it nevertheless averages 213 days with measurable precipitation every year. Droughts are not common although they occur in some summers. In the summer of 2007 not a single drop of rain was measured for one month. Spring tends to be the sunniest season, May particularly. Annual sunshine hours in Reykjavík are around 1,300, which is comparable with other places in Northern and North-Eastern Europe. The highest ever recorded temperature in Reykjavík was 26.2 °C (79 °F ), recorded on July 30, 2008, while the lowest ever recorded temperature was −24.5 °C (−12 °F ), recorded on January 21, 1918. [3] The temperature has not dropped to below -20 C° (-4 F°) since January 30, 1971. [4] Climate data for Reykjavík Colorful rooftops line Reykjavík. Tjörnin (The Pond) in central Reykjavík. The first permanent settlement in Iceland by Nordic people is believed to have been established in Reykjavík by the Norseman Ingólfur Arnarson around AD 870; this is described in Landnámabók , or the Book of Settlement. Ingólfur Arnarson is said to have decided the location of his settlement using a traditional Viking method; by dumping his high seat pillars , Öndvegissúlur , in the ocean when he saw the coastline and then settled where the pillars came to shore. Steam from hot springs in the region is supposed to have inspired Reykjavík's name, as Reykjavík loosely translates to "Bay of Smokes". Reykjavík is not mentioned in any medieval sources except as a regular farm land but the 18th century saw the beginning of urban concentration there. The Danish rulers of Iceland backed the idea of domestic industry in Iceland that would help to stimulate much-needed progress on the island. In 1752, the King of Denmark donated the estate of Reykjavík to the Innréttingar Corporation; the name comes from Danish "indretninger", meaning enterprise. The leader of this movement was Skúli Magnússon. In the 1750s several houses were constructed to house the wool industry that was to be Reykjavík's most important employer for a few decades and the original reason for its existence. Other crafts were also practised by the Innréttingar, such as fisheries , sulphur mining , agriculture , and shipbuilding . The Danish Crown abolished monopoly trading in 1786 and granted six communities around the country an exclusive trading charter, Reykjavík was one of them and the only one to hold on to the charter permanently. 1786 is regarded as the date of the city's founding; its 200th anniversary was celebrated in 1986. Trading rights were still limited to the subjects of the Danish Crown however, and Danish traders continued to dominate trade in Iceland. Over the following decades, their business in Iceland expanded. After 1880, free trade was expanded to all nationalities and the influence of Icelandic merchants started to grow. Rise of Nationalism Nationalist sentiment gained influence in the 19th century and ideas of Icelandic independence became widespread. Reykjavík, as Iceland's only city, was the melting pot of such ideas. Advocates of an independent Iceland realized that a strong Reykjavík was fundamental to that objective. All the important years in the history of the independence struggle are important for Reykjavík as well. In 1845, Alþingi , or the general assembly that Icelanders formed in 930, was re-established in Reykjavík; it had been suspended a few decades earlier when it was located at Thingvellir . At the time it only functioned as an advisory assembly with the function of advising the King about Icelandic affairs. The location of Alþingi in Reykjavík effectively established the city as the capital of Iceland. In 1874 Iceland was given a constitution and with it, Alþingi gained some limited legislative powers and in essence became the institution that it is today. The next step was to move most of the executive power to Iceland and that was done by Home Rule in 1904 when the office of minister for Iceland was established in Reykjavík. The biggest step towards an independent Iceland was taken December 1, 1918 when Iceland became a sovereign country under the Crown of Denmark , the Kingdom of Iceland . In the 1920s and 1930s most of the growing Icelandic fishing trawler fleet sailed from Reykjavík and salt-cod production was the main industry but the Great Depression hit Reykjavík hard with unemployment and labour union struggles that sometimes became violent. World War II In the morning of May 10, 1940, following the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, four warships approached Reykjavík and anchored in the harbour. Many citizens were relieved to find that they were British rather than German . In a few hours, the allied occupation of Reykjavík was complete. There was no armed resistance and taxi and truck drivers even assisted the invasion force which had no motor vehicles initially. The Icelandic government had received many requests from the British government to consent to the occupation, but they always declined on the basis of the Neutrality Policy . For the remaining years of World War II , British and later American soldiers built bases in Reykjavík; the number of foreign soldiers in Reykjavík became about the same as the local population of the city. The economic effects of the occupation were quite positive for Reykjavík: the unemployment of the depression years vanished and a lot of construction work was done. The British built Reykjavík Airport, which is still in service today, mostly serving domestic flights; the Americans built Keflavík Airport that later became Iceland's primary international airport, situated 50 km from Reykjavík. In 1944 the Republic of Iceland was founded and a president elected in popular elections replaced the King; the office of the president was placed in Reykjavík. Post-war development In the post-war years, the growth of Reykjavík accelerated. A mass exodus from the rural countryside began, largely due to improved technology in agriculture that reduced the need for manpower, and because of the population boom resulting from better living conditions in the country. Young people in the prime of their lives were the largest group to move to the capital to live the "Reykjavík Dream", and the city became a city of children. A once primitive village was rapidly transformed into a modern city. Private cars became common and modern apartment complexes rose in the expanding suburbs. Much of Reykjavík lost its village feel. In 1972, Reykjavík hosted the world chess championship between Bobby Fischer and Boris Spassky . Reykjavík has in the last two decades become a significant player in the global community. The 1986 Reykjavík Summit between Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev underlined Reykjavík's new-found international status. Deregulation in the financial sector and the computer revolution of the 1990s have transformed Reykjavík yet again. The financial sector and information technology are now significant employers in the city. The city has fostered some world famous talents in recent years, such as Björk and bands Múm and Sigur Rós . City Administration Reykjavík City Hall The City Council governs the city of Reykjavík according to law number 45/1998 [6] and is directly elected by those aged over 18 domiciled in the city. The council has 15 members who are elected for 4 year terms. The council selects members of boards, and each board controls a different field under the city council's authority. The most important board is the City Board that wields the executive rights along with the City Mayor. The City Mayor is the senior public official and also the director of city operations. Other public officials control city institutions under the mayor's authority.Thus the administration consists of two different parts: The political power of City Council cascading down to other boards Public officials under the authority of the city mayor who administer and manage implementation of policy Political control The Independence Party had overall control of the city council from the party's establishment in 1929 until 1978, when they narrowly lost their overall majority. From 1978 to 1982 the People's Alliance , the Social Democratic Party and the Progressive Party formed the majority of the council. The Independence Party regained overall control in the 1982 elections, and held it until 1994. At that election its opponents had formed an alliance, called Reykjavíkurlistinn, or the R-list. That alliance had overall control until 2006. In the May 2006 elections the electorate could choose between five different parties, three of which had formed the R-list. The Independence Party obtained 7 members of the council, and thus failed to gain overall control, but together with the Progressive Party, and its one council member, they were able to form a new majority in the council which took over in June 2006. In October 2007 a new majority was formed on the council, consisting of members of the Progressive Party (1), the Social Democratic Alliance (4), the Left-Greens (2) and the F-list (1) (liberals and independents), after controversy regarding REI, a subsidiary of OR, the city's energy company. However three months later the leader of the F-list formed a new majority together with the Independence Party. Ólafur F. Magnússon , the leader of the F-list, was elected mayor on 24 January 2008, and in March 2009 the Independence Party was due to appoint a new mayor. This changed once again on 14 August 2008 when the fourth majority of the season was formed, when the Independence Party and the Progressive party took over again, with Hanna Birna Kristjánsdóttir becoming mayor. The Mayor The mayor is appointed by the city council; usually one of the council members is chosen but they may also appoint a mayor who is not a member of the council. The office of mayor was introduced from 1907, and in 1908 applications for that position were requested. Two applications were received, from Páll Einarsson, sheriff and town mayor of Hafnarfjörður and from Knud Zimsen, town councillor in Reykjavík. Páll was appointed on 7 May and was mayor for six years. At that time the city mayor received a salary of 4500IKR per year and 1500IKR for office expenses. Timeline of mayors CCP hf (CCP Games) - Makers of the EVE Online computer game Birtíngur - Major magazine publishing company Iceland Refund - Tax Free Shopping Infrastructure Reykjavík Airport. Roads Per capita car ownership in Iceland is among the highest in the world at roughly 522 vehicles per 1,000 residents [10] , though Reykjavík is not severely affected by congestion . Wide multi-lane highways run all over the city connecting the different neighbourhoods and suburbs. Parking spaces are also plentiful in most areas. Public transportation consists only of a bus system (called Strætó bs ) and is not very popular in this car-friendly city. Route 1 (the Ring Road) runs by the city outskirts and connects it to the rest of Iceland. Airports and seaports Reykjavík Airport , the second largest airport in the country (after Keflavík International Airport ), is positioned inside the city, just south of the city centre. It is mainly used for domestic flights as well as flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands . It was built there by the British occupation force during World War II , when it was on the outskirts of the then much smaller Reykjavík. In recent years there has been some controversy regarding the location of the airport, since it takes up a lot of valuable space in central Reykjavík. Reykjavík has two seaports , the old harbour near the city centre which is mainly used by fishermen and Cruise ships and Sundahöfn in the east city which is the largest cargo port in the country. Railways Two steam locomotives were used to build the harbour Reykjavík Docks railway ; both are now on display in Reykjavík. There are no public railways in Iceland, due to its terrain, but the locomotives used to build the docks are on display. Heating Abundant water and volcanic activity in Iceland have provided Reykjavík with a unique opportunity. Most houses in Reykjavík use the geothermal heating system. It is the largest system of this kind in the world. Cultural heritage The "Culture House" was opened in 1909 and has a number of important exhibits. Originally the National Museum and Natural History Museum, in 2000 it was re-modelled to promote the Icelandic national heritage. Many of Iceland's national treasures are on display, such as the Poetic Edda, and the Sagas, in their original manuscripts. There are also changing exhibitions on various topics. [11] Lifestyle Laugavegur main street in downtown Reykjavík Laugavegur main street in downtown Reykjavík Reykjavík is often dubbed "the nightlife capital of the north". [12] It is famous for its nightlife during the weekends. Icelanders tend to go out late so bars that look rather quiet can fill up suddenly—usually after midnight on a weekend. One of the main causes for this is that alcohol is relatively expensive at bars. People tend to drink at home before going out. Beer was banned in Iceland until 1 March 1989, but has since become popular among many Icelanders as their alcoholic drink of choice. [13] Beer, however, is expensive: half a litre of beer in an Icelandic bar can cost between 600 and 850 krónur (approx. US$5–7, €3–5, or £3–4 as of August 2009). Consequently, revelers will often leave home late and are already inebriated when they arrive at the bars in the city centre. There are over 100 different bars and clubs in Reykjavík; most of them are located on Laugavegur and its side streets. It is very common for an establishment that is a café before dinner to turn into a bar in the evening. Closing time is usually around 6 am at weekends and 1 am during the week. New Year's Eve The arrival of the new year is a particular cause for celebration to the people of Reykjavík. Icelandic law states that anyone may purchase and use fireworks during a certain period around New Year's Eve. Most places that sell fireworks in Iceland make their own rules about age of buyers; usually it is around 16. The people of Reykjavík spend enormous sums of money on fireworks, most of which are fired as midnight approaches on December 31. As a result, every New Year's Eve the city is lit up with fireworks displays. Main sights	i don't know
Artichoke is a variety of?	Heirloom Artichoke Varieties and Cardoons - Organic Gardening - MOTHER EARTH NEWS Tweet Heirloom Artichoke Varieties and Cardoons Learn all about growing artichokes and cardoons, unfold the brief history of their heirloom varieties and learn why we go wild for these vegetables that surprisingly host little nutrition. April 1, 2013 By William Woys Weaver Heirloom Vegetable Gardening by William Woys Weaver is the culmination of some thirty years of first-hand knowledge of growing, tasting and cooking with heirloom vegetables. A staunch supporter of organic gardening techniques, Will Weaver has grown every one of the featured 280 varieties of vegetables, and he walks the novice gardener through the basics of planting, growing and seed saving. Sprinkled throughout the gardening advice are old-fashioned recipes — such as Parsnip Cake, Artichoke Pie and Pepper Wine — that highlight the flavor of these vegetables. The following excerpt on artichoke varieties was taken from chapter 4, “Artichokes and Cardoons.” Buy the brand new e-book of Weaver’s gardening classic in the MOTHER EARTH NEWS store: Heirloom Vegetable Gardening . To locate mail order companies that carry these heirloom artichoke varieties, use our Custom Seed and Plant Finder . Check out our collection of articles on growing and harvesting heirloom vegetables in Gardening With Heirloom Vegetables . A Brief History of Artichokes and Cardoons “It is good for man to eat thistles, and to remember that he is an ass. But the artichoke is the best of thistles, and the man who enjoys it has the satisfaction of feeling that he is an ass of taste.”Kettner’s Book of the Table (1877, 42) could not have put it more succinctly, for the artichoke is indeed a noble weed, an epicure’s morsel, and alas, a nutritional empty box. Yet the greatest agony of the artichoke is not its thorniness—which it has in abundance—but that it inflicts upon the palate the desire to eat many, and not one is a match for wine. There is no more effective way to assassinate a great wine than to serve it with artichokes. While the Jerusalem artichoke may slide down the gullet on a silken Vaucluse and later take its revenge in the gut, the artichoke takes its revenge in the mouth, for its chemistry deadens the palate, turning great wines to must. I cannot claim that artichokes are easy to grow, not in most parts of the United States at least, and I cannot say that they are particularly productive, for one good bud per plant is about all one can expect. Yet we grow them. We pamper them. And they reward us now and then with a meal. Fearing Burr listed fourteen varieties of artichokes and thirteen varieties of cardoons in his Field and Garden Vegetables of America (1865, 139–43). It was a good thing he could read French; he pinched that list from the 1856 edition of the Vilmorin Description des plantes potagères. A glance through Shaker seed lists of the period will reveal few references to artichokes, a more honest gauge of what middle America was actually growing as opposed to a wish list of horticultural exotics. John Russell, owner of the New England Farmer Seed Store in Boston, listed only the Green Globe in 1828, but this was without question a superior variety. Alexander Watson, in his American Home Garden (1859, 114–15) was a little more practical than Fearing Burr, for he listed only two varieties, a purple artichoke and a green one. These were the heirlooms that Americans knew; indeed, the green one had been cultivated here since the late 1600s, but only in the gardens of the gentry. Globe Artichoke Cynara scolymus Of all the heirloom varieties, the globe artichoke is by far the easiest to cultivate and the one variety that appears most often in our old garden books. In an article entitled “Tried Varieties of Vegetables” in the American Garden (1889, 10:57), it was the globe artichoke that was recommended most highly for its consistency. For this reason I put it above the others, and as I grow it myself, I can verity that it will submit to far more abuse than more tender sorts, particularly the purple Sicilian, a show-stopping purple-headed variety that I also cultivate. Admittedly, the showy purple Sicilian is also a challenge and would not be possible without the benefit of a greenhouse. Robert Buist’s Family Kitchen Gardener (1847, 19–20) explained the differences between the two historical varieties, the globe artichoke and the green artichoke. The first had a purplish tint to its head, which was round or ball-like. The scales (bracts) of this variety turned in at the top. It was preferred both for its more abundant edible parts and for its flavor. Today, it is no longer one distinct variety but represents a whole group of subvarieties that have been developed from it. For example, the strain that I grow is known in France as Grande Beurre. The green artichoke, known in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the French artichoke, possessed open scales and was far more prolific in producing buds. It was also hardier and thus better adapted to cultivation in cold climates. It was this latter variety, with a “perfumed taste,” that was raised by William Penn at Pennsbury in the late 1600s and by other colonial American gentry. The green globe artichoke, often available in seed shops today, is a nineteenth-century cross of the two earlier types, the object being to combine the benefits of both. I do not think that the hardiness is any more improved over the old green variety, but then, I am not raising artichokes in a climate that they particularly like; as Robert Buist has pointed out, north of Virginia artichokes require a good deal of protection if they are left in the open ground over the winter. If the root freezes, the plant dies. I have mulched my plants heavily, only to lose them in January. I now resort to raising them in pots, which are moved to my greenhouse once the weather turns cold. However, it is also possible to dig up the roots after frost and store them over the winter like dahlia tubers. This technique might work for gardeners in New England. Growing Artichokes Artichoke seed should be started indoors in the early spring and the seedlings transplanted to pots, then moved to the garden after all threat of frost has passed. The plants should be set out on hills four feet apart with one or two plants per hill. The artichoke produces huge silvery gray leaves that are quite striking as garden ornaments in their own right, but they cannot be crowded. Artichokes need good air circulation during humid weather, otherwise they will develop mildews, molds, and other fungus diseases. Do not expect an artichoke crop the first year, for it is usually the second-year plants that begin to produce. They will yield crops for five to seven years, but regardless, new beds should be started every year. When the plants send up flower heads, only one or two buds should be left on the stem in order to increase their size. These are harvested right before the flower head opens to bloom. Artichokes that bloom will produce seed, but the seed is not usually true. Not only do artichoke varieties cross with one another, artichokes also cross with cardoons. It is therefore common practice to propagate the plants from suckers, choosing the best that appear over the course of the growing season. The center of artichoke culture in the United States is now California, and many heirloom varieties from France and Italy are being grown there. In the mild climate of that region, artichokes will go to seed and become an invasive weed extremely difficult to eradicate. In areas of the country where it is impossible to raise artichokes, I suggest using the green, unopened flower heads of the sunflower. Sunflower buds can be cooked like artichokes, and they have a delightful nutty flavor. Furthermore, they can be used in the following recipe instead of artichoke hearts. Regarding the other ingredients, the Victorian penchant for butter can be scaled back to a few tablespoons (I suggest 4) and replaced with olive oil. Instead of the truffles and morels, a few chopped fresh figs and some minced fennel may appeal to palates terrified of costly ingredients. Beyond that, I need only mention that the recipe comes from an admirable source: George Augustus Sala’s Thorough Good Cook (1895, 37). Artichoke Pie Recipe Boil twelve artichokes, break off the chokes and leaves and take the bottoms clear from the stalks; line the dish with puff-paste, and lay on this four ounces of fresh butter. Place a row of artichokes: strew over them pepper, salt, and beaten mace; then another layer of artichokes: strew on more spice and a quarter of a pound of butter cut in small pieces. Boil half an ounce of truffles and morels, chopped small, in a quarter of a pint of water, and pour into the pie, with a gill of white wine. Cover your pie and bake. Cardoon Cynara cardunculus The cardoon is a much hardier plant than the artichoke and makes an extraordinary ornament in the garden even when it is not being grown for culinary purposes. The leaves of the plant are not easy to miss, for they grow anywhere from four to six feet tall. In the early nineteenth century, the French raised cardoons in large quantities in Provence, at Tours, and in the region around Montpelier. The French Quakers, who were Philadelphia’s link to Montpelier, brought the cultivation of the cardoon to this country early in the 1790s. Many varieties were grown in the city to serve this influential community with names like Bouvier, Girard, and Grellet. Some of the varieties grown were the common, the Spanish, the red, and the prickly variety known as Cardon de Tours. All of these old varieties were used in soups, in stews, and even in salads. Outside of Philadelphia, cardoons were generally raised only by Francophiles like Thomas Jefferson, or by kitchen gardeners farther south in Charleston, Atlanta, and particularly in Louisiana. Of the old varieties, I recommend the Spanish and the cardon de Tours. The Tours variety is very small and therefore does well in small gardens, not to mention that it is several light years ahead of its competitors when it comes to taste. The Spanish cardoon, or cardo cotnún, grown in this country since the eighteenth century, is much less thorny. The wild card is the red-stemmed cardon à côtes rouges, which in visual effect is probably the most striking on a dish. The cardoon was not a creature of English cookery, as Andrew Mathews pointed out in his discussion of the vegetable (1828, 46–47); thus it would hardly follow that colonials could spread an enthusiasm for it into far-flung places. Mathews was convinced that it was not cultivated among the English because it required “skill in cooking.” He evidently knew nothing of good English cooks or of the Bible Christians, a vegetarian sect that emigrated from Manchester and established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1816. Allowing no form of animal protein and no animal manures, this sect became a strong force in the cultivation of unusual vegetables and one of the organizing forces behind the American Vegetarian Society. In defense of the John Bull cook, I think frankly that the skill is in the growing, for unlike artichokes, cardoons may be treated as annuals, and where the winter is mild, they can provide a good crop from November through February. The trick is to tie each plant up into a bundle with string, then scatter salt hay over them, and finally earth up the ground so that the hay forms an envelope that blanches the cardoons for at least one month. Then they are ready to harvest. Philadelphia seedsman Bernard M’Mahon described how to grow the plants in his American Gardener’s Calendar (1806, 197): The stalks of the leaves being thick, fleshy, and crisp, are the eatable parts, being first blanched by landing them up like celery, to two or three feet high, to render them white, tender, and of an agreeable flavor, which otherwise would be rank and bitter: they are in perfection in autumn and winter. Growing Cardoons Sow the seeds towards the latter end of this month [March], or beginning of next, broadcast in a bed of rich earth, and cover them about three quarters of an inch deep, when the plants are three inches high thin them to four or five inches distance, that they may not be drawn up weak; keep them free from weeds, and towards the latter end of May or beginning of June, they will be fit to plant where they are intended to remain for perfection. I find that they are best thinned and planted in a ditch in sandy soil 8 to 10 inches apart. The plants can then be hilled up in the fall and harvested about a month later. Cold weather will halt their growth; therefore as long as the plants can be kept from freezing, the blanched hearts will remain fit for the table. A thick layer of salt hay thrown over the hills in November usually preserves them into January in my garden. I prefer the shoots poached and served cold as a salad. But beware: the chemistry of cardoons is no different from that of the artichoke. A fine dish of cardoons will not make a fine wine dazzle. Better to serve beer. The culture of the cardoon is the same as for the artichoke, except that the method of planting is different. Cardoons will cross with artichokes, and therefore must be isolated or caged if the seed is to be used for propagation. The flower resembles a common thistle and therefore can be gathered when the seed is dry and ready to “blow” (float off in the wind). However, the dry flower heads, picked immature and dried in the shade, can be used to curdle milk. This is a valuable alternative for making cheese without rennet, a point of special interest to vegetarians. In fact, several traditional cheeses from the Montpelier region were made exclusively with cardoon flowers rather than with rennet, and this was thought to have had an important influence on their flavor. Find seeds for these heirlooms and more with our Custom Seed and Plant Finder . Buy the brand new e-book of Weaver’s gardening classic in the MOTHER EARTH NEWS store: Heirloom Vegetable Gardening . Illustrations Courtesy William Woys Weaver. Photo By Fotolia/StudioPortoSabbia.	Thistle
The term 'ignition' derives from which archaic 'element'?	Artichoke - Definition and Cooking Information - RecipeTips.com Print A tall flowering plant related to the thistle family of plants that is native to Mediterranean regions and now grown in a variety of locations throughout the world. Referred to as a "carciofo" in Italy or "articiocco" in France, this vegetable is actually a flowering bud growing from a stem attached to the Artichoke plant. The Artichoke bud consists of tough, pointed, green leaves that are tightly packed around a gray-green base. The fleshy base, known as the heart of the Artichoke (Artichoke hearts) and the fleshy base of the leaves (bracts) are the sections of the plant that are most suitable for eating. Baby or miniature Artichokes which can be eaten whole are considerably smaller in size, harvested earlier and are grown as specialty varieties, providing a tender species for eating. The most common varieties of Artichokes found in food stores include the Green Globe, the Lyon, the Fiesole, the Anzio, the Campania, and the Big Heart. Green Globe and Lyon Artichokes are large in size with green colored leaves that are closely held within the head of the Artichoke. They are heavy in weight and are good varieties to marinate, to stuff with ingredients, to bake, broil, or to steam cook. The Globe and Lyon are very mild tasting and meaty in texture. The Fiesole is a burgundy to purple colored Artichoke that is not so globe shaped but instead more oval or boxy. Native to the Florence region of Italy, the Fiesole is best prepared by sautéing, boiling or steam cooking it, providing a mildly nutty flavor when eaten. Another variety of purple or red Artichoke is the Anzio, also native to Italy. Most often this Artichoke is served as a stuffed or baked vegetable and is a common ingredient in Italian cooking. Another red variety is the Campania, which is brighter in red coloring than the Anzio or the purple Fiesole. This Artichoke, which is larger in size than other varieties, is best served stuffed, baked, broiled, or steam cooked. The Big Heart Artichoke is a hybrid seed that has been developed in California to provide a meatier textured vegetable with thicker leaves and a larger heart. Green in color, the Big Heart has a shape that is more oval or square shaped than the Globe or Lyon. It is a variety that can be served much like other Artichokes, providing a mild but full Artichoke flavor. To prepare the artichoke for cooking, wash the bud thoroughly. Chop off the stem attached to the base to remove some of the hard fibers surrounding the base. To keep the exposed base from turning brown, brush it lightly with vinegar or lemon juice. If the artichoke hearts are to be prepared, chop off the top third of the artichoke to remove the leaves and remove any remaining leaves from around the base. Remove and discard the fibers that make up the "choke" of the artichoke by scooping them out of the bud with a spoon or melon baller. The small round heart is now ready to be prepared in water mixed with a small amount of lemon juice or vinegar, cooking it for 5 to 10 minutes. USDA Nutrition Facts	i don't know
In Greek mythology when Pandora opened her box (actually jar), all the evil spirits escaped, and only Elpis, goddess of (what?) remained?	PANDORA - The First Woman of Greek Mythology Pandora Epimetheus and the birth of Pandora, Athenian red-figure amphora C5th B.C., Ashmolean Museum PANDORA was the first mortal woman who was formed out of clay by the gods. The Titan Prometheus was once assigned the task of creating the race of man. He afterwards grew displeased with the mean lot imposed on them by the gods and so stole fire from heaven. Zeus was angered and commanded Hephaistos (Hephaestus) and the other gods create the first woman Pandora, endowing her with beauty and cunning. He then had her delivered to Prometheus' foolish younger brother Epimetheus as a bride. Zeus gave Pandora a storage jar (pithos) as a wedding gift which she opened, releasing the swarm of evil spirits trapped within. These would forever after plague mankind. Only Elpis (Hope) remained behind, a single blessing to ease mankind's suffering. Pandora's daughter Pyrrha (Fire) was the first child born of a mortal mother. She and her husband Deukalion (Deucalion) were the sole survivors of the Great Deluge. To repopulate the earth they were instructed to cast stones over their shoulder which formed a new race of men and women. The creation of Pandora was often depicted in ancient Greek vase painting. She appears as either a statue-like figure surrounded by gods, or as a woman rising out of the earth (called the anodos in Greek). Sometimes she is surrounded by dancing Satyroi (Satyrs) in a scene from a lost Satyr-play by Sophokles. FAMILY OF PANDORA PARENTS NONE (created by the gods) (Hesiod Works & Days 54, Hesiod Theogony 560, Aeschylus Frag 204, Sophocles Pandora, Pausanias 1.24.7, Hyginus Fabulae 142) OFFSPRING [1.1] PYRRHA (by Epimetheus ) (Apollodorus 1.46, Hyginus Fabulae 142) [1.2] PYRRHA (Strabo 9.5.23) ENCYCLOPEDIA PANDO′RA (Pandôra), i. e. the giver of all, or endowed with every thing, is the name of the first woman on earth. When Prometheus had stolen the fire from heaven, Zeus in revenge caused Hephaestus to make a woman out of earth, who by her charms and beauty should bring misery upon the human race (Hes. Theog. 571, &c.; Stob. Serin. 1). Aphrodite adorned her with beauty, Hermes gave her boldness and cunning, and the gods called her Pandora, as each of the Olympians had given her some power by which she was to work the ruin of man. Hermes took her to Epimetheus, who forgot the advice of his brother Prometheus, not to accept any gift from Zeus, and from that moment all miseries came down upon men (Hes. Op. et Dies, 50, &c.). According to some mythographers, Epimetheus became by her the father of Pyrrha and Deucalion (Hygin. Fab. 142; Apollod. i. 7. § 2 ; Procl. ad Hes. Op. p. 30, ed. Heinsius; Ov. Met. i. 350); others make Pandora a daughter of Pyrrha and Deucalion (Eustath. ad Hom. p. 23). Later writers speak of a vessel of Pandora, containing all the blessings of the gods, which would have been preserved for the human race, had not Pandora opened the vessel, so that the winged blessings escaped irrecoverably. The birth of Pandora was represented on the pedestal of the statue of Athena, in the Parthenon at Athens (Paus. i. 24. § 7). In the Orphic poems Pandora occurs as an infernal awful divinity, and is associated with Hecate and the Erinnyes (Orph. Argon. 974). Pandora also occurs as a surname of Gaea (Earth), as the giver of all. (Schol. ad Aristoph. Av. 970; Philostr. Vit. Apoll. vi. 39; Hesych. s.v.) Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES The creation of Pandora, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., British Museum Hesiod, Works & Days 54 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "The gods keep hidden from men the means of life [i.e. fire] . . . Zeus in the anger of his heart hid it, because Prometheus the crafty deceived him; therefore he planned sorrow and mischief against men. He hid fire; but that the noble son of Iapetos stole again for men from Zeus the counsellor in a hollow fennel-stalk, so that Zeus who delights in thunder did not see it. But afterwards Zeus who gathers the clouds said to him in anger : ‘Son of Iapetos, surpassing all in cunning, you are glad that you have outwitted me and stolen fire--a great plague to you yourself and to men that shall be. But I will give men as the price for fire an evil thing in which they may all be glad of heart while they embrace their own destruction.’ So said the father of men and gods, and laughed aloud. And he bade famous Hephaistos (Hephaestus) make haste and mix earth with water and to put in it the voice and strength of human kind, and fashion a sweet, lovely maiden-shape, like to the immortal goddesses in face; and Athene (Athena) to teach her needlework and the weaving of the varied web; and golden Aphrodite to shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs. And he charged Hermes the guide, the Slayer of Argos, to put in her a shameless mind and a deceitful nature. So he ordered. And they obeyed the lord Zeus the son of Kronos (Cronus). Forthwith [Hephaistos] the famous Lame God moulded clay in the likeness of a modest maid, as the son of Kronos purposed. And the goddess bright-eyed Athene girded and clothed her, and the divine Kharites (Charites, Graces) and queenly Peitho (Persuasion) put necklaces of gold upon her, and the rich-haired Horai (Horae, Seasons) crowned her head with spring flowers. And Pallas Athene bedecked her form with all manners of finery. Also [Hermes] the Guide, the Slayer of Argos, contrived within her lies and crafty words and a deceitful nature at the will of loud thundering Zeus, and the Herald of the gods put speech in her. And he called this woman Pandora (All-Gifts), because all they who dwelt on Olympos gave each a gift, a plague to men who eat bread. But when he had finished the sheer, hopeless snare, the Father sent glorious Argus-Slayer [Hermes], the swift messenger of the gods, to take it to Epimetheus as a gift. And Epimetheus did not think on what Prometheus had said to him, bidding him never take a gift of Olympian Zeus, but to send it back for fear it might prove to be something harmful to men. But he took the gift, and afterwards, when the evil thing was already his, he understood. For ere this the tribes of men lived on earth remote and free from ills (kakoi) and hard toil (ponoi) and heavy sickness (nosoi) which bring the Keres (Fates) upon men; for in misery men grow old quickly. But the woman took off the great lid of the jar (pithos) with her hands and scattered all these and her thought caused sorrow and mischief to men. Only Elpis (Hope) remained there in an unbreakable home within under the rim of the great jar, and did not fly out at the door; for ere that, the lid of the jar stopped her, by the will of Aigis-holding Zeus who gathers the clouds. But the rest, countless plagues (lugra), wander amongst men; for earth is full of evils and the sea is full. Of themselves diseases (nosoi) come upon men continually by day and by night, bringing mischief to mortals silently; for wise Zeus took away speech from them. So is there no way to escape the will of Zeus." Hesiod, Theogony 510 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "Scatter-brained Epimetheus who from the first was a mischief to men who eat bread; for it was he who first took of Zeus the woman [i.e. Pandora], the maiden whom he had formed." Hesiod, Theogony 560 ff : "[Zeus] was always mindful of the trick [of Prometheus, who had won for mankind the meat of the sacrificial beast,], and would not give the power of unwearying fire to the Melian race of mortal men who live on the earth. But [Prometheus] the noble son of Iapetos outwitted him and stole the far-seen gleam of unwearying fire in a hollow fennel stalk. And Zeus who thunders on high was stung in spirit, and his dear heart was angered when he saw amongst men the far-seen ray of fire. Forthwith he made an evil thing for men as the price of fire; for the very famous Limping God [Hephaistos (Hephaestus)] formed of earth the likeness of a shy maiden [i.e. Pandora] as [Zeus] the son of Kronos (Cronus) willed. And the goddess bright-eyed Athene (Athena) girded and clothed her with silvery raiment, and down from her head she spread with her hands an embroidered veil, a wonder to see; and she, Pallas Athene, put about her head lovely garlands, flowers of new-grown herbs. Also she put upon her head a crown of gold which [Hephaistos] the very famous Limping God made himself and worked with his own hands as a favor to Zeus his father. On it was much curious work, wonderful to see; for of the many creatures which the land and sea rear up, he put most upon it, wonderful things, like living beings with voices : and great beauty shone out from it. But when he had made the beautiful evil to be the price for the blessing, he brought her out, delighting in the finery which the bright-eyed daughter of a mighty father had given her, to the place where the other gods and men were. And wonder took hold of the deathless gods and mortal men when they saw that which was sheer guile, not to be withstood by men. For from her is the race of women and female kind: of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth. And as in thatched hives bees feed the drones whose nature is to do mischief--by day and throughout the day until the sun goes down the bees are busy and lay the white combs, while the drones stay at home in the covered hives and reap the toil of others into their own bellies--even so Zeus who thunders on high made women to be an evil to mortal men, with a nature to do evil. And he gave them a second evil to be the price for the good they had: whoever avoids marriage and the sorrows that women cause, and will not wed, reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years, and though he at least has no lack of livelihood while he lives, yet, when he is dead, his kinsfolk divide his possessions amongst them. And as for the man who chooses the lot of marriage and takes a good wife suited to his mind, evil continually contends with good; for whoever happens to have mischievous children, lives always with unceasing grief in his spirit and heart within him; and this evil cannot be healed. So it is not possible to deceive or go beyond the will of Zeus: for not even the son of Iapetos, kindly Prometheus, escaped his heavy anger, but of necessity strong bands confined him, although he knew many a wile." The creation of Pandora, Athenian red-figure calyx krater C5th B.C., British Museum Homer, The Iliad 24. 527 ff (trans. Lattimore) (Greek epic C8th B.C.) : "There are two urns (pithoi) that stand on the door-sill of Zeus. They are unlike for the gifts they bestow: an urn of evils (kakoi), an urn of blessings (dôroi). If Zeus who delights in thunder mingles these and bestows them on man, he shifts, and moves now in evil, again in good fortune. But when Zeus bestows from the urn of sorrows, he makes a failure of man, and hte evil hunger drives him over the shining earth, and he wanders resepected neither of gods nor mortals." [N.B. Later writers say that Zeus gave one of these two jars to Pandora. The poets were at odds as to which jar she received--Hesiod says it was the jar of evils (kakoi), but Theognis and Aesop claim it was the jar of blessings (dôroi). The name Pan-dôra ("all-gifts") perhaps suggests the latter.] Theognis, Fragment 1. 1135 (trans. Gerber, Vol. Greek Elegiac) (Greek elegy C6th B.C.) : "Elpis (Hope) is the only good god remaining among mankind; the others have left and gone to Olympos. Pistis (Trust), a mighty god has gone, Sophrosyne (Restraint) has gone from men, and the Kharites (Charites, Graces), my friend, have abandoned the earth. Men's judicial oaths are no longer to be trusted, nor does anyone revere the immortal gods; the race of pious men has perished and men no longer recognize the rules of conduct or acts of piety." [N.B. Theognis' account is the reverse of Hesiod's--the good spirits escape from Pandora's jar, abandoning mankind in their flight back to heaven.] Aesop, Fables 526 (from Babrius 58) (trans. Gibbs) (Greek fable C6th B.C.) : "Zeus gathered all the useful things together in a jar and put a lid on it. He then left the jar in human hands. But man had no self-control and he wanted to know what was in that jar, so he pushed the lid aside, letting those things go back to the abode of the gods. So all the good things flew away, soaring high above the earth, and Elpis (Hope) was the only thing left. When the lid was put back on the jar, Elpis (Hope) was kept inside. That is why Elpis (Hope) alone is still found among the people, promising that she will bestow on each of us the good things that have gone away." [N.B. "Human hands" alludes to the story of Pandora who delivered the jar to mankind. In this version, however, it is apparently her husband who opens it.] Aesop, Fables 525 (from Chambry 1) (trans. Gibbs) (Greek fable C6th B.C.) : "The Good Things were too weak to defend themselves from the Bad Things, so the Bad Things drove them off to heaven. The Good Things then asked Zeus how they could reach mankind. Zeus told them that they should not go together all at once, only one at a time. This is why people are constantly besieged by Bad Things, since they are nearby, while Good Things come more rarely, since they must descend to us from heaven one by one." [N.B. This fable describes the spirits which had escaped from Pandora's jar. It also refers to the two jars set beside the throne of Zeus in the Iliad--one containing Good Things and the other Evils.] Epimetheus, Pandora and Eros (detail), Athenian red-figure amphora C5th B.C., Ashmolean Museum Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 250 ff (trans. Weir Smyth) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) : "Prometheus : Yes, I caused mortals to cease foreseeing their doom (moros). Chorus : Of what sort was the cure that you found for this affliction? Prometheus : I caused blind hopes (elpides) to dwell within their breasts. Chorus : A great benefit was this you gave to mortals." [N.B. This is presumably a reference to Pandora's jar--a curse concocted by Zeus to punish mankind for the theft of fire. Prometheus seems to be saying that he was the one who stayed Hope inside the jar when all the other spirits escaped.] Aeschylus, Fragment 204 (from Proclus, Commentary on Hesiod's Works and Days 156) : "A mortal woman from out a seed moulded of clay [i.e Pandora]." Sophocles, Pandora (lost play) (C5th B.C.) : Sophocles wrote a Satyr-play entitled Pandora or Sphyrocopi which dramatised the story of the first woman. Plato, Protagoras 320c - 322a (trans. Lamb) (Greek philosopher C4th B.C.) : "Prometheus stole the mechanical arts of Hephaistos (Hephaestus) and Athene (Athena), and fire with them (they could neither have been acquired nor used without fire), and gave them to man . . . But Prometheus is said to have been afterwards prosecuted for theft, owing to the blunder of Epimetheus [i.e. because he accepted Pandora from Zeus]." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 46 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Prometheus had a son Deukalion (Deucalion), who was king of the lands round Phthia and was married to Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, the first woman created by the gods." Euphorion of Chalcis, Fragments (trans. Page, Vol. Select Papyri III, No. 121 (2b)) (Greek epic C3rd B.C.) : "Pandora, donor of evil (kakodôros), man's sorrow self-imposed." Strabo, Geography 9. 5. 23 (trans. Jones) (Greek geographer C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[The region of] Thessalia (Thessaly). But speaking of it as a whole, I may say that in earlier times it was called Pyrrhaia (Pyrrhaea), after Pyrrha the wife of Deukalion (Deucalion) . . . But some writers, dividing it into two parts, say that Deukalion obtained the portion towards the south and called it Pandora after his mother [i.e. his mother-in-law], and that the other part fell to Haimon (Haemon), after whom it was called Haimonia (Haemonia), but that the former name was changed to Hellas, after Hellen the son of Deukalion, and the latter to Thessalia, after the son of Haimon." [N.B. Pyrrha was the daughter of Pandora and wife of Deukalion. Deukalion named various parts of Thessalia after his wife and mother-in-law.] Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 24. 7 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "On the pedestal [of the statue of Athena on the Akropolis in Athens] is the birth of Pandora in relief. Hesiod and others have sung how this Pandora was the first woman; before Pandora was born there was as yet no womankind." Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 142 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Prometheus, son of Iapetus, first fashioned men from clay. Later Vulcanus [Hephaistos], at Jove's [Zeus'] command, made a woman's form from clay. Minerva [Athene] gave it life, and the rest of the gods each gave come other gift. Because of this they named her Pandora. She was given in marriage to Prometheus' brother Epimetheus. Pyrrha was her daughter, and was said to be the first mortal born." Nonnus, Dionysiaca 7. 7 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) : "[Aion (Time) addresses Zeus :] ‘But, some may say, a medicine [Hope] has been planted to make long-suffering mortals forget their troubles, to save their lives. Would that Pandora had never opened the heavenly cover of that jar--she the sweet bane of mankind!’" ANCIENT GREEK ART	Hope
The children's story/TV character Noddy was created in 1949 by which English author?	Pandora’s Box: April 2012 Pandora’s Box ‘Opening Pandora’s Box’ is a metaphor for our time. It is a story about how one of two brothers, Epimetheus, is seduced by appearances and his own desires. He did not have the forethought to look into the true nature of what he saw, or to understand the implications of his actions beyond himself. The moral of the story is that once the Earth is opened, she cannot be closed, and what we spoil we spoil forever. Mining the last remaining wildernesses and the critical ecosystems of our Earth is irreversible. The other brother, in the story, Prometheus, warns us that hindsight is too late and hoping for the best is ignorant and impotent. What the story recommends is foresight: from this come the gifts of a true civilisation and right relation towards the Earth, our source of life. Posted by Opening the pandora's box (pandora trying to close the box) This is an engraving of Pandora trying to close the box that she had opened out of curiosity. At left, the evils of the world taunt her as they escape. The engraving is based on a painting by F.S. Church. Posted by Hesiod's Works and Days (Hesiod's poem) The more famous version of the Pandora myth comes from another of Hesiod's poems, Works and Days . In this version of the myth (lines 60–105), Hesiod expands upon her origin, and moreover widens the scope of the misery she inflicts on mankind. As before, she is created by Hephaestus, but now more gods contribute to her completion (63–82): Athena taught her needlework and weaving (63–4); Aphrodite "shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs" (65–6); Hermes gave her "a shameful mind and deceitful nature" (67–8); Hermes also gave her the power of speech, putting in her "lies and crafty words" (77–80) ; Athena then clothed her (72); next she, Persuasion and the Charites adorned her with necklaces and other finery (72–4); the Horae adorned her with a garland crown (75). Finally, Hermes gives this woman a name: Pandora – "All-gifted" – "because all the Olympians gave her a gift" (81). In this retelling of her story, Pandora's deceitful feminine nature becomes the least of mankind's worries. For she brings with her a jar (which, due to textual corruption in the sixteenth century, came to be called a box) containing "burdensome toil and sickness that brings death to men" (91–2), diseases (102) and "a myriad other pains" (100). Prometheus had (fearing further reprisals) warned his brother Epimetheus not to accept any gifts from Zeus. But Epimetheus did not listen; he accepted Pandora, who promptly scattered the contents of her jar. As a result, Hesiod tells us, "the earth and sea are full of evils" (101). One item, however, did not escape the jar (96–9): Only Hope was left within her unbreakable house, she remained under the lip of the jar, and did not fly away. Before [she could], Pandora replaced the lid of the jar. This was the will of aegis-bearing Zeus the Cloudgatherer. Hesiod does not say why hope (elpis) remained in the jar. Hesiod closes with this moral (105): "Thus it is not possible to escape the mind of Zeus Posted by Hesiod's Theogony (Hesiod) The Pandora myth first appears in lines 560–612 of Hesiod's poem in epic meter, the Theogony (ca. 8th–7th centuries BC), without ever giving the woman a name. After humans received the stolen gift of fire from Prometheus, an angry Zeus decides to give men a punishing gift to compensate for the boon they had been given. He commands Hephaestus to mold from earth the first woman, a "beautiful evil" whose descendants would torment the race of men. After Hephaestus does so, Athena dresses her in a silvery gown, an embroidered veil, garlands and an ornate crown of silver. This woman goes unnamed in the Theogony, but is presumably Pandora, whose myth Hesiod revisited in Works and Days. When she first appears before gods and mortals, "wonder seized them" as they looked upon her. But she was "sheer guile, not to be withstood by men." Hesiod elaborates (590–93): From her is the race of women and female kind: of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmates in hateful poverty, but only in wealth. Hesiod goes on to lament that men who try to avoid the evil of women by avoiding marriage will fare no better (604–7): He reaches deadly old age without anyone to tend his years, and though he at least has no lack of livelihood while he lives, yet, when he is dead, his kinsfolk divide his possessions amongst them. Hesiod concedes that occasionally a man finds a good wife, but still (609) "evil contends with good." Posted by (pandora) In Greek mythology, Pandora (ancient Greek, Πανδώρα, derived from πᾶς "all" and δῶρον "gift", thus "all-gifted" or "all-giving") was the first woman. As Hesiod related it, each god helped create her by giving her unique gifts. Zeus ordered Hephaestus to mold her out of earth as part of the punishment of mankind for Prometheus' theft of the secret of fire, and all the gods joined in offering her "seductive gifts". Her other name, inscribed against her figure on a white-ground kylix in the British Museum, is Anesidora, "she who sends up gifts," up implying "from below" within the earth. According to the myth, Pandora opened a jar (pithos), in modern accounts sometimes mistranslated as "Pandora's box" (see below), releasing all the evils of mankind — although the particular evils, aside from plagues and diseases, are not specified in detail by Hesiod — leaving only Hope inside once she had closed it again. She opened the jar out of simple curiosity and not as a malicious act. The myth of Pandora is ancient, appears in several distinct Greek versions, and has been interpreted in many ways. In all literary versions, however, the myth is a kind of theodicy, addressing the question of why there is evil in the world. In the seventh century BC, Hesiod, both in his Theogony (briefly, without naming Pandora outright, line 570) and in Works and Days, gives the earliest literary version of the Pandora story; however, there is an older mention of jars or urns containing blessings and evils bestowed upon mankind in Homer's Iliad: The immortals know no care, yet the lot they spin for man is full of sorrow; on the floor of Zeus' palace there stand two urns, the one filled with evil gifts, and the other with good ones. He for whom Zeus the lord of thunder mixes the gifts he sends, will meet now with good and now with evil fortune; but he to whom Zeus sends none but evil gifts will be pointed at by the finger of scorn, the hand of famine will pursue him to the ends of the world, and he will go up and down the face of the earth, respected neither by gods nor men Posted by How did the myth arise? It arose as a way of explaining why dreadful things happened, such as people getting sick and dying. As in many origin myths, man had lived in a world without worry – until this jar / box was opened, which contained ills for mankind. Zeus knew that Pandora’s curiosity would mean that she could not stop herself from opening it, especially when he had told her that she must not do so! Many other myths also explain the ills of the world by saying they are caused by human disobedience of a god’s instructions. (Though some versions of this story say that the box was a real gift and the box held good things for mankind, which Pandora let escape from the box, and fly away forever, only catching Hope.) Even Hope itself has been argued about by scholars – not everyone agreeing that it is a great good – that maybe Zeus meant it as an evil also – otherwise it would not have been in a jar of evil. Others believe that Zeus may have relented a little, and put Hope in to help mankind through the hard times that the other ‘gifts’ would bring. Posted by Story of pandora's box Pandora was given a box or a jar, called “pithos” in Greek. Gods told her that the box contained special gifts from them but she was not allowed to open the box ever. Then Hermes took her to Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus, to be his wife. Prometheus had advised Epimetheus not to accept anything from the Gods, but he saw Pandora and was astonished by her beauty, thus he accepted her right away. Pandora was trying to tame her curiosity, but at the end she could not hold herself anymore; she opened the box and all the illnesses and hardships that gods had hidden in the box started coming out. Pandora was scared, because she saw all the evil spirits coming out and tried to close the box as fast as possible, closing Hope inside. Posted by Mythology (pandora getting dressed) In classical Greek mythology, Pandora was the first woman on Earth. Zeus ordered Hephaestus, the God of craftsmanship, to create her, so he did—using water and Earth. The gods endowed her with many gifts: Athena clothed her, Aphrodite gave her beauty, and Hermes speech. (Prometheus stole fire from heaven) When Prometheus stole fire from heaven, Zeus took vengeance by presenting Pandora to Epimetheus, Prometheus' brother. With her, Pandora was given a beautiful container which she was not to open under any circumstance. Impelled by her curiosity given to her by the gods, Pandora opened it, and all evil contained therein escaped and spread over the earth. She hastened to close the container, but the whole contents had escaped, except for one thing that lay at the bottom, which was the angel of Hope named Astrea. Pandora was deeply saddened by what she had done, and was afraid that she would have to face Zeus' wrath, since she had failed her duty; however, Zeus did not punish her, because he knew this would happen. Posted by	i don't know
Which best-selling 2008/9 book, whose concepts were adopted by political leaders, was written by Thaler and Sunstein?	Home - Consumer Behavior Books: A Core Collection - UF Business Library at University of Florida Consumer Behavior Books: A Core Collection Consumer Behavior Books: A Core Collection: Home A core collection of books on consumer behavior and consumer psychology Consumer Behavior Books: A - B "Most of what we know we don't know we know." – Gerald Zaltman, How Customers Think The Affluent Consumer: Marketing and Selling the Luxury Lifestyle by By Ronald D. Michman and Edward M. Mazze Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 M53 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 0275992829.Praeger,194p.$44.95 Publication Date: 2006 By any measure, the affluent sector is growing exponentially, and is far more diverse (in terms of ethnicity, education, location, and professional background) than at any time in the past. In 2004, there were 8.2 million households in the United States with net worth over $1 million, excluding primary residence. Meanwhile, between 1995 and 2001, the number of families filing tax returns for income exceeding $200,000 doubled. This market represents lucrative opportunities for companies that understand how these consumers think, act, and make purchasing decisions. Applying primary research, including demographic and economic data Ronald Michman and Edward Mazze present a comprehensive approach to analyzing affluent consumers--and creating, promoting, and selling innovative products and services to them. Illustrating their principles through dozens of examples the authors deconstruct how a complex market segment works. Dispelling popular myths and misconceptions about the composition and behavior of this segment, they provide not only a practical guide for marketers and students of marketing, but a fascinating glimpse into a culture driven by materialism, status, and aspirations to luxury. Call Number: HC110.C6 C76 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 0231113129.ColumbiaUniversityPress, 320p.$27.50 Publication Date: 2000 The unqualified victory of consumerism in America was not a foregone conclusion. The United States has traditionally been the home of the most aggressive and often thoughtful criticism of consumption, including Puritanism, Prohibition, the simplicity movement, the '60s hippies, and the consumer rights movement. But at the dawn of the twenty-first century, not only has American consumerism triumphed, there isn't even an "ism" left to challenge it. An All-Consuming Century is a rich history of how market goods came to dominate American life over that remarkable hundred years between 1900 and 2000 and why for the first time in history there are no practical limits to consumerism. The consumerism of today, thriving and largely unchecked, no longer brings families and communities together; instead, it increasingly divides and isolates Americans. Consumer culture has provided affluent societies with peaceful alternatives to tribalism and class war, Cross writes, and it has fueled extraordinary economic growth. The challenge for the future is to find ways to revive the still valid portion of the culture of constraint and control the overpowering success of the all-consuming twentieth century. All You Can Pay: How Companies Use Our Data to Empty Our Wallets by Anna Bernasek; D. T. Mongan Call Number: HF5415.33.U6B47 2015 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9781568584744 Publication Date: Nation Books, 2015. $25.99 You don't care who can access your data because you have nothing to hide. But what if corporations were using that data to control your decisions? As millions of consumers carry on unaware, powerful corporations race to collect more and more data about our behaviors, needs, and desires. This massive trove of data represents one of the most valuable assets on the planet. In All You Can Pay, Anna Bernasek and D. T. Mongan show how companies use what they know about you to determine how much you are willing to pay for everything you buy. From college tuition to plane tickets to groceries to medicine, companies already set varying prices based on intimate knowledge of individual wants and purchasing power. As the consumer age fades into history, rapidly changing prices and complex offers tailored to each individual are spreading like a fog over the free market. Data giants know everything about us before we enter stores or open our browsers. We may think that the Internet lets us find the best deals, but the extensive information companies have about us means that the price we see tends toward the maximum they know we can pay. In a momentous shift, the economics of information will turn our economy on its head. Fair bargaining is over. The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get Inside Our Heads by Tim Wu Call Number: HF5811 .W82 2016 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9780385352017 Publication Date: Alfred A. Knopf, 2016. $28.95 From Tim Wu, author of the award-winning The Master Switch ( a New Yorker and Fortune Book of the Year) and who coined the term "net neutrality"--a revelatory, ambitious and urgent account of how the capture and re-sale of human attention became the defining industry of our time. Feeling attention challenged? Even assaulted? American business depends on it. In nearly every moment of our waking lives, we face a barrage of messaging, advertising enticements, branding, sponsored social media, and other efforts to harvest our attention. Few moments or spaces of our day remain uncultivated by the "attention merchants," contributing to the distracted, unfocused tenor of our times. Tim Wu argues that this condition is not simply the byproduct of recent technological innovations but the result of more than a century's growth and expansion in the industries that feed on human attention. From the pre-Madison Avenue birth of advertising to the explosion of the mobile web; from AOL and the invention of email to the attention monopolies of Google and Facebook; from Ed Sullivan to celebrity power brands like Oprah Winfrey, Kim Kardashian and Donald Trump, the basic business model of "attention merchants" has never changed: free diversion in exchange for a moment of your consideration, sold in turn to the highest-bidding advertiser. Wu describes the revolts that have risen against the relentless siege of our awareness, from the remote control to the creation of public broadcasting to Apple's ad-blocking OS. But he makes clear that attention merchants are always growing new heads, even as their means of getting inside our heads are changing our very nature--cognitive, social, political and otherwise--in ways unimaginable even a generation ago. "A startling and sweeping examination of the increasingly ubiquitous commercial effort to capture and commodify our attention...We've become the consumers, the producers, and the content. We are selling ourselves to ourselves." --Tom Vanderbilt, The New Republic "An erudite, energizing, outraging, funny and thorough history...A devastating critique of ad tech as it stands today, transforming "don't be evil" into the surveillance business model in just a few short years. It connects the dots between the sale of advertising inventory in schools to the bizarre ecosystem of trackers, analyzers and machine-learning models that allow the things you look at on the web to look back at you...This stuff is my daily beat, and I learned a lot from Attention Merchants." --Cory Doctorow, BoingBoing "Illuminating." --Jacob Weisberg, The New York Review of Books Call Number: HF5415.15 .G55 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 9781591391456.HarvardBusinessSchoolPress, 299p.$26.95 Publication Date: 2007 In Authenticity, James H. Gilmore and B. Joseph Pine II argue that, to trounce rivals, companies must grasp, manage, and excel at rendering authenticity. Through examples from a wide array of industries as well as government, non-profit, education, and religious sectors, the authors show how to manage customers' perception of authenticity. The first to explore what authenticity really means for businesses and how companies can approach it both thoughtfully and thoroughly, this book is a must-read for any organization seeking to fulfill consumers' intensifying demand for the real deal. Call Number: HF5415.32 .L45 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 0471151351.Wiley, 245p.$27.95. Publication Date: 2002 In the tradition of Why We Buy, this is a marketer's guidebook to what motivates grocery store consumers to choose or pass over certain products. Written by a widely-respected and passionate supermarket analyst, this book explores the buyer's choice. Lempert reveals the secrets to catching even the most fickle consumer's attention and how to establish lasting brand loyalty through powerful marketing strategies. This is a must-read for marketers, brand managers, and retailers everywhere-not just for grocery stores-that dissects each and every aspect of the shopping experience, showing how to appeal to today's discriminating consumer. Call Number: HF5438.4 .F75 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0674012984.HarvardUniversityPress, 368p.$27.95. Publication Date: 2004 Friedman narrates how salesmanship became integral to American capitalism. He argues that salesmanship, which in 2000 involved 16 million Americans in various sales positions, has contributed to the systematization and standardization of production, distribution, and consumption of goods. He focuses on those most responsible for "devis[ing] innovative and effective sales strategies," including academics such as Walter Dill Scott and corporate managers such as John Patterson at National Cash Register. Friedman shows how sellers evolved in the 19th and early 20th centuries from peddlers, hawkers, and drummers to modern salesmen with their emphasis on order, control, efficiency, professionalism, improved customer relations, industrial psychology, mass consumerism, and scientific salesmanship. He also considers gender issues, e.g., how men dominated sales, shunting women to less prestigious positions such as door-to-door sales agents. A worthy purchase for academic and public libraries with business collections. Call Number: HC110.C6 B87 2010 (Library West) ISBN: 9780230616844.PalgraveMacmillan, 207p. Publication Date: 2010 The total number of affluent ethnic households in the United States in now estimated at over 1.3 million, the buying power of affluent African Americans (referred to as AAA’s in this book) is currently $87.3 billion. It would be foolish in the extreme not to tap into this rich buying segment, yet that is exactly what the marketing arms of companies do all too frequently. Sometimes this is because the executives in a particular marketing department are unaware of the potential that exists within this segment, sometimes it’s because they are baffled about how to reach out to this segment and sometimes it’s because they think they lack the money or resources to make a credible effort at adding a whole new segment. And sometimes, unfortunately, it’s because they have reached out in the past but their efforts were unappealing to the AAA audience. Black is the New Green will show you how to attract this lucrative market and create brand loyalty and product bonding among affluent African Americans in an affordable and measurable way. Call Number: HN59 .G55 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0743229479.FreePress, 367p.$27.50. Publication Date: 2004 The historian/host of the History Channel's History Center, Gillion chronicles post-WWII America through the lives of six boomers who represent different strands of baby boom culture which Gillon asserts has become synonymous with American culture. Four of his subjects have achieved national prominence: Bobby Muller, who founded Vietnam Veterans of America; lawyer and cancer survivor Fran Visco, who became president of the National Breast Cancer Coalition; Marshall Herskovitz, developer of the seminal television series Thirtysomething; and architect Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, who created the avant-garde Florida community of Seaside. Together with Donny Deutsch, a self-made advertising mogul, and AlbertaWilson, who overcame substance abuse and poverty to become a Christian educator, they provide the focus for a look at the Vietnam War, the women's movement and the attraction of some boomers to fundamentalist religion. What Gillon uniquely accomplishes is to illuminate how pervasive boomer influence continues to be in the 21st century. Call Number: HF5415.3 .T7 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 1403946418.PalgraveMacmillan, 258p.$95.00. Publication Date: 2004 Customers use mental short cuts when making product and brand choices. Learning about the automatic thoughts that your brand evokes in the minds of customers provides valuable information. Brand Choice provides tools for revealing customers' automatic thoughts and how such thoughts can be used to accurately forecast brand choice. This book advocates finding out what attributes-benefits are evoked by your brand and your brand's competing brands, rather than asking 'What does your brand evoke?'." Strategic thinking by customers includes their focusing attention on how, when, where, and why they buy and use brands and products. This book advocates the long interview method and never using mail survey questionnaires to reveal customers' strategic thinking. The book gives nuance, details, and case examples on how to accurately reveal what customers really think and do. Call Number: HF5415.1 .L48 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0761916962.SagePublications, 590p.$97.95. Publication Date: 1999 Reprints 54 articles published between the middle 1950s to the middle 1990s by Levy (marketing, U. of Arizona), whose work has influenced executives since the late 1940s. They cover a life in the marketplace, marketing, products and brands, the symbolic nature of marketing, consumer analysis and observations, and qualitative methods of marketing study. Rook (clinical marketing, U. of Southern California) selected the articles and provides a substantial introduction. The collection is a useful reference for professionals, teachers, and students. Call Number: HF5415.32 .L557 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9780385531733. Crown Business, 291p. $25.00 Publication Date: 2011 Marketing visionary Martin Lindstrom has been on the front lines of the branding wars for over twenty years. Here, he turns the spotli Fght on his own industry, drawing on all he has witnessed behind closed doors, exposing for the first time the full extent of the psychological tricks and traps that companies devise to win our hard-earned dollars. This searing expose introduces a new class of tricks, techniques, and seductions – the Hidden Persuaders of the 21st century- and shows why they are more insidious and pervasive than ever. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 W58 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 9781419505201.KaplanPub., 179p.$25.00 Publication Date: 2006 Marketing experts Robert Witeck and Wesley Combs distill breaking research trends with their partner Harris Interactive and apply more than a decade’s client experience into the core insights of Business Inside Out. While other books have focused on specific dimensions of the gay market—political concerns, social issues, and identity—this is the first-ever resource to provide a complete, real-world approach to targeting this valuable segment. From building a strong business case and developing winning strategies, to designing the right media mix and measuring results, Business Inside Out gives business professionals the knowledge they need to capture the loyalty and wallets of customers in this powerful and still emerging niche market. Call Number: HC110.C6 S46 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0231127340.ColumbiaUniversityPress, 311p.$35.00 Publication Date: 2004 Over the past decade, a variety of national corporations, including Subaru, Tanqueray, Abercrombie & Fitch, and American Express, have pitched their products at a new consumer niche: the gay market. In this hard-hitting book that refutes conventional wisdom, Katherine Sender argues that marketing has been integral in the constitution of a GLBT community and identity since the 1970s and has had significant impact on the visibility of gays and lesbians in the broader society." "Advocates and critics have looked at the boom in the gay market with both excitement and trepidation. For some, gay and lesbian themes in advertising represent mainstream validation of their existence, while others are concerned that marketers have misrepresented the gay community by depicting it as white, male, and wealthy. Critics also suggest that the phenomenon of gay consumerism runs counter to progressive gay activism. Sender expands on these concerns, arguing that what is at stake is not only acceptance and civil rights but also the very meaning of GLBT sexual identification. The book analyzes and gives an insider's account of how marketers conceive of gay and lesbian consumers and articulate the "gayness" of certain products. Buyer Personas: How to Gain insight into Your Customer's Expectations, Align Your Marketing Strategies, and Win More Business by Adele Revella Call Number: HF5415.32 .R48 2015 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9781118961506 Publication Date: Wiley, 2015. $25.00 Named one of Fortune Magazine's "5 Best Business Books" in 2015 See your offering through the buyer's eyes for more effective marketing Buyer Personas is the marketer's actionable guide to learning what your buyer wants and how they make decisions. Written by the world's leading authority on buyer personas, this book provides comprehensive coverage of a compelling new way to conduct buyer studies, plus practical advice on adopting the buyer persona approach to measurably improve marketing outcomes. Readers will learn how to segment their customer base, investigate each customer type, and apply a radically more relevant process of message selection, content creation, and distribution through the channels that earn the buyers' trust. Rather than relying on generic data or guesswork to determine what the buyer wants, the buyer persona approach allows companies to ask the buyer directly and obtain more precise and actionable guidance. Buyer personas are composite pictures of the people who buy solutions, services or products, crafted through a unique type of interview with the people the marketer wants to influence. This book provides step-by-step guidance toward implementing the buyer persona approach, with the advice of an internationally-respected expert. Learn who buys what, and why Understand your buyer's goals and how you can address them Tailor your marketing activities to your buyer's expectations See the purchase through the customer's eyes A recent services industry survey reports that 52 percent of their marketers have buyer personas, and another 28 percent expect to add them within the next two years - but only 14.6 percent know how to use them. To avoid letting such a valuable tool go to waste, access the expert perspective in Buyer Personas, and craft a more relevant marketing strategy. Call Number: HC110.C6 G56 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9780226298658.UniversityofChicagoPress, 403p.$45.00 Publication Date: 2009 Far from ephemeral consumer trends, buying green and avoiding sweatshop-made clothing represent the most recent points on a centuries-long continuum of American consumer activism. A sweeping and definitive history of this political tradition, Buying Power traces its lineage back to our nation’s founding, revealing that Americans used purchasing power to support causes and punish enemies long before the word boycott even entered our lexicon. A powerful corrective to the notion that a consumer society degrades and diminishes its citizenry, Buying Power provides a new lens through which to view the history of the United States. Call Number: HF5415.12615.L56 2010 (Library West) ISBN: 9780385523899.BroadwayBooks, 272p.$15.00 Publication Date: 2010 How much do we know about why we buy? What truly influences our decisions in today's message-cluttered world? An eye-grabbing advertisement, a catchy slogan, an infectious jingle? Or do our buying decisions take place below the surface, so deep within our subconscious minds, we're barely aware of them? In BUYOLOGY, Lindstrom, who was voted one of Time Magazine's most influential people of 2009, presents the astonishing findings from his groundbreaking, three-year, seven-million-dollar neuromarketing study, a cutting-edge experiment that peered inside the brains of 2,000 volunteers from all around the world as they encountered various ads, logos, commercials, brands, and products. His startling results shatter much of what we have long believed about what seduces our interest and drives us to buy. Consumer Behavior Books: C Call Number: HF5430.3 .U53 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0743235916.Simon&Schuster, 227p.$24.95. Publication Date: 2004 Paco Underhill, the Margaret Mead of shopping and author of the huge international bestseller Why We Buy, now takes us to the mall, a place every American has experienced and has an opinion about. The result is a bright, ironic, funny, and shrewd portrait of the mall — America's gift to personal consumption, its most powerful icon of global commercial muscle, the once new and now aging national town square, the place where we convene in our leisure time. It's about the shopping mall as an exemplar of our commercial and social culture, the place where our young people have their first taste of social freedom and where the rest of us compare notes. Call of the Mall examines how we use the mall, what it means, why it works when it does, and why it sometimes doesn't. Call Number: HF5822 .C43 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0876503830.PierianPress, 669p.$145.00 Publication Date: 1999 Children have been studied and considered as a potential consumer market since the mid-1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the research on children focused heavily on television and its effects. In the last two decades, as the economic significance of children as consumers has grown, manufacturers and retailers alike have reexamined their attention to children. During this same time period, the research on children in the consumer role has dramatically expanded in volume and variety. Research studies covered in this volume were selected from a wide range of sources, including professional journals, books, and trade papers. They provide a description of both the factors affecting the consumer behavior of youth and their actual consumption behavior and preferences. Approximately 220 different journals and proceedings are represented in the 836 summaries included in the bibliography. Call Number: HF5415.32 .C47 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 8763001004.CopenhagenBusinessSchoolPress, 301p.$31.00 Publication Date: 2002 Children - Consumption, Advertising and Media is a comprehensive collection of the newest international research on children and advertising.The book aims to present recent studies by researchers working in the field of consumption, advertising and media in relation to children. The purpose is to shed light on the relationship between consumer behavior, advertising and communication in general with a special focus on children and adolescents. The book is suitable for undergraduate as well as graduate studies. It is also relevant to any person who has an interest in the development of children as consumers, their consumption and not least their relationship to advertising and media. Call Number: HG3756.U54 G45 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9781576603253.BloombergPress, 276p.$27.95 Publication Date: 2009 Sometime in the 1970s and 1980s, the use of credit cards, which had begun as a convenience, began to grow into an addiction. Collateral Damaged: The Marketing of Consumer Debt to America explains how a nation of savers became a nation of consumers and how Wall Street used consumers' addiction to spending to create the "toxic securities" that threaten to bring about the collapse of the global economy. Geisst looks at the policy implications of the credit crisis and describes how the United States can get its fiscal house in order. Call Number: HD60 .E38 2012 e-Book (MyiLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 9780520266520.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,222p. Publication Date: 2012 Pink ribbons, red dresses, and greenwashing--American corporations are scrambling to tug at consumer heartstrings through cause-related marketing, corporate social responsibility, and ethical branding, tactics that can increase sales by as much as 74%. Harmless? Marketing insider Mara Einstein demonstrates in this penetrating analysis why the answer is a resounding "No!" In Compassion, Inc. she outlines how cause-related marketing desensitizes the public by putting a pleasant face on complex problems. She takes us through the unseen ways in which large sums of consumer dollars go into corporate coffers rather than helping the less fortunate. She also discusses companies that truly do make the world a better place, and those that just pretend to. The Confidence Game: Why We Fall for It...Every Time by Maria Konnikova Call Number: HV6691 .K66 2016 (Library West, Pre-Order) ISBN: 9780525427414 Publication Date: Viking, 2012. $28.00 A compelling investigation into the minds, motives, and methods of con artists--and the people who fall for their cons over and over again. While cheats and swindlers may be a dime a dozen, true conmen--the Bernie Madoffs, the Jim Bakkers, the Lance Armstrongs--are elegant, outsized personalities, artists of persuasion and exploiters of trust. How do they do it? Why are they successful? And what keeps us falling for it, over and over again? These are the questions that journalist and psychologist Maria Konnikova tackles in her mesmerizing new book. From multimillion-dollar Ponzi schemes to small-time frauds, Konnikova pulls together a selection of fascinating stories to demonstrate what all cons share in common, drawing on scientific, dramatic, and psychological perspectives. Insightful and gripping, the book brings readers into the world of the con, examining the relationship between artist and victim. The Confidence Game asks not only why we believe con artists, but also examines the very act of believing and how our sense of truth can be manipulated by those around us. Consumed Nostalgia: Memory in the Age of Fast Capitalism by Gary S. Cross Call Number: HC110.C6 C763 2015 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9780231167581 Publication Date: Columbia, 2015. $35.00 Nostalgia isn't what it used to be. For many of us, modern memory is shaped less by a longing for the social customs and practices of the past or for family heirlooms handed down over generations and more by childhood encounters with ephemeral commercial goods and fleeting media moments in our age of fast capitalism. This phenomenon has given rise to communities of nostalgia whose members remain loyal to the toys, television, and music of their youth. They return to the theme parks and pastimes of their upbringing, hoping to reclaim that feeling of childhood wonder or teenage freedom. Consumed nostalgia took definite shape in the 1970s, spurred by an increase in the turnover of consumer goods, the commercialization of childhood, and the skillful marketing of nostalgia. Gary Cross immerses readers in this fascinating and often delightful history, unpacking the cultural dynamics that turn pop tunes into oldies and childhood toys into valuable commodities. He compares the limited appeal of heritage sites such as Colonial Williamsburg to the perpetually attractive power of a Disney theme park and reveals how consumed nostalgia shapes how we cope with accelerating change. Today nostalgia can be owned, collected, and easily accessed, making it less elusive and often more fun than in the past, but its commercialization has sometimes limited memory and complicated the positive goals of recollection. By unmasking the fascinating, idiosyncratic character of modern nostalgia, Cross helps us better understand the rituals of recall in an age of fast capitalism. Call Number: HF5415.33.E85 A58 1998 (Library West) ISBN: 0471975133.JohnWiley, 619p.$49.95 Publication Date: 1998 Consumer Behaviour is the first truly European consumer behaviour textbook, placing the subject clearly within its economic, psychological, sociological and historical context. The authors provide greater insight for readers by examining both the determinants and the consequences of consumer decision making. Antonides and Van Raaij include numerous examples, cases and sociodemographic data and provide complete coverage of core topics together with important new ones.The authors explore the full consumption cycle, not only the first stages of orientation and procurement, but also the usage and disposal of products. Consumer Behaviour is ideal for both undergraduate and postgraduate students. It will also benefit non-European students who need to gain a wider understanding of consumer behaviour. Marketers, market researchers, public relations officers and government officials dealing with consumer policy will also find it extremely useful. Call Number: HF5415.32 .M66 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0761926682.SagePublications, 345p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2004 Consumer behavior is not converging across countries, argues this textbook, placing the question of cultural difference at the center of examinations of purchasing behavior. It bases its discussion of culture and consumer behavior on a model of national culture that distinguishes five dimensions for understanding culture: power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation. Call Number: HF5415.32 .S6 2011 (Library West and Marston Science Library) ISBN: 0131404067.Ninthedition,PrenticeHallPress,654p.$198.67 Publication Date: 2011 Solomon goes beyond the discussion of why people buy things and explores how products, services, and consumption activities contribute to shape people’s social experiences. Social networking, sensory marketing, illusion of truth effect, interactive mobile marketing, cross-cultural value differences, impression management, doppelganger brand image, red campaign, CSR, low literate consumer, crowdsourcing, and multigenerational marketing. For marketing professionals to understand the latest trends in consumer behavior. Call Number: HF5415.33.A78 S38 1998 (Library West) ISBN: 0814781144.NewYorkUniversityPress, 275p.$35.00 Publication Date: 1998 Asia currently accounts for a quarter of the world economy and half of the world's population. Few international companies can afford to ignore a market of such size and importance. Yet despite the centrality of Asia as a market, there exists a remarkable dearth of marketing theory specific to Asia. Cultural differences strongly influence consumer behavior. In the West, an effective brand name will be short, distinctive, memorable, and indicative of the product's functions. In Asia, however, a strong belief in luck and fate means that additional qualities, such as whether the characters which make up a product name are "lucky" ones, has a significant effect on brand attitude. Successful sales and marketing strategies in Asia must be rooted in an understanding of the cultural differences which affect Asian consumers' buying patterns. Consumer Behavior in Asia provides an invaluable guide to Western companies seeking to maximize their marketing success in Asia. Drawing on illustrations from a variety of Asian markets, the volume outlines the differences between Asian and Western cultures along cultural dimensions such as religion, tradition, and philosophy, explaining the effect such differences have on communication styles, brand loyalty, perceptions of products offered, and effective advertising methods. Call Number: HF5415.32 .F75 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0415924561.Routledge, 284p.$19.95 Publication Date: 1999 Despite the increasing occurrence of consumer boycotts, little has been written about this form of social and economic protest. This timely volume fills the knowledge gap by examining boycotts both historically and currently. Drawing on both published and unpublished material as well as personal interviews with boycott groups and their targets, Monroe Friedman discusses different types of boycotts-from their historical focus on labor and economic concerns to the more recent inclusion of issues such as minority rights, animal welfare, and environmental protection. He also documents the shift in strategic emphasis from the marketplace (cutting consumer sales) to the media (securing news coverage to air criticism of a targeted firm). In turn, these changes in boycott substance and style offer insights into larger upheavals in the social and economic fabric of 20th century America. Call Number: HC79.C6 G665 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 1576079759.ABC-CLIO,251p.$45.00 Publication Date: 2003 Problems and crises. Analyses and answers. Contemporary World Issues explores--topic by topic--the critical challenges facing America and the world in the 21st century. 24-hour cable news. Millions of Internet sites. Information overload. How can we sort through the information? Assess the analyses? Trust the sources? Contemporary World Issues provides a simple solution -- informed and readable authors offering concise yet thorough discussions of today's most talked-about topics as they affect America and the world. Exploring such diverse subjects as tobacco and terrorism, rainforests and religion, affirmative action and urban sprawl, Contemporary World Issues provides the historical background, the contemporary context, and the resources for further research. Exhaustive, concise, accessible, accurate, and up-to-date. Call Number: HF5415.3 .S8 2001 (Library West) ISBN: 0877572976.2ndedition,AmericanMarketingEdition,233p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2002 Consumer Panels is the definitive work on the topic. By integrating cutting-edge academic research with global best practices, Consumer Panels provides data-driven tips on reducing reactivity and burnout, improving recruitment and retention, and cutting costs while increasing data quality. In addition, the book provides research-based guidance on reducing biases in electronic panels and on anticipating future developments in panel research. For expert market researchers, it provides new tips, ideas, and state-of-the-art innovations for leveraging both online and offline panels. For brand managers, it provides clear guidance on how to better understand consumers with less cost, time, and effort. For academics, it provides advice on how to develop and use convenience panels to answer difficult questions about purchase trends and consumption patterns. Call Number: HC110.C6 C574 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0801484863.CornellUniversityPress,420p.$24.95 Publication Date: 1999 Consumption has often been called America's true national pastime. From the earliest European explorers trading with Native Americans to today's Internet shoppers, consumerism has driven American society. Until recent years, however, consumerism has received little serious attention from historians and other scholars. This welcome volume offers the most comprehensive and incisive exploration of American consumer history to date. The first book on this topic to span the four centuries from the colonial era to the present, and the first to propose theoretical frameworks, the volume brings consumer society to the center of American history. Indeed, its authors demonstrate the many ways their research enhances knowledge of a broad range of historical topics, such as politics, labor ideology, immigrant life, and race, gender, and class relations. By including types of consumer studies which are seldom linked, this volume offers both a basis for historical synthesis and a springboard for further inquiry. Call Number: HF5415.32 .C65926 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 9780750680240ButterworthHeinemann,339p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2007 Consumer Tribes are all the rage. Across the landscape of global business and throughout the Internet, the impassioned power of Consumer Tribes is being recognized and channeled into new forms of promotion and new businesses. Whether you are a consumer researcher, a sociologist, a marketer, a cultural trend spotter, or just an interested observer, you will benefit from understanding the intricacies of today's communal consumer culture. A powerful resource, Consumer Tribes presents cutting edge research that informs while it inspires. You hold in your hands the first book to carefully examine this global phenomenon. Call Number: HF5415.32.S18 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9781616144296.Prometheus,$25.00 Publication Date: 2011 In this highly informative and entertaining book, Dr. Gad Saad, the founder of the vibrant new field of evolutionary consumption, illuminates the relevance of our biological heritage to our daily lives as consumers. While culture is important, Dr. Saad shows that innate evolutionary forces deeply influence the foods we eat, the gifts we offer, the cosmetics and clothing styles we choose to make ourselves more attractive to potential mates, and even the cultural products that stimulate our imaginations (such as art, music, and religion). The Consuming Instinct demonstrates that most acts of consumption can be mapped onto four key Darwinian drives—namely, survival (we prefer foods high in calories); reproduction (we use products as sexual signals); kin selection (we naturally exchange gifts with family members); and reciprocal altruism (we enjoy offering gifts to close friends). For anyone interested in the biological basis of human behavior or simply in what makes consumers tick—marketing professionals, advertisers, psychology mavens, and consumers themselves—The Consuming Instinct is a fascinating read. Cool: How the Brain's Hidden Quest for Cool Drives Our Economy and Shapes Our World by Steven Quartz; Anette Asp Call Number: HF5415.32 .Q37 2015 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9780374129187 Publication Date: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2015. $26.00 If you have ever wondered why SUVs replaced minivans, how one rap song turned the cognac industry upside down, or what gives Levi's jeans their iconic allure, look no further-in Cool, Steven Quartz and Anette Asp finally explain the fascinating science behind unexpected trends and enduring successes. We live in a world of conspicuous consumption, where the clothes we wear, the cars we drive, and the food we eat lead double lives: they don't merely satisfy our needs; they also communicate our values, identities, and aspirations. In Beverly Hills, tourists flock to the famous Rodeo Drive-not to shop, but simply to take photographs of themselves in front of luxury stores. And for one week in August, hundreds of thousands of HarleyDavidson fans from all over the world descend on the remote town of Sturgis, South Dakota, and engulf the otherwise sleepy hamlet in the deafening roar of motorcycle engines. Why do brands inspire such devotion? Quartz and Asp bring together groundbreaking findings in neuroscience, economics, and evolutionary biology to present a new understanding of why we consume and how our concepts of what is "cool"-be it designer jeans, smartphones, or craft beer-help drive the global economy. The authors highlight the underlying neurological and cultural processes that contribute to our often unconscious decision making, explaining how we're able to navigate the supermarket on autopilot for certain items and yet arrive at the checkout counter with a basket full of products picked up on the spur of the moment. And they explore the opposite side of the consumer equation-the "choice architects" who design store interiors and the "coolhunters" who scour Berlin and Tokyo on the lookout for the latest trends. Through a novel combination of cultural and economic history and in-depth studies of the brain, Cool puts forth a provocative theory of consumerism that reveals the crucial missing links in an understanding of our spending habits: our brain's status-seeking "social calculator" and an instinct to rebel that fuels our dislike of being subordinated by others. Quartz and Asp show how these ancient motivations make us natural-born consumers and how they sparked the emergence of "cool consumption"in the middle of the twentieth century, creating new lifestyle choices and routes to happiness. Examining how cool was reshaped in the 1990s by a changing society and the Internet, they unpack the social motivations behind today's hip, ethical consumption, arguing that we should embrace, rather than deny, the power of consumerism. Taking us from Norman Mailer to normcore, Cool is surprising at every turn, and will forever change the way you think about money, status, desire, happiness, and choice. Call Number: HF5415.32 .C73 2012 e-book (MyiLibrary) ISBN: 9780765629647.M.E.Sharpe,331p.,$44.95 Publication Date: 2012 Filled with solid, actionable information and advice, this unique handbook focuses on how knowledge of the principles of consumer psychology can be used to improve managerial decision making and organizational performance. The contributing authors offer a set of managerial rules for action that have been distilled from reviews of a wide range of expert research. The book contains systematic, prescriptive managerial advice based on state-of-the-art knowledge regarding how consumers think and choose. The chapters cover fundamental topics, such as new product management, marketing mix strategy, marketing communications and advertising, social media, and experiential marketing. Call Number: HC79.C6 M384 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 0253345669.IndianaUniversityPress, 226p.$19.95 Publication Date: 2005 A follow-up to Grant McCracken's groundbreaking Culture and Consumption, this new book trades the usual platitudes about the consumer society for a more detailed, exacting anthropological treatment. Each section of the book pairs a brief essay with an academic article. The essay is designed for a quick, provocative glimpse of the topic; the article provides a deeper anthropological treatment. The book opens with a broadside against the now thoroughly conventionalized attack on the consumer culture. Essays follow on homes, cars, people, and social mobility; celebrities, consumerism, and self-invention; museums and the power of objects; the anthropology of advertising; and marketing, meaning management, and value. Like McCracken's previous volume, this new book is an engaging, informative, and eye-opening foray into modern consumer culture. Call Number: HC79.C6 M385 1988 (Library West) ISBN: 0253315263.IndianaUniversityPress, 174p.$17.95 Publication Date: 1988 This provocative book takes a refreshing new view of the culture of consumption. Mc Cracken examines the interplay of culture and consumer behavior from the anthropologist's point of view and provides new insights into the way we view ourselves and our society. Consumer Behavior Books: D - F Call Number: HF5415.32 .T945 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9780300165012.YaleUniversityPress, 234 p., $28.00 Publication Date: 2012 The Internet is often hyped as a means to enhanced consumer power: a hypercustomized media world where individuals exercise unprecedented control over what they see and do. That is the scenario media guru Nicholas Negroponte predicted in the 1990s, with his hypothetical online newspaper The Daily Me—and it is one we experience now in daily ways. But, as media expert Joseph Turow shows, the customized media environment we inhabit today reflects diminished consumer power. Not only ads and discounts but even news and entertainment are being customized by newly powerful media agencies on the basis of data we don’t know they are collecting and individualized profiles we don’t know we have. Little is known about this new industry: how is this data being collected and analyzed? And how are our profiles created and used? Drawing on groundbreaking research, including interviews with industry insiders, this important book shows how advertisers have come to wield such power over individuals and media outlets—and what can be done to stop it. Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World by Bruce Schneier Call Number: HM846 .S362 2015 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9780393244816 Publication Date: W.W. Norton, 2015. $27.95 Your cell phone provider tracks your location and knows who's with you. Your online and in-store purchasing patterns are recorded, and reveal if you're unemployed, sick, or pregnant. Your e-mails and texts expose your intimate and casual friends. Google knows what you're thinking because it saves your private searches. Facebook can determine your sexual orientation without you ever mentioning it. The powers that surveil us do more than simply store this information. Corporations use surveillance to manipulate not only the news articles and advertisements we each see, but also the prices we're offered. Governments use surveillance to discriminate, censor, chill free speech, and put people in danger worldwide. And both sides share this information with each other or, even worse, lose it to cybercriminals in huge data breaches. Much of this is voluntary: we cooperate with corporate surveillance because it promises us convenience, and we submit to government surveillance because it promises us protection. The result is a mass surveillance society of our own making. But have we given up more than we've gained? In Data and Goliath, security expert Bruce Schneier offers another path, one that values both security and privacy. He shows us exactly what we can do to reform our government surveillance programs and shake up surveillance-based business models, while also providing tips for you to protect your privacy every day. You'll never look at your phone, your computer, your credit cards, or even your car in the same way again. Call Number: HD9999.L852 T46 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 9781594201295.PenguinPress, 375p.$27.95 Publication Date: 2007 Once luxury was available only to the rarefied and aristocratic world of old money and royalty. It offered a history of tradition, superior quality, and a pampered buying experience. Today, however, luxury is simply a product packaged and sold by multibillion-dollar global corporations focused on growth, visibility, brand awareness, advertising, and, above all, profits. Award-winning journalist Dana Thomas digs deep into the dark side of the luxury industry to uncover all the secrets that Prada, Gucci, and Burberry don't want us to know. Deluxe is an uncompromising look behind the glossy façade that will enthrall anyone interested in fashion, finance, or culture. Call Number: HB801 .S56 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9780307887320.CrownBusiness,357p.,$15.88 Publication Date: 2011 In Demand, Adrian Slywotzky provides a radically new way to think about demand, with a big idea and a host of practical applications—not just for people in business but also for social activists, government leaders, non-profit managers, and other would-be innovators. To succeed in their various missions, all these groups need to master such ground-breaking concepts as the hassle map (and the secrets of fixing it); the curse of the incomplete product (and how to avoid it); why “very good” does not equal “magnetic”; how what you don’t see can make or break a product; the art of transforming fence sitters into customers; why there’s no such thing as an average customer; and why real demand comes from a 45-degree angle of improvement (rather than the five degrees most organizations manage). Call Number: HC110.C6 W44 1998 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0814792901.NewYorkUniversityPress, 195p. $18.95 Publication Date: 1998 Capitalism and slavery stand as the two economic phenomena that have most clearly defined the United States. Yet, despite African Americans' nearly $500 billion annual spending power, surprisingly little attention has been devoted to the ways U.S. businesses have courted black dollars in post-slavery America. Robert E. Weems, Jr., presents the first fully integrated history of black consumerism over the course of the last century. Desegregating the Dollar takes us through the "blaxploitation" film industry, the vast market for black personal care products, and the insidious exploitation of black urban misery by liquor and cigaretteadvertisers. Robert E. Weems, Jr., has given us the definitive account of the complicated relationship between African Americans, capitalism, and consumerism. Call Number: HC79.C6 J64 2004 e-book (Books 24x7 and Library West) ISBN: 081440815X.AMACOM,224p.$23.00 Publication Date: 2004 An Oregon marketer and a Vermont writer on the women's market dispel stereotypes about women's buying habits, in examining how to develop reality-based strategies for reaching this key market. Rather than resorting to pink packaging that women in focus groups nixed, marketers are advised on how to tailor "brand experiences" to meet the needs of women in specific demographic niches. Several recommended readings and Web resources are listed. The Elgar Companion to Consumer Research and Economic Psychology by Edited by Peter E. Earl and Simon Kemp Call Number: HF5415.32 .E48 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 1858985544.EdwardElgar, 649p.$200.00 Publication Date: 1998 This major new reference book provides an authoritative analysis and survey of consumer research and economic psychology. It provides an international, in-depth overview of the present state of knowledge and theory which will be indispensable to students, researchers and practitioners. The companion presents over 100 specially commissioned entries on important topics in consumer research and economic psychology from behaviourism and brand loyalty to trust and the psychology of tourism. Leading scholars in the fields provide stimulating insights into the area as well as summarizing existing knowledge. The book will ably meet the needs of undergraduate and graduate students in business administration, economics, marketing and psychology, as well as informing researchers and practitioners in those disciplines. Call Number: HF5415.32 .C45 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 075067976X.ElsevierButterworthHeinemann,165p.$49.95 Publication Date: 2005 Arjun Chaudhuri offers a thorough review of the important role of emotions in his book entitled Emotion and Reason in Consumer Behavior. The text describes the complex interface between emotion, reason, and subsequent consumer behavior, including the relationship of emotion and reason with other important concepts like involvement, learning, perceived risk, and trust. The Chaudhuri text also offers a complete review of the theoretical underpinnings of emotion, as well as insights regarding measurement. As such, the text provides considerable guidance for academics teaching consumer behavior and/or interested in research areas in which emotional effects are prevalent. Call Number: HF5415.32 .L83 2001 (Library West) ISBN: 0226534332.UniversityofChicagoPress,209p.$18.00 Publication Date: 2001 Decision-making can be difficult and often results in necessary trade-offs, e.g., safety versus price in the purchasing of an automobile. This work provides a model of trade-off difficulty, focusing on its antecedents and consequences. The authors advance a new framework for the integration of the emotional and cognitive aspects of decision-making and argue that consumers perceive and appraise their choices in light of their goals and potential coping strategies. Call Number: HF5415.32.H37 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 8763001985.CopenhagenBusinessSchoolPress,2007.462p.$80.00 "Emotions, Advertising and Consumer Choice" focuses on recent neurological and psychological insights - originating from brain scanning or neurological experiments - on basic emotional processes in the brain and their role in controlling human behaviour. These insights are translated by the authors to cover the behaviour of ordinary individuals in everyday life.The book looks at these developments in the light of traditional cognitive theories of consumer choice and it discusses the implications for advertising and other communication testing. The book offers a first time thorough review of contemporary thinking in the field of consumer behaviour and an exhaustive amount of empirical evidence to support the authors' notion of an emerging paradigm of emotionally based consumer choice where mental brand equity becomes a central phenomenon. The empirical evidence is to a large extent developed on a questionnaire-based measurement method, pioneered by the authors and by researchers at the Center for Marketing Communication at the Copenhagen Business School. The Empire of Things: How We Became a World of Consumers, From the Fifteenth Century to the Twenty-First by HarperCollins, 2016. $40.00 Call Number: HC79.C6T74 2016 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9780062456328 Publication Date: 2016-03-29 What we consume has become a central—perhaps the central—feature of modern life. Our economies live or die by spending, we increasingly define ourselves by our possessions, and this ever-richer lifestyle has had an extraordinary impact on our planet. How have we come to live with so much stuff, and how has this changed the course of history? In Empire of Things, Frank Trentmann unfolds the extraordinary story of our modern material world, from Renaissance Italy and late Ming China to today’s global economy. While consumption is often portrayed as a recent American export, this monumental and richly detailed account shows that it is in fact a truly international phenomenon with a much longer and more diverse history. Trentmann traces the influence of trade and empire on tastes, as formerly exotic goods like coffee, tobacco, Indian cotton and Chinese porcelain conquered the world, and explores the growing demand for home furnishings, fashionable clothes and convenience that transformed private and public life. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought department stores, credit cards and advertising, but also the rise of the ethical shopper, new generational identities and, eventually, the resurgence of the Asian consumer. With an eye to the present and future, Frank Trentmann provides a long view on the global challenges of our relentless pursuit of more—from waste and debt to stress and inequality. A masterpiece of research and storytelling many years in the making, Empire of Things recounts the epic history of the goods that have seduced, enriched and unsettled our lives over the past six hundred years. Call Number: HF5415.2 .M3164 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 0761969462.SagePublications, 252p.$34.95 Publication Date: 2006 Ethnography, with its focus on observed everyday behavior, is quickly becoming the method of choice to identify unmet needs, stimulate novel insights, create strategies and develop new ideas. Hy Mariampolski, author of Qualitative Market Research: A Comprehensive Guide (Sage, 2001) again takes readers on a voyage of discovery in Ethnography for Marketers. These two companion works are essential guides for marketers seeking rich insights into their customers' thoughts and behaviors. Call Number: HF5415.33.E85 E95 1997 (Library West) ISBN: 0135523826.PrenticeHall, 432p.$35.00 Publication Date: 1998 This unique collection of the most well-known and influential consumer behaviour papers from the last 20 years represents the richness, originality and variety of studies of consumer behaviour on the European continent. Call Number: HF5415.32 .S2 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 0805851496.LawrenceErlbaumAssociates, 339p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2007 In the Evolutionary Bases of Consumption by Gad Saad applies Darwinian principles in understanding our consumption patterns and the products of popular culture that most appeal to individuals. The first and only scholarly work to do so, this is a captivating study of the adaptive reasons behind our behaviors, cognitions, emotions, and perceptions. This lens of analysis suggests how we come to make selections such as choosing a mate, the foods we eat, the gifts that we offer, and more. The Evolutionary Bases of Consumption will appeal to evolutionists who desire to explore new areas wherein evolutionary theory can be applied; consumer and marketing scholars who wish to learn about the ways in which biological-and evolutionary-based theorizing can be infused into the consumer behavior/marketing/advertising disciplines; as well as other interdisciplinary scholars interested in gaining knowledge about the power of evolutionary theory in explaining a wide range of behavioral phenomena. Call Number: HM826b.B47 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 0520246268.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,222p.$19.95 Publication Date: 2006 While fads such as hula hoops or streaking are usually dismissed as silly enthusiasms, trends in institutions such as education, business, medicine, science, and criminal justice are often taken seriously, even though their popularity and usefulness is sometimes short-lived. Institutional fads such as open classrooms, quality circles, and multiple personality disorder are constantly making the rounds, promising astonishing new developments--novel ways of teaching reading or arithmetic, better methods of managing businesses, or improved treatments for disease. Some of these trends prove to be lasting innovations, but others--after absorbing extraordinary amounts of time and money--are abandoned and forgotten, soon to be replaced by other new schemes. In this pithy, intriguing, and often humorous book, Joel Best--author of the acclaimed Damned Lies and Statistics--explores the range of institutional fads, analyzes the features of our culture that foster them, and identifies the major stages of the fad cycle--emerging, surging, and purging. Deconstructing the ways that this system plays into our notions of reinvention, progress, and perfectibility, Flavors of the Month examines the causes and consequences of fads and suggests ways of fad-proofing our institutions. Call Number: HF5415.34 .S26 2010 (Library West) ISBN: 9780812242515.UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress, 218p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2010 What do consumers really want? In the mid-twentieth century, many marketing executives sought to answer this question by looking to the theories of Sigmund Freud and his followers. By the 1950s, Freudian psychology had become the adman's most powerful new tool, promising to plumb the depths of shoppers' subconscious minds to access the irrational desires beneath their buying decisions. That the unconscious was the key to consumer behavior was a new idea in the field of advertising, and its impact was felt beyond the commercial realm. Centered on the fascinating lives of the brilliant men and women who brought psychoanalytic theories and practices from Europe to Madison Avenue and, ultimately, to Main Street, Freud on Madison Avenue tells the story of how midcentury advertisers changed American culture. Paul Lazarsfeld, Herta Herzog, James Vicary, Alfred Politz, Pierre Martineau, and the father of motivation research, Viennese-trained psychologist Ernest Dichter, adapted techniques from sociology, anthropology, and psychology to help their clients market consumer goods. Many of these researchers had fled the Nazis in the 1930s, and their decidedly Continental and intellectual perspectives on secret desires and inner urges sent shockwaves through WASP-dominated postwar American culture and commerce. Consumer Behavior Books: G - H Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Societies in the Twentieth Century by Edited by Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern and Matthias Judt Call Number: HC110.C6 G48 1998 (Library West) ISBN: 0521622379.CambridgeUniversityPress, 477p.$26.66 Publication Date: 1998 The history of consumption is a prism through which many aspects of social and political life may be viewed. The essays in this collection represent a variety of approaches and raise such themes as consumption and democracy, the development of a global economy, the role of the state, the centrality of consumption to Cold War politics, the importance of the Second World War as a historical divide, the language of consumption, the contexts of locality, race, ethnicity, gender, and class, and the environmental consequences of twentieth-century consumer society. They explore the role of the historian as social, political, and moral critic. Unlike other studies of twentieth-century consumption, this book provides international comparisons. Call Number: HF5415.127 .M66 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 1412914752.2ndedition,Sage, 269p.$44.95 Publication Date: 2005 For international businesses seeking to communicate their message in various cultural contexts, this text offers information on cultural differences and similarities, as well as a structure for applying this knowledge to the management of branding and marketing. Mooij, a consultant based in the Netherlands, has studied the issues closely and discusses both theoretical and practical approaches, including the value paradox and marketing theory, global branding, cultural manifestations such as language and symbols, cross cultural value research, values and advertising, and values and strategy. This second edition contains new topics on the Internet, the media, and brand positioning, while redundant chapters have been omitted. As well, consumer behavior is discussed in more detail. Appended are Hofstede scores citing economic statistics for some 60 countries, and discussion and identification of various kinds of data sources. Call Number: HT151 .S262 2001 (Library West) ISBN: 0300084218.YaleUniversityPress,386p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2001 Ann Satterthwaite traces the history of shopping and considers its meaning and significance. According to Satterthwaite, shopping has become part of the American dream. To choose and to buy constitute not only a basic economic liberty but also the capacity to improve and transform ourselves. How we shop also reflects our culture, as disposable incomes have grown, women's roles have changed, and new styles of shopping and advertising have made their impact on an old adventure. But there is a downside. Shopping used to be a friendly business: shoppers and clerks knew each other, and the country crossroads stores and downtown markets were social as much as economic hubs. Shopping meshed with all aspects of civic life -- post offices, town halls, courts, and churches. In place of this almost vanished scene have come superstores and the franchises of international companies staffed by pressured clerks in featureless commercial wastelands. Shopping and community have been savagely divorced. However, shopping as a social plus need not be lost, says Satterthwaite. Examining trends in the United States and abroad, where new approaches to an old activity are strengthening its social and civic role, she states that shopping is more than ever a public concern with profound public impacts. Call Number: HF5415.32 .M375 2008 (Library West) ISBN: 0131357956.FTPress,191p.$24.99 Publication Date: 2008 In Habit, Dr. Neale Martin presents powerful new research that reveals how the mind actually works and explains in practical detail the implications of this new science for marketers and product developers. You'll learn why 50 years of marketing theory is deeply flawed, how your customers' unconscious minds thwart your marketing campaigns, and how to identify what customers really want when they don't even know. Martin explains how customer behavior actually changes the mind's neural connections and how companies can leverage this fact by refocusing on behavior, not on attitudes and beliefs. He offers a complete process for working with customers' unconscious and conscious minds together, to become your customer's habit, not just their choice. You'll even learn how to revamp organizational structures that undermine the promotion of customer habits. Using Martin's techniques, you can not only avoid marketing and product failures: you can finally achieve the twin holy grails of marketing: higher customer retention, and greater long-term profitability. Call Number: HF5415.32 .H363 2008eb e-book (MyiLibrary) ISBN: 9786611372248.LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1273 p. Publication Date: 2008 This new handbook, sponsored by the Society for Consumer Psychology, contains a series of original contributions in which top researchers in each area provide a succinct review of theory and research studies in consumer psychology and marketing, advertising and consumer behavior. Top scholars who have contributed to this handbook outline what they see as the major challenges and future research that is needed in their fields.This Handbook will be an excellent interface among many disciplines (e.g. Marketing, Psychology, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior) and will help students and researchers understand the psychological processes underlying consumer behavior. Call Number: HF5415.3 .B323 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 076191000X.2ndedition,SagePublications,537p.$79.95 Publication Date: 1999 Marketing scholars and marketing research practitioners will find this book useful. It offers an excellent sourcebook for a variety of scales, and the reviews of the scales are thoughtful and well crafted. The book includes many of the most widely used scales in the field. Its relatively modest price will also make it particularly attractive. This Second Edition of the highly successful Handbook of Marketing Scales is an essential, time-saving resource for all marketing professionals, researchers, and graduate students. After an exhaustive search of the field's major publications, they have included only those measures of most use to researchers. Call Number: HG179 .D8587 2013 (Library West) ISBN: 9781451665062.Simon&Schuster, 197 p., $25.00 Publication Date: 2013 If you think money can't buy happiness, you're not spending it right. Two rising stars in behavioral science explain how money can buy happiness. "Happy Money "explains why you can get more happiness for your money by following five principles, from choosing experiences over stuff to spending money on others. And the five principles can be used not only by individuals but by companies seeking to create happier employees and provide "happier products" to their customers. Elizabeth Dunn and Michael Norton show how companies from Google to Pepsi to Crate & Barrel have put these ideas into action. Along the way, the authors describe new research that reveals that luxury cars often provide no more pleasure than economy models, that commercials can actually enhance the enjoyment of watching television, and that residents of many cities frequently miss out on inexpensive pleasures in their hometowns. By the end of this book, readers will ask themselves one simple question whenever they reach for their wallets: Am I getting the biggest happiness bang for my buck? Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 K67 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 0750679034.Elsevier/ButterworthHeinemann,328p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2005 This book is a must read for not just those engaged in ethnic marketing but for all marketing professionals. Hispanic Marketing provides true insight into the Hispanic market and compelling rationale for addressing Hispanic consumers as part of any organized approach to marketing in the U.S. overall.The Korzennys provide us with salient information, and more importantly, tools and an approach, to unlock the full potential of the Hispanic consumer. Truly a breakthrough in enabling a comprehensive and meaningful understanding of this market. Call Number: HF5415.32 .F378 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 0976697343.ParamountMarket,132p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2006 Juan Faura, the author of PMP's bestselling The Whole Enchilada: Hispanic Marketing 101, presents a message that will be a wake-up call to all Hispanic-focused marketing and advertising agencies. Based on insights gathered from interviews with Hispanics from many different walks of life, in cities large and small, Hispanic Marketing Grows Up:-Explores 30 perceptions and realities that affect how you market to Hispanics.-Explains when and when not to use Spanglish in advertising.-Identifies 10 future trends that will affect the Hispanic consumer market.Faura's conversational style makes this a quick read--one loaded with insights, taken straight from Hispanic consumers' mouths to you. Call Number: HF5415.32 .Z35 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 1578518261.HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,323p.$29.05 Publication Date: 2003 Zaltman (business administration, Harvard Business School) draws upon such diverse disciplines as business theory, literary analysis, cognitive science, and sociology to explain how customers make buying decisions. Aimed at marketing professionals, the text describes ways to develop research questions that speak to the unconscious brain, accurately measure consumer reactions to marketing stimuli, and instill meaningful metaphoric images in brand communications. Call Number: HD69.T54 H665 2008 (Library West) ISBN: 9780880993371.W.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch,187p.$40.00 Publication Date: 2008 Economists have long been interested in the analysis of how people decide to spend their time. Up until recently, however, studies of this nature were limited by a lack of high-quality time-use data. In 2003, after years of study and preparation, BLS initiated the annual American Time Use Survey. This book offers contributions from a number of noted economists who exploit this new source of data to reveal findings that have numerous implications for the U.S. labor market. Call Number: HF5415.32 .M36 2013 (Books24x7 & MyiLibrary) ISBN: 9781118611319 Publication Date: Houghton Mifflin, 2013 Why we choose companies and brands in the same way that weunconsciously perceive, judge, and behave toward one another People everywhere describe their relationships with brands in adeeply personal way-we hate our banks, love our smartphones,and think the cable company is out to get us. What's actually goingon in our brains when we make these judgments? Through originalresearch, customer loyalty expert Chris Malone and top socialpsychologist Susan Fiske discovered that our perceptions arise fromspontaneous judgments on warmth and competence, the same twofactors that also determine our impressions of people. We seecompanies and brands the same way we automatically perceive, judge,and behave toward one another. As a result, to achieve sustainedsuccess, companies must forge genuine relationships with customers.And as customers, we have a right to expect relationalaccountability from the companies and brands we support. Applies the social psychology concepts of "warmth" (whatintentions others have toward us) and "competence" (how capablethey are of carrying out those intentions) to the way we perceiveand relate to companies and brands Features in-depth analyses of companies such as Hershey's,Domino's, Lululemon, Zappos, Amazon, Chobani, Sprint, and more Draws from original research, evaluating over 45 companies overthe course of 10 separate studies The Human Brand is essential reading for understandinghow and why we make the choices we do, as well as what it takes forcompanies and brands to earn and keep our loyalty in the digitalage. Consumer Behavior Books: I - K Call Number: HC79.C6 H55x 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 0060185112.HarperCollins,222p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2002 Choosing and using objects is a primal human activity, and I Want That! is nothing less than a portrait of humanity as the species that shops. It explores the history of acquisition -- finding, choosing, spending -- from our amber-coveting Neolithic forebears to Renaissance nobles who outfitted themselves for power to twenty-first-century bargain hunters looking for a good buy on eBay. I Want That! explores the minds of shoppers in the quest to nourish and feed fantasies, to define individuality, to provide for family, and to satisfy the needs for celebration, power, and choice -- all of which lead us to malls, boutiques, websites, and superstores. Call Number: BF774 .C53 2001 (Library West) ISBN: 9780205609994.5thedition,PearsonEducation, 259p.$28.30 Publication Date: 2009 What factors cause someone to say yes? And which techniques most effectively use these factors to bring about such compliance? In his best-selling book, Robert Cialdini, former salesperson, fund-raiser, and advertiser, and current professor of social psychology, examines the science and practice of persuasion and compliance. Praised for its enjoyable writing, practical suggestions, and scientifically documented content, prior editions have been widely read by business professionals, fund-raisers, and those interested in psychology. Call Number: HN65 .K43 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 0743227298.FreePress,353p.$26.00 Publication Date: 2003 One American in ten tells the other nine how to vote, where to eat, and what to buy. They are The Influentials Who are they? The most influential Americans -- the ones who tell their neighbors what to buy, which politicians to support, and where to vacation -- are not necessarily the people you'd expect. They are the 10 percent of Americans most engaged in their local communities...and they wield a huge amount of influence within those communities. They're the campaigners for open-space initiatives. They're church vestrymen and friends of the local public library. They're the Influentials...and whether or not they are familiar to you, they're very well known to the researchers at RoperASW. For decades, these researchers have been on a quest for marketing's holy grail: that elusive but supremely powerful channel known as word of mouth. What they've learned is that even more important than the ""word"" -- what is said -- is the ""mouth"" -- who says it. They've identified, studied, and analyzed influence in America since the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (now Exxon) hired Elmo Roper himself to develop a model for identifying opinion leaders, and in The Influentials, they are finally ready to share their results. The Inner Lives of Markets: How People Shape Them and They Shape Us by Tim Sullivan; Ray Fisman Call Number: HB171 .F545 2016 (Library West) ISBN: 9781610394925 Publication Date: Public Affairs, 2016. $25.99 America's economic revolution isn't just driven by technology. It's about markets. The past twenty-five years have witnessed a remarkable shift in how we get the stuff we want. If you’ve ever owned a business, rented an apartment, or shopped online, you've had a front-row seat for this revolution-in-progress. Breakthrough companies like Amazon and Uber have disrupted the old ways and made the economy work better--all thanks to technology. At least that's how the story of the modern economy is usually told. But in this lucid, wry book, Ray Fisman and Tim Sullivan show that the revolution is bigger than tech: it is really a story about the transformation of markets. From the auction theories that power Google's ad sales algorithms to the models that online retailers use to prevent internet fraud, even the most high-tech modern businesses are empowered by theory first envisioned by economists. And we're all participants in this revolution. Every time you book a room on Airbnb, hire a car on Lyft, or click on an ad, you too are reshaping our social institutions and our lives.The Inner Lives of Markets is necessary reading for the modern world: it reveals the blueprint for how we work, live, and shop, and offers wisdom for how to do it better. Call Number: HF5415.32 .I57 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 0415341930.Routledge,356p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2005 What do we know about consumer motives, goals, and desires? Why do we choose to buy and consume certain products and services from the many available in the marketplace? Following the pioneering and successful volume,The Why of Consumption(2000), the same editors have brought together an all-new cast of leading scholars to address modern-day issues in consumer motivation. Representing diverse viewpoints and drawing on relevant theories and frameworks grounded in fields such as cognitive, clinical, and social psychology, behavioral decision theory, sociology, semiotics, cultural anthropology, and culture studies the chapters in this volume address a variety of topics. Topics include: * The interplay between the heart and the mind in what consumers desire * Hedonic, utilitarian, and variety-seeking motives * Implications of a promotion versus prevention focus in consumer decision-making * Motives for engaging in socially undesirable consumer behaviors * Howindividual consumers, communities and cultures come to value brands, fashion goods, and objects of art * Inter-generational as well as information age influences on the motives underlying consumers' identities, both present and future This provocative and important book provides insights for students, scholars and practitioners who seek to understand the vital relationship between motivation and consumption. Call Number: HF5429 .S5937 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9780137126859.WhartonSchoolPub.,227p.$25.99 Publication Date: 2009 In Inside the Mind of the Shopper, world-renowned retail consultant Dr. Herb Sorensen, Ph.D. uncovers the truth about the retail shopper and rips away the myths and mistakes that lead retailers to miss their greatest opportunities. Drawing on Sorensen's breakthrough second-by-second analysis of millions of shopping trips, this book reveals how consumers actually behave, move, and make buying decisions as they move through supermarkets and other retail stores. Sorensen presents powerful, tested strategies for designing more effective stores, improving merchandising, and driving double-digit sales increases. He identifies simple interventions that can have dramatic sales effects, and shows why many common strategies simply don't work. You'll learn how to appeal to the "quick trip" shopper; make the most of all three "moments of truth"; understand consumers' powerful in-store migration patterns; learn the lessons of Stew Leonard's and other innovators; and much more. Then, in Part II, Sorensen presents revealing interviews with several leading in-store retail experts, including crucial insights on using technology and retailing to multicultural communities. Call Number: HF5415.32 .S26 1995 (Library West) ISBN: 089930883X.QuorumBooks,186p.$59.95 Publication Date: 1995 Not international consumers really, but consumers in the various cultures that are being penetrated by primarily western companies looking for international markets. Argues that the differences rather than similarities between cultures must be emphasized to determine factors that influence buyer behavior, such as social class, hierarchy of needs, formal and informal group membership, learning patterns, and the conception and experience of the individual. For marketing scholars or practitioners. Call Number: HF5415.32 .I584 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 8716134915.CopenhagenBusinessSchoolPress,365p.$29.00 Publication Date: 2000 Researching the consumer has progressed far beyond the research for managerial implications and has become a major focus for the social sciences. In the field of marketing research, interpretive approaches to studying consumer behavior are playing an increasing role. This book presents the wide range of conceptual and empirical approaches that are required in studies of the consumer and consumption. As such, it is essential reading for students and researchers working in the fields of consumer behaviour and marketing, cultural and media studies, and sociology. Invisible Influence: The Hidden Forces That Shape Behavior by Jonah Berger Call Number: (Library West, Pre-Order) ISBN: 9781476759692 Publication Date: Simon & Schuster, 2016. $26.99 The New York Times bestselling author of Contagious explores the subtle, secret influences that affect the decisions we make—from what we buy, to the careers we choose, to what we eat—in this fascinating and groundbreaking work. If you’re like most people, you think that your choices and behaviors are driven by your individual, personal tastes, and opinions. You wear a certain jacket because you liked the way it looked. You picked a particular career because you found it interesting. The notion that our choices are driven by our own personal thoughts and opinions is patently obvious. Right? Wrong. Without our realizing it, other people’s behavior has a huge influence on everything we do at every moment of our lives, from the mundane to the momentous occasion. Even strangers have a startling impact on our judgments and decisions: our attitudes toward a welfare policy shift if we’re told it is supported by Democrats versus Republicans (even though the policy is the same in both cases). But social influence doesn’t just lead us to do the same things as others. In some cases we conform, or imitate others around us. But in other cases we diverge, or avoid particular choices or behaviors because other people are doing them. We stop listening to a band because they go mainstream. We skip buying the minivan because we don’t want to look like a soccer mom. In his surprising and compelling Invisible Influence, Jonah Berger integrates research and thinking from business, psychology, and social science to focus on the subtle, invisible influences behind our choices as individuals. By understanding how social influence works, we can decide when to resist and when to embrace it—and how we can use this knowledge to make better-informed decisions and exercise more control over our own behavior. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 Q56 2003 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0471369209.J.Wiley&Sons,256p.$27.95 Publication Date: 2003 Just Ask a Woman is a powerful book about how to tap into female consumers' needs. Mary Quinlan, the founder of the premiere consultancy dedicated to marketing to women, has personally interviewed 3,000 women in the course of her research for Just Ask a Woman. Women are the decision-makers in an estimated eighty-five percent of household buying decisions, and yet far too often, products marketed specifically to them fail to connect with their needs. Here, Quinlan explores topics such as how women judge brands and advertising, the effects of stress on their consumer behavior, and their increasing demands for service and communication. Quinlan rejects the traditional focus group approach in favor of highly energized and intimate talk sessions where women reveal their deeper feelings about products and services. In Just Ask a Woman marketers, brand managers, and advertisers will find a revelatory resource filled with ideas and action steps for building your brand with women-from a woman who has walked in a marketer's shoes. Call Number: HC79.C6 S88 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 0071416226.McGrawHill,192p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2003 Kidfluence details the latest research on the demographic and socio-cultural trends of young adults born after 1980—Generation Y. This "what works and what doesn't" book provides marketers and advertisers with sometimes-surprising findings on what information and products these kids really want, and how to reach them most effectively without turning them off completely. Call Number: HD9995.S24 K564 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0814209769.OhioStateUniversityPress, 263p.$48.95 Publication Date: 2004 In addition to tracing Kimberly-Clark's fascinating history of technology development and product diversification, Heinrich and Batchelor explore momentous changes in consumer behavior and marketing. When Kotex first arrived on the scene in the 1920s, menstrual hygiene was burdened with cultural taboos that made it impossible for many women to ask the (inevitably male) pharmacist for a sanitary napkin. To solve such vexing marketing problems, Kimberly-Clark invented the artificial word "Kotex" and inserted it into consumer vocabulary through massive advertising campaigns. Making it easier for women to shop for the new product, Kimberly-Clark also recommended that stores place boxes of Kotex on the counter where women could help themselves without embarrassing conversation, thus pioneering the concept of self-service. Consumer Behavior Books: L - M Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 D38 2001 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0520227247.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,287p.$22.50 Publication Date: 2001 The influence of Latin culture is gaining momentum in American society as a whole. Yet the increasing visibility of Latinos in mainstream culture has not been accompanied by a similar level of economic parity or political enfranchisement. In this important, original, and entertaining book, Arlene Dávila provides a critical examination of the Hispanic marketing industry and of its role in the making and marketing of U.S. Latinos. Dávila finds that Latinos' increased popularity in the marketplace is simultaneously accompanied by their growing exotification and invisibility. She scrutinizes the complex interests that are involved in the public representation of Latinos as a generic and culturally distinct people and questions the homogeneity of the different Latino subnationalities that supposedly comprise the same people and group of consumers. In a fascinating discussion of how populations have become reconfigured as market segments, she shows that the market and marketing discourse become important terrains where Latinos debate their social identities and public standing. Call Number: HF5415.3 .M273 1997 (Library West) ISBN: 0684835452.FreePress, 448p.$30.00 Publication Date: 1997 How do customers decide what products and brands to buy? In this much-anticipated major work, Eric Marder reveals how universal patterns in survey responses lead not only to general principles in marketing but to empirically verifiable laws of human nature itself. Drawing on forty years of applying his pioneering experimental design techniques to marketing research surveys, Marder presents a global theory of choice behavior, supported by original data reported here for the first time from thousands of massive real-life experiments based on millions of interviews. His dramatic findings about pricing, optimal marketing tactics, product evaluation, the relative role of product and image, and advertising effectiveness will make this book required reading for the entire marketing community. Call Number: HF5415.127 .C34 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 9780789028686.HaworthPress, 184p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2006 Lifestyle Market Segmentation gives author and marketing expert Dennis Cahill the chance to put his nearly 30 years of marketing and teaching experience to practical use—to clearly explain the process of market segmentation and its applications. This text goes beyond the obvious demographic and/or geographic categories to get at the “whys” of customer behaviors, carefully reviewing every facet, from theory to the exploration of applications. Step by step, this easy-to-understand book, written by the author of How Consumers Pick a Hotel: Strategic Segmentation and Target Marketing and other classic marketing books, walks readers through the process, giving real-life examples as illustration as it provides the tools to effectively market by lifestyle segment in today’s competitive marketplace. Market segmentation research examines a broad range of demographic and psychographic information that can provide strategies to target both current and potential markets. This helpful guide comprehensively reveals how to gather and effectively use this crucial type of research. Call Number: HF5415.127 .M535 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 1567206409.Praeger, 241p. Publication Date: 2004 In today's competitive economic environment, knowing your customer has never been more important. Research shows that most companies do not segment their market by lifestyle. Instead, they rely solely on demographic factors to define their customers. This book helps marketers understand how to reach customers from children to tweens and singles to seniors. It demonstrates how such trends as cross-shopping and the blurring of gender roles can be accounted for by one's overall marketing strategy. This book helps marketers understand how to reach customers from children to tweens and singles to seniors. Yet another consumer group evaluated here is the emerging affluent market. This book is a prerequisite to relationship marketing. It tells the reader how to reach carefully defined and described market segments. Because buyers' behaviors are so important to lifestyle market segmentation strategies, this book demonstrates how such trends as cross-shopping and the blurring of gender roles can be accounted for by one's overall marketing strategy. Call Number: HF5415.32 .T95 2002 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0231124961.ColumbiaUniversityPress, 309p. $29.95 Publication Date: 2003 As the author of works on advertising, materialism and modern culture, University of Florida professor Twitchell should have been the most immune to acquisitive desire while doing research in posh Rodeo Drive and Madison Avenue stores. That he was momentarily struck with passion by a Ralph Lauren tie not only demonstrates his humanity, but also underlines one of his theses: no one is above a bit of luxury lust. The reason for this, he says, is, "We understand each other not by sharing religion, politics, or ideas. We share branded things. We speak the Esperanto of advertising, luxe populi." These are sentiments voiced by many who study consumer culture, but Twitchell addresses conspicuous consumption in a new way, free of the superior tone often adopted by his academic peers. He embarks on a course of fieldwork that is both absurdist and charming, as he chats up Fendi salespeople and stands slack-jawed in the lobby of the Bellagio hotel in Las Vegas. With the research done, but the tie unbought, he comes away with insights about the American quest for luxury products and provides a history of such yearning: "The balderdash of cloistered academics aside, human beings did not suddenly become materialistic. We have always been desirous of things." Many of those things, in the recent past and definitely in the present, have been imbued with an aura of opulence and indulgence, Twitchell posits, leading to a kind of emotional satisfaction through shopping, especially for items outside one's budget. With its intelligence and wit, Twitchell's exploration of consumerism belongs in every shopping bag. Call Number: HF5415.127 .T48 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 0761911030.SagePublications,397p.$38.95 Publication Date: 2001 The lesson for marketers is clear: Traditional marketing techniques and single marketing campaigns will not effectively reach consumers who express distinctive ethnic, age-related, or lifestyle values by what they buy and how they buy it. Using a variety of real-world examples and a rich set of data sources, Marketing and Consumer Identity in Multicultural America introduces students to the phenomenon of multiculturalism in America and examines its impact on consumer identity, consumer behavior, and marketing. In a straightforward, engaging style, Marye C. Tharp presents both the theoretical foundation and the practical tools necessary for marketers to thrive in a multicultural world. Call Number: HF5415.32 .Z353 2008 (Library West) ISBN: 9781422121153.HarvardBusinessSchoolPress, 230p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2008 Why do advertising campaigns and new products often fail? Why do consumers feel that companies don't understand their needs? Because marketers themselves don't think deeply about consumers' innermost thoughts and feelings. Marketing Metaphoria is a groundbreaking book that reveals how to overcome this "depth deficit" and find the universal drivers of human behavior so vital to a firm's success. Marketing Metaphoria reveals the powerful unconscious viewing lenses--called "deep metaphors"-- that shape what people think, hear, say, and do. Drawing on thousands of one-on-one interviews in more than thirty countries, Gerald Zaltman and Lindsay Zaltman describe how some of the world's most successful companies as well as small firms, not-for-profits, and social enterprises have successfully leveraged deep metaphors to solve a wide variety of marketing problems. Marketing Metaphoria should convince you that everything consumers think and do is influenced at unconscious levels--and it will give you access to those deeper levels of thinking. Call Number: HF5415.32 .O743 2003 e-book (Books24x7) and Library West ISBN: 0195150562.OxfordUniversityPress,274p.$35.00 Publication Date: 2003 Emotion is one of the defining forces in our lives. It lies at the very heart of many of our most important experiences and memories. Not surprisingly, the worlds of business and marketing have long drawn on the power of emotion to influence consumer impulses and brand loyalty. Yet beyond the obvious emotions evoked by an inspirational Nike ad or an affecting Hallmark commercial lies an emotional universe that is less conspicuous, even transparent, yet no less influential. In this definitive work, two marketing experts provide a highly original, entertaining and anecdote-rich account of the marketing power of emotion. The primordial force behind motivation and persuasion, emotions enter into all decisions involving tradeoffs and are thus especially relevant to consumer decision-making. The Marketing Power of Emotion traces the manner in which companies rely on emotion to connect with consumers, develop new products, improve their strategic position, and increase brand recognition. Essential reading for executives and middle management alike, as well as all students and scholars of consumer behavior, The Marketing Power of Emotion is the most authoritative statement yet on this critically important aspect of business strategy. Call Number: HF5415.3 .B785 1992 (Library West) ISBN: 1587992051.AmericanMarketingAssociation,842p.$98.95 Publication Date: 2005 In contrast to earlier volumes, this new volume compiling marketing measurement scales splits consumer behavior from organizational behavior (the latter to be the focus of a separate volume), but otherwise takes up where Volume III left off in collecting scales originally published in seven major marketing and advertising journals between 1998 and 2001. Bruner (marketing, Southern Illinois U. at Carbondale), Hensel (marketing, U. of New Orleans), and James (marketing, Louisiana State U.) present 511 scales for studying consumer behavior topics and 143 related to advertising or promotion. Each scale is named and described, its origins are given, reliability and validity are considered, references are provided, and scale questionnaire items are presented. Call Number: HF5415.1 .N86 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 1591391962.HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,272p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2004 Millions of consumers can now afford to pay more for everything from cleaning products to cars. Yet these "moneyed masses" are not spending all they could. Nunes, a researcher in business, and Johnson, a research analyst at an investment research and management firm, explore the impact of this explosion of consumer affluence on marketing strategy and practice, and outline seven new rules of mass marketing aimed at the "almost rich." Call Number: HB835 .D48 2010 (Library West) ISBN: 9780521766944.CambridgeUniversityPress, 240 p., $29.96 Publication Date: 2010 Do consumers really care where products come from and how they are made? Is there such a thing as an 'ethical consumer'? Corporations and policy makers are bombarded with international surveys purporting to show that most consumers want ethical products. Yet when companies offer such products they are often met with indifference and limited uptake. It seems that survey radicals turn into economic conservatives at the checkout. This book reveals not only why the search for the 'ethical consumer' is futile but also why the social aspects of consumption cannot be ignored. Consumers are revealed to be much more deliberative and sophisticated in how they do or do not incorporate social factors into their decision making. Using first-hand findings and extensive research, The Myth of the Ethical Consumer provides academics, students and leaders in corporations and NGOs with an enlightening picture of the interface between social causes and consumption. Consumer Behavior Books: N - P Call Number: HC79.W4 C657 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 0393019659f.W.W.Norton,344p.$26.95 Publication Date: 2002 "It might be difficult to see the connection between a rich woman swanning around in her Manolo Blahniks and some underpaid clipboard-wielding biologist slogging through the bush in battered Tevas," Conniff writes, but readers of this unusual and delightful exploration of the richest members of the human species will understand that connection and a whole lot more. Journalist and essayist Conniff compares the super-rich to the animal kingdom in providing a frame of reference for their behaviors and actions. Butterflies and moths, which camouflage their true colors when not with their own kind, provide a context for discussing concealment, display and the "inconspicuous consumption" of those born to money: the signs of wealth are displayed subtly to be recognized by those in the know. Conniff finds an animal model for philanthropy in a bird called the Arabian babbler, which, after forcing a gift of food on a companion, "lift[s] his beak in a special trill... like a socialite posing for an event photographer at the Breast Cancer Awareness barbecue." Conniff who has written about the natural world for National Geographic and about the rich for Architectural Digest neither patronizes nor demeans his subjects (after all, he notes, we all hope to be rich some day). He merely uses them and the natural world to illuminate a class of people and range of behaviors that few among us will ever have the opportunity to observe firsthand. Call Number: HF5415.12615.Z87 2010 (Library West) ISBN: 9783540778288.Springer, 273p.$139.00 Publication Date: 2010 Over the last 10 years advances in the new field of neuromarketing have yielded a host of findings which defy common stereotypes about consumer behavior. Reason and emotions do not necessarily appear as opposing forces. Rather, they complement one another. Hence, it reveals that consumers utilize mental accounting processes different from those assumed in marketers' logical inferences when it comes to time, problems with rating and choosing, and in post-purchase evaluation. People are often guided by illusions not only when they perceive the outside world but also when planning their actions - and consumer behavior is no exception. Strengthening the control over their own desires and the ability to navigate the maze of data are crucial skills consumers can gain to benefit themselves, marketers and the public. Understanding the mind of the consumer is the hardest task faced by business researchers. This book presents the first analytical perspective on the brain - and biometric studies which open a new frontier in market research. Call Number: HF5415.2 .W29 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9781439900154.TempleUniversityPress, 228p.$54.50 Publication Date: 2010 Charles Coolidge Parlin was considered by many to be the founder of market research. Working for the dominant Curtis Publishing Company, he revolutionized the industry by providing added value to advertisers through information about the racial, ethnic, and regional biases of readers and consumers. By maintaining contact with both businesses and customers, Parlin and Curtis publications were able to turn consumer wants into corporate profits. In A New Brand of Business, Douglas Ward provides an intriguing business history that explains how and why Curtis developed its market research division. He reveals the evolution and impact of Parlin’s work, which understood how readers and advertisers in the emerging consumer economy looked at magazines and advertisements. Ward also examines the cultural and social reasons for the development and use of market research—particularly in regard to Curtis' readership of upper-income elites. The result weaves the stories of Parlin and Curtis into the changes taking place in American business and advertising in the early twentieth century. Call Number: HB74.P8 T53 2008 (Library West & Legal Information Center) ISBN: 9780300122237.YaleUniversityPress,293p.$26.00 Publication Date: 2008 Every day, we make decisions on topics ranging from personal investments to schools for our children to the meals we eat to the causes we champion. Unfortunately, we often choose poorly. The reason, the authors explain, is that, being human, we all are susceptible to various biases that can lead us to blunder. Our mistakes make us poorer and less healthy; we often make bad decisions involving education, personal finance, health care, mortgages and credit cards, the family, and even the planet itself. Thaler and Sunstein invite us to enter an alternative world, one that takes our humanness as a given. They show that by knowing how people think, we can design choice environments that make it easier for people to choose what is best for themselves, their families, and their society. Thaler and Sunstein demonstrate how thoughtful “choice architecture” can be established to nudge us in beneficial directions without restricting freedom of choice. Nudge offers a unique new take—from neither the left nor the right—on many hot-button issues, for individuals and governments alike. This is one of the most engaging and provocative books to come along in many years. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 A25 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 065800073X.NTCBusinessBooks,277p.$49.95 Publication Date: 2000 The Observational Research Handbook explores the burgeoning qualitative marketing research technique of ethnography or "descriptive anthropology," the observation and analysis of how consumers respond to a product within their own environments based upon their cultural values and relationships. The most comprehensive professional reference available on the subject, The Observational Research Handbook acquaints marketing and advertising professionals, market researchers, and manufacturers of consumer products with what observational research is, what it can add to a consumer marketing effort, and how an ethnographic marketing study is conducted. The book includes insights on setting study objectives, selecting the appropriate research method, defining the parameters of a study, creating interview scripts, applying specific practices and tips to the actual observations, and then compiling and analyzing the results. A complete case study—featuring a real proposal for an observational research study as well as an actual script and analysis of the results—is included in the appendix. Call Number: HF5430.3 .F37 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 1588341526..Smithsonian,329p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2003 A revealing examination of shopping, consumerism, and mall design in America.Loved and hated, visited and avoided, seemingly everywhere yet endlessly the same, malls occupy a special place in American life. What, then, is this invention that evokes such strong and contradictory emotions in Americans? In many ways malls represent the apotheosis of American consumerism, and this synthetic and wide-ranging investigation is an eye-popping tour of American culture's values and beliefs. Like your favorite mall, One Nation under Goods is a browser's paradise; and in order to understand America's culture of consumption you need to make a trip to the mall with Farrell. This lively, fast-paced history of the hidden secrets of the shopping mall explains how retail designers make shopping and goods "irresistible." From food courts and fountains to Santa and security, Farrell explains how malls control their patrons and convince us that shopping is always an enjoyable activity. And most importantly, One Nation under Goods shows why the mall's ultimate promise of happiness through consumption is largely an illusion. Call Number: HF5415.32 .O55 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 1410612694.LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,551p.$160.00 Publication Date: 2005 The papers in this volume were originally presented at the 2001 Advertising and Consumer Psychology Conference sponsored by the Society for Consumer Psychology. They address topics such as customization, site design, word-of-mouth processes and the study of consumer decision making while online. Some of the contributors present research methods for gaining insight into consumers' thought processes. Others discuss the concept of Internet communities and online advertising. The theories and research methods help provide greater insight into the processes underlying consumer behavior in online environments. Paying with Plastic: The Digital Revolution in Buying and Borrowing by by David S. Evans and Richard Schmalensee Call Number: HG3755.8.U6 E94 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 026255058X.2ndedition,MITPress,367p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2005 The payment card business has evolved from its inception in the 1950s as a way to handle payment for expense-account lunches (the Diners Club card) into today's complex, sprawling industry that drives trillions of dollars in transaction volume each year. Paying with Plastic is the definitive source on an industry that has revolutionized the way we borrow and spend. More than a history book, Paying with Plastic delivers an entertaining discussion of the impact of an industry that epitomizes the notion of two-sided markets: those in which two or more customer groups receive value only if all sides are actively engaged. New to this second edition, the two-sided market discussion provides useful insight into the implications of these market dynamics for cardholder rewards, merchant interchange fees, and card acceptance. The authors, also examine the implications of the recent antitrust cases on the industry as well as other business and technological changes—including the massive consolidation brought about by bank mergers, the rise of the debit card, and the emergence of e-commerce—that could alter the payment card industry dramatically in the years to come. Call Number: BF367 .P464 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 0805842020.LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,436p.$99.95 Publication Date: 2003 This volume synthesizes and advances existing knowledge of consumer response to visuals. Representing an interdisciplinary perspective, contributors include scholars from the disciplines of communication, psychology, and marketing. The book begins with an overview section intended to situate the reader in the discourse. The overview describes the state of knowledge in both academic research and actual practice, and provides concrete sources for scholars to pursue. Having traveled a path that has gone from the precise working of the brain in processing visual stimuli all the way to the history of classical architecture, readers of this volume will have a new respect for the complexity of human visual response and the research that is trying to explain it. It will be of interest to those involved in consumer behavior, consumer psychology,advertising, marketing, and visual communication. Call Number: BF637.P4 L48 2003 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0471266345.JohnWiley&Sons,278p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2003 This valuable and nonacademic guide reveals the extent to which we are surrounded by persuasion, and how we can resist. Levine (A Geography of Time), a professor of psychology at Cal State Fresno, opens by demonstrating that all of us (including himself) can be persuaded under the right circumstances. He goes on to study financial manipulation and the use of the sense of obligation and then proceeds to a nuts-and-bolts analysis of salesmanship by describing what he learned and did (and had done to him) as an automobile salesman. He offers an admirably concise and unemotional analysis of the famous Milgram experiment, involving the (claimed) administration of ever-stronger electric shocks to test the impulse to obedience. Inevitably, he moves to cults, the Moonies and the ultimate persuasion horror story, Jonestown. He avoids hysteria and demonization, even of Jim Jones, and points out that brute force is required at the extreme end of the persuasion spectrum. Levine's final chapter offers ways of dealing with unwelcome persuasion while remaining part of a society in which some persuasion is part of almost any social interaction. Call Number: HB137.Z55 2007 (Library West & Legal Information Center) ISBN: 006135323X.Harper,280p.$25.95 Publication Date: 2008 This sly and lucid book is not about your grandfather's dismal science. Ariely's trade is behavioral economics, which is the study, by experiments, of what people actually do when they buy, sell, change jobs, marry and make other real-life decisions…[Ariely] is good-tempered company—if he mentions you in this book, you are going to be called "brilliant," "fantastic" or "delightful"—and crystal clear about all he describes. But Predictably Irrational is a far more revolutionary book than its unthreatening manner lets on. It's a concise summary of why today's social science increasingly treats the markets-know-best model as a fairy tale. Pre-Suasion: A Revolutionary Way to Influence and Persuade by Robert B. Cialdini Call Number: BF774.C56 2016 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9781501109799 Publication Date: Simon & Schuster, 2016. $28.00 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER WALL STREET JOURNAL BESTSELLER The author of the legendary bestseller Influence, social psychologist Robert Cialdini shines a light on effective persuasion and reveals that the secret doesn’t lie in the message itself, but in the key moment before that message is delivered. What separates effective communicators from truly successful persuaders? Using the same combination of rigorous scientific research and accessibility that made his Influence an iconic bestseller, Robert Cialdini explains how to capitalize on the essential window of time before you deliver an important message. This “privileged moment for change” prepares people to be receptive to a message before they experience it. Optimal persuasion is achieved only through optimal pre-suasion. In other words, to change “minds” a pre-suader must also change “states of mind.” His first solo work in over thirty years, Cialdini’s Pre-Suasion draws on his extensive experience as the most cited social psychologist of our time and explains the techniques a person should implement to become a master persuader. Altering a listener’s attitudes, beliefs, or experiences isn’t necessary, says Cialdini—all that’s required is for a communicator to redirect the audience’s focus of attention before a relevant action. From studies on advertising imagery to treating opiate addiction, from the annual letters of Berkshire Hathaway to the annals of history, Cialdini draws on an array of studies and narratives to outline the specific techniques you can use on online marketing campaigns and even effective wartime propaganda. He illustrates how the artful diversion of attention leads to successful pre-suasion and gets your targeted audience primed and ready to say, “Yes.” Call Number: HG223 .P67 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9781591843627. Portfolio Penguin, 296 p. $27.95 Publication Date: 2011 Many of the prices we pay seem to make little sense. We shell out $2.29 for coffee at Starbucks when a nearly identical brew can be had at the corner deli for less than a dollar. We may be less willing to give blood for $25 than to donate it for free. And we pay someone to cart away trash that would be a valuable commodity in poorer parts of the world. The Price of Everything starts with a simple premise: there is a price behind each choice, whether we're deciding to have a baby, drive a car, or buy a book. We often fail to appreciate just how critical prices are as motivating forces. But their power becomes clear when distorted prices steer our decisions the wrong way. Eduardo Porter uncovers the true story behind the prices we pay and reveals what those prices are actually telling us. Call Number: HF5416.5 .P66 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9780809094691.HillandWang,352p.$26.99 Publication Date: 2010 In Priceless, the bestselling author William Poundstone reveals the hidden psychology of value. In psychological experiments, people are unable to estimate “fair” prices accurately and are strongly influenced by the unconscious, irrational, and politically incorrect. It hasn’t taken long for marketers to apply these findings. “Price consultants” advise retailers on how to convince consumers to pay more for less, and negotiation coaches offer similar advice for businesspeople cutting deals. The new psychology of price dictates the design of price tags, menus, rebates, “sale” ads, cell phone plans, supermarket aisles, real estate offers, wage packages, tort demands, and corporate buyouts. Prices are the most pervasive hidden persuaders of all. Rooted in the emerging field of behavioral decision theory, Priceless should prove indispensable to anyone who negotiates. Call Number: HF5415.32 .P76 2008eb (Science Direct) ISBN: 9780080450896.Elsevier,662p. Publication Date: 2008 The book brings together research that investigates how people experience products: durable, non-durable, or virtual. In contrast to other books, the present book takes a very broad, possibly all-inclusive perspective, on how people experience products. It thereby bridges gaps between several areas within psychology (e.g. perception, cognition, emotion) and links these areas to more applied areas of science, such as product design, human-computer interaction and marketing. The field of product experience research will include some of the research from four areas: Arts, Ergonomics, Technology, and Marketing. Traditionally, each of these four fields seems to have a natural emphasis on the human (ergonomics and marketing), the product (technology) or the experience (arts). However, to fully understand human product experience, we need to use different approaches and we need to build bridges between these various fields of expertise Most comprehensive collection of psychological research behind product design and usability Consistently addresses the 3 components of human-product experience: the human, the product, and the experience *International contributions from experts in the field. Call Number: HF5415.32 .E488 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0262050730.MITPress,179p.$25.00 Publication Date: 2004 In this book Greg Elmer brings the perspectives of cultural and media studies to the subject of consumer profiling and feedback technology in the digital economy. He examines the multiplicity of processes that monitor consumers and automatically collect, store, and cross-reference personal information. When we buy a book at Amazon.com or a kayak from L.L. Bean, our transactions are recorded, stored, and deployed to forecast our future behavior—thus we may receive solicitations to buy another book by the same author or the latest in kayaking gear. Elmer charts this process, explaining the technologies that make it possible and examining the social and political implications. Elmer begins by establishing a theoretical framework for his discussion, proposing a "diagrammatic approach" that draws on but questions Foucault's theory of surveillance. In the second part of the book, he presents the historical background of the technology of consumer profiling, including such pre-electronic tools as the census and the warranty card, and describes the software and technology in use today for demographic mapping. In the third part, he looks at two case studies—a marketing event sponsored by Molson that was held in the Canadian Arctic (contrasting the attendees and the indigenous inhabitants) and the use of "cookies" to collect personal information on the World Wide Web, which (along with other similar technologies) automate the process of information collection and cross-referencing. Elmer concludes by considering the politics of profiling, arguing that we must begin to question our everyday electronic routines. Call Number: HC110.C6 P76 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 1591470463.AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,297p.$49.95 Publication Date: 2003 In a volume dedicated to Erich Fromm, "who pointed the way toward an understanding of psychology and consumer culture," psychologists Kasser (Knox College, Galesburg, IL) and Kanner (Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center, CA) introduce 13 chapters that aim to overcome the field's relative neglect of how consumption-related issues affect personal development, society, and ecology. US contributors discuss theoretical and clinical issues, and call for further research on compulsive buying, the effects of advertising, and mindfulness as an antidote to its effects. Call Number: HF5415.32 .W42 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0306460734. Kluwer Academic, 1999. 362 p. $69.95 An unusually understandable survey of the forces or perception and feeling that determine the purchases we make; the roles played by fashion, fads, and status; and the psychological needs that they fulfill. The book discusses how children become consumers and how they change as they age. Research based throughout, it shows how ads use classical conditioning, harnessing psychological motivation to create image and sell products. Consumer Behavior Books: Q - S Qualitative Methods for Marketplace Research by by Shay Sayre Call Number: HF5415.2 .S29 2001 (Library West) ISBN: 0761922695.Sage,255p.$36.95 Publication Date: 2001 All key topics are covered including the differences between quantitative and qualitative research, steps to take prior to conducting research, data collection techniques and tools, decoding and understanding collected data, and explaining research findings to someone else. Borrowing techniques from anthropology, sociology, psychology, and communication, the book presents specific examples to illustrate how these techniques are adapted for marketplace research. Studies conducted by renowned scholars and practitioners guide readers through all the nuances of qualitative methods needed to develop, execute and analyze state-of-the-art marketplace studies. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 J33 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0231113889.ColumbiaUniversityPress,299p.$35.00 Publication Date: 2004 In the present electronic torrent of MTV and teen flicks, Nintendo and Air Jordan advertisements, consumer culture is an unmistakably important -- and controversial -- dimension of modern childhood. Historians and social commentators have typically assumed that the child consumer became significant during the postwar television age. But the child consumer was already an important phenomenon in the early twentieth century. The family, traditionally the primary institution of child socialization, began to face an array of new competitors who sought to put their own imprint on children's acculturation to consumer capitalism. Advertisers, children's magazine publishers, public schools, child experts, and children's peer groups alternately collaborated with, and competed against, the family in their quest to define children's identities. At stake in these conflicts and collaborations was no less than the direction of American consumer society -- would children's consumer training rein in hedonistic excesses or contribute to the spread of hollow, commercial values? Not simply a new player in the economy, the child consumer became a lightning rod for broader concerns about the sanctity of the family and the authority of the market in modern capitalist culture. Lisa Jacobson reveals how changing conceptions of masculinity and femininity shaped the ways Americans understood the virtues and vices of boy and girl consumers -- and why boys in particular emerged as the heroes of the new consumer age. "Raising Consumers" is a provocative examination of the social, economic, and cultural forces that produced and ultimately legitimized a distinctive children's consumer culture in the early twentieth century. Call Number: HC110.W4 F73 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 9780307339263.CrownPublishers,277p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2007 The rich have always been different from you and me, but this revealing and funny journey through “Richistan” entertainingly shows that they are more different than ever. Richistanis have 400-foot-yachts, 30,000-square-foot homes, house staffs of more than 100, and their own “arborists.” They’re also different from Old Money, and have torn down blue-blood institutions to build their own shining empire. Richistan is like the best travel writing, full of colorful and interesting stories providing insights into exotic locales. Robert Frank has been loitering on the docks of yacht marinas, pestering his way into charity balls, and schmoozing with real estate agents selling mega-houses to capture the story of the twenty-first century’s nouveau riche Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 N47 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0765612909.M.E.Sharpe,288p.$66.95 Publication Date: 2004 Not only are Hispanics the largest minority group in the United States, but Mexico is fast becoming our major trading partner, surpassing even Japan. In fact, the U.S. now has the fourth largest Spanish-speaking population in the world, after Mexico, Spain, and Argentina. How has this demographic group transformed the U.S. into a bi-lingual nation within the span of a generation? Why do Hispanics resist assimilation and insist on speaking Spanish in public life? And how can businesses effectively reach the emerging Hispanic consumer market with its estimated puchasing power of USD1 trillion by 2010? These questions constitute the single-most important marketing challenge for corporate America in the twenty-first century. This book challenges the viewpoint that American culture will soon dominate its NAFTA trading partners, looks carefully at the market for Hispanic goods in the U.S. and the market for our goods throughout the Spanish-speaking world, and shows how marketeers are now reaching the Hispanic community domestically. Call Number: HF5415.335 .O55 1997 (Library West) ISBN: 0070480257.McGrawHill,432p.$63.72 Publication Date: 1997 Designed for MBA and doctoral programs that have a quality/satisfaction sequence,this new text about the meaning,causes,and consequences of customer satisfaction derives from the author's twenty years of research on the topic. The book covers every psychological aspect of satisfaction formation and is applicable to all consumables,product or service. After defining satisfaction,reviewing current research,and describing what the best practitioners in the field of satisfaction measurement are doing today,the author broadens the determinants of satisfaction to include needs,excellence (quality),fairness,and regret ("what might have been"). Chapters on satisfaction processes including dissonance,attribution of responsibility,consumption affect,and consumption processing culminate in a "consumption processing model. " The book concludes with chapters that consider such postpurchase consequences as complaining behavior and customer loyalty and it discusses why an understanding of satisfaction psychology is vitally important to management. Call Number: HC110.C6R626 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9780062093608.HarperOne,353p.,$25.99 Publication Date: 2011 The American Dream was founded on the belief that anyone dedicated to thrift and hard work could create opportunities and achieve a better life. Now that dream has been reduced to a hyperquantified desire for fancier clothes, sleeker cars, and larger homes. We’ve lost our way, but James Roberts argues that it’s not too late to find it again. In Shiny Objects, he offers us an opportunity to examine our day-to-day habits, and once again strive for lives of quality over quantity. What he and other researchers in his field have found is that no matter what our income level, Americans believe that we need more to live a good life. But as our standard of living has climbed over the past forty years, our self-reported “happiness levels” have flatlined. Roberts isn’t merely concerned with the GDP or big-ticket purchases—damaging spending habits play out countless times a day, in ways big and small: he demonstrates that even the amount we spend at our favorite fast-food joint increases anywhere from 60 to 100 percent when we use a credit card instead of cash. Every time we watch TV or turn on a radio we’re exposed to marketing messages (experts estimate up to 3,000 of them daily). Consumption is king, and its toll is not just a financial one: relationships are suffering, too. Roberts empowers readers to make smart changes, improve self-control, and curtail spending. The American Dream is still ours for the taking, and Shiny Objects is ultimately a hopeful statement about the power we each hold to redefine the pursuit of happiness. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 B47 2004 (Library West) ISBN: 0742536904.Rowman&Littlefield,136p.$19.95 Publication Date: 2004 Are Americans obsessed with shopping? Shop til You Drop is a lively look at our consumer culture and its role in our everyday lives and society. Arthur Asa Berger considers the sacred roots of consumer culture, the demographics of consumption, theories about competing cultures, and the semiotics of shopping. Accessibly written and entertaining, this book is ideal for courses in cultural studies, advertising, and American studies, as well as for anyone curious about our nations drive to consume. Call Number: HF5461 .M67 2007 (Library West) ISBN: 9780739116814.LexingtonBooks,123p.$29.95 Publication Date: 2007 "Shopping as an Entertainment Experience" explores the ways in which shopping has become a significant entertainment feature in our daily lives. Dr. Mark H. Moss examines the mall, the e-store, and the department store to demonstrate how shopping is often the most common leisure experience that people indulge in to occupy themselves. Call Number: E184.A1 H214 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 0805241566.SchockenBooks,244p.$23.00 Publication Date: 2000 In America today, you can connect to your ethnic heritage in dozens of ways, or adopt an identity just for an evening. Our society is not a melting pot but a salad bar--a bazaar in which the purveyors of goods and services spend close to $2 billion a year marketing the foods, clothing, objects, vacations, and events that help people express their (and others') ethnic identities. This is a huge business, whose target groups are the "hyphenated Americans"--in other words, all of us. As immigrant groups gain economic security, they tend to reinforce--not relinquish--their ethnic identification. Marilyn Halter demonstrates that, to a great extent, they do it by shopping. And their purchasing power is enormous. How has the marketplace responded to this hunger? Instantly and wholeheartedly: tweaking old products and inventing new ones; launching new brands in supermarkets, new music groups, vacation itineraries, language courses, toys, greeting cards, et cetera. This nexus of business and ethnicity is already seen as the hottest consumer development of this decade, and Halter is uniquely qualified to describe its origins, the exponential growth of products and advertising, and the phenomenal sales of items from salsa to Chieftains CDs. Small Data: The Tiny Clues That Uncover Huge Trends by Martin Lindstrom; Chip Heath (Foreword by) Call Number: HF5415.32 .L5576 2016 (Library West, On Order) ISBN: 9781250080684 Publication Date: St. Martin's, 2016. $25.99 Martin Lindstrom, a modern-day Sherlock Holmes, harnesses the power of small data in his quest to discover the next big thing Hired by the world's leading brands to find out what makes their customers tick, Martin Lindstrom spends 300 nights a year in strangers homes, carefully observing every detail in order to uncover their hidden desires, and, ultimately, the clues to a multi-million dollar product. Lindstrom connects the dots in this globetrotting narrative that will enthrall enterprising marketers, as well as anyone with a curiosity about the endless variations of human behavior. You'll learn Call Number: HN90.S6 E67 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 9780618340736.HoughtonMifflin,274p.$25.00 Publication Date: 2002 Joseph Epstein's highly entertaining new book takes up the subject of snobbery in America after the fall of the prominence of the old Wasp culture of prep schools, Ivy League colleges, cotillions, debutante balls, the Social Register, and the rest of it. With ample humor and insight, Epstein uncovers the new outlets upon which the old snobbery has fastened: food and wine, fashion, high-achieving children, schools, politics, health, being with-it, name-dropping, and much else, including the roles of Jews and homosexuals in the development of snobbery. He also raises the question of whether snobbery might, alas, be a part of human nature. Snobbery: The American Versionis the first book in English devoted exclusively to the subject since Thackeray's THE BOOK OF SNOBS. Call Number: HF5415.32 .S596 2009eb e-book (MyiLibrary) ISBN: 9786611994181.PsychologyPress, 396p. Publication Date: 2009 The aim of this volume is two-fold. On the one hand, the application of social psychology to consumer behavior is meant to broaden the horizon of social psychologists. On the other hand, students and researchers of consumer behavior will be offered an advanced account of relevant theories tailored to their interests. While the range of topics is rather broad - including the construal of judgments and decisions, affective and cognitive feelings, social and media influences, and goals and self-regulation - each chapter is focused on one specific theoretical or methodological perspective and thereby gives a comprehensive and penetrative account of the relevant issues and the respective research." "The volume provides an invaluable resource to students, researchers, and instructors in social psychology, consumer psychology, consumer behavior, and marketing Call Number: HB801 .B267 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 0335207235.OpenUniversity,222p.$85.00 Publication Date: 2002 How do consumers process information? How do they make choices and decisions? How are decisions translated into actions of consumption? The Social Psychology of Consumer Behaviour illuminates an area of intense academic and wider interest, bringing together research and practical insights into how theories in social psychology can be applied to consumer behavior. Core themes include information processing and social cognition, communication processes, attitude models, emotion, social identity theory, and action theory. Within each of the major areas of social psychology, a historical perspective is provided, current knowledge reviewed, theories and findings critiqued, and directions for future research appraised. It provides a deeper perspective than standard texts, which tend to be atheoretical, overly encyclopedic, or outdated. It considers why consumers buy what they do, and how they go about making individual and group decisions concerning consumption. The result is essential reading for students, researchers and practitioners in psychology and marketing, as well as for those in related fields such as public policy, public health, health psychology, political science and sociology. Call Number: HC110.C6 M35 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 9780807830338.UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,536p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2006 At the turn of the twentieth century, an emerging consumer culture in the United States promoted constant spending to meet material needs and develop social identity and self-cultivation. McGovern examines the key players active in shaping this cultural evolution: advertisers and consumer advocates. The result, says McGovern, was a redefinition of the citizen as consumer. The articulation of an "American Way of Life" in the Depression and World War II ratified consumer abundance as the basis of a distinct American culture and history. Call Number: HB801 .M493 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9780670020621.Viking,374p.$26.95 Publication Date: 2009 A leading evolutionary psychologist probes the hidden instincts behind our working, shopping, and spending. Evolutionary psychology-the compelling science of human nature-has clarified the prehistoric origins of human behavior and influenced many fields ranging from economics to personal relationships. In Spent Geoffrey Miller applies this revolutionary science's principles to a new domain: the sensual wonderland of marketing and status seeking that we call American consumer culture. Starting with the basic notion that the goods and services we buy unconsciously advertise our biological potential as mates and friends, Miller examines the hidden factors that dictate our choices in everything from lipstick to cars, from the magazines we read to the music we listen to. With humor and insight, Miller analyzes an array of product choices and deciphers what our decisions say about ourselves, giving us access to a new way of understanding-and improving-our behaviors. Spent is a bold and revelatory book that illuminates the unseen logic behind the chaos of consumerism and suggests new ways we can become happier consumers and more responsible citizens. Consumer Behavior Books: T - Z Call Number: HF6146.I58 S65 2015 (Books24x7 & MyiLibrary) ISBN: 9780814434994 Publication Date: AMACOM, 2014. $24.95 Far from the catchy television spots and sleek magazine spreads are the comparatively modest ads that pop up on websites and in Internet searches. But don't befooled - online advertising is exploding. Growing at a compound annual rate near 20%, it is now the second-largest advertising channel in the United States. Part history, part guidebook, part prediction for the future, Targeted tells the story of the companies, individuals, and innovations driving this revolution. It takes readers behind the scenes - examining the growth of digital advertising, its enormous potential, and the technologies that are changing the game forever. Leading the way is real-time bidding, which offers advertisers unprecedented precision in targeting ads and measuring their effectiveness. From keyword micro-markets and ad serving systems to aggregated virtual audiences and new business models, Targeted is sweeping in scope and stripped of technical complexity. It is an essential resource for anyone interested in finding and connecting with customers in the vast and shifting Internet universe. Call Number: HM1033 .G53 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 0316346624.LittleBrown,279p.$14.95 Publication Date: 2000 The tipping point is that magic moment when an idea, trend, or social behavior crosses a threshold, tips, and spreads like wildfire. Just as a single sick person can start an epidemic of the flu, so too can a small but precisely targeted push cause a fashion trend, the popularity of a new product, or a drop in the crime rate. This widely acclaimed bestseller, in which Malcolm Gladwell explores and brilliantly illuminates the tipping point phenomenon, is already changing the way people throughout the world think about selling products and disseminating ideas. Call Number: HB841 .S55 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 1591840139.2ndEdition,Portfolio,300p.$26.95 Publication Date: 2005 Trading up isn't just for the wealthy anymore. These days no one is shocked when an administrative assistant buys silk pajamas at Victoria's Secret. Or a young professional buys only Kendall-Jackson premium wines. Or a construction worker splurges on a $3,000 set of Callaway golf clubs. In dozens of categories, these "new luxury" brands now sell at huge premiums over conventional goods, and in much larger volumes than traditional "old luxury" goods. Trading Up has become the definitive book about this growing trend. Call Number: HF5415.32 .S557 2006 (Library West) ISBN: 1591841232.Portfolio,267P.$26.95 Publication Date: 2006 A BMW in a Costco parking lot? A working class family with a 50 inch plasma TV? A 27-year-old Japanese administrative assistant with a collection of Coach purses? What's going on in the mind of the new consumer? Today's consumers can seem impossible to understand, and even harder to please. For instance, the average mall shopper will spend her $100, then leave when she hits that limit. She'll probably buy shoes rather than clothing, because she doesn't want to think about her dress size. And the store most likely to get her money isn't the one with the nicest display or the deepest discounts... it's the one closest to her parking spot. In his research with dozens of leading companies, Michael J. Silverstein has interviewed thousands of customers, extracting fascinating patterns about what really drives their purchase decisions. His first book, the acclaimed bestseller Trading Up, has taught a generation of marketers about the "new luxury" phenomenon, and why consumers will happily pay a steep premium for goods and services that are emotionally satisfying, from golf clubs to bathroom hardware to beauty products. Call Number: HF5415.33.U6 K38 1998 (Library West) ISBN: 0789001756.HaworthPress,235p.$39.95 Publication Date: 1998 A scholarly yet personal study, Twenty Million New Customers!: Understanding Gay Men's Consumer Behavior is a mixed shopping bag, taking you on a day-in-the-life tour of the buying patterns of 44 gay men. As an up-to-date catalog of scholarly data, it helps you see how "mainstream" businesses can tailor their marketing methods to this expanding demand in a competent, professional, and ethical manner. As a commentary on lifestyle, it transports you to unexplored consumer behavior territory that most people still consider "deviant." Call Number: HF5415.32 .V36 2012 (Library West) ISBN: 9780230341791.PalgraveMacmillan,274p.,$28.00 Publication Date: 2012 For too long marketers have been asking the wrong question. If consumers make decisions unconsciously, why do we persist in asking them directly through traditional marketing research why they do what they do? They simply can't tell us because they don't really know. Before marketers develop strategies, they need to recognize that consumers have strategies too . . .human strategies, not consumer strategies. We need to go beyond asking why, and begin to ask how,behavior change occurs. Here, author DouglasVan Praet takes the most brilliant and revolutionary concepts from cognitive science and applies them to how we market, advertise, and consume in the modern digital age. Van Praet simplifies the most complex object in the known universe - the human brain - into seven codified actionable steps to behavior change. These steps are illustrated using real world examples from advertising, marketing, media and business to consciously unravel what brilliant marketers and ad practitioners have long done intuitively, deconstructing the real story behind some of the greatest marketing and business successes in recent history, such as Nike's "Just Do It" campaign; "Got Milk?"; Wendy's "Where's the Beef?" ;and the infamous Volkswagen "Punch Buggy" launch as well as their beloved "The Force" (Mini Darth Vader) Super Bowl commercial. Understanding Consumer Decision Making: The Means-End Approach to Marketing and Advertising Strategy by Edited by Thomas J. Reynolds and Jerry C. Olson Call Number: HF5415.32 .U53 2001 e-book (netLibrary) and Library West ISBN: 0805817301.L.Erlbaum, 447p. $45.00 Publication Date: 2001 The goal of this book is to help business managers and academic researchers understand the means-end perspective and the methods by which it is used, and to demonstrate how to use the means-end approach to develop better marketing and advertising strategy. The authors discuss methodological issues regarding interviewing and coding, present applications of the means-end approach to marketing and advertising problems, and describe the conceptual foundations of the means-end approach. This book is of interest to academic researchers in marketing and related fields, graduate students in business, marketing research professionals, and business managers. It is intended as a reference book containing ideas about the means-end approach and its applications. Visual Consumption by by Jonathan E. Schroeder Call Number: HF5415.32 .S365 2002 (Library West) ISBN: 0415244242.Routledge,193p.$75.00 Publication Date: 2002 A key characteristic of the twenty-first century economy is 'the image'. Brand development is based on image, products advertised via images, and corporate image is critical for economic success. This book draws from art history, photography and visual studies to develop an interdisciplinary, image-based approach to understanding consumer behavior. Call Number: HD60 .M327 2011 (Library West) ISBN: 9780230110267.PalgraveMacmillan,250p. Publication Date: 2011 A social media expert with global experience with many of the world’s biggest brands —including Nike, Toyota and Motorola—Simon Mainwaring offers a visionary new practice in which brands leverage social media to earn consumer goodwill, loyalty and profit, while creating a third pillar of sustainable social change through conscious contributions from customer purchases. These innovative private sector partnerships answer perhaps the most pressing issue facing business and thought leaders today: how to practice capitalism in a way that satisfies the need for both profit and a healthy, sustainable planet. Mainwaring provides case studies from companies such as P&G, Walmart, Starbucks, Pepsi, Coca-Cola, Toyota, Nike, Whole Foods, Patagonia, and Nestlé as well as a bold plan for how corporations need to rethink their strategies. Call Number: HF5415.33.C6 D634 2012 (Library West) ISBN: 9780230340305.PalgraveMacmillan, 272 p., $27.00 Publication Date: 2012 Today, most Americans take for granted that China will be the next global superpower. But despite the nation's growing influence, the average Chinese person is still a mystery—or, at best, a baffling set of seeming contradictions—to Westerners who expect the rising Chinese consumer to resemble themselves. Here, Tom Doctoroff, the guiding force of advertising giant J. Walter Thompson's (JWT) China operations, marshals his 20 years of experience navigating this fascinating intersection of commerce and culture to explain the mysteries of China. He explores the many cultural, political, and economic forces shaping the twenty-first-century Chinese and their implications for businesspeople, marketers, and entrepreneurs—or anyone else who wants to know what makes the Chinese tick. Dismantling common misconceptions, Doctoroff provides the context Westerners need to understand the distinctive worldview that drives Chinese businesses and consumers. Change is coming fast and furious in China, challenging not only how the Western world sees the Chinese but how they see themselves. From the new generation's embrace of Christmas to the middle-class fixation with luxury brands; from the exploding senior demographic to what the Internet means for the government's hold on power, Doctoroff pulls back the curtain to reveal a complex and nuanced picture of a facinating people whose lives are becoming ever more entwined with our own. Call Number: HC110.C6 M53 2005 (Library West) ISBN: 0972529098.ParamountMarketing,123p.$39.95 Publication Date: 2005 At last--in-depth, qualitative insights paint an eye-opening picture of Black culture and the Black lifestyle and how to connect your products and services with Black consumers.What's Black About It? presents historical, psychological, and cultural influences that delve far deeper into the Black experience than the demographics that are at the heart of other ethnic marketing books and market research reports. Now you will be able to break through stereotypes to better understand and relate to African-American consumers.Other ethnic marketing books may include a general chapter or two on Black consumers. What's Black About It? focuses on African-American consumers and engages you with bold graphics, pop-culture sidebars, insights from focus groups, and examples from current advertising and marketing campaigns. Call Number: HF5415.32 .C64 2006(Library West) ISBN: 0071460365.McGrawHill,184p.$24.95 Publication Date: 2006 In today's rapidly shifting marketplace, brand loyalty has subsided and the consumer-of-the-moment rules. To successfully compete for customers' wallet share, you must connect with them, understand their buying habits, and anticipate their every move. In Why Customers Do What They Do, Marshal Cohen, the chief industry analyst for The NPD Group and one of the foremost authorities on consumer behavior, gives managers responsible for branding, marketing, and sales strategies the ability to anticipate the needs, wants, and desires of today's consumer. Drawing on years of market research from The NPD Group, Cohen uncovers the major trends that drive consumer behavior, revealing why and how consumers' daily habits affect their purchasing behavior--and how this behavior will affect your business. Call Number: GN502 .S59 2003 (Library West) ISBN: 0674010574.HarvardUniversityPress,432p.$55.00 Publication Date: 2003 Why do American children sleep alone instead of with their parents? Why do middle-aged Western women yearn for their youth, while young wives in India look forward to being middle-aged? In these provocative essays, one of the most brilliant advocates of cultural psychology reminds us that cultural differences in mental life lie at the heart of any understanding of the human condition. Drawing on ethnographic studies of the distinctive modes of psychological functioning in communities around the world, Richard Shweder explores ethnic and cultural differences in ideals of gender, in the life of the emotions, in conceptions of mature adulthood and the stages of life, and in moral judgments about right and wrong. Shweder, a cultural pluralist, dares readers to broaden their own conceptions of what is good, true, beautiful, and efficient and to take a closer look at specific cultural practices--parent/child cosleeping, arranged marriage, male and female genital modifications--that we may initially find alien or disturbing. He invites us to reject both radical relativism (the view that whatever is, is okay) and imperial visions of universal progressive cultural development (for example, the idea that "the West is Best") and to engage in more deeply informed cultural critique. Call Number: HF5415.32 .R38 2000 (Library West) ISBN: 0415220955.Routledge,330p.$90.00 Publication Date: 2000 This book brings together an international collection of authors from a variety of disciplines who offer new and critical perspectives, summarize key findings and provide important theoretical frameworks to guide the reader through the 'why?' of consumption. Unique in focus and with multifaceted approach which anyone interested in consumption and consumer research will find fascinating, this topical book provides an excellent overview of current research, and imparts key insights to illuminate the subject for both academics and practitioners alike. Call Number: HF5415.3 .O84 1987 (Library West) ISBN: 0195040864.OxfordUniversityPress,195p.$15.95 Publication Date: 1987 Why People Buy provides an original approach to studying and understanding consumers, showing how to identify their goals, wants, dbeliefs, and choices. Discussing these and many other issues from the point of view of the marketing manager seeking to attract new customers, retain old ones, increase business, or convert customers from rivals, O'Shaughnessy explains all the major criteria that enter into consumer choices. Original and provocative, Why People Buy is "must" reading for anyone involved in selling or buying. Call Number: HF5415.32 .D36 2004b e-book (Books24x7) and Library West ISBN: 0972529047.RevisedEdition,ParamountMarket,290p.$40.19 Publication Date: 2004 People like to spend. Consumers, and their spending on the things they want but do not need, make a tremendous contribution to the U.S. economy. Of the $10 trillion gross national product, 30 percent, or $3 trillion, is made up of consumer discretionary spending. Pamela Danziger, president of Unity Marketing, explores the motivations behind consumer discretionary spending to find out why people are spending their money on things other than necessities, such as food, homes, medical care and gasoline. After performing extensive research into her subject and conducting numerous focus groups, Danziger concludes that understanding why consumers behave the way they do will help marketers understand and predict future consumer spending behavior. While revealing the information she has uncovered, she develops insight into how predictable changes in consumer demographics will shape their behavior. She then aims to help marketers develop strategies that are grounded in consumer intelligence rather than impersonal data. Taking a new look at the consumer, she offers a better perspective on the future habits of these fickle, emotional, yet predictable consumers. Call Number: HF5438.25 .W2864 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0738200123.PerseusBooks,198p.$24.00 Publication Date: 1999 In Why People Don't Buy Things, Washburn and Wallace break through the clutter and offer a deceptively simple, but revolutionary, approach to successful selling that turns the process on its head. Drawing from their extensive experience in sales research, marketing research, consulting, and training, as well as from the fields of psychology, neurology, and cognitive science, the authors present a field-tested sequence of steps - what they call the Dream path (Do-Repeat-Evaluate-Access-Money) - that breaks down the buying decision from the customer's point of view. At the heart of this process is the art of learning to "read" your customers - through their language, gestures, and personal environment - to identify buying profiles and tailor your messages for maximum impact. The authors identify the three dominant profiles as Commanders, Thinkers, and Visualizers, and present a wide range of strategies and specific approaches for successfully recognizing, and selling to, these profiles the way they intuitively prefer to buy. Call Number: HC79.C6 B694 2009 (Library West) ISBN: 9780307450388). Crown Business, 336 p. $26.00 Publication Date: 2009 Women are the engine of the global economy, driving 80 percent of consumer spending in the United States alone. They hold the purse strings, and when they’ve got a tight grip on them as they do now, companies must be shrewder than ever to win them over. Just when executives have mastered becoming technology literate, they find there’s another skill they need: becoming female literate. This isn’t always easy. Gender is the most powerful determinant of how a person views the world and everything in it. It’s stronger than age, income, or race. While there are mountains of research done every year segmenting consumers and analyzing why they buy, more often than not it doesn’t factor in the one piece of information that trumps them all: the sex of the buyer. It’s stunning how many companies overlook the psychology of gender when we all know that men and women look at the world so differently. Bridget Brennan’s Why She Buys shows decision makers how to bridge this divide and capture the business of the world’s most powerful consumers just when they need it most. Call Number: HF5415.2 .U53 1999 (Library West) ISBN: 0684849135.Simon&Schuster,255p.$15.00 Publication Date: 1999 Is there a method to our madness when it comes to shopping? Hailed by the San Francisco Chronicle as "a Sherlock Holmes for retailers," author and research company CEO Paco Underhill answers with a definitive "yes" in this witty, eye-opening report on our ever-evolving consumer culture. Why We Buy is based on hard data gleaned from thousands of hours of field research–in shopping malls, department stores, and supermarkets across America. With his team of sleuths tracking our every move, Paco Underhill lays bare the struggle among merchants, marketers, and increasingly knowledgeable consumers for control.	Nudge
What mammalian hormone is associated with birthing, milk ejection, and the refractory period?	economics \| POLITICS & PROSPERITY POLITICS & PROSPERITY 1. What Is Economics? 2. Pitfalls A person who wants to learn about economics should be forewarned about pernicious tendencies and beliefs — often used unthinkingly and expressed subtly — that lurk in writings and speeches about economics and economic issues. This chapter treats seven such tendencies and beliefs: misuse of probability judging motives instead of results MISUSE OF PROBABILITY Probability is seldom invoked in non-technical economics. But when it is, beware of it. A statement about the probability of an event is either (a) a subjective evaluation (“educated” guess) about what is likely to happen or (b) a strict, mathematical statement about the observed frequency of the occurrence of a well-defined random event. I will bet you even money that the first meaning applies in at least six of the next ten times that you read or hear a statement about probability or its cognate “chance,” as in 50-percent chance of rain. And my subjective evaluation is that I have a 90-percent probability of winning the bet. Let’s take the chance of rain (or snow or sleet, etc.). You may rely heavily on a weather forecaster’s statement about the probability that it will rain today. If the stated probability is high, you may postpone an outing of some kind, or take an umbrella when you leave the house, or wear a water-repellent coat instead of a cloth one, and so on. That’s prudent behavior on your part, even though the weather forecaster’s statement isn’t really probabilistic. What the weather forecaster is telling you (or relaying to you from the National Weather Service) is a subjective evaluation of the “chance” that it will rain in a given geographic area, based on known conditions (e.g., wind direction, presence of a nearby front, water-vapor imagery). The “chance” may be computed mathematically, but its computation rests on judgments about the occurrence of rain-producing events, such as the speed of a front’s movement and the direction of water-vapor flow. In the end, however, you’re left with only a weather forecaster’s judgment, and it’s up to you to evaluate it and act accordingly. What about something that involves “harder” numbers, such as the likelihood of winning a lottery (where there’s good information about the number of tickets sold) or casting the deciding vote in an election (where there’s good information about the number of votes that will be cast)? I will continue with the case of voting, which is discussed in chapter 1 as an example of the extent to which economics has spread beyond its former preoccupations with buyers, sellers, and the aggregation of their activities. An economist named Bryan Caplan has written a lot about voting. For example, he says the following in “ Why I Don’t Vote: The Honest Truth ” (EconLog, September 13, 2016): Aren’t we [economists] always advising people to choose their best option, even when their best option is bleak? Sure, but abstention [from voting] is totally an option. And while politicians have a clear incentive to ignore we abstainers, only remaining aloof from our polity gives me inner peace. You could respond, “Inner peace at what price?” It is only at this point that I invoke the miniscule probability of voter decisiveness. If I had a 5% chance of tipping an electoral outcome, I might hold my nose, scrupulously compare the leading candidates , and vote for the Lesser Evil. Indeed, if, like von Stauffenberg , I had a 50/50 shot of saving millions of innocent lives by putting my own in grave danger, I’d consider it. But I refuse to traumatize myself for a one-in-a-million chance of moderately improving the quality of American governance. And one-in-a-million is grossly optimistic. Caplan links to a portion of his lecture notes for a course in the logic of collective action. The notes include this mathematical argument: III. Calculating the Probability of Decisiveness, I: Mathematics A. When does a vote matter? At least in most systems, it only matters if it “flips” the outcome of the election. B. This can only happen if the winner wins by a single vote. In that case, each voter is “decisive”; if one person decided differently, the outcome would change. C. In all other cases, the voter is not decisive; the outcome would not change if one person decided differently. D. It is obvious that the probability of casting the decisive vote in a large electorate is extremely small…. H. Now suppose that everyone but yourself votes “for” with probability p – and “against” with probability (1-p). I. Then from probability theory: J. From this formula, we can see that the probability of a tie falls when the number of voters goes up…. K. Intuitively, the more people there are, the less likely one person makes a difference…. IV. Calculating the Probability of Decisiveness, II: Examples A. What is neat about the above formula is that it allows us to say not just how the probability of decisiveness changes, but how much…. I. Upshot: For virtually any real-world election, the probability of casting the decisive vote is not just small; it is normally infinitesimal. The extreme observation that “You will not affect the outcome of an election by voting” is true for all practical purposes. J. Even if you were to play around with the formula to increase your estimate a thousand-fold, your estimated answer would remain vanishingly small. What Caplan and other economists who write in the same vein ignore is the influence of their point of view. It’s self-defeating because it appeals to extremely rationalistic people like Caplan. One aspect of their rationalism is a cold-eyed view of government, namely, that it almost always does more harm than good. That’s a position with which I agree, but it’s a reason to vote rather than abstain. If rationalists like Caplan abstain from voting in large numbers, their abstention may well cause some elections to be won by candidates who favor more government rather than less. Moreover, Caplan’s argument against voting is really a way of rationalizing his disdain for voting. This is from “Why I Don’t Vote: The Honest Truth”: My honest answer begins with extreme disgust. When I look at voters, I see human beings at their hysterical, innumerate worst . When I look at politicians, I see mendacious, callous bullies . Yes, some hysterical, innumerate people are more hysterical and innumerate than others. Yes, some mendacious, callous bullies are more mendacious, callous, and bully-like than others. But even a bare hint of any of these traits appalls me. When someone gloats, “Politifact says Trump is pants-on-fire lying 18% of the time , versus just 2% for Hillary ,” I don’t want to cheer Hillary. I want to retreat into my Bubble , where people dutifully speak the truth or stay silent . Thus demonstrating the confirmation bias in Caplan’s mathematical “proof” of the futility of voting. Nor is his “proof” really probabilistic. A single event — be it an election, a lottery drawing, of the toss of a fair coin — doesn’t have a probability. What does it mean to say, for example, that there’s a probability of 0.5 (50 percent) that a tossed coin will come up heads (H), and a probability of 0.5 that it will come up tails (T)? Does such a statement have any bearing on the outcome of a single toss of a coin? No, it doesn’t. The statement is only a shorthand way of saying that in a sufficiently large number of tosses, approximately half will come up H and half will come up T. The result of each toss, however, is a random event — it has no probability. You may have an opinion (or a hunch or a guess) about the outcome of a single coin toss, but it’s only your opinion (hunch, guess). In the end, you have to bet on a discrete outcome. An election that hasn’t taken place can’t have a probability. There will be opinion polls — a lot of them in the case of a presidential election — but choosing to vote (or not) because of opinion polls can be self-defeating. Take the recent presidential election. Almost all of the polls, including those that forecast the electoral vote as well as the popular vote, had Mrs. Clinton winning over Mr. Trump. But despite the high “probability” of a victory by Mrs. Clinton, she lost. Why? Because the “ignorant” voters in several swing States turned out in large numbers, while too many pro-Clinton voters evidently didn’t bother to vote. It’s possible that she lost some crucial States because of the abstention of voters who believed the high “probability” that she would win. The election of 2016 — like every other election — isn’t even close to being something as simple as the toss of a fair coin. And, despite its mathematical precision, a statement about the probability of the next toss of a fair coin is meaningless. It will come up H or it will come up T, but it will not come up 0.5 H or T. REDUCTIONISM This subject is more important than probability, so I will say far less about it. Reductionism is the adoption of a theory or method which holds that a complex idea or system can be completely understood in terms of its simpler components. Most reductionists will defend their theory or method by agreeing that it is simple, if not simplistic. But they will nevertheless adhere to that theory or method because it’s “the best we have.” That claim should remind you of the hoary joke about the drunk who searched for his keys under a street light because he could see the ground there, even though he had dropped the keys half a block away. Caplan’s adherence to the simplistic, mathematical analysis of voting is a good example of reductionism. Why? Because it omits the crucial influence of group behavior. It also omits other reasons for voting (or not). It certainly omits Caplan’s real reason, which is his “extreme disgust” for voters and the candidates from whom they must choose. Finally, it omits the psychic value of voting — its “feel good” effect. Economists also are guilty of reductionism when they suggest that persons act rationally only when they pursue the maximization of income or wealth. I’ll say more about that when I get to paternalism. NIRVANA FALLACY The nirvana fallacy is the logical error of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives. The actual things usually are the “somethings” about which government is supposed to “do something.” The unrealistic, idealized alternatives are the outcomes sought by the proponents of a particular course of government action. There is also a pervasive nirvana fallacy about government itself. Government — which is a mere collection of fallible, squabbling, power-lusting humans — is too often thought and spoken of as if it were a kind of omniscient, single-minded, benevolent being that can overcome the forces of nature and human nature which give rise, in the first place, to the “something” about which “something must be done.” Specific examples of the nirvana fallacy will arise in later chapters of this book. SOCIAL WELFARE Wouldn’t you like to arrange the world so that everyone is better off? If you would — and I suspect that most people would — you’d have to define “better off.” Happier, healthier, and wealthier make a good starting point. Of course, you’d have to arrange it so that everyone would be happier and healthier and wealthier in the future as well as in the present. That is, for example, you couldn’t arrange greater happiness at the cost of greater wealth, or at the cost of the greater happiness or wealth of those living today or their descendants. It’s a tall order isn’t it? In fact, it’s an impossibility. (You might even call it a state of nirvana.) In the real world of limited resources, the best that can happen is that a change of some kind (e.g., the invention of an anti-polio vaccine, hybridization to produce healthier and more abundant crops) makes it possible for many people to be better off — but at a price. There is no free lunch. Someone must bear the costs of devising and implementing beneficial changes. In market economies, those costs are borne by the people who reap the benefits because they (the beneficiaries) voluntarily pay for whatever it is that makes their lives better. Enter government, whose agents decide such things what lines of medical research to fund, and how much to spend on each line of research. A breakthrough in a line of research might be a boon to millions of Americans. But other millions of Americans — many more millions, in fact — won’t benefit from the breakthrough, though a large fraction of them will have funded the underlying research through taxes extracted from them by force. I say by force because tax collections would decline sharply if it weren’t for the credible threat of heavy fines and imprisonment tax collections. A voluntary exchange results when each of the parties to the exchange believes that he will be better off as a result of the exchange. An honest voluntary exchange — one in which there is no deception or material lack of information — therefore improves the well-being (welfare) of all parties. An involuntary exchange, as in the case of tax-funded medical research, cannot result make all parties better off. No government agent — or economist, pundit, or politician — can look into the minds of millions of people and say that each of them would willingly donate a certain amount of money to fund this or that government program. And yet, that is the presumption which lies behind government spending. That presumption is the fallacious foundation of cost-benefit analysis undertaken to evaluate government programs. If the “social benefit” of a program is said to equal or exceed its cost, the program is presumably justified because the undertaking of it would cause “social welfare” to increase. But a “social benefit” — like a breakthrough in medical research — is a always a benefit to some persons, while the taxes paid to elicit the benefit are nothing but a burden to other persons, who have their own problems and priorities. Why doesn’t the good outweigh the bad? Think of it this way: If a bully punches you in the nose, thus deriving much pleasure at your expense, who is to say that the bully’s pleasure outweighs your pain? Do you believe that there’s a third party who is entitled to say that the result of your transaction with the bully is a heightened state of social welfare? Evidently, there are a lot of voters, economists, pundits, and politician who act as if they believe it. ROMANTICIZING THE STATE This section is a corollary to the preceding one. It is a logical and factual error to apply the collective “we” to Americans, except when referring generally to the citizens of the United States. Other instances of “we” (e.g., “we” won World War II, “we” elected Barack Obama) are fatuous and presumptuous. In the first instance, only a small fraction of Americans still living had a hand in the winning of World War II. In the second instance, Barack Obama was elected by amassing the votes of fewer than 25 percent of the number of Americans living in 2008 and 2012. “We the People” — that stirring phrase from the Constitution’s preamble — was never more hollow than it is today. Further, the logical and factual error supports the unwarranted view that the growth of government somehow reflects a “national will” or consensus of Americans. Thus, appearances to the contrary (e.g., the adoption and expansion of national “social insurance” schemes, the proliferation of cabinet departments, the growth of the administrative state) a sizable fraction of Americans (perhaps a majority) did not want government to grow to its present size and degree of intrusiveness. And a sizable fraction (perhaps a majority) would still prefer that it shrink in both dimensions. In fact, The growth of government is an artifact of formal and informal arrangements that, in effect, flout the wishes of many (most?) Americans. The growth of government was not and is not the will of “we Americans,” “Americans on the whole,” “Americans in the aggregate,” or any other mythical consensus. PATERNALISM Paternalism arises from the same source as “social welfare”; that is, it reflects a presumption that there are some persons who are competent to decide what’s best for other persons. That may be true of parents, but it is most assuredly not true of so-called libertarian paternalists. Consider an example that’s used to explain libertarian paternalism. Some workers choose “irrationally” — according to libertarian paternalists — when they decline to sign up for an employer’s 401(k) plan. The paternalists characterize the “do not join” option as the default option. In my experience, there is no default option: An employee must make a deliberate choice between joining a 401(k) or not joining it. And if the employee chooses not to join it, he or she must sign a form certifying that choice. That’s not a default, it’s a clear-cut and deliberate choice which reflects the employee’s best judgment, at that time, as to the best way to allocate his or her income. Nor is it an irrevocable choice; it can be revisited annually (or more often under certain circumstances). But to help employees make the “right” choice, libertarian paternalists would find a way to herd employees into 401(k) plans (perhaps by law). In one variant of this bit of paternalism, an employee is automatically enrolled in a 401(k) and isn’t allowed to opt out for some months, by which time he or she has become used to the idea of being enrolled and declines to opt out. The underlying notion is that people don’t always choose what’s “best” for themselves. Best according to whom? According to libertarian paternalists, of course, who tend to equate “best” with wealth maximization. They simply disregard or dismiss the truly rational preferences of those who must live with the consequences of their decisions. Libertarian paternalism incorporates two fallacies. One is what I call the rationality fallacy (a kind of reductionism), the other is the fallacy of central planning. As for the rationality fallacy, there is simply a lot more to maximizing satisfaction than maximizing wealth. That’s why some couples choose to have a lot of children, when doing so obviously reduces the amount of wealth that they can accumulate. That’s why some persons choose to retire early rather than stay in stressful jobs. Rationality and wealth maximization are two very different things, but a lot of laypersons and too many economists are guilty of equating them. Nevertheless, many economists do equate rationality and wealth maximization, which leads them to propose schemes for forcing us to act more “rationally.” Such schemes, of course, are nothing more than central planning, dreamt up by self-anointed wise men who seek to impose their preferences on the rest of us. They are, in other words, schemes to maximize that which can’t be maximized: social welfare. JUDGING MOTIVES INSTEAD OF RESULTS If a person commits what seems to be an altruistic act, that person may seem to sacrifice something (e.g., a life, a fortune) but the “sacrifice” was that person’s choice. An altruistic act serves an end: the satisfaction of one’s personal values — nothing more, nothing less. There is nothing inherent in a supposedly altruistic act that makes it morally superior to profit-seeking, which is usually thought of as the opposite of altruism. To illustrate my point I resort to the following bits of caricature: 1. Suppose Mother Teresa’s acts of “sacrifice” were born of rebellion against parents who wanted her to take over their business empire. That is, suppose Mother Teresa derived great satisfaction in defying her parents, and it is that which drove her to impoverish herself and suffer many hardships. The more she “suffered” the more her parents suffered and the happier she became. 2. Suppose Bill Gates really wanted to become a male version of Mother Teresa but his grandmother, on her deathbed, said “Billy, I want you to make the world safe from the Apple computer.” So, Billy went out and did that, for his grandmother’s sake, even though he really wanted to be the male Mother Teresa. Then he wound up being immensely wealthy, much to his regret. But Billy obviously put his affection for or fear of his grandmother above his desire to become a male version of Mother Teresa. He satisfied his personal values. And in doing so, he make life better for millions of people, many millions more than were served by Mother Teresa’s efforts. It’s just that Billy’s efforts weren’t heart-rending, and were seemingly motivated by profit-seeking. Now, tell me, who is the altruist, my fictional Mother Teresa or my fictional Bill Gates? You might now say Bill Gates. I would say neither; each acted in accordance with her and his personal values. One might call the real Mother Teresa altruistic because her actions seem altruistic, in the common meaning of the word. But one can’t say (for sure) why she took those actions. Suppose that the real Mother Teresa acted as she did not only because she wanted to help the poor but also because she sought spiritual satisfaction or salvation. Would that negate her acts? No, her acts would still be her acts, regardless of their motivation. The same goes for the real Bill Gates. Results matter more than motivations. (“The road to hell,” and all that.) It is arguable that profit-seekers like the real Bill Gates — and the real John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Henry Ford, and their ilk — brought more happiness to humankind than did Mother Teresa and others of her ilk. That insight is at least 240 years old. Adam Smith put it this way in The Wealth of Nations (1776): By pursuing his own interest [a person] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. A person who makes a profit makes it by doing something of value for others. Share this: Economics, the Dismal Quasi-Science: 1. What Is Economics? This is the first entry in what I hope will become a book-length series of posts. That result, if it comes to pass, will amount to an unorthodox economics textbook. This first chapter gives a hint of things to come. Here are the chapters that have been posted to date: 1. What is Economics? 2. Pitfalls A book about economics should begin by explaining what the author means by the word. Many economists have given many definitions of economics. You can look them up. Regardless of where it started, economics seems to have become the study of how human beings make choices and how those choices affect them directly (e.g., the demand for and supply of new automobiles, enrollment in an employer’s retirement plan) and indirectly (e.g., the effects of government actions on the income available for the purchase of new automobiles or on the benefits paid out by retirement plans). The parenthetical examples are about choices that usually come with dollar signs attached. And most non-economists probably think of economics as having something (or everything) to do with money – earning it, spending it, making a profit (or not) by making and selling things, adding up the dollar value of items bought and sold to arrive at an estimate of aggregate economic activity, and understanding why the aggregate grows and shrinks, for example. But there are many economists nowadays who have taken the study of choice into areas that would seem strange to economists of yore. Here’s just one example: voting, as in whether or not to vote and how much time (if any) to spend in the pursuit of information about the candidates or issues on the ballot. Some economists tackle voting as they would any other aspect of economics: by arguing (pro or con) that voting is rational (or irrational) given the amount of time involved (time that could spent on other pursuits, such as making money), the vanishingly small chance that an individual vote will tip the balance in an election (at least in an election where there are more than a few hundred voters), and the effect of the election results on the individual voter’s well-being (usually in terms of money). On the other hand (as economists are supposedly fond of saying), there are economists who recognize that casting a ballot is a “feel good” act, and that voting is therefore rational if it makes one happier. But that’s only a local, short-run effect. Some economists understand that voting leads to the enactment of policies that harm voters (or many of them), regardless of why they choose to vote. This points to two conclusions: (1) Voting should be discouraged, and (2) the power of government should be curbed so that voters can feel good without causing harm (or as much of it as they do now). So, which is it? Is voting a waste of time or is it a good use of time if it makes the voter feel good? And is it worse than a waste of time if it leads to harm? This conundrum illustrates a key point about economics (and analysis in general): It leads to conclusions that are built into the assumptions (usually implicit) that guide the economist who studies an issue. If the economist cares about liberty, he is likely to tackle the issue of voting as it affects persons other than the voter. If the economist isn’t interested in liberty – or if he sees it only as a peripheral issue — he is likely to tackle the issue of voting as it affects the voter. Unfortunately, too many economists take the view that if government can do something to promote economic well-being, it ought to be empowered to do so. But economic well-being is in the eye of the beholder. And in this era of massive redistribution, one person’s benefit is another person’s cost. Who, other than an arrogant economist, presumes to weigh one person’s benefit against another person’s cost? My list begins with the greedy voter who believes that he can get something for nothing; the smug pundit; and the power-hungry, vote-buying politician. There is much more to be said about the wayward paths taken by economists, and the essays in this book say a lot of it. But more than that, this book is a defense of liberty against economists who – wittingly or not – undermine it. And, ironically, the diminution of liberty results in the diminution of prosperity, which economists claim to love. In sum economics is fraught with dangerous error. This book is meant as a warning and antidote. Share this: Mathematical Economics This is the fourth entry in a series of loosely connected posts on economics. Previous entries are here , here , and here . Economics is a study of human behavior, not an exercise in mathematical modeling or statistical analysis, though both endeavors may augment an understanding of human behavior. Economics is about four things: wants, as they are perceived by the persons who have those wants how people try to satisfy their wants through mutually beneficial, cooperative action, which includes but is far from limited to market-based exchanges how exogenous forces, including government interventions, enable or thwart the satisfaction of wants the relationships between private action, government interventions, and changes in the composition, rate, and direction of economic activity In sum, economics is about the behavior of human beings, which is why it’s called a social science. Well, economics used to be called a social science, but it’s been a long time (perhaps fifty years) since I’ve heard or read an economist refer to it as a social science. The term is too reminiscent of “soft and fuzzy” disciplines such as history, social psychology, sociology, political science, and civics or social studies (names for the amalgam of sociology and government that was taught in high schools way back when). No “soft and fuzzy” stuff for physics-envying economists. However, the behavior of human beings — their thoughts and emotions, how those things affect their actions, and how they interact — is fuzzy, to say the least. Which explains why mathematical economics is largely an exercise in mental masturbation. In my disdain for mathematical economics, I am in league with Arnold Kling , who is the most insightful economist I have yet encountered in more than fifty years of studying and reading about economics. I especially recommend Kling’s Specialization and Trade: A Reintroduction to Economics . It’s a short book, but chock-full of wisdom and straight thinking about what makes the economy tick. Here’s the blurb from Amazon.com: Since the end of the second World War, economics professors and classroom textbooks have been telling us that the economy is one big machine that can be effectively regulated by economic experts and tuned by government agencies like the Federal Reserve Board. It turns out they were wrong. Their equations do not hold up. Their policies have not produced the promised results. Their interpretations of economic events — as reported by the media — are often of-the-mark, and unconvincing. A key alternative to the one big machine mindset is to recognize how the economy is instead an evolutionary system, with constantly-changing patterns of specialization and trade. This book introduces you to this powerful approach for understanding economic performance. By putting specialization at the center of economic analysis, Arnold Kling provides you with new ways to think about issues like sustainability, financial instability, job creation, and inflation. In short, he removes stiff, narrow perspectives and instead provides a full, multi-dimensional perspective on a continually evolving system. And he does, without using a single graph. He uses only a few simple equations to illustrate the bankruptcy of macroeconomic theory. Those economists who rely heavily on mathematics like to say (and perhaps even believe) that mathematical expression is more precise than mere words. But, as Kling points out in “ An Important Emerging Economic Paradigm ,” mathematical economics is a language of “faux precision,” which is useful only when applied to well defined, narrow problems. It can’t address the big issues — such as economic growth — which depend on variables such as the rule of law and social norms which defy mathematical expression and quantification. I would go a step further and argue that mathematical economics borders on obscurantism . It’s a cult whose followers speak an arcane language not only to communicate among themselves but to obscure the essentially bankrupt nature of their craft from others. Mathematical expression actually hides the assumptions that underlie it. It’s far easier to identify and challenge the assumptions of “literary” economics than it is to identify and challenge the assumptions of mathematical economics. I daresay that this is true even for persons who are conversant in mathematics. They may be able to manipulate easily the equations of mathematical economics, but they are able to do so without grasping the deeper meanings — the assumptions and complexities — hidden by those equations. In fact, the ease of manipulating the equations gives them a false sense of mastery of the underlying, real concepts. Much of the economics profession is nevertheless dedicated to the protection and preservation of the essential incompetence of mathematical economists. This is from “An Important Emerging Economic Paradigm”: One of the best incumbent-protection rackets going today is for mathematical theorists in economics departments. The top departments will not certify someone as being qualified to have an advanced degree without first subjecting the student to the most rigorous mathematical economic theory. The rationale for this is reminiscent of fraternity hazing. “We went through it, so should they.” Mathematical hazing persists even though there are signs that the prestige of math is on the decline within the profession. The important Clark Medal, awarded to the most accomplished American economist under the age of 40, has not gone to a mathematical theorist since 1989. These hazing rituals can have real consequences. In medicine, the controversial tradition of long work hours for medical residents has come under scrutiny over the last few years. In economics, mathematical hazing is not causing immediate harm to medical patients. But it probably is working to the long-term detriment of the profession. The hazing ritual in economics has as least two real and damaging consequences. First, it discourages entry into the economics profession by persons who aren’t high-IQ freaks, and who, like Kling, can discuss economic behavior without resorting to the sterile language of mathematics. Second, it leads to economics that’s irrelevant to the real world — and dead wrong. Reaching back into my archives, I found a good example of irrelevance and wrongness in Thomas Schelling ‘s game-theoretic analysis of segregation. Eleven years ago, Tyler Cowen ( Marginal Revolution ), who was mentored by Schelling at Harvard, praised Schelling’s Nobel prize by noting, among other things, Schelling’s analysis of the economics of segregation: Tom showed how communities can end up segregated even when no single individual cares to live in a segregated neighborhood. Under the right conditions, it only need be the case that the person does not want to live as a minority in the neighborhood, and will move to a neighborhood where the family can be in the majority. Try playing this game with white and black chess pieces, I bet you will get to segregation pretty quickly. Like many game-theoretic tricks, Schelling’s segregation gambit omits much important detail. It’s artificial to treat segregation as a game in which all whites are willing to live with black neighbors as long as they (the whites) aren’t in the minority. Most whites (including most liberals) do not want to live anywhere near any “ black rednecks ” if they can help it. Living in relatively safe, quiet, and attractive surroundings comes far ahead of whatever value there might be in “diversity.” “Diversity” for its own sake is nevertheless a “good thing” in the liberal lexicon. The Houston Chronicle noted Schelling’s Nobel by saying that Schelling’s work helps explain why housing segregation continues to be a problem, even in areas where residents say they have no extreme prejudice to another group. Segregation isn’t a “problem,” it’s the solution to a potential problem. Segregation today is mainly a social phenomenon, not a legal one. It reflects a rational aversion on the part of whites to having neighbors whose culture breeds crime and other types of undesirable behavior. As for what people say about their racial attitudes: Believe what they do, not what they say. Most well-to-do liberals — including black one like the Obamas — choose to segregate themselves and their children from black rednecks. That kind of voluntary segregation, aside from demonstrating liberal hypocrisy about black redneck culture, also demonstrates the rationality of choosing to live in safer and more decorous surroundings. Dave Patterson of the defunct Order from Chaos put it this way: [G]ame theory has one major flaw inherent in it: The arbitrary assignment of expected outcomes and the assumption that the values of both parties are equally reflected in these external outcomes. By this I mean a matrix is filled out by [a conductor, and] it is up to that conductor’s discretion to assign outcome values to that grid. This means that there is an inherent bias towards the expected outcomes of conductor. Or: Garbage in, garbage out. Game theory points to the essential flaw in mathematical economics, which is reductionism : “An attempt or tendency to explain a complex set of facts, entities, phenomena, or structures by another, simpler set.” Reductionism is invaluable in many settings. To take an example from everyday life, children are warned — in appropriate stern language — not to touch a hot stove or poke a metal object into an electrical outlet. The reasons given are simple ones: “You’ll burn yourself” and “You’ll get a shock and it will hurt you.” It would be futile (in almost all cases) to try to explain to a small child the physical and physiological bases for the warnings. The child wouldn’t understand the explanations, and the barrage of words might cause him to forget the warnings. The details matter in economics. It’s easy enough to say, for example, that a market equilibrium exists where the relevant supply and demand curves cross (in a graphical representation) or where the supply and demand functions yield equal values of price and quantity (in a mathematical representation). But those are gross abstractions from reality, as any economist knows — or should know. Expressing economic relationships in mathematical terms lends them an unwarranted air of precision. Further, all mathematical expressions, no matter how complex, can be expressed in plain language, though it may be hard to do so when the words become too many and their relationships too convoluted. But until one tries to do so, one is at the mercy of the mathematical economist whose equation has no counterpart in the real world of economic activity. In other words, an equation represents nothing more than the manipulation of mathematical relationships until it’s brought to earth by plain language and empirical testing. Short of that, it’s as meaningful as Urdu is to a Cockney. Finally, mathematical economics lends aid and comfort to proponents of economic control. Whether or not they understand the mathematics or the economics, the expression of congenial ideas in mathematical form lends unearned — and dangerous — credibility to the controller’s agenda. The relatively simple multiplier is a case in point. As I explain in “ The Keynesian Multiplier: Phony Math ,” the Keynesian investment/government-spending multiplier simply tells us that if ∆Y = $5 trillion, and if b = 0.8, then it is a matter of mathematical necessity that ∆C = $4 trillion and ∆I + ∆G = $1 trillion. In other words, a rise in I + G of $1 trillion doesn’t cause a rise in Y of $5 trillion; rather, Y must rise by $5 trillion for C to rise by $4 trillion and I + G to rise by $1 trillion. If there’s a causal relationship between ∆G and ∆Y, the multiplier doesn’t portray it. I followed that post with “ The True Multiplier “: Math trickery aside, there is evidence that the Keynesian multiplier is less than 1. Robert J. Barro of Harvard University opens an article in The Wall Street Journal with the statement that “economists have not come up with explanations … for multipliers above one.” Barro continues: A much more plausible starting point is a multiplier of zero. In this case, the GDP is given, and a rise in government purchases requires an equal fall in the total of other parts of GDP — consumption, investment and net export. . . . What do the data show about multipliers? Because it is not easy to separate movements in government purchases from overall business fluctuations, the best evidence comes from large changes in military purchases that are driven by shifts in war and peace. A particularly good experiment is the massive expansion of U.S. defense expenditures during World War II. The usual Keynesian view is that the World War II fiscal expansion provided the stimulus that finally got us out of the Great Depression. Thus, I think that most macroeconomists would regard this case as a fair one for seeing whether a large multiplier ever exists. I have estimated that World War II raised U.S. defense expenditures by $540 billion (1996 dollars) per year at the peak in 1943-44, amounting to 44% of real GDP. I also estimated that the war raised real GDP by $430 billion per year in 1943-44. Thus, the multiplier was 0.8 (430/540). The other way to put this is that the war lowered components of GDP aside from military purchases. The main declines were in private investment, nonmilitary parts of government purchases, and net exports — personal consumer expenditure changed little. Wartime production siphoned off resources from other economic uses — there was a dampener, rather than a multiplier. . . . There are reasons to believe that the war-based multiplier of 0.8 substantially overstates the multiplier that applies to peacetime government purchases. For one thing, people would expect the added wartime outlays to be partly temporary (so that consumer demand would not fall a lot). Second, the use of the military draft in wartime has a direct, coercive effect on total employment. Finally, the U.S. economy was already growing rapidly after 1933 (aside from the 1938 recession), and it is probably unfair to ascribe all of the rapid GDP growth from 1941 to 1945 to the added military outlays. [“ Government Spending Is No Free Lunch ,” The Wall Street Journal (online.WSJ.com), January 22, 2009] This is from Valerie A. Ramsey of the University of California-San Diego and the National Bureau of Economic Research: . . . [I]t appears that a rise in government spending does not stimulate private spending; most estimates suggest that it significantly lowers private spending. These results imply that the government spending multiplier is below unity. Adjusting the implied multiplier for increases in tax rates has only a small effect. The results imply a multiplier on total GDP of around 0.5. [“ Government Spending and Private Activity ,” January 2012] In fact, for the period 1947-2012 I estimated the year-over-year percentage change in GDP (denoted as Y%) as a function of G/GDP (denoted as G/Y): Y% = 0.09 – 0.17(G/Y) Solving for Y% = 0 yields G/Y = 0.53; that is, Y% will drop to zero if G/Y rises to 0.53 (or thereabouts) . At the present level of G/Y (about 0.4), Y% will hover just above 2 percent, as it has done in recent years. (See the graph immediately above.) If G/Y had remained at 0.234, its value in 1947: Real growth would have been about 5 percent a year, instead of 3.2 percent (the actual value for 1947-2012). The total value of Y for 1947-2012 would have been higher by $500 trillion (98 percent). The total value of G would have been lower by $61 trillion (34 percent). The last two points, taken together, imply a cumulative government-spending multiplier (K) for 1947-2012 of about -8. That is, aggregate output in 1947-2012 declined by 8 dollars for every dollar of government spending above the amount represented by G/Y = 0.234. But -8 is only an average value for 1947-2012. It gets worse. The reduction in Y is cumulative; that is, every extra dollar of G reduces the amount of Y that is available for growth-producing investment, which leads to a further reduction in Y, which leads to a further reduction in growth-producing investment, and on and on. (Think of the phenomenon as negative compounding; take a dollar from your savings account today, and the value of the savings account years from now will be lower than it would have been by a multiple of that dollar: [1 + interest rate] raised to nth power, where n = number of years.) Because of this cumulative effect, the effective value of K in 2012 was about -14. The multiplier is a seductive and easy-to-grasp mathematical construct. But in the hands of politicians and their economist-enablers, it has been an instrument of economic destruction. Perhaps “higher” mathematical economics is potentially less destructive because it’s inside game played by economists for the benefit of economists. I devoutly hope that’s true. Share this: Economists As Scientists This is the third entry in a series of loosely connected posts on economics. The first entry is here and the second entry is here . (Related posts by me are noted parenthetically throughout this one.) Science is something that some people “do” some of the time. There are full-time human beings and part-time scientists. And the part-timers are truly scientists only when they think and act in accordance with the scientific method .* Acting in accordance with the scientific method is a matter of attitude and application. The proper attitude is one of indifference about the correctness of a hypothesis or theory. The proper application rejects a hypothesis if it can’t be tested, and rejects a theory if it’s refuted (falsified) by relevant and reliable observations. Regarding attitude, I turn to the most famous person who was sometimes a scientist: Albert Einstein. This is from the Wikipedia article about the Bohr-Einstein debate: The quantum revolution of the mid-1920s occurred under the direction of both Einstein and [Niels] Bohr, and their post-revolutionary debates were about making sense of the change. The shocks for Einstein began in 1925 when Werner Heisenberg introduced matrix equations that removed the Newtonian elements of space and time from any underlying reality. The next shock came in 1926 when Max Born proposed that mechanics were to be understood as a probability without any causal explanation. Einstein rejected this interpretation. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: “I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice.” [Apparently, Einstein also used the line in Bohr’s presence, and Bohr replied , “Einstein, stop telling God what to do.” — TEA] At the Fifth Solvay Conference held in October 1927 Heisenberg and Born concluded that the revolution was over and nothing further was needed. It was at that last stage that Einstein’s skepticism turned to dismay. He believed that much had been accomplished, but the reasons for the mechanics still needed to be understood. Einstein’s refusal to accept the revolution as complete reflected his desire to see developed a model for the underlying causes from which these apparent random statistical methods resulted. He did not reject the idea that positions in space-time could never be completely known but did not want to allow the uncertainty principle to necessitate a seemingly random, non-deterministic mechanism by which the laws of physics operated. It’s true that quantum mechanics was inchoate in the mid-1920s, and that it took a couple of decades to mature into quantum field theory . But there’s more than a trace of “attitude” in Einstein’s refusal to accept quantum mechanics, to stay abreast of developments in the theory, and to search quixotically for his own theory of everything , which he hoped would obviate the need for a non-deterministic explanation of quantum phenomena. Improper application of the scientific method is rife. See, for example the Wikipedia article about the replication crisis, John Ioannidis’s article, “ Why Most Published Research Findings Are False .” (See also “ Ty Cobb and the State of Science ” and “ Is Science Self-Correcting? “) For a thorough analysis of the roots of the crisis, read Michael Hart’s book, Hubris: The Troubling Science, Economics, and Politics of Climate Change . A bad attitude and improper application are both found among the so-called scientists who declare that the “science” of global warming is “settled,” and that human-generated CO2 emissions are the primary cause of the apparent rise in global temperatures during the last quarter of the 20th century. The bad attitude is the declaration of “settled science.” In “ The Science Is Never Settled ” I give many prominent examples of the folly of declaring it to be “settled.” The improper application of the scientific method with respect to global warming began with the hypothesis that the “culprit” is CO2 emissions generated by the activities of human beings — thus anthropogenic global warming (AGW). There’s no end of evidence to the contrary, some of which is summarized in these posts and many of the links found therein. There’s enough evidence, in my view, to have rejected the CO2 hypothesis many times over. But there’s a great deal of money and peer-approval at stake, so the rush to judgment became a stampede. And attitude rears its ugly head when pro-AGW “scientists” shun the real scientists who are properly skeptical about the CO2 hypothesis, or at least about the degree to which CO2 supposedly influences temperatures. (For a depressingly thorough account of the AGW scam, read Michael Hart’s Hubris: The Troubling Science, Economics, and Politics of Climate Change .) I turn now to economists, as I have come to know them in more than fifty years of being taught by them, working with them, and reading their works. Scratch an economist and you’re likely to find a moralist or reformer just beneath a thin veneer of rationality. Economists like to believe that they’re objective. But they aren’t; no one is. Everyone brings to the table a large serving of biases that are incubated in temperament, upbringing, education, and culture. Economists bring to the table a heaping helping of tunnel vision. “Hard scientists” do, too, but their tunnel vision is generally a good thing, because it’s actually aimed at a deeper understanding of the inanimate and subhuman world rather than the advancement of a social or economic agenda. (I make a large exception for “hard scientists” who contribute to global-warming hysteria, as discussed above.) Some economists, especially behavioralists, view the world through the lens of wealth-and-utility-maximization. Their great crusade is to force everyone to make rational decisions (by their lights), through “nudging.” It almost goes without saying that government should be the nudger-in-chief. (See “ The Perpetual Nudger ” and the many posts linked to therein.) Other economists — though far fewer than in the past — have a thing about monopoly and oligopoly (the domination of a market by one or a few sellers). They’re heirs to the trust-busting of the late 1800s and early 1900s, a movement led by non-economists who sought to blame the woes of working-class Americans on the “plutocrats” (Rockefeller, Carnegie, Ford, etc.) who had merely made life better and more affordable for Americans, while also creating jobs for millions of them and reaping rewards for the great financial risks that they took. (See “ Monopoly and the General Welfare ” and “ Monopoly: Private Is Better than Public .”) As it turns out, the biggest and most destructive monopoly of all is the federal government, so beloved and trusted by trust-busters — and too many others. (See “ The Rahn Curve Revisited .”) Nowadays, a lot of economists are preoccupied by income inequality, as if it were something evil and not mainly an artifact of differences in intelligence, ambition, and education, etc. And inequality — the prospect of earning rather grand sums of money — is what drives a lot of economic endeavor, to good of workers and consumers. (See “ Mass (Economic) Hysteria: Income Inequality and Related Themes ” and the many posts linked to therein.) Remove inequality and what do you get? The Soviet Union and Communist China, in which everyone is equal except party operatives and their families, friends, and favorites. When the inequality-preoccupied economists are confronted by the facts of life, they usually turn their attention from inequality as a general problem to the (inescapable) fact that an income distribution has a top one-percent and top one-tenth of one-percent — as if there were something especially loathsome about people in those categories. (Paul Krugman shifted his focus to the top one-tenth of one percent when he realized that he’s in the top one percent, so perhaps he knows that’s he’s loathsome and wishes to deny it, to himself.) Crony capitalism is trotted out as a major cause of very high incomes. But that’s hardly a universal cause, given that a lot of very high incomes are earned by athletes and film stars beside whom most investment bankers and CEOs are making peanuts. Moreover, as I’ve said on several occasions, crony capitalists are bright and driven enough to be in the stratosphere of any income distribution. Further, the fertile soil of crony capitalism is the regulatory power of government that makes it possible. Many economists became such, it would seem, in order to promote big government and its supposed good works — income redistribution being one of them. Joseph Stiglitz and Paul Krugman are two leading exemplars of what I call the New Deal school of economic thought, which amounts to throwing government and taxpayers’ money at every perceived problem, that is, every economic outcome that is deemed unacceptable by accountants of the soul. (See “ Accountants of the Soul .”) Stiglitz and Krugman — both Nobel laureates in economics — are typical “public intellectuals” whose intelligence breeds in them a kind of arrogance. (See “ Intellectuals and Society: A Review .”) It’s the kind of arrogance that I mentioned in the preceding post in this series: a penchant for deciding what’s best for others. New Deal economists like Stiglitz and Krugman carry it a few steps further. They ascribe to government an impeccable character, an intelligence to match their own, and a monolithic will. They then assume that this infallible and wise automaton can and will do precisely what they would do: Create the best of all possible worlds. (See the many posts in which I discuss the nirvana fallacy.) New Deal economists, in other words, live their intellectual lives in a dream-world populated by the likes of Jiminy Cricket (“When You Wish Upon a Star”), Dorothy (“Somewhere Over the Rainbow”), and Mary Jane of a long-forgotten comic book (“First I shut my eyes real tight, then I wish with all my might! Magic words of poof, poof, piffles, make me just as small as [my mouse] Sniffles!”). I could go on, but you should by now have grasped the point: What too many economists want to do is change human nature, channel it in directions deemed “good” (by the economist), or simply impose their view of “good” on everyone. To do such things, they must rely on government. It’s true that government can order people about, but it can’t change human nature, which has an uncanny knack for thwarting Utopian schemes. (Obamacare, whose chief architect was economist Jonathan Gruber , is exhibit A this year.) And government (inconveniently for Utopians) really consists of fallible, often unwise, contentious human beings. So government is likely to march off in a direction unsought by Utopian economists. Nevertheless, it’s hard to thwart the tax collector. The regulator can and does make things so hard for business that if one gets off the ground it can’t create as much prosperity and as many jobs as it would in the absence of regulation. And the redistributor only makes things worse by penalizing success. Tax, regulate, and redistribute should have been the mantra of the New Deal and most presidential “deals” since. I hold economists of the New Deal stripe partly responsible for the swamp of stagnation into which the nation’s economy has descended. (See “ Economic Growth Since World War II .”) Largely responsible, of course, are opportunistic if not economically illiterate politicians who pander to rent-seeking, economically illiterate constituencies. (Yes, I’m thinking of old folks and the various “disadvantaged” groups with which they have struck up an alliance of convenience.) The distinction between normative economics and positive economics is of no particular use in sorting economists between advocates and scientists. A lot of normative economics masquerades as positive economics. The work of Thomas Piketty and his comrades-in-arms comes to mind, for example. (See “ McCloskey on Piketty .”) Almost everything done to quantify and defend the Keynesian multiplier counts as normative economics, inasmuch as the work is intended (wittingly or not) to defend an intellectual scam of 80 years’ standing. (See “ The Keynesian Multiplier: Phony Math ,” “ The True Multiplier ,” and “ Further Thoughts about the Keynesian Multiplier .”) Enough said. If you want to see scientific economics in action, read Regulation . Not every article in it exemplifies scientific inquiry, but a good many of them do. It’s replete with articles about microeconomics, in which the authors uses real-world statistics to validate and quantify the many axioms of economics. A final thought is sparked by Arnold Kling’s post, “ Ed Glaeser on Science and Economics .” Kling writes: I think that the public has a sort of binary classification. If it’s “science,” then an expert knows more than the average Joe. If it’s not a science, then anyone’s opinion is as good as anyone else’s. I strongly favor an in-between category, called a discipline. Think of economics as a discipline, where it is possible for avid students to know more than ordinary individuals, but without the full use of the scientific method. On this rare occasion I disagree with Kling. The accumulation of knowledge about economic variables, or pseudo-knowledge such as estimates of GDP (see “ Macroeconomics and Microeconomics “), either leads to well-tested, verified, and reproducible theories of economic behavior or it leads to conjectures, of which there are so many opposing ones that it’s “take your pick.” If that’s what makes a discipline, give me the binary choice between science and story-telling. Most of economics seems to be story-telling. “Discipline” is just a fancy word for it. Collecting baseball cards and memorizing the statistics printed on them is a discipline. Most of economics is less useful than collecting baseball cards — and a lot more destructive. Here’s my hypothesis about economists: There are proportionally as many of them who act like scientists as there are baseball players who have career batting averages of at least .300. __________ * Richard Feynman , a physicist and real scientist, had a different view of the scientific method than Karl Popper’s standard taxonomy. I see Feynman’s view as complementary to Popper’s, not at odds with it. What is “constructive skepticism” (Feynman’s term) but a gentler way of saying that a hypothesis or theory might be falsified and that the act of falsification may point to a better hypothesis or theory? Share this: Economics and Science This is the second entry in what I expect to be a series of loosely connected posts on economics. The first entry is here . Science is unnecessarily daunting to the uninitiated, which is to say, the vast majority of the populace. Because scientific illiteracy is rampant, advocates of policy positions — scientists and non-scientists alike — are able to invoke “science” wantonly, thus lending unwarranted authority to their positions. Here I will dissect science, then turn to economics and begin a discussion of its scientific and non-scientific aspects. It has both, though at least one non-scientific aspect ( the Keynesian multiplier ) draws an inordinate amount of attention, and has many true believers within the profession. Science is knowledge, but not all knowledge is science. A scientific body of knowledge is systematic; that is, the granular facts or phenomena which comprise the body of knowledge must be connected in patterned ways. The purported facts or phenomena of a science must represent reality, things that can be observed and measured in some way. Scientists may hypothesize the existence of an unobserved thing (e.g., the ether , dark matter ), in an effort to explain observed phenomena. But the unobserved thing stands outside scientific knowledge until its existence is confirmed by observation, or because it remains standing as the only plausible explanation of observable phenomena. Hypothesized things may remain outside the realm of scientific knowledge for a very long time, if not forever. The Higgs boson , for example, was hypothesized in 1964 and has been tentatively (but not conclusively) confirmed since its “discovery” in 2011. Science has other key characteristics. Facts and patterns must be capable of validation and replication by persons other than those who claim to have found them initially. Patterns should have predictive power; thus, for example, if the sun fails to rise in the east, the model of Earth’s movements which says that it will rise in the east is presumably invalid and must be rejected or modified so that it correctly predicts future sunrises or the lack thereof. Creating a model or tweaking an existing model just to account for a past event (e.g., the failure of the Sun to rise, the apparent increase in global temperatures from the 1970s to the 1990s) proves nothing other than an ability to “predict” the past with accuracy. Models are usually clothed in the language of mathematics and statistics. But those aren’t scientific disciplines in themselves; they are tools of science. Expressing a theory in mathematical terms may lend the theory a scientific aura, but a theory couched in mathematical terms is not a scientific one unless (a) it can be tested against facts yet to be ascertained and events yet to occur, and (b) it is found to accord with those facts and events consistently, by rigorous statistical tests. A science may be descriptive rather than mathematical. In a descriptive science (e.g., plant taxonomy), particular phenomena sometimes are described numerically (e.g., the number of leaves on the stem of a species), but the relations among various phenomena are not reducible to mathematics. Nevertheless, a predominantly descriptive discipline will be scientific if the phenomena within its compass are connected in patterned ways, can be validated, and are applicable to newly discovered entities. Non-scientific disciplines can be useful, whereas some purportedly scientific disciplines verge on charlatanism. Thus, for example: History, by my reckoning, is not a science because its account of events and their relationships is inescapably subjective and incomplete. But a knowledge of history is valuable, nevertheless, for the insights it offers into the influence of human nature on the outcomes of economic and political processes. Physics is a science in most of its sub-disciplines, but there are some (e.g., cosmology) where it descends into the realm of speculation. It is informed, fascinating speculation to be sure, but speculation all the same. The idea of multiverses, for example, can’t be tested, inasmuch as human beings and their tools are bound to the known universe. Economics is a science only to the extent that it yields empirically valid insights about specific economic phenomena (e.g., the effects of laws and regulations on the prices and outputs of specific goods and services). Then there are concepts like the Keynesian multiplier, about which I’ll say more in this series. It’s a hypothesis that rests on a simplistic, hydraulic view of the economic system. (Other examples of pseudo-scientific economic theories are the labor theory of value and historical determinism .) In sum, there is no such thing as “science,” writ large; that is, no one may appeal, legitimately, to “science” in the abstract. A particular discipline may be a science, but it is a science only to the extent that it comprises a factual and replicable body of patterned knowledge. Patterned knowledge includes theories with predictive power. A scientific theory is a hypothesis that has thus far been confirmed by observation. Every scientific theory rests eventually on axioms : self-evident principles that are accepted as true without proof. The principle of uniformity (which can be traced to Galileo) is an example of such an axiom: Uniformitarianism is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. It refers to invariance in the metaphysical principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of causal structure throughout space-time, but has also been used to describe spatiotemporal invariance of physical laws. Though an unprovable postulate that cannot be verified using the scientific method, uniformitarianism has been a key first principle of virtually all fields of science Thus, for example, if observer B is moving away from observer A at a certain speed, observer A will perceive that he is moving away from observer B at that speed. It follows that an observer cannot determine either his absolute velocity or direction of travel in space. The principle of uniformity is a fundamental axiom of modern physics, most notably of Einstein’s special and general theories of relativity. There’s a fine line between an axiom and a theory. Was the idea of a geocentric universe an axiom or a theory? If it was taken as axiomatic — as it surely was by many scientists for about 2,000 years — then it’s fair to say that an axiom can give way under the pressure of observational evidence. (Such an event is what Thomas Kuhn calls a paradigm shift .) But no matter how far scientists push the boundaries of knowledge, they must at some point rely on untestable axioms, such as the principle of uniformity. There are simply deep and (probably) unsolvable mysteries that science is unlikely to fathom. This brings me to economics, which — in my view — rests on these self-evident axioms: 1. Each person strives to maximize his or her sense of satisfaction, which may also be called well-being, happiness, or utility (an ugly word favored by economists). Striving isn’t the same as achieving, of course, because of lack of information, emotional decision-making, buyer’s remorse, etc 2. Happiness can and often does include an empathic concern for the well-being of others; that is, one’s happiness may be served by what is usually labelled altruism or self-sacrifice. 3. Happiness can be and often is served by the attainment of non-material ends. Not all persons (perhaps not even most of them) are interested in the maximization of wealth, that is, claims on the output of goods and services. In sum, not everyone is a wealth maximizer. (But see axiom number 12.) 4. The feeling of satisfaction that an individual derives from a particular product or service is situational — unique to the individual and to the time and place in which the individual undertakes to acquire or enjoy the product or service. Generally, however, there is a (situationally unique) point at which the acquisition or enjoyment of additional units of a particular product or service during a given period of time tends to offer less satisfaction than would the acquisition or enjoyment of units of other products or services that could be obtained at the same cost. 5. The value that a person places on a product or service is subjective. Products and services don’t have intrinsic values that apply to all persons at a given time or period of time. 6. The ability of a person to acquire products and services, and to accumulate wealth, depends (in the absence of third-party interventions) on the valuation of the products and services that are produced in part or whole by the person’s labor (mental or physical), or by the assets that he owns (e.g., a factory building, a software patent). That valuation is partly subjective (e.g., consumers’ valuation of the products and services, an employer’s qualitative evaluation of the person’s contributions to output) and partly objective (e.g., an employer’s knowledge of the price commanded by a product or service, an employer’s measurement of an employees’ contribution to the quantity of output). 7. The persons and firms from which products and services flow are motivated by the acquisition of income, with which they can acquire other products and services, and accumulate wealth for personal purposes (e.g., to pass to heirs) or business purposes (e.g., to expand the business and earn more income). So-called profit maximization (seeking to maximize the difference between the cost of production and revenue from sales) is a key determinant of business decisions but far from the only one. Others include, but aren’t limited to, being a “good neighbor,” providing employment opportunities for local residents, and underwriting philanthropic efforts. 8. The cost of production necessarily influences the price at which a good or and service will be offered for sale, but doesn’t solely determine the price at which it will be sold. Selling price depends on the subjective valuation of the products or service, prospective buyers’ incomes, and the prices of other products and services, including those that are direct or close substitutes and those to which users may switch, depending on relative prices. 9. The feeling of satisfaction that a person derives from the acquisition and enjoyment of the “basket” of products and services that he is able to buy, given his income, etc., doesn’t necessarily diminish, as long as the person has access to a great variety of products and services. (This axiom and axiom 12 put paid to the myth of diminishing marginal utility of income.) 10. Work may be a source of satisfaction in itself or it may simply be a means of acquiring and enjoying products and services, or acquiring claims to them by accumulating wealth. Even when work is satisfying in itself, it is subject to the “law” of diminishing marginal satisfaction. 11. Work, for many (but not all) persons, is no longer be worth the effort if they become able to subsist comfortably enough by virtue of the wealth that they have accumulated, the availability of redistributive schemes (e.g., Social Security and Medicare), or both. In such cases the accumulation of wealth often ceases and reverses course, as it is “cashed in” to defray the cost of subsistence (which may be far more than minimal). 12. However, there are not a few persons whose “work” is such a great source of satisfaction that they continue doing it until they are no longer capable of doing so. And there are some persons whose “work” is the accumulation of wealth, without limit. Such persons may want to accumulate wealth in order to “do good” or to leave their heirs well off or simply for the satisfaction of running up the score. The justification matters not. There is no theoretical limit to the satisfaction that a particular person may derive from the accumulation of wealth. Moreover, many of the persons (discussed in axiom 11) who aren’t able to accumulate wealth endlessly would do so if they had the ability and the means to take the required risks. 13. Individual degrees of satisfaction (happiness, etc.) are ephemeral, nonquantifiable, and incommensurable. There is no such thing as a social welfare function that a third party (e.g., government) can maximize by taking from A to give to B. If there were such a thing, its value would increase if, for example, A were to punch B in the nose and derive a degree of pleasure that somehow more than offsets the degree of pain incurred by B. (The absurdity of a social-welfare function that allows As to punch Bs in their noses ought to be enough shame inveterate social engineers into quietude — but it won’t. They derive great satisfaction from meddling.) Moreover, one of the primary excuses for meddling is that income (and thus wealth) has a diminishing marginal utility, so it makes sense to redistribute from those with higher incomes (or more wealth) to those who have less of either. Marginal utility is, however, unknowable (see axioms 4 and 5), and may not always be negative (see axioms 9 and 12). 14. Whenever a third party (government, do-gooders, etc.) intervene in the affairs of others, that third party is merely imposing its preferences on those others. The third party sometimes claims to know what’s best for “society as a whole,” etc., but no third party can know such a thing. (See axiom 13.) 15. It follows from axiom 13 that the welfare of “society as a whole” can’t be aggregated or measured. An estimate of the monetary value of the economic output of a nation’s economy (Gross Domestic Product) is by no means an estimate of the welfare of “society as a whole.” (Again, see axiom 13.) That may seem like a lot of axioms, which might give you pause about my claim that some aspects of economics are scientific. But economics is inescapably grounded in axioms such as the ones that I propound. This aligns me (mainly) with the Austrian economists , whose leading light was Ludwig von Mises . Gene Callahan writes about him at the website of the Ludwig von Mises Institute: As I understand [Mises], by categorizing the fundamental principles of economics as a priori truths and not contingent facts open to empirical discovery or refutation, Mises was not claiming that economic law is revealed to us by divine action, like the ten commandments were to Moses. Nor was he proposing that economic principles are hard-wired into our brains by evolution, nor even that we could articulate or comprehend them prior to gaining familiarity with economic behavior through participating in and observing it in our own lives. In fact, it is quite possible for someone to have had a good deal of real experience with economic activity and yet never to have wondered about what basic principles, if any, it exhibits. Nevertheless, Mises was justified in describing those principles as a priori, because they are logically prior to any empirical study of economic phenomena. Without them it is impossible even to recognize that there is a distinct class of events amenable to economic explanation. It is only by pre-supposing that concepts like intention, purpose, means, ends, satisfaction, and dissatisfaction are characteristic of a certain kind of happening in the world that we can conceive of a subject matter for economics to investigate. Those concepts are the logical prerequisites for distinguishing a domain of economic events from all of the non-economic aspects of our experience, such as the weather, the course of a planet across the night sky, the growth of plants, the breaking of waves on the shore, animal digestion, volcanoes, earthquakes, and so on. Unless we first postulate that people deliberately undertake previously planned activities with the goal of making their situations, as they subjectively see them, better than they otherwise would be, there would be no grounds for differentiating the exchange that takes place in human society from the exchange of molecules that occurs between two liquids separated by a permeable membrane. And the features which characterize the members of the class of phenomena singled out as the subject matter of a special science must have an axiomatic status for practitioners of that science, for if they reject them then they also reject the rationale for that science’s existence. Economics is not unique in requiring the adoption of certain assumptions as a pre-condition for using the mode of understanding it offers. Every science is founded on propositions that form the basis rather than the outcome of its investigations. For example, physics takes for granted the reality of the physical world it examines. Any piece of physical evidence it might offer has weight only if it is already assumed that the physical world is real. Nor can physicists demonstrate their assumption that the members of a sequence of similar physical measurements will bear some meaningful and consistent relationship to each other. Any test of a particular type of measurement must pre-suppose the validity of some other way of measuring against which the form under examination is to be judged. Why do we accept that when we place a yardstick alongside one object, finding that the object stretches across half the length of the yardstick, and then place it alongside another object, which only stretches to a quarter its length, that this means the first object is longer than the second? Certainly not by empirical testing, for any such tests would be meaningless unless we already grant the principle in question. In mathematics we don’t come to know that 2 + 2 always equals 4 by repeatedly grouping two items with two others and counting the resulting collection. That would only show that our answer was correct in the instances we examined — given the assumption that counting works! — but we believe it is universally true. [And it is universally true by the conventions of mathematics. If what we call “5” were instead called “4,” 2 + 2 would always equal 5. — TEA] Biology pre-supposes that there is a significant difference between living things and inert matter, and if it denied that difference it would also be denying its own validity as a special science. . . . The great fecundity from such analysis in economics is due to the fact that, as acting humans ourselves, we have a direct understanding of human action, something we lack in pondering the behavior of electrons or stars. The contemplative mode of theorizing is made even more important in economics because the creative nature of human choice inherently fails to exhibit the quantitative, empirical regularities, the discovery of which characterizes the modern, physical sciences. (Biology presents us with an interesting intermediate case, as many of its findings are qualitative.) . . . [A] person can be presented with scores of experiments supporting a particular scientific theory is sound, but no possible experiment ever can demonstrate to him that experimentation is a reasonable means by which to evaluate a scientific theory. Only his intuitive grasp of its plausibility can bring him to accept that proposition. (Unless, of course, he simply adopts it on the authority of others.) He can be led through hundreds of rigorous proofs for various mathematical theorems and be taught the criteria by which they are judged to be sound, but there can be no such proof for the validity of the method itself. (Kurt Gödel famously demonstrated that a formal system of mathematical deduction that is complex enough to model even so basic a topic as arithmetic might avoid either incompleteness or inconsistency, but always must suffer at least one of those flaws.) . . . This ultimate, inescapable reliance on judgment is illustrated by Lewis Carroll in Alice Through the Looking Glass. He has Alice tell Humpty Dumpty that 365 minus one is 364. Humpty is skeptical, and asks to see the problem done on paper. Alice dutifully writes down: 365 – 1 = 364 Humpty Dumpty studies her work for a moment before declaring that it seems to be right. The serious moral of Carroll’s comic vignette is that formal tools of thinking are useless in convincing someone of their conclusions if he hasn’t already intuitively grasped the basic principles on which they are built. All of our knowledge ultimately is grounded on our intuitive recognition of the truth when we see it. There is nothing magical or mysterious about the a priori foundations of economics, or at least nothing any more magical or mysterious than there is about our ability to comprehend any other aspect of reality. (Callahan has more to say here . For a technical discussion of the science of human action, or praxeology , read this . Some glosses on Gödel’s incompleteness theorem are here .) I omitted an important passage from the preceding quotation, in order to single it out. Callahan says also that Mises’s protégé F.A. Hayek, while agreeing with his mentor on the a priori nature of the “logic of action” and its foundational status in economics, still came to regard investigating the empirical issues that the logic of action leaves open as a more important undertaking than further examination of that logic itself. I agree with Hayek . It’s one thing to know axiomatically that the speed of light is constant; it is quite another (and useful) thing to know experimentally that the speed of light (in empty space) is about 671 million miles an hour. Similarly, it is one thing to deduce from the axioms of economics that demand curves generally slope downward; it is quite another (and useful) thing to estimate specific demand functions. But one must always be mindful of the limitations of quantitative methods in economics. As James Sheehan writes at the website of the Mises Institute, economists are prone to error when they ascribe excessive precision to advanced statistical techniques. They assume, falsely, that a voluminous amount of historical observations (sample data) can help them to make inferences about the future. They presume that probability distributions follow a bell-shaped pattern. They make no provision for the possibility that past correlations between economic variables and data were coincidences. Nor do they account for the possibility, as economist Robert Lucas demonstrated, that people will incorporate predictable patterns into their expectations, thus canceling out the predictive value of such patterns. . . . As [Nassim Nicholas] Taleb points out [in Fooled by Randomness], the popular Monte Carlo simulation “is more a way of thinking than a computational method.” Employing this way of thinking can enhance one’s understanding only if its weaknesses are properly understood and accounted for. . . . Taleb’s critique of econometrics is quite compatible with Austrian economics, which holds that dynamic human actions are too subjective and variegated to be accurately modeled and predicted. In some parts of Fooled by Randomness, Taleb almost sounds Austrian in his criticisms of economists who worship “the efficient market religion.” Such economists are misguided, he argues, because they begin with the flawed hypothesis that human beings act rationally and do what is mathematically “optimal.” . . . As opposed to a Utopian Vision, in which human beings are rational and perfectible (by state action), Taleb adopts what he calls a Tragic Vision: “We are faulty and there is no need to bother trying to correct our flaws.” It is refreshing to see a highly successful practitioner of statistics and finance adopt a contrarian viewpoint towards economics. Yet, as Arnold Kling explains , many (perhaps most) economists have lost sight of the axioms of economics in their misplaced zeal to emulate the methods of the physical sciences: The most distinctive trend in economic research over the past hundred years has been the increased use of mathematics. In the wake of Paul Samuelson’s (Nobel 1970) Ph.D dissertation, published in 1948, calculus became a requirement for anyone wishing to obtain an economics degree. By 1980, every serious graduate student was expected to be able to understand the work of Kenneth Arrow (Nobel 1972) and Gerard Debreu (Nobel 1983), which required mathematics several semesters beyond first-year calculus. Today, the “theory sequence” at most top-tier graduate schools in economics is controlled by math bigots. As a result, it is impossible to survive as an economics graduate student with a math background that is less than that of an undergraduate math major. In fact, I have heard that at this year’s American Economic Association meetings, at a seminar on graduate education one professor quite proudly said that he ignored prospective students’ grades in economics courses, because their math proficiency was the key predictor of their ability to pass the coursework required to obtain an advanced degree. The raising of the mathematical bar in graduate schools over the past several decades has driven many intelligent men and women (perhaps women especially) to pursue other fields. The graduate training process filters out students who might contribute from a perspective of anthropology, biology, psychology, history, or even intense curiosity about economic issues. Instead, the top graduate schools behave as if their goal were to produce a sort of idiot-savant, capable of appreciating and adding to the mathematical contributions of other idiot-savants, but not necessarily possessed of any interest in or ability to comprehend the world to which an economist ought to pay attention. . . . The basic question of What Causes Prosperity? is not a question of how trading opportunities play out among a given array of goods. Instead, it is a question of how innovation takes place or does not take place in the context of institutional factors that are still poorly understood. Mathematics, as I have said, is a tool of science, it’s not science in itself. Dressing hypothetical relationships in the garb of mathematics doesn’t validate them. Where, then, is the science in economics? And where is the nonsense? I’ve given you some hints (and more than hints). There’s more to come. Share this: The Essence of Economics This is the first entry in what I expect to be a series of loosely connected posts on economics. Market-based voluntary exchange is an important if not dominant method of satisfying wants. To grasp that point, think of your day: You sleep and awaken in a house or apartment that you didn’t build yourself, but which is “yours” by dint of payments that you make from income you earn by doing things of value to other persons.* During your days at home, in a workplace, or in a vacation spot you spend many hours using products and services that you buy from others — everything from toilet paper, soap, and shampoo to clothing, food, transportation, entertainment, internet access, etc. It is not that the things that you do for yourself and in direct cooperation with others are unimportant or valueless. Economists acknowledge the psychic value of self-sufficiency and the economic value of non-market cooperation, but they can’t measure the value of those things. Economists typically focus on market-based exchange because it involves transactions with measurable monetary values. Another thing that economists can’t deal with, because it’s beyond the ken of economics, is the essence of life itself: one’s total sense of well-being, especially as it is influenced by the things done for oneself, solitary joys (reading, listening to music), and the happiness (or sadness) shared with friends and loved ones. In sum, despite the pervasiveness of voluntary exchange, economics really treats only the marginalia of life — the rate at which a person would exchange a unit of X for a unit of Y, not how X or Y stacks up in the grand scheme of living. That is the essence of economics, as a discipline. There is much more to it than that, of course; for example, how supply meets demand, how exogenous factors affect economic behavior, how activity at the level of the person or firm sends ripples across the economy, and why those ripples can’t be aggregated meaningfully. More to come. __________ * Obviously, a lot of people derive their income from transfer payments (Social Security, food stamps, etc.), which I’ll address in future posts. Share this: The Wages of Simplistic Economics If this Wikipedia article accurately reflects what passes for microeconomics these days, the field hasn’t advanced since I took my first micro course almost 60 years ago. And my first micro course was based on Alfred Marshall’s Principles of Economics , first published in 1890. What’s wrong with micro as it’s taught today, and as it has been taught for the better part of 126 years? It’s not the principles themselves, which are eminently sensible and empirically valid: Supply curves slope upward, demand curves slope downward, competition yields lower prices, etc. What’s wrong is the heavy reliance on two-dimensional graphical representations of the key variables and their interactions; for example, how utility functions (which are gross abstractions) generate demand curves, and how cost functions generate supply curves. The cautionary words of Marshall and his many successors about the transitory nature of such variables is no match for the vivid, and static, images imprinted in the memories of the millions of students who took introductory microeconomics as undergraduates. Most of them took no additional courses in micro, and probably just an introductory course in macroeconomics — equally misleading . Micro, as it is taught now, seems to purvey the same fallacy as it did when Marshall’s text was au courant. The fallacy, which is embedded in the easy-to-understand-and remember graphs of supply and demand under various competitive conditions, is the apparent rigidity of those conditions. Professional economists (or some of them, at least) understand that economic conditions are fluid, especially in the absence of government regulation. But the typical student will remember the graph that depicts the dire results of a monopolistic market and take it as a writ for government intervention; for example: Power that controls the economy should be in the hands of elected representatives of the people, not in the hands of an industrial oligarchy. William O. Douglas (dissent in U.S. v. Columbia Steel Co.) Quite the opposite is true, as I argue at length in this post . Douglas , unfortunately, served on the Supreme Court from 1939 to 1975. He majored in English and economics, and presumably had more than one course in economics. But he was an undergraduate in the waning days of the anti-business, pro-regulation Progressive Era. So he probably never got past the simplistic idea of “monopoly bad, trust-busting good.” If only the Supreme Court (and government generally) had been blessed with men like Maxwell Anderson , who wrote this: When a government takes over a people’s economic life, it becomes absolute, and when it has become absolute, it destroys the arts, the minds, the liberties, and the meaning of the people it governs. It is not an accident that Germany, the first paternalistic state of modern Europe, was seized by an uncontrollable dictator who brought on the second world war; not an accident that Russia, adopting a centrally administered economy for humanitarian reasons, has arrived at a tyranny bloodier and more absolute than that of the Czars. And if England does not turn back soon, she will go this same way. Men who are fed by their government will soon be driven down to the status of slaves or cattle. Knickerbocker Holiday , 1938, revised 1950) And it’s happening here, too. Share this: From Each According to His Ability… …to each according to his need. So goes Marx’s vision of pure communism — when capitalism is no more. Unfettered labor will then produce economic goods in such great abundance that there is no question of some taking from others. All will feed at an ever-filling and overflowing public trough. There are many holes in the Marxian argument. Here’s the bottom line: It’s an impossible dream that flouts human nature. Capital accrues and markets arise spontaneously (where not distorted and suppressed by lawlessness, government, and lawless government) because they foster mutually beneficial exchanges of economic goods (e.g., labor for manufactured items) Communism has failed to catch on, as a sustained and widespread phenomenon, because it rejects capitalism and assumes the inexorability of economic progress in the absence of incentives (e.g., the possibility of great rewards for taking great risks and the investment of time and resources). It is telling that “to each his own need” (or an approximation of it) has been achieved on a broad scale only by force, and only by penalizing success and slowing economic progress. If the state were to wither to nightwatchman status, the result would be the greatest outpouring of economic goods in human history. Everyone would be better off — rich and (relatively) poor alike. Only the envious and economic ignoramuses would be miserable, and then only in their own minds. If Marx and his intellectual predecessors and successors were capable of thinking straight, they would have come up with the winning formula: From each according to his ability and effort, to each according to the market value of his output, plus whatever voluntary contributions may come his way. Share this: Where We Are, Economically UPDATED (10/26/12) The advance estimate of GDP for the third quarter of 2012 has been released . Real growth continues to slog along at about 2 percent. I have updated the graph, but the text needs no revision. * * * It occurred to me that the trend line in the second graph of “ The Economy Slogs Along ” is misleading. It is linear, when it should be curvilinear. Here is a better version: Derived from the October 26, 2012 release of GDP estimates by the Bureau of Economic Analysis. (Contrary to the position of the National Bureau of Economic Research, there was no recession in 2000-2001. For my definition of a recession, see “ Economic Growth Since World War II .”) The claims by Obama and his retinue about O’s supposed “rescue” of the economy from the abyss of depression are ludicrous. (See, for example, “ A Keynesian Fantasy Land ,” “ The Keynesian Fallacy and Regime Uncertainty ,” “ Why the “Stimulus” Failed to Stimulate ,” “ Regime Uncertainty and the Great Recession ,” The Real Multiplier ,” “ The Real Multiplier (II) ,” The Economy Slogs Along ,” and “ The Obama Effect: Disguised Unemployment .”) Nevertheless our flannel-mouthed president his sycophants insist that he has done great things for the country, though the only great thing that he could do is to leave it alone. Obama is not to blame for the Great Recession, but the sluggish recovery is due to his anti-business rhetoric and policies (including Obamacare, among others). All that Obama can rightly take “credit” for is an acceleration of the downward trend of economic growth. Related posts: Economic Growth Since World War II REVISED AND UPDATED 05/31/16 As we await (probably in vain) the resumption of robust economic growth, let us see what we can learn from the record since World War II (from 1947, to be precise). The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) provides in spreadsheet form ( here ) quarterly and annual estimates of current- and constant-dollar (year 2005) GDP from 1947 to the present. BEA’s numbers yield several insights about the course of economic growth in the U.S. I begin with this graph: The exponential trend line indicates a constant-dollar (real) growth rate for the entire period of 0.81 percent quarterly, or 3.3 percent annually. The actual beginning-to-end annual growth rate is 3.1 percent. The red bands parallel to the trend line delineate the 99.7% (3-sigma) confidence interval around the trend. GDP has been running at the lower edge of the confidence interval since the first quarter of 2009, that is, since the ascendancy of Barack Obama. The vertical gray bars represent recessions, which do not correspond precisely to the periods defined as such by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). I define a recession as: two or more consecutive quarters in which real GDP (annualized) is below real GDP (annualized) for an earlier quarter, during which the annual (year-over-year) change in real GDP is negative, in at least one quarter. For example, annualized real GDP in the second quarter of 1953 was $2,593.5 billion (i.e., about $2.8 trillion in year 2009 dollars). Annualized GDP for the next five quarters: $2,578.9, $2,539.8, $2,528.0, $2,530.7, and $2,559.4 billion, respectively. The U.S. was still in recession (by my definition) even as GDP began to rise from $2,528.0 billion because GDP remained below $2,593.5 billion. The recession (i.e., drop in output) did not end until the fourth quarter of 1954, when annualized GDP reached $2,609.3 billion, thus surpassing the value for the second quarter of 1953. Moreover, the year-over-year change in GDP was negative in the first three quarters of the recession. Unlike the NBER, I do not locate a recession in 2001. Real GDP, measured quarterly, dropped in the first and third quarters of 2001, but each decline lasted only a quarter. But, whereas the NBER places the Great Recession from December 2007 to June 2009, I date it from the first quarter of 2008 through the second quarter of 2011. My method of identifying recessions is more objective and consistent than the NBER’s method, which one economist describes as “The NBER will know it when it sees it.” Moreover, unlike the NBER, I would not presume to pinpoint the first and last months of a recession, given the volatility of GDP estimates: The second-order polynomial regression line gives the best approximation of the post-war trend in the rate of real growth. Not a pretty picture. Here’s another ugly picture: Rates of growth (depicted by the exponential regression lines) clearly are lower in later cycles than in earlier ones, and lowest of all in the current cycle. In this connection, I note that the “ Clinton boom “ — 3.4 percent real growth from 1993 to 2001 — was nothing to write home about, being mainly the product of Clinton’s self-promotion and the average citizen’s ahistorical perspective. The boomlet of the 1990s, whatever its causes, was less impressive than several earlier post-war expansions. In fact, the overall rate of growth from the first quarter of 1947 to the first quarter of 1993 — recessions and all — was 3.4 percent. The “Clinton boom” is the boom that wasn’t. Even more depressing (pardon the pun) — but unsurprising — is the feeble rate of growth since the end of the Great Recession: 2.0 percent. And it will get worse before it gets better. As long as the fiscal and regulatory burden of government grows, the economy will slide deeper into stagnation . * * * Apropos my earlier post about “ Asymmetrical (Ideological) Warfare ,” I note this review by Gerald J. Russello of Kenneth Minogue’s The Servile Mind: How Democracy Erodes the Moral Life . As he summarizes Minogue, Russello writes: The push for equality and ever more rights—two of [democracy’s] basic principles—requires a ruling class to govern competing claims; thus the rise of the undemocratic judiciary as the arbiter of many aspects of public life, and of bureaucracies that issue rules far removed from the democratic process. Should this trend continue, Minogue foresees widespread servility replacing the tradition of free government. This new servility will be based not on oppression, but on the conviction that experts have eliminated any need for citizens to develop habits of self-control, self-government, or what used to be called the virtues. How has democracy led to “servility,” which is really a kind of oppression? Here is my diagnosis. It is well understood that voters, by and large, vote irrationally, that is, emotionally, on the basis of “buzz” instead of facts, and inconsistently. (See this , this , and this , for example.) Voters are prone to vote against their own long-run interests because they do not understand the consequences of the sound-bite policies advocated by politicians. American democracy, by indiscriminately granting the franchise — as opposed to limiting it to, say, married property owners over the age of 30 who have children — empowers the run-of-the-mill politician who seeks office (for the sake of prestige, power, and perks) by pandering to the standard, irrational voter. Rationality is the application of sound reasoning and pertinent facts to the pursuit of a realistic objective (one that does not contradict the laws of nature or human nature). I daresay that most voters are guilty of voting irrationally because they believe in such claptrap as peace through diplomacy, “social justice” through high marginal tax rates, or better health care through government regulation. To be perfectly clear, the irrationality lies not in favoring peace, “social justice” (whatever that is), health care, and the like. The irrationality lies in uninformed beliefs in such contradictions as peace through unpreparedness for war, “social justice” through soak-the-rich schemes, better health care through greater government control of medicine, etc., etc., etc. Voters whose objectives incorporate such beliefs simply haven’t taken the relatively little time it requires to process what they may already know or have experienced about history, human nature, and social and economic realities. Why is voters’ irrationality important? Does voting really matter? Well, it’s easy to say that an individual’s vote makes very little difference. But individual votes add up. Every vote cast for a winning political candidate enhances his supposed mandate, which usually is (in his mind) some scheme (or a lot of them) to regulated our lives more than they are already regulated. That is to say, voters (not to mention those who profess to understand voters ) overlook the slippery slope effects of voting for those who promise to “deliver” certain benefits. It is true that the benefits, if delivered, would temporarily increase the well-being of certain voters. But if one group of voters reaps benefits, then another group of voters wants to reap benefits as well. Why? Because votes are not won, nor offices held, by placating a particular class of voter; many other classes of them must also be placated. The “benefits” sought by voters (and delivered by politicians) are regulatory as well as monetary. Many voters (especially wealthy, paternalistic ones) are more interested in controlling others than they are in reaping government handouts (though they don’t object to that either). And if one group of voters reaps certain regulatory benefits, it follows (as night from day) that other groups also will seek (and reap) regulatory benefits. (Must one be a trained economist to understand this? Obviously not, because most trained economists don’t seem to understand it .) And then there is the “ peace – at-any-price – one-world ” crowd , which is hard to distinguish from the crowd that demands (and delivers) monetary and regulatory “benefits.” So, here we are: Many particular benefits are bestowed and many regulations are imposed, to the detriment of investors, entrepreneurs, innovators, inventors, and people who simply are willing to work hard to advance themselves. And it is they who are responsible for the economic growth that bestows (or would bestow) more jobs and higher incomes on everyone, from the poorest to the richest . The Illusion of Prosperity and Stability For reasons I outlined in “ The Price of Government ,” the post-Civil War boom of 1866-1907 finally gave way to the onslaught of Progressivism . Real GDP grew at the rate of 4.3 percent annually during the post-Civil War boom; it has since grown at an annual rate of 3.3 percent. The difference between the two rates of growth, compounded over a century, is the difference between $13 trillion (2009’s GDP in 2005 dollars) and $41 trillion (2009’s potential GDP in 2005 dollars). As I said in “The Price of Government,” this disparity may seem incredible, but scan the lists here and you will find even greater cross-national disparities in per capita GDP. Go here and you will find that real, per capita GDP in 1790 was only 4.6 percent of the value it had attained 218 years later. Our present level of output seems incredible to citizens of impoverished nations, and it would seem no less incredible to an American of 1790. In sum, vast disparities can and do exist, across nations and time. The main reason for the disparity is the intervention of the federal government in the economic affairs of Americans and their businesses. I put it this way in “The Price of Government”: What we are seeing [in the present recession and government’s response to it] is the continuation of a death-spiral that began in the early 1900s. Do-gooders, worry-warts, control freaks, and economic ignoramuses see something “bad” and — in their misguided efforts to control natural economic forces (which include business cycles) — make things worse. The most striking event in the death-spiral is the much-cited Great Depression, which was caused by government action, specifically the loose-tight policies of the Federal Reserve, Herbert Hoover’s efforts to engineer the economy, and — of course — FDR’s benighted New Deal. (For details, see this , and this .) But, of course, the worse things get, the greater the urge to rely on government. Now, we have “stimulus,” which is nothing more than an excuse to greatly expand government’s intervention in the economy. Where will it lead us? To a larger, more intrusive government that absorbs an ever larger share of resources that could be put to productive use, and counteracts the causes of economic growth . One of the ostensible reasons for governmental intervention is to foster economic stability. That was an important rationale for the creation of the Federal Reserve System; it was an implicit rationale for Social Security, which moves income to those who are more likely to spend it; and it remains a key rationale for so-called counter-cyclical spending (i.e., “fiscal policy”) and the onerous regulation of financial institutions. Has the quest for stability succeeded? If you disregard the Great Depression, and several deep recessions (including the present one), it has. But the price has been high. The green line in the following graph traces real GDP as it would have been had economic growth after 1907 followed the same path as it did in 1866-1907, with all of the ups and down in that era of relatively unregulated “instability.” The red line, which diverges from the green one after 1907, traces real GDP as it has been since government took over the task of ensuring stable prosperity. Only by overlooking the elephant in the room — the Great Depression — can one assert that government has made the economy more stable. Only because we cannot see the exorbitant price of government can we believe that it has had something to do with our “prosperity.” What about those fairly sharp downturns along the green line? If it really is important for government to shield us from economic shocks, there are much better ways of getting the job done that they ways now employed. There was no federal income tax during the post-Civil War boom (one of the reasons for the boom). Suppose that in the early 1900s the federal government had been allowed to impose a small, constitutionally limited income tax of, say, 0.5 percent on gross personal incomes over a certain level, measured in constant dollars (with an explicit ban on exemptions, deductions, and other adjustments, to keep it simple and keep interest groups from enriching themselves at the expense of others). Suppose, further, that the proceeds from the tax had a constitutionally limited use: the payment of unemployment benefits for a constitutionally limited time whenever real GDP declined from quarter to quarter. Perhaps that’s too much clutter for devotees of constitutional simplicity. But wouldn’t the results have been worth the clutter? The primary result would have been growth at a rate close to that of 1866-1907, but with some of the wrinkles ironed out. The secondary result — and an equally important one — would have been the diminution (if not the elimination) of the “need” for governmental intervention in our affairs. Related posts: Does the Minimum Wage Increase Unemployment? Yes! I have not a shred of doubt that the minimum wage increases unemployment, especially among the most vulnerable group of workers: males aged 16 to 19. Anyone who claims that the minimum wage does not affect unemployment among that vulnerable group is guilty of (a) ingesting a controlled substance, (b) wishing upon a star, or — most likely — (c) indulging in a mindless display of vicarious “compassion.” Economists have waged a spirited mini-war over the minimum-wage issue, to no conclusive end . But anyone who tells you that a wage increase that is forced on businesses by government will not lead to a rise in unemployment is one of three things: an economist with an agenda, a politician with an agenda, a person who has never run a business. There is considerable overlap among the three categories. I have run a business, and I have worked for the minimum wage (and less). On behalf of business owners and young male workers, I am here to protest further increases in the minimum wage. My protest is entirely evidence-based — no marching, shouting, or singing for me. Facts are my friends, even if they are inimical to Left-wing economists, politicians, and other members of the reality-challenged camp. I begin with time series on unemployment among males — ages 16 to 19 and 20 and older — for the period January 1948 through June 2009. (These time series are available via this page on the BLS website.) If it is true that the minimum wage targets younger males, the unemployment rate for 16 to 19 year-old males (16-19 YO) will rise faster or decrease less quickly than the unemployment rate for 20+ year-old males (20+ YO) whenever the minimum wage is increased. The precise change will depend on such factors as the propensity of young males to attend college — which has risen over time — and the value of the minimum wage in relation to prevailing wage rates for the industries which typically employ low-skilled workers. But those factors should have little influence on observed month-to-month changes in unemployment rates. I use two methods to estimate the effects of minimum wage on the unemployment rate of 16-19 YO: graphical analysis and linear regression. I begin by finding the long-term relationship between the unemployment rates for 16-19 YO and 20+ YO. As it turns out, there is a statistical artifact in the unemployment data, an artifact that is unexplained by this BLS document , which outlines changes in methods of data collection and analysis over the years. The relationship between the two time series is stable through March 1959, when it shifts abruptly. The markedness of the shift can be seen in the contrast between figure 1, which covers the entire period, and figures 2 and 3, which subdivide the entire period into two sub-periods. For the graphical analysis, I use the equations shown in figures 2 and 3 to determine a baseline relationship between the unemployment rate for 20+ YO (“x”) and the unemployment rate for 16-19 YO (“y”). The equation in figure 2 yields a baseline unemployment rate for 16-19 YO for each month from January 1948 through March 1959; the equation in figure 3, a baseline unemployment rate for 16-19 YO for each month from April 1959 through June 2009. Combining the results, I obtain a baseline estimate for the entire period, January 1948 through June 2009. I then find, for each month, a residual value for unemployment among 16-19 YO. The residual (actual value minus baseline estimate) is positive when unemployment among 16-19 YO is higher than expected, and negative when 16-19 YO unemployment is lower than expected. Again, this is unemployment of 16-19 YO relative to 20+ YO. Given the stable baseline relationships between the two unemployment rates (when the time series are subdivided as described above), the values of the residuals (month-to-month deviations from the baseline) can reasonably be attributed to changes in the minimum wage. For purposes of my analysis, I adopt the following conventions: A change in the minimum wage begins to affect unemployment among 16-19 YO in the month it becomes law, when the legally effective date falls near the start of the month. A change becomes effective in the month following its legally effective date when that date falls near the end of the month. (All of the effective dates have thus far been on the 1st, 3rd, 24th, and 25th of a month.) In either event, the change in the minimum wage affects unemployment among 16-19 YO for 6 months, including the month in which it becomes effective, as reckoned above. In other words, I assume that employers (by and large) do not anticipate the minimum wage and begin to fire employees before the effective date of an increase. I assume, rather, that employers (by and large) respond to the minimum wage by failing to hire 16-19 YO who are new to the labor force. Finally, I assume that the non-hiring effect lasts about 6 months — in which time prevailing wage rates for 16-19 YO move toward toward (and perhaps exceed) the minimum wage, thus eventually blunting the effect of the minimum wage on unemployment. I relax the 6-month rule during eras when the minimum wage rises annually, or nearly so. I assume that during such eras employers anticipate scheduled increases in the minimum wage by continuously suppressing their demand for 16-19 YO labor. (There are four such eras: the first runs from September 1963 through July 1971; the second, from May 1974 through June 1981; the third, from May 1996 through February 1998; the fourth, from July 2007 to the present, and presumably beyond.) With that prelude, I present the following graph of the relationship between residual unemployment among 16-19 YO and the effective periods of minimum wage increases. The jagged, green and red line represents the residual unemployment rate for 16-19 YO. The green portions of the line denote periods in which the minimum wage is ineffective; the red portions of the line denote periods in which the minimum wage is effective. The horizontal gray bands at +1 and -1 denote the normal range of the residuals, one standard deviation above and below the mean, which is zero. It is obvious that higher residuals (greater unemployment) are generally associated with periods in which the minimum wage is effective; that is, most portions of the line that lie above the normal range are red. Conversely, lower residuals (less unemployment) are generally associated with periods in which the minimum wage is ineffective; that is, most portions of the line that lie below the normal range are green. (Similar results obtain for variations in which employers anticipate the minimum wage increase, for example, by firing or reduced hiring in the preceding 3 months, while the increase affects employment for only 3 months after it becomes law.) Having shown that there is an obvious relationship between 16-19 YO unemployment and the minimum wage, I now quantify it. Because of the distinctly different relationships between 16-19 YO unemployment and 20+ YO unemployment in the two sub-periods (January 1948 – March 1959, April 1959 – June 2009), I estimate a separate regression equation for each sub-period. For the first sub-period, I find the following relationship: Unemployment rate for 16-19 YO (in percentage points) = 3.913 + 1.828 x unemployment rate for 20+ YO + 0.501 x dummy variable for minimum wage (1 if in effect, 0 if not) Adjusted R-squared: 0.858; standard error of the estimate: 9 percent of the mean value of 16-19 YO unemployment rate; t-statistics on the intercept and coefficients: 14.663, 28.222, 1.635. Here is the result for the second sub-period: Unemployment rate for 16-19 YO (in percentage points) = 8.940 + 1.528 x unemployment rate for 20+ YO + 0.610 x dummy variable for minimum wage (1 if in effect, 0 if not) Adjusted R-squared: 0.855; standard error of the estimate: 6 percent of the mean value of 16-19 YO unemployment rate; t-statistics on the intercept and coefficients: 62.592, 59.289, 7.495. On the basis of the robust results for the second sub-period, which is much longer and current, I draw the following conclusions: The baseline unemployment rate for 16-19 YO is about 9 percent. Unemployment around the baseline changes by about 1.5 percentage points for every percentage-point change in the unemployment rate for 20+ YO. The minimum wage, when effective, raises the unemployment rate for 16-19 YO by 0.6 percentage points. Therefore, given the current number of 16 to 19 year old males in the labor force (about 3.3 million), some 20,000 will lose or fail to find jobs because of yesterday’s boost in the minimum wage. Yes, 20,000 is a small fraction of 3.3 million (0.6 percent), but it is a real, heartbreaking number — 20,000 young men for whom almost any hourly wage would be a blessing. But the “bleeding hearts” who insist on setting a minimum wage, and raising it periodically, don’t care about those 20,000 young men — they only care about their cheaply won reputation for “compassion.” UPDATE (09/08/09): A relevant post by Don Boudreaux: Here’s a second letter that I sent today to the New York Times: Gary Chaison misses the real, if unintended, lesson of the Russell Sage Foundation study that finds that low-skilled workers routinely keep working for employers who violate statutory employment regulations such as the minimum-wage ( Letters , September 8). This real lesson is that economists’ conventional wisdom about the negative consequences of the minimum-wage likely is true after all. Fifteen years ago, David Card and Alan Krueger made headlines by purporting to show that a higher minimum-wage, contrary to economists’ conventional wisdom, doesn’t reduce employment of low-skilled workers. The RSF study casts significant doubt on Card-Krueger. First, because the minimum-wage itself is circumvented in practice, its negative effect on employment is muted, perhaps to the point of becoming statistically imperceptible. Second, employers’ and employees’ success at evading other employment regulations – such as mandatory overtime pay – counteracts the minimum-wage’s effect of pricing many low-skilled workers out of the job market. Sincerely, Nassim Nicholas Taleb , in his best-selling Fooled by Randomness , charges human beings with the commission of many perceptual and logical errors. One reviewer captures the point of the book , which is to explore luck “disguised and perceived as non-luck (that is, skills).” So many of the successful among us, he argues, are successful due to luck rather than reason. This is true in areas beyond business (e.g. Science, Politics), though it is more obvious in business. Our inability to recognize the randomness and luck that had to do with making successful people successful is a direct result of our search for pattern. Taleb points to the importance of symbolism in our lives as an example of our unwillingness to accept randomness. We cling to biographies of great people in order to learn how to achieve greatness, and we relentlessly interpret the past in hopes of shaping our future. Only recently has science produced probability theory, which helps embrace randomness. Though the use of probability theory in practice is almost nonexistent. Taleb says the confusion between luck and skill is our inability to think critically. We enjoy presenting conjectures as truth and are not equipped to handle probabilities, so we attribute our success to skill rather than luck. Taleb writes in a style found all too often on best-seller lists: pseudo-academic theorizing “supported” by selective (often anecdotal) evidence. I sometimes enjoy such writing, but only for its entertainment value. Fooled by Randomness leaves me unfooled, for several reasons. THE FUNDAMENTAL FLAW The first reason that I am unfooled by Fooled… might be called a meta-reason. Standing back from the book, I am able to perceive its essential defect: According to Taleb, human affairs — especially economic affairs, and particularly the operations of financial markets — are dominated by randomness. But if that is so, only a delusional person can truly claim to understand the conduct of human affairs. Taleb claims to understand the conduct of human affairs. Taleb is therefore either delusional or omniscient. Given Taleb’s humanity, it is more likely that he is delusional — or simply fooled, but not by randomness. He is fooled because he proceeds from the assumption of randomness instead of exploring the ways and means by which humans are actually capable of shaping events. Taleb gives no more than scant attention to those traits which, in combination, set humans apart from other animals: self-awareness, empathy, forward thinking, imagination, abstraction, intentionality, adaptability, complex communication skills, and sheer brain power. Given those traits (in combination) the world of human affairs cannot be random. Yes, human plans can fail of realization for many reasons, including those attributable to human flaws (conflict, imperfect knowledge, the triumph of hope over experience, etc.). But the failure of human plans is due to those flaws — not to the randomness of human behavior. What Taleb sees as randomness is something else entirely. The trajectory of human affairs often is unpredictable, but it is not random. For it is possible to find patterns in the conduct of human affairs, as Taleb admits (implicitly) when he discusses such phenomena as survivorship bias, skewness, anchoring, and regression to the mean. A DISCOURSE ON RANDOMNESS What Is It? Taleb, having bloviated for dozens of pages about the failure of humans to recognize randomness, finally gets around to (sort of) defining randomness on pages 168 and 169 (of the 2005 paperback edition): …Professor Karl Pearson … devised the first test of nonrandomness (it was in reality a test of deviation from normality, which for all intents and purposes, was the same thing). He examined millions of runs of [a roulette wheel] during the month of July 1902. He discovered that, with high degree of statistical significance … the runs were not purely random…. Philosophers of statistics call this the reference case problem to explain that there is no true attainable randomness in practice, only in theory…. …Even the fathers of statistical science forgot that a random series of runs need not exhibit a pattern to look random…. A single random run is bound to exhibit some pattern — if one looks hard enough…. [R]eal randomness does not look random. The quoted passage illustrates nicely the superficiality of Fooled by Randomness, and (I must assume) the muddledness of Taleb’s thinking: He accepts a definition of randomness which describes the observation of outcomes of mechanical processes (e.g., the turning of a roulette wheel, the throwing of dice) that are designed to yield random outcomes. That is, randomness of the kind cited by Taleb is in fact the result of human intentions. If “there is no true attainable randomness,” why has Taleb written a 200-plus page book about randomness? What can he mean when he says “a random series of runs need not exhibit a pattern to look random”? The only sensible interpretation of that bit of nonsense would be this: It is possible for a random series of runs to contain what looks like a pattern. But remember that the random series of runs to which Taleb refers is random only because humans intended its randomness. It is true enough that “A single random run is bound to exhibit some pattern — if one looks hard enough.” Sure it will. But it remains a single random run of a process that is intended to produce randomness, which is utterly unlike such events as transactions in financial markets. One of the “fathers of statistical science” mentioned by Taleb (deep in the book’s appendix) is Richard von Mises, who in Probability Statistics and Truth defines randomness as follows: First, the relative frequencies of the attributes [e.g. heads and tails] must possess limiting values [i.e., converge on 0.5, in the case of coin tosses]. Second, these limiting values must remain the same in all partial sequences which may be selected from the original one in an arbitrary way. Of course, only such partial sequences can be taken into consideration as can be extended indefinitely, in the same way as the original sequence itself. Examples of this kind are, for instance, the partial sequences formed by all odd members of the original sequence, or by all members for which the place number in the sequence is the square of an integer, or a prime number, or a number selected according to some other rule, whatever it may be. (pp. 24-25 of the 1981 Dover edition, which is based on the author’s 1951 edition) Gregory J. Chaitin, writing in Scientific American (“ Randomness and Mathematical Proof ,” vol. 232, no. 5 (May 1975), pp. 47-52), offers this: We are now able to describe more precisely the differences between the[se] two series of digits … : 01010101010101010101 01101100110111100010 The first could be specified to a computer by a very simple algorithm, such as “Print 01 ten times.” If the series were extended according to the same rule, the algorithm would have to be only slightly larger; it might be made to read, for example, “Print 01 a million times.” The number of bits in such an algorithm is a small fraction of the number of bits in the series it specifies, and as the series grows larger the size of the program increases at a much slower rate. For the second series of digits there is no corresponding shortcut. The most economical way to express the series is to write it out in full, and the shortest algorithm for introducing the series into a computer would be “Print 01101100110111100010.” If the series were much larger (but still apparently patternless), the algorithm would have to be expanded to the corresponding size. This “incompressibility” is a property of all random numbers; indeed, we can proceed directly to define randomness in terms of incompressibility: A series of numbers is random if the smallest algorithm capable of specifying it to a computer has about the same number of bits of information as the series itself [emphasis added]. This is another way of saying that if you toss a balanced coin 1,000 times the only way to describe the outcome of the tosses is to list the 1,000 outcomes of those tosses. But, again, the thing that is random is the outcome of a process designed for randomness. Taking Mises and Chaitin’s definitions together, we can define random events as events which are repeatable, convergent on a limiting value, and truly patternless over a large number of repetitions. Evolving economic events (e.g., stock-market trades, economic growth) are not alike (in the way that dice are, for example), they do not converge on limiting values, and they are not patternless, as I will show. In short, Taleb fails to demonstrate that human affairs in general or financial markets in particular exhibit randomness, properly understood. Randomness and the Physical World Nor are we trapped in a random universe. Returning to Mises, I quote from the final chapter of Probability, Statistics and Truth: We can only sketch here the consequences of these new concepts [e.g., quantum mechanics and Heisenberg’s principle of uncertainty] for our general scientific outlook. First of all, we have no cause to doubt the usefulness of the deterministic theories in large domains of physics. These theories, built on a solid body of experience, lead to results that are well confirmed by observation. By allowing us to predict future physical events, these physical theories have fundamentally changed the conditions of human life. The main part of modern technology, using this word in its broadest sense, is still based on the predictions of classical mechanics and physics. (p. 217) Even now, almost 60 years on, the field of nanotechnology is beginning to hardness quantum mechanical effects in the service of a long list of useful purposes . The physical world, in other words, is not dominated by randomness, even though its underlying structures must be described probabilistically rather than deterministically. Summation and Preview A bit of unpredictability (or “luck”) here and there does not make for a random universe, random lives, or random markets. If a bit of unpredictability here and there dominated our actions, we wouldn’t be here to talk about randomness — and Taleb wouldn’t have been able to marshal his thoughts into a published, marketed, and well-sold book. Human beings are not “designed” for randomness. Human endeavors can yield unpredictable results, but those results do not arise from random processes, they derive from skill or the lack therof, knowledge or the lack thereof (including the kinds of self-delusions about which Taleb writes), and conflicting objectives. An Illustration from Life To illustrate my position on randomness, I offer the following digression about the game of baseball. At the professional level, the game’s poorest players seldom rise above the low minor leagues. But even those poorest players are paragons of excellence when compared with the vast majority of American males of about the same age. Did those poorest players get where they were because of luck? Perhaps some of them were in the right place at the right time, and so were signed to minor league contracts. But their luck runs out when they are called upon to perform in more than a few games. What about those players who weren’t in the right place at the right time, and so were overlooked in spite of skills that would have advanced them beyond the rookie leagues? I have no doubt that there have been many such players. But, in the main, professional baseball abounds with the lion’s share of skilled baseball players who are there because they intend to be there, and because baseball clubs intend for them to be there. Now, most minor leaguers fail to advance to the major leagues, even for the proverbial “cup of coffee” (appearing in few games at the end of the major-league season, when teams are allowed to expand their rosters following the end of the minor-league season). Does “luck” prevent some minor leaguers from advancement to “the show” (the major leagues)? Of course. Does “luck” result in the advancement of some minor leaguers to “the show”? Of course. But “luck,” in this context, means injury, illness, a slump, a “hot” streak, and the other kinds of unpredictable events that ballplayers are subject to. Are the events random? Yes, in the sense that they are unpredictable, but I daresay that most baseball players do not succumb to bad luck or advance very for or for very long because of good luck. In fact, ballplayers who advance to the major leagues, and then stay there for more than a few seasons, do so because they possess (and apply) greater skill than their minor-league counterparts. And make no mistake, each player’s actions are so closely watched and so extensively quantified that it isn’t hard to tell when a player is ready to be replaced. It is true that a player may experience “luck” for a while during a season, and sometimes for a whole season. But a player will not be consistently “lucky” for several seasons. The length of his career (barring illness, injury, or voluntary retirement), and his accomplishments during that career, will depend mainly on his inherent skills and his assiduousness in applying those skills. No one believes that Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Ted Williams, Christy Matthewson, Warren Spahn, and the dozens of other baseball players who rank among the truly great were lucky. No one believes that the vast majority of the the tens of thousands of minor leaguers who never enjoyed more than the proverbial cup of coffee were unlucky. No one believes that the vast majority of the millions of American males who never made it to the minor leagues were unlucky. Most of them never sought a career in baseball; those who did simply lacked the requisite skills. In baseball, as in life, “luck” is mainly an excuse and rarely an explanation. We prefer to apply “luck” to outcomes when we don’t like the true explanations for them. In the realm of economic activity and financial markets, one such explanation (to which I will come) is the exogenous imposition of governmental power. ARE ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL OUTCOMES TRULY RANDOM? They Cannot Be, Given Competition Returning to Taleb’s main theme — the randomness of economic and financial events — I quote this key passage (my comments are in brackets and boldface): …Most of [Bill] Gates'[s] rivals have an obsessive jealousy of his success. They are maddened by the fact that he managed to win so big while many of them are struggling to make their companies survive. [These are unsupported claims that I include only because they set the stage for what follows.] Such ideas go against classical economic models, in which results either come from a precise reason (there is no account for uncertainty) or the good guy wins (the good guy is the one who is most skilled and has some technical superiority). [The “good guy” theory would come as a great surprise to “classical” economists, who quite well understood imperfect competition based on product differentiation and monopoly based on (among other things) early entry into a market.] Economists discovered path-dependent effects late in their game [There is no “late” in a “game” that had no distinct beginning and has no pre-ordained end.], then tried to publish wholesale on the topic that otherwise be bland and obvious. For instance, Brian Arthur, an economist concerned with nonlinearities at the Santa Fe Institute [What kinds of nonlinearities are found at the Santa Fe Institute?], wrote that chance events coupled with positive feedback other than technological superiority will determine economic superiority — not some abstrusely defined edge in a given area of expertise. [It would come as no surprise to economists — even “classical” ones — that many factors aside from technical superiority determine market outcomes.] While early economic models excluded randomness, Arthur explained how “unexpected orders, chance meetings with lawyers, managerial whims … would help determine which ones acheived early sales and, over time, which firms dominated.” Regarding the final sentence of the quoted passage, I refer back to the example of baseball. A person or a firm may gain an opportunity to succeed because of the kinds of “luck” cited by Brian Arthur, but “good luck” cannot sustain an incompetent performer for very long. And when “bad luck” happens to competent individuals and firms they are often (perhaps usually) able to overcome it. While overplaying the role of luck in human affairs, Taleb underplays the role of competition when he denigrates “classical economic models,” in which competition plays a central role. “Luck” cannot forever outrun competition, unless the game is rigged by governmental intervention, namely, the writing of regulations that tend to favor certain competitors (usually market incumbents) over others (usually would-be entrants). The propensity to regulate at the behest of incumbents (who plead “public interest,” of course) is a proof of the power of competition to shape economic outcomes. It is loathed and feared, and yet it leads us in the direction to which classical economic theory points: greater output and lower prices. Competition is what ensures that (for the most part) the best ballplayers advance to the major leagues. It’s what keeps “monopolists” like Microsoft hopping (unless they have a government-guaranteed monopoly), because even a monopolist (or oligopolist) can face competition, and eventually lose to it — witness the former “Big Three” auto makers, many formerly thriving chain stores (from Kresge’s to Montgomery Ward’s), and numerous other brand names of days gone by. If Microsoft survives and thrives, it will be because it actually offers consumers more value for their money, either in the way of products similar to those marketed by Microsoft or in entirely new products that supplant those offered by Microsoft. Monopolists and oligopolists cannot survive without constant innovation and attention to their customers’ needs.Why? Because they must compete with the offerors of all the other goods and services upon which consumers might spend their money. There is nothing — not even water — which cannot be produced or delivered in competitive ways. (For more, see this .) The names of the particular firms that survive the competitive struggle may be unpredictable, but what is predictable is the tendency of competitive forces toward economic efficiency. In other words, the specific outcomes of economic competition may be unpredictable (which is not a bad thing), but the general result — efficiency — is neither unpredictable nor a manifestation of randomness or “luck.” Taleb, had he broached the subject of competition would (with his hero George Soros) denigrate it, on the ground that there is no such thing as perfect competition. But the failure of competitive forces to mimic the model of perfect competition does not negate the power of competition, as I have summarized it here. Indeed, the failure of competitive forces to mimic the model of perfect competition is not a failure, for perfect competition is unattainable in practice, and to hold it up as a measure of the effectiveness of market forces is to indulge in the Nirvana fallacy . In any event, Taleb’s myopia with respect to competition is so complete that he fails to mention it, let alone address its beneficial effects (even when it is less than perfect). And yet Taleb dares to dismiss as a utopist Milton Friedman (p. 272) — the same Milton Friedman who was among the twentieth century’s foremost advocates of the benefits of competition. Are Financial Markets Random? Given what I have said thus far, I find it almost incredible that anyone believes in the randomness of financial markets. It is unclear where Taleb stands on the random-walk hypothesis , but it is clear that he believes financial markets to be driven by randomness. Yet, contradictorily, he seems to attack the efficient-markets hypothesis (see pp. 61-62), which is the foundation of the random-walk hypothesis. What is the random-walk hypothesis? In brief, it is this: Financial markets are so efficient that they instantaneously reflect all information bearing on the prices of financial instruments that is then available to persons buying and selling those instruments. (The qualifier “then available to persons buying and selling those instruments” leaves the door open for [a] insider trading and [b] arbitrage, due to imperfect knowledge on the part of some buyers and/or sellers.) Because information can change rapidly and in unpredictable ways, the prices of financial instruments move randomly. But the random movement is of a very special kind: If a stock goes up one day, no stock market participant can accurately predict that it will rise again the next. Just as a basketball player with the “hot hand” can miss the next shot, the stock that seems to be on the rise can fall at any time, making it completely random. And, therefore, changes in stock prices cannot be predicted. Note, however, the focus on changes. It is that focus which creates the illusion of randomness and unpredictability. It is like hoping to understand the movements of the planets around the sun by looking at the random movements of a particle in a cloud chamber. When we step back from day-to-day price changes, we are able to see the underlying reality: prices (instead of changes) and price trends (which are the opposite of randomness). This (correct) perspective enables us to see that stock prices (on the whole) are not random, and to identify the factors that influence the broad movements of the stock market. For one thing, if you look at stock prices correctly, you can see that they vary cyclically. Here is a telling graphic (from “ Efficient-market hypothesis ” at Wikipedia): Price-Earnings ratios as a predictor of twenty-year returns based upon the plot by Robert Shiller (Figure 10.1, [18] source ). The horizontal axis shows the real price-earnings ratio of the S&P Composite Stock Price Index as computed in Irrational Exuberance (inflation adjusted price divided by the prior ten-year mean of inflation-adjusted earnings). The vertical axis shows the geometric average real annual return on investing in the S&P Composite Stock Price Index, reinvesting dividends, and selling twenty years later. Data from different twenty-year periods is color-coded as shown in the key. See also ten-year returns . Shiller states that this plot “confirms that long-term investors—investors who commit their money to an investment for ten full years—did do well when prices were low relative to earnings at the beginning of the ten years. Long-term investors would be well advised, individually, to lower their exposure to the stock market when it is high, as it has been recently, and get into the market when it is low.” [18] This correlation between price to earnings ratios and long-term returns is not explained by the efficient-market hypothesis. Why should stock prices tend to vary cyclically? Because stock prices generally are driven by economic growth (i.e., changes in GDP), and economic growth is strongly cyclical. (See this post .) More fundamentally, the economic outcomes reflected in stock prices aren’t random, for they depend mainly on intentional behavior along well-rehearsed lines (i.e., the production and consumption of goods and services in ways that evolve over time). Variations in economic behavior, even when they are unpredictable, have explanations; for example: Innovation and capital investment spur the growth of economic output. Natural disasters slow the growth of economic output (at least temporarily) because they absorb resources that could have gone to investment (as well as consumption). Governmental interventions (taxation and regulation), if not reversed, dampen growth permanently. There is nothing in those three statements that hasn’t been understood since the days of Adam Smith. Regarding the third statement, the general slowing of America’s economic growth since the advent of the Progressive Era around 1900 is certainly not due to randomness, it is due to the ever-increasing burden of taxation and regulation imposed on the economy — an entirely predictable result, and certainly not a random one. In fact, the long-term trend of the stock market (as measured by the S&P 500) is strongly correlated with GDP. And broad swings around that trend can be traced to governmental intervention in the economy. The following graph shows how the S&P 500, reconstructed to 1870, parallel constant-dollar GDP: The next graph shows the relationship more clearly. The wild swings around the trend line began in the uncertain aftermath of World War I, which saw the imposition of production and price controls. The swings continued with the onset of the Great Depression (which can be traced to governmental action), the advent of the anti-business New Deal, and the imposition of production and price controls on a grand scale during World War II. The next downswing was occasioned by the culmination the Great Society, the “oil shocks” of the early 1970s, and the raging inflation that was touched off by — you guessed it — government policy. The latest downswing is owed mainly to the financial crisis born of yet more government policy: loose money and easy loans to low-income borrowers. And so it goes, wildly but predictably enough if you have the faintest sense of history. The moral of the story: Keep your eye on government and a hand on your wallet. CONCLUSION There is randomness in economic affairs, but they are not dominated by randomness. They are dominated by intentions, including especially the intentions of the politicians and bureaucrats who run governments. Yet, Taleb has no space in his book for the influence of their deeds economic activity and financial markets. Taleb is right to disparage those traders (professional and amateur) who are lucky enough to catch upswings, but are unprepared for downswings. And he is right to scoff at their readiness to believe that the current upswing (uniquely) will not be followed by a downswing (“this time it’s different”). But Taleb is wrong to suggest that traders are fooled by randomness. They are fooled to some extent by false hope, but more profoundly by their inablity to perceive the economic damage wrought by government. They are not alone of course; most of the rest of humanity shares their perceptual failings. Taleb, in that respect, is only somewhat different than most of the rest of humanity. He is not fooled by false hope, but he is fooled by non-randomness — the non-randomness of government’s decisive influence on economic activity and financial markets. In overlooking that influence he overlooks the single most powerful explanation for the behavior of markets in the past 90 years. Share this: Beware of Libertarian Paternalists I have written extensively about paternalism of the so-called libertarian variety. (See this post and the posts linked therein.) Glen Whitman, in two recent posts at Agoraphilia, renews his attack on “libertarian paternalism,” the main proponents of which are Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler (S&T). In the first of the two posts, Whitman writes: [Thaler] continues to disregard the distinction between public and private action. Some critics contend that behavioral economists have neglected the obvious fact that bureaucrats make errors, too. But this misses the point. After all, wouldn’t you prefer to have a qualified, albeit human, technician inspect your aircraft’s engines rather than do it yourself? The owners of ski resorts hire experts who have previously skied the runs, under various conditions, to decide which trails should be designated for advanced skiers. These experts know more than a newcomer to the mountain. Bureaucrats are human, too, but they can also hire experts and conduct research.Here we see two of Thaler’s favorite stratagems deployed at once. First, he relies on a deceptively innocuous, private, and non-coercive example to illustrate his brand of paternalism. Before it was cafeteria dessert placement; now it’s ski-slope markings. Second, he subtly equates private and public decision makers without even mentioning their different incentives. In this case, he uses “bureaucrats” to refer to all managers, regardless of whether they manage private or public enterprises. The distinction matters. The case of ski-slope markings is the market principle at work. Skiers want to know the difficulty of slopes, and so the owners of ski resorts provide it. They have a profit incentive to do so. This is not at all coercive, and it is no more “paternalist” than a restaurant identifying the vegetarian dishes. Public bureaucrats don’t have the same incentives at all. They don’t get punished by consumers for failing to provide information, or for providing the wrong information. They don’t suffer if they listen to the wrong experts. They face no competition from alternative providers of their service. They get to set their own standards for “success,” and if they fail, they can use that to justify a larger budget. And Thaler knows this, because these are precisely the arguments made by the “critics” to whom he is responding. His response is just a dodge, enabled by his facile use of language and his continuing indifference – dare I say hostility? – to the distinction between public and private. In the second of the two posts, Whitman says: The advocates of libertarian paternalism have taken great pains to present their position as one that does not foreclose choice, and indeed even adds choice. But this is entirely a matter of presentation. They always begin with non-coercive and privately adopted measures, such as the ski-slope markings in Thaler’s NY Times article. And when challenged, they resolutely stick to these innocuous examples (see this debate between Thaler and Mario Rizzo, for example). But if you read Sunstein & Thaler’s actual publications carefully, you will find that they go far beyond non-coercive and private measures. They consciously construct a spectrum of “libertarian paternalist” policies, and at one end of this spectrum lies an absolutely ban on certain activities, such as motorcycling without a helmet. I’m not making this up!… [A]s Sunstein & Thaler’s published work clearly indicates, this kind of policy [requiring banks to offer “plain vanilla” mortgages] is the thin end of the wedge. The next step, as outlined in their articles, is to raise the cost of choosing other options. In this case, the government could impose more and more onerous requirements for opting out of the “plain vanilla” mortgage: you must fill out extra paperwork, you must get an outside accountant, you must have a lawyer present, you must endure a waiting period, etc., etc. Again, this is not my paranoid imagination at work. S&T have said explicitly that restrictions like these would count as “libertarian paternalism” by their definition…. The problem is that S&T’s “libertarian paternalism” is used almost exclusively to advocate greater intervention, not less. I have never, for instance, seen S&T push for privatization of Social Security or vouchers in education. I have never seen them advocate repealing a blanket smoking ban and replacing it with a special licensing system for restaurants that want to allow their customers to smoke. If they have, I would love to see it. In their articles, S&T pay lip service to the idea that libertarian paternalism lies between hard paternalism and laissez faire, and thus that it could in principle be used to expand choice. But look at the actual list of policies they’ve advocated on libertarian paternalist grounds, and see where their real priorities lie. S&T are typical “intellectuals,” in that they presume to know how others should lead their lives — a distinctly non-libertarian attitude. It is, in fact, a hallmark of “liberalism.” In an earlier post I had this to say about the founders of “liberalism” — John Stuart Mill, Thomas Hill Green, and Leonard Trelawney Hobhouse: [W]e are met with (presumably) intelligent persons who believe that their intelligence enables them to peer into the souls of others, and to raise them up through the blunt instrument that is the state. And that is precisely the mistake that lies at heart of what we now call “liberalism” or “progressivism.” It is the three-fold habit of setting oneself up as an omniscient arbiter of economic and social outcomes, then castigating the motives and accomplishments of the financially successful and socially “well placed,” and finally penalizing financial and social success through taxation and other regulatory mechanisms (e.g., affirmative action, admission quotas, speech codes, “hate crime” legislation”). It is a habit that has harmed the intended beneficiaries of government intervention, not just economically but in other ways, as well…. The other ways, of course, include the diminution of social liberty, which is indivisible from economic liberty. Just how dangerous to liberty are S&T? Thaler is an influential back-room operator , with close ties to the Obama camp. Sunstein is a long-time crony and adviser who now heads the White House’s Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, where he has an opportunity to enforce “libertarian paternalism”: …Sunstein would like to control the content of the internet — for our own good, of course. I refer specifically to Sunstein’s “ The Future of Free Speech ,” in which he advances several policy proposals, including these: 4. . . . [T]he government might impose “must carry” rules on the most popular Websites, designed to ensure more exposure to substantive questions. Under such a program, viewers of especially popular sites would see an icon for sites that deal with substantive issues in a serious way. They would not be required to click on them. But it is reasonable to expect that many viewers would do so, if only to satisfy their curiosity. The result would be to create a kind of Internet sidewalk, promoting some of the purposes of the public forum doctrine. Ideally, those who create Websites might move in this direction on their own. If they do not, government should explore possibilities of imposing requirements of this kind, making sure that no program draws invidious lines in selecting the sites whose icons will be favoured. Perhaps a lottery system of some kind could be used to reduce this risk. 5. The government might impose “must carry” rules on highly partisan Websites, designed to ensure that viewers learn about sites containing opposing views. This policy would be designed to make it less likely for people to simply hear echoes of their own voices. Of course, many people would not click on the icons of sites whose views seem objectionable; but some people would, and in that sense the system would not operate so differently from general interest intermediaries and public forums. Here too the ideal situation would be voluntary action. But if this proves impossible, it is worth considering regulatory alternatives. [Emphasis added.] A Left-libertarian defends Sunstein’s foray into thought control, concluding that Sunstein once thought some profoundly dumb policies might be worth considering, but realized years ago he was wrong about that… The idea was a tentative, speculative suggestion he now condemns in pretty strong terms. Alternatively, in the face of severe criticism of his immodest proposal, Sunstein merely went underground, to await an opportunity to revive his proposal. I somehow doubt that Sunstein, as a confirmed paternalist, truly abandoned it. The proposal certainly was not off-the-cuff, running to 11 longish web pages. Now, judging by the bulleted list above, the time is right for a revival of Sunstein’s proposal. And there he is, heading the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs. The powers of that office supposedly are constrained by the executive order that established it. But it is evident that the Obama adminstration isn’t bothered by legal niceties when it comes to the exercise of power. Only a few pen strokes stand between Obama and a new, sweeping executive order, the unconstitutionality of which would be of no import to our latter-day FDR. It’s just another step beyond McCain-Feingold, isn’t it? Thus is the tyranny of “libertarian paternalism.” And thus does the death-spiral of liberty proceed. Share this: Why Is Entrepreneurship Declining? Jonathan Adler of The Volokh Conspiracy addresses evidence that entrepreneurial activity is declining in the United States, noting that The number of employer firms created annually has declined significantly since 1990, and the numbers of businesses created and those claiming to be self-employed have declined as well. Adler continues: What accounts for this trend? [The author of the cited analysis] thinks one reason is “the Wal-Mart effect.” Large, efficient companies are able to out-compete small start-ups, replacing the independent businesses in many markets. Multiply across the entire economy the effect of a Wal-Mart replacing the independent restaurant, grocery store, clothing store, florist, etc., in a town, and you can see how we end up with a downward trend in entrepreneurship over time. That may be true. It seems to me that another likely contributor is the increased regulatory burden. It is well documented that regulation can increase industry concentration. Smaller firms typically bear significantly greater regulatory costs per employee than larger firms (see, e.g., this study ), and regulatory costs can also increase start-up costs and serve as a barrier to entry. While the rate at which new regulations were adopted slowed somewhat in recent years at the federal level (see here ), so long as the cumulative regulatory burden increases, I would expect it to depress small business creation and growth. Going further than Adler, I attribute the whole sorry mess to the growth of government over the past century. And I fully expect the increased regulatory and tax burdens of Obamanomics to depress innovation, business expansion, business creation, job creation, and the rate of economic growth. As I say here , Had the economy of the U.S. not been deflected from its post-Civil War course [by the advent of the regulatory-welfare state around 1900], GDP would now be more than three times its present level…. If that seems unbelievable to you, it shouldn’t: $100 compounded for 100 years at 4.4 percent amounts to $7,400; $100 compounded for 100 years at 3.1 percent amounts to $2,100. Nothing other than government intervention (or a catastrophe greater than any we have known) could have kept the economy from growing at more than 4 percent. What’s next? Unless Obama’s megalomaniac plans are aborted by a reversal of the Republican Party’s fortunes , the U.S. will enter a new phase of economic growth — something close to stagnation. We will look back on the period from 1970 to 2008 [when GDP rose at an annual rate of 3.1 percent] with longing, as we plod along at a growth rate similar to that of 1908-1940, that is, about 2.2 percent. Thus: If GDP grows at 2.2 percent through 2108, it will be 58 percent lower than if we plod on at 3.1 percent. If GDP grows at 2.2 percent for through 2108, it will be only 4 percent of what it would have been had it continued to grow at 4.4 percent after 1907. The latter disparity may seem incredible, but scan the lists here and you will find even greater cross-national disparities in per capita GDP. Go here and you will find that real, per capita GDP in 1790 was only 3.3 percent of the value it had attained 201 years later. Our present level of output seems incredible to citizens of impoverished nations, and it would seem no less incredible to an American of 201 years ago. But vast disparities can and do exist, across nations and time. We have every reason to believe in a sustained growth rate of 4.4 percent, as against one of 2.2 percent, because we have experienced both. Share this:	i don't know
The ancient Greek term/goddess 'Sophrosyne' represents?	Ancient Greek & Neoliberal Harmony Pt. 1: Sophrosyne as Proportion philosophy, pop music, sound studies, feminism Browse: Home » 2013 » March » Ancient Greek & Neoliberal Harmony Pt. 1: Sophrosyne as Proportion Ancient Greek & Neoliberal Harmony Pt. 1: Sophrosyne as Proportion March 11, 2013 · by Robin James · in ancient Greek philosophy , ancient philosophy , ethics , Foucault , music , music theory , neoliberalism , Plato , politics , Pythagoras It seems like the ancient Greeks are actually kinda neoliberal in some ways. In Disagreement, Ranciere calls consensus democracy “the perfect realization” of Plato’s Republic, and, as Shannon Winnubst notes in her great new article in Foucault Studies(which everyone should go read right now), Foucault’s work encourages comparisons between the ancient Greek practices he talks about in, say, Volume 2 of the History of Sexuality, and his lecture courses on neoliberalism. Giving voice to this sense that there’s some relationship between the Greeks and the neoliberals, Winnbust says “it is almost as if, in much too gross historical strokes, we have two bookends standing outside the overlapping milieu of Christianity and modernity: ancient Greece and contemporary neoliberalism” (91). However, as she compellingly argues, the Greeks may be more similar to neoliberals than they are to classical enlightenment liberals, but this doesn’t make them neoliberals. Just because two things are more like one another than either is like a third thing doesn’t mean the two things are identical (I’m no logician, but that feels like an invalid syllogism, right?). But the Greeks aresort of similar to neoliberals—there’s something there that invites comparison, even if that comparison reveals some pretty fundamental differences. This is where sound studies and the philosophy of music are really helpful. Greeks and neoliberals both have harmonic political epistemes, while Enlightenment liberals have visual/representational ones. So, the Greeks and the neoliberals are both sonic/harmonic alternatives to Enlightenment visuality. That’s why they initially, at first pass, invite comparison. BUT: Greeks and neoliberals have different understandings of harmony. The Greeks measure harmony geometrically, as a proportion, whereas the neoliberals measure harmony acoustically, as the quality (amplitude) and quantity (frequency) of a signal or sine wave. The sine wave is both sound’s material form and a way to statistically represent probability. So, neoliberal biopolitics—aka the governmentality of statistics—and contemporary acoustics converge in the form of a sine wave, and it is this common denominator that allows for easy transposition between them. If classical liberalism thinks and works in terms of “the gaze,” neoliberalism thinks and works in terms of sine waves. So, understanding acoustics can help us understand material, practical, normalized, creative, and critical functions/properties/possibilities of sine waves. Ultimately, I’m arguing that sound and music studies provide very productive avenues, methods, and resources for theorizing neoliberalism. I’m breaking this project down into several posts. Here, I limit my discussion to ancient Greek concepts of harmony as proportion. I want to emphasize that I’m not a classicist, Ancient is NOT my area of specialization, and I’m not at all trying to make some sort of scholarly contribution to this area of the history of philosophy. What I AM trying to do is explain the relationship between ancient Greek concepts of musical harmony and their ethical ideal “sophrosyne”…so that we can better understand how the ancient Greek “harmonic” ethos is different than the neoliberal “harmonic” ethos. And honestly, this is far, far more work on ancient Greek philosophy than I ever imagined myself doing. So, you know, ancient people, if I’m missing something or get somethign wrong, let me know! 🙂 Ancient Greek Harmony Greeks and neoliberals use harmonic epistemes. Because Foucault’s interest in the Greeks centers on their “orthos logos,” their mechanism for measuring or judging the freedom/truth relationship, I’ll frame my analysis in those terms. Classical liberalism/enlightenment modernity measured truth representationally, with the correspondence theory: confession, as a technology of the self, relies on a correspondence between explicitly expression and inner content. Whereas the classical liberals frame the freedom/truth relationship in terms of the gaze, the Greeks understand it through the concept of moderation or sophrosyne. As Winnubst explains, “the ethical problem of aphrodisiafor the Greeks was the ongoing effort ‘to be free in relation to pleasures…to be free of their authority;’ to do so, one must cultivate a particular relation to truth that ‘constituted an essential element of moderation’” (90). So how is moderation (i.e., sophrosyne) a proportional, geometric concept of harmony? As Helen North explains, “sophrosyne and its cognate forms were…closely identified with the feeling for harmony and restraint which governed every phase of Greek life” (North, 2). Further, North speculates that “the term sophrosyne passed from ethics first to music” (2). [i] Ok, so sophrosyne and harmony are interrelated in ancient Greek thought. I’m assuming that philosophers generally understand what “moderation” means. Here I’m going to focus on what harmony meant in ancient Greek theory. There’s no one theory of harmony in ancient Greek philosophy—lots of people had lots of different theories about exactly what intervals were consonant and dissonant, about how to divide the octave, fourth, and fifth, etc. While they disagreed about the details, all these theories had the same underlying concept of what harmony was—harmony was a matter of proportion. As A.A. Long explains, ancient Greeks understood harmony as “something balanced, proportional, ratio-like” (207). Or, as Plato says in Timaeus, “the Cosmos was harmonized by proportion and brought into existence” (32c; emphasis mine). Musical Harmony To be really reductive, the ancient Greeks thought musical harmony was a function of visual-spatial ratios, a measure of the size of the resonating media. For example, pan pipes would be acoustically harmonic if the length and width of the pipes were mathematically proportionate to one another. If the physical size and shape of a resonating substance (wood, a string, etc.) fit a specified system of ideal mathematical ratios (e.g., the golden mean), then the sounds this resonating substance produced would be “harmonic” (or rather, consonantly harmonic). As musicologist Tobias Mathiesen explains, Greek music theory is “an attempt to present all the instruments—flute, reed, and string—as manifesting the mathematical principles of harmonics in the same visual manner” (210; emphasis mine). Acoustic proportion was a function of visual proportion, which was in turn a function of mathematical proportion. The assumption—or ideal—is that visually proportionate instruments should produce acoustically proportionate (in other words, harmonic) sounds…because the same mathematicalproportions ought to govern them both. [ii] For example, the aulos (a double-reeded instrument sort of like the contemporary oboe) was considered a low-prestige instrument and associated with the “unruliness” of femininity (and Dionysus) because its visible and acoustic proportions did not strictly follow ideal mathematical ratios. As Matheisen explains, The rough rations between the trupemata [finger holes] and the mouthpiece do correspond to the possible ratios between the pitches produced by those trupemata, but it is clear that any given fingering on the aulos can be used to produce a number of pitches” (Mathiesen 209). [iii] The aulos is troublesome because it is not adequately proportional: its visible and auditory physical functioning (the intervals or ratios between pitches produced by finger-holes bored in visually/geometrically proportionate ratios) does not truthfully manifest the underlying logos of mathematical harmony/proportion. (This is why the aulos is associated with femininity—both are unruly and immoderate.) Similarly, one’s outward appearance served as evidence of one’s moderate—or immoderate—ethos. As Plato says, “if the fine dispositions that are in the soul and those that agree and accord with them in the form should ever coincide in anyone, with both partaking of the same model, wouldn’t that be the fairest sight for him who is able to see?” (Republic 402d; emphasis mine). Or, as Foucault puts it, sophrosyne’s “hallmark, grounded in truth, was both its regard for an ontological structure and its visiblybeautiful shape” (HSv2 89; emphasis mine). Outwardly visible harmony should be the manifestation or expression of inner harmony. As Foucault puts it, “the individual fulfilled himself as an ethical subject by shaping a precisely measured conduct that was plainly visible to all” (HSv2 91). Inner harmony ought to produce outward beauty. The exact nature of this relationship between inner and outer harmony was, however, a subject of disagreement among ancient Greek philosophers. Some, like Pythagoras, saw, or rather heard, a direct correspondence between perceived visual/auditory harmony and mathematical harmony. In this view, perceptual harmony was directly proportional to intellectual/mathematical harmony. Plato critques Pythagoras’s theory of harmony because the latter reverses the proper order between material structure and intelligible logic. According to Plato, Pythagoras “put[s] ears before the intelligence” (Repubic 531a), placing disproportionate emphasis on auditory perception, and insufficient emphasis on mathematical proportion (or, “consideration of… numbers” (531c).) The most musical intervals/proportions/ratios are not the ones that sound most consonant, or are most visibly beautiful, but the ones that are the most mathematically and/or philosophically proportionate. In other words, Plato thinks the relationship between visual/auditory proportion and mathematical/philosophical proportion must itself be proportionate, putting greater weight or emphasis on the intellectual than on the perceptual. In Plato’s Symposium, Socrates functions like an aulos because his visual appearance does not directlycorrespond to his intellectual harmoniousness. In the same way that auloi can produce visually and acoustically consonant phenomena that are neither directly nor necessarily tied to specific mathematical proportions, Socrates’s visual beauty is not directly proportionate to his intellectual beauty. He is visually dischordant—ugly, mocking and mean, anti-social, etc.—but intellectually harmonious. To someone who, like Pythagoreans or Alcibiades in the Symposium, thought the relationship between visible and intellectual harmony was a “mutual exchange of beauty for beauty” (218a), Socrates seems very disharmonious. This is why Alcibiades, in his praise of Socrates at the end of the Symposium, compares Socrates to an aulos/ανλονς(215b). But the joke is, as ever with Socrates, on us, that is, on those who think he really is like a flute or flute-player. For Plato, visual beauty ought to be accorded les import than intellectual beauty—that’s the Symposium’s main argument, after all. Socrates might not be visibly beautiful in equalproportion to his intellectual beauty, but he is visibly beautiful in proper, mathematical, harmonic proportion to his intellectual beauty. Which is to say: Socrates accords greater import and attention to intellectual beauty, because that is its proper place and function. Ironically, his initial aulos-like qualities are evidence that he’s more like a well-tempered stringed instrument (e.g., a kithara). His mind is significantly more harmonious than his body…and that’s what makes him more proportionate than anyone else, “gold” (and more proportionate, like the guardians) rather than just “bronze” (less proportionate, like the plebs) (Symposium 219a). Socrates seems like an aulos only to those who do not recognize the true and proper relationship between visible/perceptual and intellectual harmony. [iv] So “proportion” is a ratio that is representable both visually/perceptually and mathematically; metatheoretically, the relationship between perceptual and mathematical proportion is itself proportionate. The Greeks visualized mathematical ratios in geometric terms. As Plato states in the Republic, “A man experienced in geometry would…grasp the truth about equals, doubles, or any other proportion” (530a). Mathiesen includes to diagrams that clearly show how Greeks thought sonic harmony was a function of geometric ratios. [this is Mathiesen’s diagram] Because I’m a theorist and not a trained mathematician, and because even the Greeks widely and wildly disagreed about the specific methods for mathematically calculating ideally harmonic ratios, I’m not going to go too deeply into the calculations. I do, however, want to convey a general sense of the proportionality. Distilling centuries of often inconsistent and conflicting mathematical accounts of musical harmony to their common denominator, Mathiesen explains: The story of Pythagoras’s discovery of the harmonic ratios is told and retold by many writers, Greek and Latin, with certain variations, but its essence lies in the application of four numbers—12, 9, 8, and 6—to produce the Pythagorean ‘harmonia.’ Nichomachus’s version has Pythagoras first detecting the consonant intervals of the octave, fifth, and fourth…” (399) When instruments were visually/materially organized by mathematically proportional ratios, they would produce the musical intervals of the octave, fifth, and fourth. For example, when you fret or put your finger down on a monochord (basically, a single string over a resonator, like a one-stringed guitar) so that the string is divided on a 1:1 ratio, the interval between the two pitches is an octave; at a 3:2 (12:8 or 9:6) ratio (the golden mean), the interval between the two pitches is a fifth. This is just one simple example; the ancient Geek music theorists bickered about the mathematical derivation of musical harmony with the same nitpicky vehemence that hipster music fans exhibit when discussing the nuances of their favorite sub-sub-subgenre. I do not want to get sidetracked by going into those details. But the proliferation of accounts is itself evidence of the centrality of mathematical proportion to ancient Greek concepts of musical harmony. [v] Ethical/Political Harmony Classicists have established that an “analogy between musical and ethical harmony” (A.A. Long 203) was widespread in ancient Greek philosophy, from the pre-Socratics like Heraclitus and Pythagoras, to the Stoics. An explicit and widely-read example of this analogy appears in Plato’s Republic. Here, he argues that “we’ll never be musical—either in ourselves or those whom we say we must educate to be guardians—before we recognize the forms of moderation” (402c). He says musicality requires moderation, [vi] and equates madness and licentiousness to unmusicality. [vii] For example, he compares poor musical harmonization to gluttony. [viii] If moderation or sophrosyne is understood as a type of musicality, how exactly is moderation/sophrosyne proportional? Foucault, in his chapter on sophrosyne in HSv2, uses the language of “proportion” to describe the Greek’s concept of moderation/sophrosyne as virile self-mastery: the point where the relationship with oneself would become isomorphic with the relationship of domination, hierarchy, and authority that one expected, as a man, a free man, to establish over his inferiors; and it was this prior condition of ‘ethical virility’ that provided one with the right sense of proportion for the exercise of ‘sexual virility,’ according to a model of ‘social virility.’ (HSv2 83). To be moderate was to understand and implement proportion across one’s dealings; one’s desires had to be proportionate (e.g., to one’s responsibilities), one’s authority had to be proportionate (to one’s social position), and one’s desires and authority had to be proportional to one another. Only one who is successfully ruled by proportion may rule others and maintain a proportionate society. Or, think of it this way: “moderation implied that the logos be placed in a position of supremacy in the human being and that it was able to subdue the desires and regulate behavior” (Foucault HSv2 86)—the proportionate man was one whose “logos” was more powerful and more extensive than his desires. Or, the moderate man was one who maintained the correct balance between logos and desires. If “to rule one’s pleasures and to bring them under the authority of the logos formed one and the same enterprise” (Foucault HSv2 86), this logos was proportion. It was proportional because reason had dominion over desire and corporeality—everything was in its appropriate position in a hierarchical relationship. [ix] Foucault’s understanding of proportion is consistent with Plato’s (and also, interestingly, with Ranciere’s reading of Plato in Disagreement). For Plato, a harmonious city was one in which “Each man does one thing” (Republic 397e), and there is a “proper order for each of the things that are” (Gorgias506d); when each thing follows its own proper logos, the whole will be harmonic, consonant, balanced, well-ordered, etc. [x] For example, the mind and the body each have specific functions, and the moderate man is one who maintains a “harmonious adjustment” (Republic 411e) of soul and body, that is, an overall balance between the two by keeping each in its proper place. [xi] In the moderate man, “his whole soul—brought to its best by acquiring moderation and justice accompanied by prudence…in proportion as soul is more honorable than body” (Republic 591b; emphasis mine). This is what Plato is talking about in Republic 410c, where he states that “guardians,” or the rulers of the city, “…should possess both natures…And must they not be harmoniously adjusted to one another?” “Of course.” “And the soul of the man thus attuned is sober and brave?” (emphasis mine). Moderation means giving the soul a greater proportion of dominion or authority over one’s life than the body. Sophrosyne is a practice of harmonious attunement because it is a matter of respecting proportional distributions. Sophroysne was a manifestation of the same harmonic logic that governed the rest of the universe—music, the planets, mathematics, etc. [xii] Just as there were various systems for calculating the most ideally harmonic systems of ratios/proportions, this harmony-moderation connection was made in a variety of ways. According to A.A. Long, “Aristotle observes (Top. IV.3 123a37) that symphonia [loosely, “consonance”] may be predicated of ‘moderation’ (sophrosyne) but such a usage is metaphor since strictly all symphonia pertains to sounds” (203). Drawing a more macro-level analogy or isomorphism, “the Stoics envisaged a virtuous character as directly analogous to a harmonic system” (Long 218). Working with smaller-scale comparisons, “Ptolemy and Aristides Quintilianus…se[t] up correspondences between specific virtues and harmonic intervals” (Long 215). Though Foucault does not explicitly connect harmony with proportion, he does use musical language to describe Plato’s concept of sophrosyne: in the individual who is sophron, it is reason that commands and prescribes, in consonance with the structure of the human being: ‘it is fitting that the reasonable part should rule,’ Socrates says…and he proceeds to define the sophron as the man in whom the different parts of the soul are in agreement and harmony, when the part that commands and the part that obeys are at one in their recognition that it is proper for reason to rule and that they should not contend for its authority” (HSv2 87). Importantly, Foucault connects sophrosyne with a proportional concept of harmony: something is consonant when its component parts are all in their proper, assigned place. This “harmonization” is the “structural” and “ontological” relationship that Foucault attributes to the ancient Greeks and contrasts to the “epistemological” notion of truth operative in, say, the imperative to confess. [xiii] Sophrosyne is attunement to truth: harmony is produced when “reason rules.” Often, for the ancient Greeks, reason itself was harmonic—the logos was a mathematical system of proportions. As A.A. Long notes, “orthos logos, in Greek philosophical usage quite generally, connotes the presence, application or realization of determinacy, proportionality, exactitude of quantitative or numerical order” (207). The geometric/mathematical ratios are the orthos logos or true reason that determine what is moderate and what isn’t. So, virtue meant bringing one’s life, or the city, in accordance with the logos of harmonic proportion. Conversely, an unjust city is a disharmonious one: for example, Plato argues that “oligarchy would contain this one mistake that is of such proportions” (Republic 551d; emphasis mine). The logos is a structure or instrument for producing a well-ordered, harmonic body, be it an instrument, a human being, or a polity. à It is clear that metaphorical and/or literal concepts of musical harmony as proportion served as the measure or model for moderation/sophrysune. [xiv] Moderation/sophorysune, in turn, was a model for “subjectivity” (or rather, self-relation—the “subject” is somewhat of an anachronism in this context), political and social relationality, and for epistemology. So, we can say that ancient Greek theories of self-relation, political relation, and epistemology are grounded in a proportional theory of musical harmony. Neoliberal theories of subjectivity, politics, and knowledge are grounded in a differenttheory of musical harmony, one modeled on the sine wave. For the ancient Greeks, sophrosyne could link freedom and truth because both “freedom” (self-mastery) and “truth” (beauty/harmony/mathematical logic/orthos logos) were understood proportionally; for neoliberals, the competitive market can link freedom and truth because both “freedom” (optimalization) and “truth” (success) are understood “acoustically” as sine waves. [i] North, Helen, Classical Philology 1948 [ii] For example, Mathiesen discusses Nchomachus’s theory of “‘ruling proportion’, in which two middle terms form various ratios with the extremes and the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes. This proportion is represented by 12:9:8:6, which embraces geometric proportion (12:8::9:6), harmonic proportion (12:8:6), and arithmetic proportion (12:9:6), as well as the whole-tone ratio, 9:8, the common measure of musical rations and the difference between the fifth and the fourth” (400-01). [iii] There’s A LOT to say about the queerness and unruliness of Alcibiades in Plato’s Symposium, its connection to the re-introduction of the “flute girls,” and the unruliness of the aulos. Basically: if sophrosyne is being a man in relationship to oneself, being “harmonically proportionate,” then the aulos is not harmonically proportionate, so it is feminized and immoderate, sort of the way Xanthippe is represented in the Phaedo…But that’s a tangent to be explored elsewhere. Unless somebody’s already written on that, which would be awesome. (Judith Periano…? [iv] “if you chose to listen to Scorates’ discourses you would feel them at first to be quite ridiculous; on the outside they are clothed with such absurd words and phrases—all, of course, the hide of a mocking satyr…so that anyone inexpert and thoughtless might laugh his speeches into scorn. But when these are opened, and you obtain a fresh view of them by getting inside, first of all you will discover they are the only speeches which have any sense in them; and secondly, that none are so divine, so rich in images of virtue…” (Symposium 221e-222a). [v] As Alan Bloom points out in his translation of Republic, rhythim is also proportional: “the various meters are compounded of feet based on three basic proportions: the 2.2 or equal…; the 3.2…; and the 2/1…The four forms of sound are apparently the notes of the tetrachord…” (453n48) [vi] “Is the naturally right kind of love to love in a moderate and musical way what’s orderly and fine?” (Republic 403a) [vii] Being “mad or akin to licentiousness” is “unmusical” (403 b-c). [viii] Plato says: “likening such food [attic cakes] and such a way of life as a whole to melodies and songs written in the panharmonic mode and with all rhythms” (404d). Panharmonic modes don’t sufficiently distinguish among and prioritize more- and less-harmonic intervals. You might compare them to a Western chromatic scale, which includes all 12 tones in an octave, not just the 8 tones in a major or minor scale. [ix] The theory of the divided line is a hierarchical order grounded in a metaphorics of proportion. For example, the intelligible gets a bigger proportion of space on the line because it is more “real” than the visible: “take these four affections arising in the soul in relation to the four segments: intellection in relation to the highest one, and thought in relation to the second; to the third assign trust, and to the last imagination. Arrange them in proportion, and believe that as the segments to which they correspond participate in truth, so they participate in clarity” (611d) [x] Thus, as Plato argues in Republic, “for all well-governed peoples there is a work assigned to each man in the city which he must perform” (Republic 406c). A harmonic city is one in which the gold souls do gold things, when silver ones do silver things, and so on. Those who are “mixed,” who do more than one thing and have more than one role, have no place in Plato’s ideal city because they would disrupt its harmonious attunement. As Plato says, “he doesn’t harmonize with our regime because there’s no double man among us, nor a manifold one, since each man does one thing” (Republic 397e). [xi] As Judith Periano explains, “the music taken in by the physical senses recalibrates the harmony of the soul through a metaphysical mimesis that tunes the soul to the cosmic scale (rather than to a physical body) so that the soul can supervise the physical body and the body’s instincts in an ideal, essentially acetic self-practice” (33) à music orders the soul, and puts the soul in charge of the body (ie soul in harmony w body) [xii] “This famous Pythagorean ‘harmonia’…provides a perfect paradigm for music as an embodiment of rational numerical order and, by extension, universal order” (Matheisen 363) [xiii] “The relation to truth was a structural, instrumental, and ontological condition for establishing the individual as a moderate subject leading a life of moderation; it was not an epistemological condition enabling the individual to recognize himself in his singularity as a desiring subject and to purify himself of the desire that was thus brought to light” (HSv2 89). [xiv] We have frequently asserted 2 that there are housed within us in three regions three kinds of soul, and that each of these has its own motions; so now likewise we must repeat, as briefly as possible, that the kind which remains in idleness and stays with its own motions; in repose necessarily becomes weakest, whereas the kind which exercises itself becomes strongest; [90a] wherefore care must be taken that they have their motions relatively to one another in due proportion. (Timaeus 89e-90a).	Moderation
The Latin term 'requiescat in pace' equates to what common English phrase?	Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.07.67 Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2005.07.67 Adriaan Rademaker, Sophrosyne and the Rhetoric of Self-Restraint: Polysemy and Persuasive Use of an Ancient Greek Value Term. Mnemosyne Suppl. 259. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Pp. xi, 375. ISBN 90-04-14251-7. $115.00. Reviewed by Brad Levett, Carleton University ([email protected]) Word count: 2481 words Adriaan Rademaker (R.) has produced a useful study of the ancient Greek term sophrosyne, examining its use from Homer to Plato. It will serve both as a reference work on the nuances of the term in specific passages, and as a starting point for those interested in the virtue more generally. As R. notes in his introduction (11), there is a good study of sophrosyne by North that traces out the wide range of meanings that this notoriously multivalent term can convey. 1 R. differs from his predecessor by avoiding her diachronic perspective that understands certain senses of a word as later derivatives stemming from an "original" meaning, instead adopting a synchronic approach that seeks to explain the full range of meanings available in the term by the time of Plato. More importantly, while R. sees his study as one that is in line with Cairns' study of aidos, 2 in particular in the decision to examine both the concept and the word (15), R. employs a model of meaning from cognitive linguistics in order to make explicit his methodology and to give a more systematic account of the term's range of meanings and their interrelationships. The model R. adopts from cognitive linguistics abandons the more traditional attempt to find a core or essential meaning that is present in all uses of the term. Instead, by adopting Wittgenstein's metaphor of a "family resemblance," the overall semantic coherence of a word is explained by finding the particular semantic links between individual senses, although these similarities may not be found in all senses of the word. Thus, one sense of a term will bear a similarity to another, and this second sense will bear a (perhaps different) similarity to a third sense, and so on, forming a chain or network of meanings. This method strives to avoid producing a definition of a word that overly simplifies its range of meanings within different contexts. In order to structure these different senses, cognitive linguists replace the search for core meanings with the search for prototypes. A prototype is a member of a linguistic/cognitive category that is more typical of the category than other members. Other senses of the term will share in the category by virtue of their similarity to the prototype. Hence, if the prototype of bravery is the hoplite resisting the enemy in battle without fleeing, by analogy a sailor can also show bravery by "fighting" a storm at sea, although no actual (human) enemy is involved. An important part of this methodology is to describe how the various senses are semantically linked to one another in order to show (indeed to map, in the form of diagrams) the overall structure of meaning available in the term. Since the book is long and detailed, I can give only a general summary of R.'s findings, making a few points of what is meant as constructive criticism along the way. In Homer, use of the term sophrosyne and cognates (throughout the study R. links the adjective sophron, the noun sophrosyne, and the verb sophronein together on the grounds that they generally have the same semantic value) is very rare, being limited to four instances. However, this word-group already displays a range of meanings, from "soundness of mind" to "orderly behavior." In archaic poetry we find these words used by the elite classes in the face of social change. In such circumstances, sophrosyne is, for non-elite groups, the good sense to adhere to the status quo and (therefore) refrain from social injustice or civil strife. In this political context, Sparta seems to have been particularly associated with the value term. Turning to classical drama, in Aeschylus sophrosyne and cognates are most often used to encourage others to refrain from violent behavior. As an extension, they are also used to indicate the good sense not to do violence or insult to the gods. They are also used in relation to women to indicate the value of refraining from excessive displays of emotion. In relation to slaves, these terms can also have what R. calls an authoritarian sense, whereby sophrosyne amounts to showing obedience to one's master. In Sophocles the term for the most part is defined by negative opposition, in so far as the unbending nature of Sophoclean protagonists typically does not allow them to exhibit the virtue. However, through other characters we see the prudential use of the term, in which sophrosyne means to act in one's own best interests. With Euripides we get a more frequent and varied use of the term. Although a crucial sense is "control of desire," we see, in R.'s system, a total of eleven of his eighteen categories of meaning for the term (on which see further below). What is particularly interesting is that Euripides dramatizes the potential conflict between different meanings of the term. Hence Phaedra in Hippolytus is unable to be sophron in the sense of controlling her desire, yet will kill herself as the most sensible response to her dilemma, a response that Hippolytus himself describes as sophron (Hipp. 1034). Also, Euripides is one of our richest sources for this value term as it is understood in relation to women, exploring a range of meanings from fidelity to obedience to indulgence of a husband's desires. My one substantive disagreement here is that R. tends to take at face value passages from Andromache and Medea that suggest that sophrosyne for a woman involved complete and unquestioning acceptance of her husband's other partners. 3 There was obviously a double standard in Classical Athens, but there were also, I think, limits. For example, Lysias, out of respect for his wife and mother, did not lodge his hetaira at home when he wanted to have her initiated into the mysteries, but at an unmarried friend's home ([Dem.] 59.21-22). A work such as Sophocles' Trachiniae, in which Deianeira, a self-restrained, loyal and indeed quite passive woman, is driven to foolish action by the extreme lack of sophrosyne shown by her husband Heracles, has similar implications. Among the historians, Herodotus uses sophrosyne to describe tyrant figures, suggesting that it is the quality they typically lack. R.'s final position here is a bit unclear, since on 194 n. 1 he stresses that for Herodotus sophrosyne was not typically a Greek quality, but elsewhere in the chapter (195, 197, 200-1) he argues that Herodotus does in fact suggest that sophrosyne was typically Greek. In Thucydides, we see the term used in the sense of acting in a manner beneficial to the state, where it is used in political deliberations to suggest the good planning and caution needed to ensure favorable results in international relations. Like Euripides, Thucydides also explores contrasts between the term's various meanings. R. treats Aristophanes and the orators in a single chapter on the grounds that they both represent more ordinary uses of these words compared to the high literature of epic, lyric and tragedy. Here the emphasis is upon control of desire, both in sexual practices and in social interaction. The term is also used in the pragmatic sense of being moderate in one's expenses. Here we see the value of quietism, in which the citizen refrains from the dirty business of city politics and minds his own affairs. The heart of the study is to be found in chapter nine, in which R. gathers his individual findings to form an overview of the various meanings of sophrosyne. R. lists and describes eighteen distinct senses. What distinguishes these various senses is not only difference in meaning (e.g. "prudence" as opposed to "control of desire") but also difference in agent (e.g. sophrosyne exhibited by a male citizen as opposed to sophrosyne displayed by a slave). The network of senses is composed upon two axes. The vertical axis moves from the internal and individual (mental sanity) towards more other-regarding senses (towards other individuals, the state and the gods). This gradation allows R. to avoid a strict dichotomy between an intellectual and ethical sense of the term, a dichotomy that has characterized past studies. The horizontal axis records difference in social status, in which men occupy the central position, with women, boys, girls and slaves taking more peripheral positions. (R. also includes the polis along this axis, but as an extension of the category of men.) In his explanation of his diagrams, R. discusses these senses in an order that brings out the family resemblances between them. For example, after examining the prudential sense of sophrosyne, he then looks at sophrosyne on the level of the polis where it denotes good counsel and caution, since these latter senses can easily be understood as the political counterparts to an individual's use of personal prudence. R. structures the entire network by determining the prototypes of sophrosyne for each class of individual. For men he argues that the prototype was control of desire, for women fidelity, for boys order and quietness, for girls quietness and for slaves obedience. R.'s establishment of these specific senses as the more dominant ones within the network is generally convincing. Having structured the overall network of senses for sophrosyne, R. then plots the various authors upon the network, thereby concisely expressing by means of individual diagrams the particular emphasis in each author's use of the term. This is very useful, and justifies R.'s general claim for the explanatory power of his semantic model. In R.'s establishment of the various general senses of the term, my one major complaint is that he tends to delimit the senses of sophrosyne too narrowly in relation to social status, in particular with regard to women. It seems to me to be impossible to limit sophrosyne as "prudence" to men, since this would suggest that no one else was viewed as having any self-interest or personal agency. Granted that in our sources sophrosyne is a term used by male authors, and so reflects a male conception of what is proper for the various classes of individuals, I see no reason to accept that Greek males uniformly thought that women could not act in their own interests, even if these interests were supposed to be subsumed under their own. In Sophocles' Antigone, Ismene, typically understood as an example of a properly obedient woman in contrast to her transgressive sister, rejects Antigone's request to help bury the body of their brother not only because she is obedient to those in power (61-2), but also because it would not be in their interest to oppose Creon. Her concern is that such a course of action will lead to their destruction, and she repeatedly describes Antigone's plan as one that lacks nous (68, 99). Hence Ismene can be understood as sophron not only in her obedience to her kurios, but also in her prudential concern for survival. There does not seem to be anything particularly "masculine" about Ismene's attitude. Sophrosyne understood as moderation in one's expenses also seems to be a sense that is properly applicable to women as well as men. Here R. is too quick to dismiss the evidence of Xenophon Oeconomicus 7.10-43, and indeed, given this passage's emphasis on sophrosyne, the absence of any substantive discussion by R. is unfortunate. In 7.15 Ischomachus (and not Socrates, as R. says on 255 n. 4) emphasizes to his new wife that sophrosyne for both men and women involves the preservation of the family's wealth. And while Ischomachus is certainly an idealized figure, in this regard his understanding of what it means for his wife to be sophron fits quite well with the figure of Penelope, the paradigm of feminine sophrosyne, as she is often presented as preserving, or trying to preserve, the wealth of the household for her husband and son (e.g. Od. 18.274-83, 19.524-31, 23.354-8). 4 Ischomachus' comparison of the good wife to the queen bee (7.32-40) fits well also with Semonides' bee-woman (7.83-93), who is productive where his other women often waste the wealth of the oikos. In the final chapter R. shows how Plato makes good use of the polysemy inherent in sophrosyne. In works like Laches, Protagoras and Gorgias, Plato activates different senses of the term to suggest the unity or at least the compatibility of the virtues. Thus, in Gorgias, Callicles rejects sophrosyne as "control of desire," only to be shown later that sophrosyne (in its prudential sense) involves an ordering of the soul that thereby benefits the individual, and is thus compatible with Callicles' self-professed concern for arete. At other times, as in Charmides and Republic, Plato instead insists on a restricted, technical sense for the term. Thus in Republic the virtues of justice and sophrosyne are kept distinct (despite the fact that they are closely linked) by having justice mean "to take care of one's own affairs," whereas sophrosyne is reserved for a type of harmony by which the different classes of the state, and the different parts of the soul, agree on just what constitutes "one's own affairs." Plato links this with the traditional sense of sophrosyne as "control of desire" by describing the virtue as "being stronger than oneself," which itself can be understood to mean that one part (of the state or of the soul) gives way and is controlled by another. This understanding nicely makes use of another common sense of the term, that of obedience. The book's usefulness as a reference tool would be improved if there were more secondary references. For instance, R.'s interpretation (199-200) of the opening of Herodotus' Histories appears to me to be overstated, and I would have liked to have seen it supported in relation to the literature, but there is only one citation, and that is to a work that is missing from the bibliography (Heath [1990], mentioned on 200 n. 8). Similarly, given the importance of Andromache's self-presentation in Troades for our understanding of what constituted the attributes of the good wife, some acknowledgement of other discussions of the passage (634-83) would have been helpful. Also, a little more care could have been taken with the editing. I noticed about two dozen misprints (none of major significance). However, a number of secondary works cited in the notes do not appear in the bibliography (e.g. Kroll (1936) cited on 84 n. 23, Lebeck (1971) cited on 112 n. 19, Lattimore (1939) cited on 194 n. 2, Hogan (1972) cited on 205 n. 13, and Tuckey (1951) and Santas (1973) cited on 325 n. 38). There is also very little consistency in the spelling of Greek names, with different forms at times appearing in close succession (e.g. Ithaka on 70 n. 60, but Ithaca on 70 n. 65; Hephaistos on 51 n. 17, but Hephaestus on 53 n. 22). In conclusion, although at times overly restrictive in attributing different meanings of the virtue to different classes of individuals, by employing a recent and profitable methodology R. has produced a detailed and clear description of this important value term. Notes: 1. H. North, Sophrosyne: self-knowledge and self-restraint in Greek literature. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1966. 2. D.L. Cairns, Aidos: the psychology and ethics of honour and shame in ancient Greek literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. 3. Andromache's statement (Andr. 224-5) that she happily breast-fed Hector's bastards seems overly self-abasing (see W. Allan, The Andromache and Euripidean Tragedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, 182). The self-serving Jason is not a reliable source (Med. 913, 1369) to establish that Medea would have been sophron to have accepted his new marriage. 4. Penelope is certainly sophron in the first instance because she is loyal to her husband, but R. tends to be too restrictive in his understanding of the range of senses in which she is a paradigm for feminine sophrosyne. For instance, he repeatedly cites Troades 422-3 (33, 35, 258, 260), where Penelope is referred to as sophronos gunaikos, as evidence of her prototypical nature as the faithful wife. However, fidelity does not in fact seem to be the central sense of the term as it is used here. Talthybius' point is that, even if Hecuba detests Odysseus (278-92), at least she will be the slave of a generally good woman. In this instance Penelope is sophron in the sense of being decent towards others.	i don't know

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